CHAPTER 5

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

Dielectrics

Introduction

Dielectrics are the materials having electric dipole moment permantly.

Dipole: A dipole is an entity in which equal positive and negative charges are separated by a small distance.

DIPOLE moment​ (µ​ele​ ):The product of magnitude of either of the charges and separation distance b/w them is called Dipole
moment.

µ​e​ = q . x à coul – m

All dielectrics are electrical insulators and they are mainly used to store electrical energy.

Ex: Mica, glass, plastic, water & polar molecules…

Dielectric Constant

Dielectric Constant is the ratio between the permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of free space.

The characteristics of a dielectric material are determined by the dielectric constant and it has no units​.

Electric Polarization
The process of producing electric dipoles by an electric field is called polarization in dielectrics.
Polarizability:
The induced dipole moment per unit electric field is called Polarizability.
The induced dipole moment is proportional to the intensity of the electric field.
 ​Polarization vector:

The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is called polarization vector

Electric flux Density (D):

Electric flux density is defined as charge per unit area and it has same units of dielectric polarization.

Electric flux density D at a point in a free space or air in terms of Electric field strength is

At the same point in a medium is given by

As the polarization measures the additional flux density arising from the presence of material as
compared to free space

Using equations 2 & 3 we get

Electric susceptibility:

The polarization vector P is proportional to the total electric flux density and direction of electric field.
Therefore the polarization vector can be written

Various polarization processes:

When the specimen is placed inside a d.c. electric field, polarization is due to four types of
processes….
1.Electronic polarization
2.Ionic polarization
3.Orientation polarization
4.Space charge polarization

Electronic Polarization
When an EF is applied to an atom, +vely charged nucleus displaces in the direction of field and ẽ
could in opposite direction. This kind of displacement will produce an electric dipole with in the atom.
i.e, dipole moment is proportional to the magnitude of field strength and is given by

where ‘α​e​’ is called electronic Polarizability constant

It increases with increase of volume of the atom.

This kind of polarization is mostly exhibited in Monatomic gases.

 He Ne Ar Kr Xe

0.18 0.35 1.46 2.18 3.54

It occurs only at optical frequencies (10​15​Hz)

It is independent of temperature.

Expression for Electronic Polarization

Consider a atom in an EF of intensity ‘E’ since the nucleus (+Ze) and electron cloud (-ze) of the atom
have opposite charges and acted upon by Lorentz force (F​L​).

Subsequently nucleus moves in the direction of field and electron cloud in opposite direction.
When electron cloud and nucleus get shifted from their normal positions, an attractive force b/w them
is created and the seperation continuous until columbic force F​C​ is balanced with Lorentz force F​L​, Finally
a new equilibriums state is established.

fig(2) represents displacement of nucleus and electron cloud and we assume that the –ve charge in the
cloud uniformly distributed over a sphere of radius R and the spherical shape does not change for
convenience.
Let σ be the charge density of the sphere

Force experienced by displaced nucleus in EF of Strength E is F​L​ = Eq = ZeE -----(3)

Hence electronic Polaris ability is directly proportional to cube of the radius of the atom.
Ionic polarization
■ The ionic polarization occurs, when atoms form molecules and it is mainly due to a relative
displacement of the atomic components of the molecule in the presence of an electric field.
■ When a EF is applied to the molecule, the positive ions displaced by X​1 ​ to the negative side
electric field and negative ions displaced by X​2 to
​ the positive side of field.
The resultant dipole moment µ = q ( X​1​ + X​2​)..

Restoring force constant depend upon the mass of the ion and natural frequency and is given by

Where ‘M’ mass of anion and ‘m’ is mass of cat ion

This polarization occurs at frequency 10​13​ Hz (IR).

It is a slower process compared to electronic polarization.
It is independent of temperature
Orientational Polarization

It is also called dipolar or molecular polarization. The molecules such as H​2 ​, N​2​,O​2​,Cl​2 ,​CH​4​,CCl​4 ​etc., does
not carry any dipole because centre of positive charge and centre of negative charge coincides. On the
other hand molecules like CH​3​Cl, H​2​O,HCl, ethyl acetate ( polar molecules) carries dipoles even in the
absence of electric field.

How ever the net dipole moment is negligibly small since all the molecular dipoles are oriented
randomly when there is no EF. In the presence of the electric field these all dipoles orient them selves in
the direction of field as a result the net dipole moment becomes enormous.

■ It occurs at a frequency 10​6 ​Hz to 10​10​Hz.

■ It is slow process compare to ionic polarization.

