First Edition Published July 2013 2010 by Lab-Volt Ltd. Printed in Canada All rights reserved ISBN 978-2-89640-399-8 (Printed version) ISBN 978-2-89640-710-1 (CD-ROM) Legal Deposit Bibliothque et Archives nationales du Qubec, 2010 Legal Deposit Library and Archives Canada, 2010 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopied, recorded, or otherwise, without prior written permission from Lab-Volt Ltd. Information in this document is subject to change without notice and does not represent a commitment on the part of Lab-Volt. The Lab-Volt
materials described in this document are furnished under a license agreement or a
nondisclosure agreement. The Lab-Volt
logo is a registered trademark of Lab-Volt Systems.
Lab-Volt recognizes product names as trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective holders. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Other trademarks and trade names may be used in this document to refer to either the entity claiming the marks and names or their products. Lab-Volt disclaims any proprietary interest in trademarks and trade names other than its own.
A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits v Safety anu Common Symbols The following safety and common symbols may be used in this manual and on the Lab-Volt equipment: Symbol Description
DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not avoided, will result in death or serious injury.
WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which, if not avoided, could result in death or serious injury.
CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not avoided, could result in minor or moderate injury.
CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign , indicates a hazard with a potentially hazardous situation which, if not avoided, may result in property damage.
Caution, risk of electric shock
Caution, hot surface
Caution, risk of danger
Caution, lifting hazard
Caution, hand entanglement hazard
Direct current
Alternating current
Both direct and alternating current
Three-phase alternating current
Earth (ground) terminal
Protective conductor terminal Safety anu Common Symbols vi Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A Symbol Description
Frame or chassis terminal
Equipotentiality
On (supply)
Off (supply)
Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or reinforced insulation
In position of a bi-stable push control
Out position of a bi-stable push control
A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits vii Table of Contents Preface ................................................................................................................. xiii About This Manual ............................................................................................... xv Unit 1 Alternating Current ........................................................................ 1 DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS ......................................................... 1 DC circuits versus ac circuits .................................................... 1 Alternating current (ac) and ac voltage ..................................... 2 Alternating current and ac voltage supplied by public power distribution utilities .......................................................... 2 Safety rules ................................................................................ 3 Ex. 1-1 The Sine Wave ................................................................................ 5 DISCUSSION ....................................................................................... 5 Relationship between a rotating phasor and a sine wave ......... 5 Period and frequency of a sinusoidal voltage or current ........... 8 Amplitude and instantaneous value of a sinusoidal voltage or current ................................................................................... 8 Effective or root-mean-square (rms) value and heating capacity ................................................................................... 10 Effective (rms) value of a sinusoidal voltage or current .......... 10 PROCEDURE .................................................................................... 11 Setup and connections ............................................................ 11 Measuring voltage, current, and frequency in an ac circuit ..... 14 Relationship between frequency and period ........................... 16 Measuring voltage, current, and frequency in a series ac circuit ....................................................................................... 17 Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift ..................................................... 21 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 21 Phase angle ............................................................................. 21 Phase shift ............................................................................... 23 PROCEDURE .................................................................................... 25 Setup and connections ............................................................ 25 Measuring the phase shift between two voltage sine waves in a resistor-inductor (RL) circuit .................................. 27 Measuring the phase shift between two voltage sine waves in a resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit ................................ 29 Ex. 1-3 Instantaneous Power and Average Power ................................ 35 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 35 Instantaneous power ............................................................... 35 Average power ........................................................................ 36 Rationale behind rms values ................................................... 37 Table of Contents viii Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A PROCEDURE .................................................................................... 38 Setup and connections ............................................................ 38 Average power measurements ............................................... 40 Rationale behind rms values ................................................... 42 Unit 2 Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance .................................... 47 DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS ....................................................... 47 Introduction to inductors and capacitors.................................. 47 Distinction between resistance, reactance, and impedance ... 48 Ex. 2-1 Inductive Reactance .................................................................... 51 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 51 Inductors and inductive reactance ........................................... 51 Inductive phase shift ................................................................ 52 PROCEDURE .................................................................................... 52 Setup and connections ............................................................ 52 Inductance and inductive reactance ........................................ 54 Effect of frequency on the inductive reactance ....................... 56 Measuring the inductive phase shift ........................................ 57 Ex. 2-2 Capacitive reactance ................................................................... 61 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 61 Capacitors and capacitive reactance ...................................... 61 Capacitive phase shift ............................................................. 62 PROCEDURE .................................................................................... 62 Setup and connections ............................................................ 62 Capacitance and capacitive reactance.................................... 64 Effect of the frequency on the capacitive reactance ............... 66 Measuring the capacitive phase shift ...................................... 67 Ex. 2-3 Impedance .................................................................................... 71 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 71 Phasor diagrams related to resistors, inductors, and capacitors ................................................................................ 71 Phasor diagram related to a resistor .......................................... 71 Phasor diagram related to an inductor ....................................... 72 Phasor diagram related to a capacitor ........................................ 73 Equivalent reactance of series-connected reactive components ............................................................................. 73 Impedance of resistors, inductors, and capacitors connected in series .................................................................. 75 Impedance of resistors, inductors, and capacitors connected in parallel ................................................................ 77 Table of Contents A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits ix PROCEDURE .................................................................................... 78 Setup and connections ............................................................ 79 Equivalent reactance of a series LC circuit ............................. 81 Impedance of a series RL circuit ............................................. 83 Impedance of a series RC circuit ............................................ 85 Impedance of a series RLC circuit .......................................... 86 Impedance of a parallel RL circuit ........................................... 87 Impedance of a parallel RC circuit .......................................... 89 Unit 3 Power in AC Circuits ................................................................... 95 DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS ....................................................... 95 Introduction to active, reactive, and apparent power .............. 95 Ex. 3-1 Active and Reactive Power ......................................................... 97 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 97 Active power in a resistor ........................................................ 97 Reactive power in an inductor ................................................. 98 Reactive power in a capacitor ................................................. 99 Power Meter .......................................................................... 100 PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 101 Setup and connections .......................................................... 101 Active power in a resistor ...................................................... 103 Reactive power in an inductor ............................................... 105 Reactive power in a capacitor ............................................... 107 Ex. 3-2 Apparent Power and the Power Triangle ................................. 111 DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 111 Phasor diagrams related to active and reactive power ......... 111 Phasor diagram related to the active power in a resistor ......... 111 Phasor diagram related to the reactive power in an inductor ... 112 Phasor diagram related to the reactive power in a capacitor ... 113 Apparent power ..................................................................... 114 Power triangle ........................................................................ 115 Power factor .......................................................................... 115 PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 116 Setup and connections .......................................................... 116 Total reactive power in a circuit ............................................. 118 Apparent power, power factor, and power triangle ............... 120 Unit 4 AC Circuits Analysis .................................................................. 127 DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS ..................................................... 127 Introduction to circuit analysis ............................................... 127 Circuit analysis methods ....................................................... 127 Table of Contents x Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A Ex. 4-1 Solving Simple AC Circuits Using Circuit Impedance Calculation .................................................................................. 129 DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 129 Solving simple parallel circuits .............................................. 129 Example ................................................................................... 130 Solving simple series circuits ................................................ 131 Example ................................................................................... 132 PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 133 Setup and connections .......................................................... 133 Solving a simple parallel ac circuit ........................................ 135 Solving a simple series ac circuit .......................................... 136 Ex. 4-2 Solving AC Circuits Using the Power Triangle Method ......... 141 DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 141 Solving ac circuits using the power triangle method ............. 141 Example ................................................................................... 143 PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 145 Setup and connections .......................................................... 145 Solving an ac circuit using the power triangle method .......... 147 Appendix A Equipment Utilization Chart ...................................................... 155 Appendix B Glossary of New Terms ............................................................. 157 Appendix C Impedance Table for the Load Modules .................................. 161 Appendix D Vectorial Calculations ............................................................... 163 Vectorial division .................................................................... 164 Vectorial multiplication ........................................................... 165 Appendix E Circuit Diagram Symbols .......................................................... 167 Index of New Terms ........................................................................................... 173 Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 175 We Value Your Opinion!..................................................................................... 177
A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits xi Pieface The production of energy using renewable natural resources such as wind, sunlight, rain, tides, geothermal heat, etc., has gained much importance in recent years as it is an effective means of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The need for innovative technologies to make the grid smarter has recently emerged as a major trend, as the increase in electrical power demand observed worldwide makes it harder for the actual grid in many countries to keep up with demand. Furthermore, electric vehicles (from bicycles to cars) are developed and marketed with more and more success in many countries all over the world. To answer the increasingly diversified needs for training in the wide field of electrical energy, Lab-Volt developed the Electric Power Technology Training Program, a modular study program for technical institutes, colleges, and universities. The program is shown below as a flow chart, with each box in the flow chart representing a course.
The Lab-Volt Electric Power Technology Training Program. Pieface xii Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A The program starts with a variety of courses providing in-depth coverage of basic topics related to the field of electrical energy such as ac and dc power circuits, power transformers, rotating machines, ac power transmission lines, and power electronics. The program then builds on the knowledge gained by the student through these basic courses to provide training in more advanced subjects such as home energy production from renewable resources (wind and sunlight), large- scale electricity production from hydropower, large-scale electricity production from wind power (doubly-fed induction generator [DFIG], synchronous generator, and asynchronous generator technologies), smart-grid technologies (SVC, STATCOM, HVDC transmission, etc.), storage of electrical energy in batteries, and drive systems for small electric vehicles and cars.