It greatly depends on temperature

Expression for orientation polarization

This is called Langevin – Debye equation​ f​ or total Polaris ability in dielectrics.

Internal fields or local fields

Local field or internal field in a dielectric is the space and time average of the electric field
intensity acting on a particular molecule in the dielectric material.

Evaluation of internal field

Consider a dielectric be placed between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor and let there be
an imaginary spherical cavity around the atom A inside the dielectric.

The internal field at the atom site ‘A’ can be made up of four components E​1 ,E​
​ 2​, E​3 &
​ E​4​.

Field E​1​:
 E​1 ​ is the field intensity at A due to the charge density on the plates

Field E​2​:

E​2​ is the field intensity at A due to the charge density induced on the two sides of the dielectric.

Field E​3​:

E​3​ is the field intensity at A due to the atoms contained in the cavity, we are assuming a cubic
structure, so E​3​ = 0.

Field E​4​:

1.This is due to polarized charges on the surface of the spherical cavity.

Where dA is Surface area between θ & θ+dθ…

2.The total charge present on the surface area dA is…

 dq = ( normal component of polarization ) X ( surface area )

3.The field due to this charge at A, denoted by dE​4 ​ is given by

The field in θ = 0 direction

4.Thus the total field E​4​ due to the charges on the surface of the entire cavity is
The internal field or Lorentz field can be written as

Classius – Mosotti relation:

Consider a dielectric material having cubic structure , and assume ionic Polarizability &
Orientational polarizability are zero..
Ferro electric materials or Ferro electricity
■ Ferro electric crystals exhibit spontaneous polarization I.e. electric polarization with out
electric field.
■ Ferro electric crystals possess high dielectric constant.
■ each unit cell of a Ferro electric crystal carries
a reversible electric dipole moment.
Examples: Barium Titanate (BaTiO​3​) , Sodium nitrate (NaNO​3​) ,Rochelle salt etc..

Piezo- electricity
The process of creating electric polarization by mechanical stress is called as piezo electric
effect.
This process is used in conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy and also
electrical energy into mechanical energy.
According to inverse piezo electric effect, when an electric stress is applied, the material
becomes strained. This strain is directly proportional to the applied field.
Examples: quartz crystal , Rochelle salt etc.,
Piezo electric materials or peizo electric semiconductors such as Gas, Zno and CdS are finding
applications in ultrasonic amplifiers.

Dielectric properties
Dielectric strength

All insulating materials fail at some level of applied voltage, and ‘dielectric strength’ is the voltage a 
material can withstand before breakdown occurs. Dielectric strength is measured through the 
thickness of the material (taking care to avoid surface effects) and is normally expressed as a voltage 
gradient (volts per unit length). Note that the voltage gradient at breakdown is much higher for very 
thin test pieces (<100µm thick) than for thicker sections. 

The value of dielectric strength for a specimen is also influenced by its temperature and ambient 
humidity. 

Intrinsic dielectric strength

Another test term sometimes used is ‘intrinsic dielectric strength’, which is the maximum voltage 
gradient a homogeneous substance will withstand in a uniform electric field. This shows the ability 
of an insulating material to resist breakdown. 

Corona

Another failure mode related to voltage stress failure is ‘​corona​’, which is ionisation under voltage 
stress of air inside or at the interfaces of insulating materials. Breakdown occurs at edges, points, 
interfaces, voids or gaps at voltages which depend on the materials and part geometries. 
Corona erodes the insulator surface by electron bombardment, associated heat, and sometimes 
secondary effects from the formation of chemical oxidising agents such as ozone and oxides of 
nitrogen. This effect begins immediately, and even fractions of a second of exposure at AC voltages 
near to breakdown will significantly reduce the breakdown strength. Corona-induced breakdown will 
also occur at lower voltages, but the time required will be longer. 

Dielectric constant and permittivity

The simplest capacitor structure is a pair of parallel conducting plates separated by a medium called 
the ‘dielectric’. The value of the capacitance between the plates is given by the equation: 

where: 

A​ = the area of the plates 

t​ = the separation between the plates 

and ε (Greek letter epsilon) is the absolute permittivity of the dielectric, which is a measure of the 
electrostatic energy stored within it and therefore dependent on the material. 

A more usual way of writing the equation is to replace the absolute permittivity of the dielectric by 
the product term ε​0​ε​r​, where e​0​ is the permittivity of free space (that is, of a vacuum), which has a 
value of 8.85×10​-12​ Fm​-1​, and e​r​ is the relative permittivity, more usually called the ‘​dielectric 
constant​’.  