A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits xiii About This Nanual Alternating-current (ac) power systems began to develop quickly in the late 19 th century, following key developments in the field of electricity, mainly the invention of the polyphase system of electrical distribution by scientist Nikola Tesla, and the development of mathematical analysis of electricity by Charles Steinmetz, James Clerk Maxwell, and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin). The main advantage of ac power systems is that high amounts of power can be transmitted efficiently over long transmission lines. Step-up transformers are used at the ac power generating point to increase the voltage and decrease the current. The power lost as heat in the resistance of a transmission line increases by the square of the current. Therefore, ac power is transmitted at very high voltages and low currents to reduce power losses in the line resistance to a minimum. At the receiving end of the line, step-down transformers reduce the voltage and increase the current to levels compatible with residential or industrial equipment. Today ac power systems are used throughout the world for driving motors and powering electric equipment in transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. This course, Single-Phase AC Power Circuit, introduces students to the fundamentals of alternating current, such as the sine wave, period and frequency, phase angle and phase shift, instantaneous and average power, etc. Students then become familiar with the inductor and capacitor. The course continues with more advanced topics such as the impedance, active power, reactive power, apparent power, and power triangle. The course concludes by teaching students how to solve ac power circuits using the impedance calculation method or the power triangle method.
Most lighting in urban centers is powered using single-phase alternative current. About This Nanual xiv Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A Safety considerations Safety symbols that may be used in this manual and on the Lab-Volt equipment are listed in the Safety Symbols table at the beginning of the manual. Make sure that you are wearing appropriate protective equipment when performing the tasks requested in hands-on exercises. You should never perform a task if you have any reason to think that a manipulation could be dangerous for you or your teammates. Reference Material Refer to the manual titled Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems from Wildi, Theodore, as reference textbook. Prerequisite To perform the exercises in this manual you should have completed the manual titled DC Power Circuits (Lab-Volt P/N 86350). Systems of units The values of measured parameters are expressed using the SI system of units followed by the values expressed in the U.S. customary system of units (in parentheses).
Sample Exercise Extracted from Student Manual
A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits 21
When you have completed this exercise, you will know what a phase angle is and how the phase angle modifies the initial displacement of a sine wave. You will be able to determine the phase shift between two sine waves, either by comparing their phase angles or by determining their separation in time. You will also know how to distinguish a leading phase shift from a lagging phase shift. The Discussion of this exercise covers the following points: Phase angle Phase shift Phase angle As you have seen in Exercise 1-1, the graphical representation of a sine wave can be expressed by the following equation: o(t) = Asin(t) (1-8)
where o(t) is the instantaneous value of the sine wave at a given instant t. A is the amplitude of the sine wave. is the angular velocity, expressed in radians per second (rad/s). t is the time, expressed in seconds (s). This equation assumes that the sine wave cycle begins at the exact moment when t = 0 (as is shown in Figure 1-10). As you will see later, this is not always the case. To represent the initial position of the sine wave, the notion of phase angle 0 is introduced in the equation below: o(t) = Asin(t +0) (1-9)
where 0 is the phase angle of the sine wave, expressed in degrees () or radians (rad). From Equation (1-9), it is easy to observe that the initial value (i.e., the value at t = 0) of the sine wave depends entirely on the phase angle 0 because the term t equals 0 at t = 0. In other words, the phase angle 0 determines by how much the value of a sine wave differs from 0 at time t = 0, and thus, the position in time of the sine wave. Phase Angle anu Phase Shift Exeicise 1-2 EXERCISE OBJECTIVE DISCUSSION OUTLINE DISCUSSION Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift Discussion 22 Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A Figure 1-10 shows a sine wave with a phase angle 0 of 0. The initial value of this sine wave is 0 because Asin( u +u) = u. This sine wave is identical to those seen in Exercise 1-1, as a phase angle value of 0 was implied by the absence of 0 in the equations given in Exercise 1-1.
Figure 1-10. Sine wave with a phase angle 0 of 0. Figure 1-11 shows a sine wave with a phase angle 0 of 45. As you can see from the figure, a positive phase angle (0 to 180) results in the sine wave having a positive instantaneous value when t = 0. In other words, a positive phase angle shifts the sine wave toward the left, i.e., advances the sine wave in time.
Figure 1-11. Sine wave with a phase angle 0 of 45. Figure 1-12 shows a sine wave with a phase angle 0 of -60. A negative phase angle (0 to -180) results in the sine wave having a negative instantaneous value when t = 0. In other words, a negative phase angle shifts the sine wave toward the right, i.e., delays the sine wave in time. A A A A t t t = 0 t = 0 0 = 0 0 = 45 Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift Discussion A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits 23
Figure 1-12. Sine wave with a phase angle 0 of -60. Figure 1-10 to Figure 1-12 also show the phasor representations of the sine waves at time t = 0. Notice that, in each figure, the vertical distance between the tip of the rotating phasor representing the sine wave matches the instantaneous value of the sine wave at t = 0. Phase shift When comparing two sine waves having the same frequency, the difference between their respective phase angles is called the phase shift and is expressed in degrees () or radians (rad). The magnitude of the phase shift indicates the extent of separation in time between the two sine waves, while the polarity of the phase shift (positive or negative) indicates the relationship in time between the two sine waves (leading or lagging).The sine wave amplitude value has no effect on the phase shift, as it does not change the period nor the frequency of the sine wave. Sine waves with different frequencies and, as an extension, different periods, cannot be compared by using their phase angles as their cycles do not correspond. The phase shift between two sine waves is expressed as an angle representing a portion of a complete cycle of the sine waves. One of the two sine waves is used as the reference for phase shift measurements. The phase shift is calculated by subtracting the phase angle 0 Rc]. of the reference sine wave from the phase angle 0 of the sine wave of interest. This is written as an equation below. Phase shift = 0 -0 Rc]. (1-10)
where 0 is the phase angle of the sine wave of interest, expressed in degrees () or radians (rad). 0 Rc]. is the phase angle of the reference sine wave, expressed in degrees () or radians (rad). A A t t = 0 0 = -60 Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift Discussion 24 Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A Figure 1-13 is an example showing how the phase shift between two sine waves (X and Y) can be calculated using their phase angles.
Figure 1-13. Phase shift between two sine waves with phase angles of 45 and -60. In the figure, sine wave X has a phase angle 0 of 45, while sine wave Y has a phase angle 0 of -60. Depending on which sine wave is used as the reference, the phase shift can be +105 or -105. When sine wave X is considered as the reference, the phase shift of sine wave Y with respect to sine wave X is -105 (-60 - 45 = -105). The minus sign in this phase shift value indicates that sine wave Y lags reference sine wave X. For this reason, this phase shift value can also be expressed as 105 lagging. Conversely, when sine wave Y is considered as the reference, the phase shift of sine wave X with respect to sine wave Y is +105 (45 - (-60) = +105). The plus sign in this phase shift value indicates that sine wave X leads reference sine wave Y. For this reason, this phase shift value can also be expressed as 105 leading. Note that whenever two sine waves have different phase angles, the phase shift value is not zero, and thus, these sine waves are said to be out of phase. It is possible to determine the phase shift between two sine waves of the same frequency without knowing their respective phase angles 0. The following equation is used: Phase shift = d 1 S6u = d 1 2n rad (1-11)
where J is the time interval between a given reference point on each of the two sine waves, expressed in seconds (s). I is the period of the sine waves, expressed in seconds (s). This equation shows in a concrete way why it is not possible to calculate the phase shift between two sine waves having different frequencies , as a common period I (I = 1 / ) is needed for the equation to be valid. Consider, for example, the sine waves shown in Figure 1-14. Using Equation (1-11), the phase shift between the two sine waves is equal to: Phase shift = J I S6u = S.SS ms 2u.u ms S6u = 6u A A t t = 0 45 -60 X Y Phase shift X Y 105 t = 0 Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift Procedure Outline A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits 25 When sine wave 1 is used as the reference, the phase shift is lagging because sine wave 2 is delayed with respect to sine wave 1. Conversely, when sine wave 2 is considered as the reference, the phase shift is leading because sine wave 1 is in advance with respect to sine wave 2.
Figure 1-14. Phase shift between two sine waves having the same frequency. The Procedure is divided into the following sections: Setup and connections Measuring the phase shift between two voltage sine waves in a resistor- inductor (RL) circuit Measuring the phase shift between two voltage sine waves in a resistor- capacitor (RC) circuit
High voltages are present in this laboratory exercise. Do not make or modify any banana jack connections with the power on unless otherwise specified. Setup and connections In this section, you will connect an ac circuit containing an inductor and a resistor in series and set up the equipment to measure the source voltage E S , as well as the voltage across the resistor E R . 1. Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart in Appendix A to obtain the list of equipment required to perform this exercise. Install the required equipment in the Workstation. PROCEDURE OUTLINE PROCEDURE I 20.0 ms J 3.33 ms t Sine wave 1 Sine wave 2 Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift Procedure 26 Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A 2. Make sure that the main power switch on the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/ Power Supply is set to the O (off) position, then connect its Power Input to an ac power outlet. Connect the Power Input of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface to a 24 V ac power supply. Turn the 24 V ac power supply on. 3. Connect the USB port of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface to a USB port of the host computer. Connect the USB port of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply to a USB port of the host computer. 4. Turn the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply on, then set the Operating Mode switch to Power Supply. 5. Turn the host computer on, then start the LVDAC-EMS software. In the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window, make sure that the Data Acquisition and Control Interface and the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply are detected. Make sure that the Computer-Based Instrumentation function for the Data Acquisition and Control Interface is available. Select the network voltage and frequency that correspond to the voltage and frequency of your local ac power network, then click the OK button to close the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window. 6. Set up the circuit shown in Figure 1-15. This circuit contains a resistor R and an inductor I. Inductors are studied in the next unit of this manual.