The dielectric constant of an insulating material is therefore numerically the ratio of the capacitance 
of a capacitor containing that material to the capacitance of the same electrode system with vacuum 
replacing the insulation as the dielectric medium. 

Nothing is going to have a relative permittivity less than that of a vacuum! All materials will 
therefore have a dielectric constant greater than 1. Dielectric constants of polymers at room 
temperature are normally in the range 2 to 10, the lower values generally being associated with the 
lowest electrical loss characteristics. 

The dielectric constant of any given material varies with temperature, and for polymers a rapid 
increase begins near their glass transition temperature. Dielectric constants also vary as a function of 
frequency, and this aspect will be important when you look at high frequency designs. 
Dielectric loss
As well as dielectrics breaking down, as described above, most capacitors lose a fraction of the 
energy when an alternating current is applied. In other words, the dielectric is less than perfect. The 
simplest model for a capacitor with a lossy dielectric is as a capacitor with a perfect dielectric in 
parallel with a resistor giving the power dissipation.  

COMPLEX PERMITTIVITY:

The absolute complex permittivity of a material is represented by the symbol , where =

′−j ″. This is related to the dimensionless relative complex permittivity r​, where r

= ′​r​ − j ″​r​, by the expression = 0 r​, 0​ being the permittivity of free space, a
fixed constant given approximately by 0​ = 8.85 x 10​−12​ F m​−1​. In general, depends on
temperature and, to a lesser extent, pressure. It is also frequency dependent, although ′
and ″ cannot vary independently with frequency, since their frequency variations are
connected through the Kramers–Krönig relationship: a drop in ′ with increasing frequency
is necessarily associated with a peak in ″. Except for exceedingly high applied fields, is
independent of the magnitude of the applied electric field for all dielectric materials used in
practice, excluding ferroelectrics.

A capacitor filled with a dielectric material has a real capacitance ′​r​ times greater than
would have a capacitor with the same electrodes in vacuum. The dielectric-filled capacitor
would also have a power dissipation ​W​ per unit volume at each point when, resulting from
an applied voltage, a sinusoidal electric field of frequency ​f​ and root-mean-square value ​E
exists at that point. This power dissipation is given by ​W​ = 2​π​fE2​ ″. Thus ″ is a measure
of the energy dissipation per period, and for this reason it is known as the loss-factor.

The complex permittivity is often represented in the Argand plane with ′ as abscissa
and ″ as ordinate, giving a curve with frequency as parameter. The join of any point on
this curve to the origin therefore represents the complex conjugate * of the complex
permittivity where *= ′ + j ″. Unfortunately, the use of the symbol * to
represent complex permittivity is widespread and has become established in the literature,
and care is needed if confusion over signs is to be avoided. The join to the origin makes an
angle ​δ​ with the abscissa, such that tan ​δ​ = ″/ ′. Thus W may be rewritten as ​W​ =
2​π​fE2​ ′ tan ​δ​. Hence​ δ​ is known as the loss angle, and tan ​δ​ is known as the loss tangent.

The application of a sinusoidal voltage of root-mean-square value ​V​ to the dielectric-filled

capacitor results in a current flow in the external circuit which leads the voltage by a phase
angle or power-factor angle ​φ​, where ​φ​ is the complement of ​δ​. Thus, the power dissipation
in the capacitor, given by ​IV​ cos ​φ​, may also be expressed as ​IV​ sin ​δ​. Since in most cases
in engineering practice ​δ​ is small, sin ​δ​ tan ​δ​ and the power dissipation is given to a
good approximation by ​IV​ tan ​δ​. It should be noted that no such approximation is involved
in the expression for ​W​ in the previous paragraph.
When the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is in the optical region, the velocity ​v​ of
propagation through a loss-free transmitting medium of refractive index ​n​ is given by ​v​ =
c/n​, where ​c​ is the velocity in free space. The velocity is also given by ​v​ = ​c/​ (​μ​r ′​r​)​1/2​ where
μ​r​, is the relative permeability. Thus for loss-free non-magnetic materials, for which ​μ​r​ = 1,
r​′ = ​n2​​ . However, in general losses do occur, and the material is characterized by a

complex refractive index given by = ​n​ − ​jk​, where ​k​ is the absorption coefficient. Then

r​ = 2​
, or r​′–j r​″, = (​n​ – ​jk​)2​​ , from which it follows that r​ ′ = ​n2​​ – ​k2​​ and r​″=
2​nk​. Nevertheless, when the loss is small, so that ​k​ << ​n​, then ′
r​ ​n2​​ . The use of these
relationships allows values of r​ at high frequencies to be derived from optical

measurements. As the frequency is reduced, specially designed interferometers (infra-red),

free radiation methods (sub-millimetric wavelengths), wave-guides, coaxial lines and
resonant cavities (centimetric wavelengths), and ​Q​ meters and bridges (radio frequencies to
d.c.) have all been used. Time-domain spectroscopy, involving an analysis of the response
of the medium to a step-function field, is capable in principle, and has had some success in
practice, in giving a rapid measurement of over a very wide frequency spectrum.

The relative permittivity is directly related to the electronic, atomic and orientational
polarization of the material. The first two of these are induced by the applied field, and are
caused by displacement of the electrons within the atom, and atoms within the molecule,
respectively. The third only exists in polar materials, i.e. those with molecules having a
permanent dipole moment. Electronic and atomic polarization are temperature independent,
but orientational polarization, depending on the extent to which the applied field can order
the permanent dipoles against the disordering effect of the thermal energy of their
environment, varies inversely with absolute temperature. All of these polarization
mechanisms can only operate up to a limiting frequency, after which a further frequency
increase will result in their disappearance. Because of the spring-like nature of the forces
involved, this is accompanied by an absorption of the resonance type for electronic and
atomic polarization, but for orientational polarization the disappearance, accompanied by a
broader peak in the loss factor, is more gradual, because the mechanism involved is of the
relaxation type, and may involve a broad distribution of relaxation times. Indeed, the
decline in ′ may be so gradual that ″ may appear almost constant, and be
correspondingly small, over a wide frequency range. This applies particularly to some
polymers commonly used in engineering practice, many of which are polar. Those which are
non-polar, usually with r​′< 2.5, show nearly constant values of ′ and ″ over the
entire electrical frequency spectrum.

The frequency at which these mechanisms drop out is related to the inertia of the moving
entities involved. Typically, electronic polarization persists until a frequency of about 10​16
Hz, atomic polarization until about 10​13​ Hz, while the dispersion for orientational polarization
may lie anywhere within a wide frequency range, say 10​2​–10​10​ Hz, depending on the
material and its temperature. In addition to these polarization mechanisms, the existence of
interfacial effects such as macroscopic discontinuities in the material, or blocking at the
electrodes, causes the trapping of charge carriers, and such phenomena, as well as the
inclusion in the dielectric of impurities giving rise to conducting regions, result in behaviour
classified under the general heading of Maxwell–Wagner effects. These give rise to an
effective polarization and associated loss, the frequency behaviour of which is similar to that
of orientational polarization, with a dispersion region which may lie in the region of 1 Hz or
lower.

When orientational polarization is operative, it is usually the dominant polarization

mechanism present. The classical theory of this mechanism is due to Debye. For a single
relaxation time τ, the variation of r​ with angular frequency ω is given by the Debye
equation, ( r​ − ∞​)/( s​ − ∞​) = (1 − j​ω​π​)/(l + ​ω​ τ​ ), where
2​ 2​
s​ and ∞​ are the relative

permittivities at frequencies much lower and much higher (but not high enough to involve
any reduction in atomic or electronic polarizations) respectively than the anomalous
dispersion region. Equating real and imaginary parts gives

( ′​r​ − ∞​)/( s​ − ) = 1/(1 + ​ω2​​ τ​2​)

∞​ and ″/( s​ − ∞​) = ​ω​τ​/(1 + ​ω2​​ τ​2​)

If ″ is plotted against ′, the Cole–Cole plot results. This is a semicircle if the Debye
equation is obeyed. Frequently experimental results yield a circular arc, rather than a
semicircle, with its centre below the abscissa. Such behaviour can be expressed as a
suitable distribution of relaxation times, though no satisfactory physical reason for doing so
has yet been established. There is a variety of other shapes obtained in practice, such as
the skewed arc in which the high frequency end of the arc approximates to a straight line.
Anything other than a perfect semi-circle is now taken as evidence of co-operative effects
within the dielectric.

The permittivity of many substances changes not only with frequency and temperature, but
also with specimen age and history. Two specimens of nominally the same material may
have significantly different permittivities because of different manufacturing processes,
different amounts of oxidation, and different inclusions, some of which might have been
deliberately introduced, e.g. anti-oxidants. For such reasons, tables of values should be
used as an indication of the magnitudes to be expected, and not as a source of precise data
which can be repeated by accurate measurements on particular test specimens, except in
cases in which the physical and chemical state of both the reference material and the test
specimen are very closely specified. The properties of ferroelectric materials depend on so
many factors that it is inappropriate to include them in tables of data. Generally, they have
permittivities of the order of a thousand, strongly dependent on applied voltage and
temperature, and exhibit considerable power loss.