Figure 1-15. AC circuit with a resistor and an inductor. The value of inductor I in the circuit of Figure 1-15 is referred to as the inductance and is expressed in henries (H). The inductance value to be used depends on the frequency of the ac power source as is indicated in Table 1-2. R 300 I E S 100 V Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift Procedure A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits 27 a As indicated in Appendix A, use the Inductive Load, Model 8321, to obtain the required inductance when the ac power network frequency is 60 Hz. Use the Inductive and Capacitive Loads, Model 8333, to obtain the required inductance when the ac power network frequency is 50 Hz. Table 1-2. Inductance values for 50 and 60 Hz frequencies. Power source frequency (Hz) Inductance (H) 50 0.96 60 0.8 Make the necessary switch settings on the Resistive Load and Inductive Load (or on the Inductive and Capacitive Loads) in order to obtain the resistance and inductance values required. a Appendix C of this manual lists the switch settings to implement on the Resistive Load and Inductive Load in order to obtain various resistance and inductive values. Use inputs E1 and E2 of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface to measure the source voltage E S and the voltage across the resistor E R , respectively. 7. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, then make the following settings: Set the Function parameter to AC Power Source. Make sure that the Voltage Control parameter is set to Knob. This allows the ac power source to be controlled manually. Set the No Load Voltage parameter to 100 V. Set the Frequency parameter to the frequency of your local ac power network. Leave the other parameters set as they are. Measuring the phase shift between two voltage sine waves in a resistorinductor (RL) circuit In this section, you will observe the waveforms (sine waves) of the source voltage E S and the resistor voltage E R , using the Oscilloscope to determine the phase shift between the two sine wave voltages. Then, using the Phasor Analyzer, you will measure the phase shift between the source voltage phasor and the resistor voltage phasor and compare it to the phase shift determined from the voltage waveforms. a As you will see later, due to the presence of an inductor in the circuit, the circuit current lags behind the source voltage. As a result, the voltage E R
measured across the resistor is out of phase with respect to the source voltage E S . Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift Procedure 28 Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A 8. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Metering window. Set meters E1 and E2 to measure the rms values of the source voltage E S and voltage across the resistor E R , respectively. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, enable the ac power source. Readjust the value of the No Load Voltage parameter so that the ac power source voltage E S (indicated by meter E1 in the Metering window) is equal to 100 V. 9. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Oscilloscope and display E S (input E1) and E R (input E2) on channels 1 and 2, respectively. If necessary, set the time base so as to display at least two cycles of the sine waves. Place the traces of the two channels at the same vertical position. 10. Measure the period I of the source voltage E S using the Oscilloscope then record the value below. a To obtain an accurate measurement, you can use the vertical cursors of the Oscilloscope to measure the period or any other time interval. Period I = ms 11. Measure the period I of the resistor voltage E R using the Oscilloscope then record the value below. Period I = ms 12. Compare the period I of the resistor voltage E R measured in the previous step with the period I of the source voltage E S recorded in step 10. Are the values close to each other? Yes No 13. Measure the time interval J between the waveforms of the source voltage E S
and resistor voltage E R by using the Oscilloscope. Time interval J = ms 14. Using Equation (1-11), calculate the phase shift between the source voltage E S and the resistor voltage E R . Consider the source voltage waveform as the reference. Phase shift = 15. Is the resistor voltage E R leading or lagging the source voltage E S ?
Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift Procedure A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits 29 16. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Phasor Analyzer and display the source voltage E S (input E1) and resistor voltage E R (input E2). Set the Reference Phasor parameter to E1. Measure the phase angles 0 LS and 0 LR of the voltage phasors. Phase angle 0 LS = Phase angle 0 LR = From these values, calculate the phase shift between the phasors of the source voltage E S and resistor voltage E R , using the source voltage phasor as the reference. Phase shift = 17. Compare the phase shift you determined from the voltage sine waves to the phase shift you measured from the corresponding voltage phasors. Are both values close to each other? Yes No Measuring the phase shift between two voltage sine waves in a resistorcapacitor (RC) circuit In this section, you will replace the inductor used in the previous section by a capacitor. Using the Oscilloscope, you will determine the phase shift between the two voltage sine waves. Then, using the Phasor Analyzer, you will measure the phase shift between the source voltage phasor and the resistor voltage phasor and compare it to the phase shift you determined from the voltage waveforms. a As you will see later, due to the presence of a capacitor in the circuit, the circuit current leads the source voltage. As a result, the resistor voltage E R is out of phase with respect to the source voltage E S . 18. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, disable the ac power source. 19. Modify the circuit so that it is as shown in Figure 1-16 (replace the inductor by a capacitor). This circuit contains a resistor R and a capacitor C. Capacitors are studied in the next unit of this manual. Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift Procedure 30 Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A
Figure 1-16. AC circuit with a resistor and a capacitor. The value of capacitor C in the circuit of Figure 1-16 is referred to as the capacitance and is expressed in microfarads (F). The capacitance value to be used depends on the frequency of the ac power source as is indicated in Table 1-3. a As indicated in Appendix A, use the Capacitive Load, Model 8331, to obtain the required capacitance when the ac power network frequency is 60 Hz. Use the Inductive and Capacitive Loads, Model 8333, to obtain the required capacitance when the ac power network frequency is 50Hz. Table 1-3. Capacitance values for 50 and 60 Hz frequencies. Power source frequency (Hz) Capacitance (F) 50 5.3 60 4.4 Make the necessary switch settings on the Resistive Load and Capacitive Load (or on the Inductive and Capacitive Loads) in order to obtain the resistance and capacitance values required. 20. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, enable the ac power source. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, readjust the value of the No Load Voltage parameter, if necessary, so that the ac power source voltage E S (indicated by meter E1 in the Metering window) is equal to 100 V. 21. Measure the period I of the source voltage using the Oscilloscope then record the value below. Period I = ms E S 100 V C R 300 Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift Procedure A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits 31 22. Measure the period I of the resistor voltage E R using the Oscilloscope then record the value below. Period I = ms 23. Compare the period I of the resistor voltage E R measured in the previous step with the period I of the source voltage E S recorded in step 21. Are the values close to each other? Yes No 24. Measure the time interval J between the waveforms of the source voltage E S
and resistor voltage E R . Time interval J = ms 25. Using Equation (1-11), calculate the phase shift between the source voltage E S and the resistor voltage E R . Consider the source voltage waveform as the reference. Phase shift = 26. Is the resistor voltage E R leading or lagging the source voltage E S ?
27. In the Phasor Analyzer, measure the phase angles 0 LS and 0 LR of the voltage phasors. Phase angle 0 LS = Phase angle 0 LR = From these values, calculate the phase shift between the phasors of the source voltage E S and resistor voltage E R , using the source voltage phasor as the reference. Phase shift = 28. Compare the phase shift you determined from the voltage sine waves to the phase shift you measured from the corresponding voltage phasors. Are both values close to each other? Yes No 29. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, disable the ac power source. Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift Conclusion 32 Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A 30. Close LVDAC-EMS, then turn off all the equipment. Disconnect all leads and return them to their storage location. In this exercise, you saw how the phase angle modifies the value of a sine wave at time t = 0, and thus, the position in time of the sine wave. You observed the effects of positive and negative phase angles on the relative position in time of a sine wave. You were introduced to the notion of phase shift. You learned how to calculate and measure the phase shift between two sine waves and to differentiate between a lagging and a leading phase shift. 1. What is the effect of the phase angle on the graphical representation of a sine wave?
2. A sine wave has a phase angle 0 of 72. Will this sine wave reach its maximum value before, after or at the same time as a second waveform having a phase angle 0 of -18?
3. Given the following two sine wave equations: E(t) = 8sin2ut +78 E(t) = 4u sin2ut +4S Calculate the phase shift between these two sine waves, considering the first sine wave as the reference. Indicate also whether the second sine wave is lagging or leading the reference sine wave.
4. When calculating the phase shift between two sine waves, which of the following parameters do the two sine waves need to have in common: phase angle, amplitude, frequency, or period? Why?
CONCLUSION REVIEW QUESTIONS Ex. 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift Review Questions A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits 33 5. Consider two sine waves with the same frequency. They both have a period I of 50 ms. The second sine wave reaches its maximum positive value 8 ms after the first. Calculate the phase shift between the two sine waves, considering the first one as the reference.
Sample Extracted from Instructor Guide Exercise 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits 3 Exeicise 1-2 Phase Angle anu Phase Shift 10. 50 Hz: Period I = 2u.1 ms. The results are shown in the following figure.
Period T of the waveform of the source voltage F S at a frequency of 50 Hz. 60 Hz: Period T = 1. 7 ms. The results are shown in the following figure.