Mechanisms of electrical breakdown of dielectric materials:

1. Thermal breakdown

A tiny little current that you can't even measure is flowing ​locally​ through "weak" parts of the
dielectric. With increasing field strength this current increases, producing heat ​locally​, which leads
to the generation of point defects. Ionic conductivity sets in, more heat is produced ​locally​, the
temperature goes up even more and finally break down occurs.
2. Avalanche breakdown

Even the most perfect insulator contains a few free electron. Either because there is still a
non-zero probability for electrons in the conduction band, even for large band gaps, or because
defects generate some carriers, or because irradiation (natural radioactivity may be enough)
produces some.

In large electrical field these carriers are accelerated; if the field strength is above a certain
limit, they may pick up so much energy that they can rip off electrons from the atoms of the
materials. A chain reaction then leads to a swift ​avalanche​ effect​; the current rises
exponentially

3. Local discharge

In small cavities (always present in sintered ceramic dielectrics) the field strength is ​even higher
than the average field (​ε​ is small)- a microscopic arc discharge may be initiated. Electrons and
ions from the discharge bombard the inner surface and erode it. The cavity grows, the current
in the arc rises, the temperature rises ...

4. Electrolytic breakdown

Local electrolytical (i.e involving moving ions) current paths transport some conducting
material from the electrodes into the interior of the dielectric. Humidity (especially if it is acidic)
may help. In time a filigree conducting path reaches into the interior, reducing the local
thickness and thus increasing the field strength. The current goes up.

This is a very irreproducible mechanism because it depends on many details, especially the local
environmental conditions. It may slowly built up over years before it suddenly runs away and
ends in sudden break-through.

Classification and Applications of Dielectric Materials:

I. Based On Structure:
There are three types of Dielectric Materials:
1. Linear type,
2. Homogenous type,
3. Isotropic type.

II.Based on State:
In practice, most dielectric materials are solid. Examples include porcelain (ceramic), mica,
glass, plastics, and the oxides of various metals. Some liquids and gases can serve as good
dielectric materials. Dry air is an excellent dielectric, and is used in variable capacitors and some
types of transmission lines. Distilled water is a fair dielectric. A vacuum is an exceptionally
efficient dielectric.

III.Based on Charges:
POLAR AND NON-POLAR DIELECTRICS

An atom contains a positive charge in the nucleus and negative charge (electrons) orbitting around the nucleus.
The positive as well as the negative charges can be considered to be concentrated at a point. The point at which the
positive charge can be assumed to be concentrated is termed as the centre of gravity of the positive charge.
Similarly, the point at which the negative charge can be assumed to be concentrated is termed as the centre of
gravity of the negative charge. Now we can define the polar and non-polar dielectrics as :

Polar Dielectrics or Molecules​: If the centre of gravity of the positive charges and negative charges are separated
by a finite distance (10​-10​m), then the dielectric is called polar dielectric .

Non-Polar Dielectrics or Molecules​: If the centre of gravity of the positive charges and negative charges are
separated by a infinite distance ,then the dielectric is called non - polar dielectric.

Applications of Dielectric Materials:

Capacitors

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange)
reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

Commercially manufactured capacitors typically use a ​solid​ dielectric material with high
permittivity as the intervening medium between the stored positive and negative charges

The most obvious advantage to using such a dielectric material is that it prevents the conducting
plates on which the charges are stored from coming into direct electrical contact. More
significant, however, a high permittivity allows a greater charge to be stored at a given voltage.
This can be seen by treating the case of a linear dielectric with permittivity ε and thickness d
between two conducting plates with uniform charge density σ​ε​. In this case the charge density is
given by

and the ​capacitance​ per unit area by

From this, it can easily be seen that a larger ε leads to greater charge stored and thus greater
capacitance.

Dielectric materials used for capacitors are also chosen such that they are resistant to ​ionization​.
This allows the capacitor to operate at higher voltages before the insulating dielectric ionizes and
begins to allow undesirable current.

Dielectric resonator

A ​dielectric resonator oscillator​ (DRO) is an electronic component that exhibits ​resonance​ for a
narrow range of frequencies, generally in the microwave band. It consists of a "puck" of ceramic
that has a large dielectric constant and a low ​dissipation factor​. Such resonators are often used to
provide a frequency reference in an oscillator circuit. An unshielded dielectric resonator can be
used as a ​Dielectric Resonator Antenna​ (DRA).

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