Period T of the waveform of the source voltage F S at a frequency of 60 Hz. ANSWERS TO PROCEDURE STEP QUESTIONS Oscilloscope Settings Channel-1 Input ................................... E1 Channel-1 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-1 Coupling ............................ DC Channel-2 Input ................................... E2 Channel-2 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-2 Coupling ............................ DC Display Filtering ................................... On Show Cursors .............................. Vertical Trigger Type ............................... Software Time Base ................................... 5 ms/div Trigger Source ................................... Ch1 Trigger Level .......................................... 0 Trigger Slope ................................. Rising
Oscilloscope Settings Channel-1 Input ................................... E1 Channel-1 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-1 Coupling ............................ DC Channel-2 Input ................................... E2 Channel-2 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-2 Coupling ............................ DC Display Filtering ................................... On Show Cursors .............................. Vertical Trigger Type ............................... Software Time Base ................................... 5 ms/div Trigger Source ................................... Ch1 Trigger Level .......................................... 0 Trigger Slope ................................. Rising
Period I Period I Period I Period I Exercise 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift 4 Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A 11. 50 Hz: Period I = 2u.u ms. The results are shown in the following figure.
Period T of the waveform of the resistor voltage F R at a frequency of 50 Hz. 60 Hz: Period I = 16.7 ms. The results are shown in the following figure.
Period T of the waveform of the resistor voltage F R at a frequency of 60 Hz. 12. Yes Oscilloscope Settings Channel-1 Input ................................... E1 Channel-1 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-1 Coupling ............................ DC Channel-2 Input ................................... E2 Channel-2 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-2 Coupling ............................ DC Display Filtering ................................... On Show Cursors .............................. Vertical Trigger Type ............................... Software Time Base ................................... 5 ms/div Trigger Source ................................... Ch1 Trigger Level .......................................... 0 Trigger Slope ................................. Rising
Oscilloscope Settings Channel-1 Input ................................... E1 Channel-1 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-1 Coupling ............................ DC Channel-2 Input ................................... E2 Channel-2 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-2 Coupling ............................ DC Display Filtering ................................... On Show Cursors .............................. Vertical Trigger Type ............................... Software Time Base ................................... 5 ms/div Trigger Source ................................... Ch1 Trigger Level .......................................... 0 Trigger Slope ................................. Rising Period I Period I Period I Period I Exercise 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits 5 13. 50 Hz: Time interval J = 2.SS ms. The results are shown in the following figure.
Time interval d between the waveforms of the source voltage F S and resistor voltage F R at a frequency of 50 Hz. 60 Hz: Time interval J = 1.99 ms. The results are shown in the following figure.
Time interval d between the waveforms of the source voltage F S and resistor voltage F R at a frequency of 60 Hz. Oscilloscope Settings Channel-1 Input ................................... E1 Channel-1 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-1 Coupling ............................ DC Channel-2 Input ................................... E2 Channel-2 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-2 Coupling ............................ DC Display Filtering ................................... On Show Cursors .............................. Vertical Trigger Type ............................... Software Time Base ................................... 5 ms/div Trigger Source ................................... Ch1 Trigger Level .......................................... 0 Trigger Slope ................................. Rising
Oscilloscope Settings Channel-1 Input ................................... E1 Channel-1 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-1 Coupling ............................ DC Channel-2 Input ................................... E2 Channel-2 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-2 Coupling ............................ DC Display Filtering ................................... On Show Cursors .............................. Vertical Trigger Type ............................... Software Time Base ................................... 5 ms/div Trigger Source ................................... Ch1 Trigger Level .......................................... 0 Trigger Slope ................................. Rising
Time interval J Time interval J Time interval J Time interval J Exercise 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift 6 Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A 14. 50 Hz: Phase shift = d 1 S6u = 2.53 ms 20.1 ms S6u = 4S.S Phase shift = 4S.S lagging or -4S.S 60 Hz: Phase shift = d 1 S6u = 1.99 ms 16.7 ms S6u = 42.9 Phase shift = 42.9 lagging or -42.9 15. The resistor voltage E R is lagging the source voltage E S . 16. 50 Hz: Phase angle 0 LS = u Phase angle 0 LR = -4S.8 Phase shift = 4S.8 lagging or -4S.8 60 Hz: Phase angle 0 LS = u Phase angle 0 LR = -42.S Phase shift = 42.S lagging or -42.S 17. Yes Exercise 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits 7 21. 50 Hz: Period I = 2u.u ms. The results are shown in the following figure.
Period T of the waveform of the source voltage F S at a frequency of 50 Hz. 60 Hz: Period I = 16.7 ms. The results are shown in the following figure.
Period T of the waveform of the source voltage F S at a frequency of 60 Hz. Oscilloscope Settings Channel-1 Input ................................... E1 Channel-1 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-1 Coupling ............................ DC Channel-2 Input ................................... E2 Channel-2 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-2 Coupling ............................ DC Display Filtering ................................... On Show Cursors .............................. Vertical Trigger Type ............................... Software Time Base ................................... 5 ms/div Trigger Source ................................... Ch1 Trigger Level .......................................... 0 Trigger Slope ................................. Rising
Oscilloscope Settings Channel-1 Input ................................... E1 Channel-1 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-1 Coupling ............................ DC Channel-2 Input ................................... E2 Channel-2 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-2 Coupling ............................ DC Display Filtering ................................... On Show Cursors .............................. Vertical Trigger Type ............................... Software Time Base ................................... 5 ms/div Trigger Source ................................... Ch1 Trigger Level .......................................... 0 Trigger Slope ................................. Rising
Period I Period I Period I Period I Exercise 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift 8 Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A 22. 50 Hz: Period I = 2u.u ms. The results are shown in the following figure.
Period T of the waveform of the resistor voltage F S at a frequency of 50 Hz. 60 Hz: Period I = 16.7 ms. The results are shown in the following figure.
Period T of the waveform of the resistor voltage F S at a frequency of 60 Hz. 23. Yes Oscilloscope Settings Channel-1 Input ................................... E1 Channel-1 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-1 Coupling ............................ DC Channel-2 Input ................................... E2 Channel-2 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-2 Coupling ............................ DC Display Filtering ................................... On Show Cursors .............................. Vertical Trigger Type ............................... Software Time Base ................................... 5 ms/div Trigger Source ................................... Ch1 Trigger Level .......................................... 0 Trigger Slope ................................. Rising Oscilloscope Settings Channel-1 Input ................................... E1 Channel-1 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-1 Coupling ............................ DC Channel-2 Input ................................... E2 Channel-2 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-2 Coupling ............................ DC Display Filtering ................................... On Show Cursors .............................. Vertical Trigger Type ............................... Software Time Base ................................... 5 ms/div Trigger Source ................................... Ch1 Trigger Level .......................................... 0 Trigger Slope ................................. Rising Period I Period I Period I Period I Exercise 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits 9 24. 50 Hz: Time interval J = S.4S ms. The results are shown in the following figure.
Time interval d between the waveforms of the source voltage F S and resistor voltage F R at a frequency of 50 Hz. 60 Hz: Time interval J = 2.71 ms. The results are shown in the following figure.
Time interval d between the waveforms of the source voltage F S and resistor voltage F R at a frequency of 60 Hz. Oscilloscope Settings Channel-1 Input ................................... E1 Channel-1 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-1 Coupling ............................ DC Channel-2 Input ................................... E2 Channel-2 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-2 Coupling ............................ DC Display Filtering ................................... On Show Cursors .............................. Vertical Trigger Type ............................... Software Time Base ................................... 5 ms/div Trigger Source ................................... Ch1 Trigger Level .......................................... 0 Trigger Slope ................................. Rising
Oscilloscope Settings Channel-1 Input ................................... E1 Channel-1 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-1 Coupling ............................ DC Channel-2 Input ................................... E2 Channel-2 Scale ......................... 50 V/div Channel-2 Coupling ............................ DC Display Filtering ................................... On Show Cursors .............................. Vertical Trigger Type ............................... Software Time Base ................................... 5 ms/div Trigger Source ................................... Ch1 Trigger Level .......................................... 0 Trigger Slope ................................. Rising Time interval J Time interval J Time interval J Time interval J Exercise 1-2 Phase Angle and Phase Shift 10 Single-Phase AC Power Circuits A 25. 50 Hz: Phase shift = d 1 S6u = 3.43 ms 20.0 ms S6u = 61.7 Phase shift = 61.7 leading or 61.7 60 Hz: Phase shift = d 1 S6u = 2.71 ms 16.7 ms S6u = S8.4 Phase shift = S8.4 leading or S8.4 26. The resistor voltage E R is leading the source voltage E S . 27. 50 Hz: Phase angle 0 LS = u Phase angle 0 LR = 6S.4 Phase shift = 6S.4 60 Hz: Phase angle 0 LS = u Phase angle 0 LR = 6S.S Phase shift = 6S.S 28. Yes 1. The phase angle determines the value of a sine wave when t = u s, and thus, the position in time of the sine wave. 2. The sine wave with the phase angle 0 of 72 will reach its maximum value before the sine wave having a phase angle 0 of -18. 3. Phase shift = 4S -78 = -SS The second sine wave is lagging the reference (first) sine wave. 4. To calculate the phase shift between two sine waves, it is necessary for them to have the same frequency and period. Amplitude and phase angle have no effect on the duration of the sine wave cycle. 5. Phase shift = d 1 S6u = 8 ms 50 ms S6u = S7.6 Since the second sine wave is lagging the reference, the value of the phase shift is negative, thus: Phase shift = -S7.6 or S7.6 lagging ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS
A Single-Phase AC Power Circuits 175 Bibliogiaphy Boylestad, Robert L., Introductory Circuit Analysis, 11th ed., Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2006, ISBN 978-0131730441. Wildi, Theodore, Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems, 6th ed., Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2005, ISBN 978-0131776913.
Study On Different Techniques of Partial Discharge (PD) Detection in Power Transformers Winding: Simulation Between Paper and EPOXY Resin Using UHF Method