ELECTRICAL – BOOK 2 OF 2

PROTECTION &
CONTROL

BOOK 2 OF 2

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 CRAFT APPRECIATION FOR ENGINEERS (CAFE)
PROTECTION AND CONTROL
Book 2 of 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Module / Unit / Lesson Page

6 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND CONTROL 9
6.1 Power System Protection 13
Task 6.1.1: Check CT Turns Ratio 57
Task 6.1.2: Test Over-Current Relay 59
6.2 Power Dispatcher 75
6.3 Communication System 89

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CRAFT APPRECIATION FOR ENGINEERS (CAFE)
PROTECTION AND CONTROL
Book 2 of 2
PACING SCHEDULE

UNIT LESSON TITLE DURATION (Hrs)

6 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND CONTROL 7
6.1 Power System Protection 3
Task 6.1.1: Check CT Turns Ratio
Task 6.1.2: Test Over-Current Relay
6.2 Power Dispatcher 2
6.3 Communication System 2
Total 7

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 CRAFT APPRECIATION FOR ENGINEERS (CAFE)
PROTECTION AND CONTROL
Book 2 of 2
COURSE OVERVIEW

DESCRIPTION

The course is divided into two parts, Electrical and Mechanical, two books for each,
with six units in Electrical and and ten units in Mechanical. The participants will
acquire necessary knowledge and skills needed to perform various performance tasks
in different electrical crafts, in accordance with the SEC standard field practices and
procedures.

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this course, the participants should be able to:

Upon completion of this course, the participants should be able to:
• Familiarize with SEC Network
• Familiarize and access SEC Standards and Manuals to record proper records of
backup equipment, electrical drawings and documents and updating all as required.
• Perform tasks related to generators and Excitation Systems, Motors. Power
Transformers, Transmission and Distribution Substations (Equipment, Switching).
• Give directions to Linemen and Cableman and perform related tasks.
• Enforce safety procedures and precautions for Power System Protection and
Control including Power Dispatcher.
• Familiarize with Telecommunications Equipment and its Operation and
Maintenance.
• Familiarize with Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Equipment
and its Operation and Maintenance.

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 UNIT-6
POWER SYSTEM
PROTECTION AND CONTROL

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 UNIT-6
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND CONTROL
UNIT OVERVIEW

DESCRIPTION

The Unit-6 consists of three lessons:

Lesson 6.1 Power System Protection includes two tasks:
Task 6.1.1 Check CT Turns Ratio
Task 6.1.2 Test Over-Current Relay
Lesson 6.2 Power Dispatcher
Lesson 6.3 Communication System

Lesson 6.1 covers the power system protective devices, including C T and PT
Connections, Overcurrent Relays, Distance Relays, Static Relays and their functional
blocks, Protective Zones, Primary and Back-up Protection and Fault Isolation
Devices. It discusses types of Transmission/Distribution Line Faults, Current and
Abnormal Surges, Overload and Transient Current, Fault Conditions, Faults (Non-
Persistent Fault and Persistent Fault - Short Circuit, Open Circuit and Ground)

Lesson 6.2 Power Dispatcher explains the directing of normal operations and
emergencies, monitoring system demands and determining and directing the isolation
of power system lines and equipment by overall viewing and updating of the network
drawings to reflect effected changes in power system, switching, earthing and
clearances, record keeping of power switching operations by network operators,
supporting field staff and coordinating between different areas in normal and
emergency operations.

Lesson 6.3 covers Modulation and Demodulation Techniques used in Communication

Systems, such as Power Line Carrier, Fiber Optic Communication, Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) and operation and maintenance on the related
equipment. The participants enhance their knowledge and skills to diagnose,
troubleshoot and perform routine maintenance activities.

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OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this unit, the participants should be able to:
• Understand the operation and maintenance of power system protective devices:
CTs and PTs, Overcurrent Relays, Distance Relays, Static Relays
• Discuss different types of Transmission/Distribution Line Faults,
• Directing normal operations and emergencies.
• Monitoring system demands.
• Determining and directing isolation of power system lines and Equipment.
• Overall viewing and updating of the network drawings to reflect effected changes
in power system.
• Switching, Earthing and Clearances.
• Record keeping of power switching operations by network operators.
• Supporting field staff and coordinating between different areas in normal and
emergency operations
• Familiarize with different types of Communication Systems.
• Familiarize with different types of Modulation and Demodulation Techniques used
in Communication Systems.

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 LESSON 6.1
POWER SYSTEM
PROTECTION

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 LESSON 6.1
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION
LESSON OVERVIEW

DESCRIPTION

This lesson covers the power system protective devices, including CT and PT
Connections, Overcurrent Relays, Distance Relays, Static Relays and their functional
blocks, Protective Zones, Primary and Back-up Protection and Fault Isolation
Devices.
It discusses types of Transmission/Distribution Line Faults, Current and Abnormal
Surges, Overload and Transient Current, Fault Conditions, Faults (Non-Persistent
Fault and Persistent Fault - Short Circuit, Open Circuit and Ground) and CT and PT
Connections.
General aspects of Static Protective Relay Maintenance are discussed, including
general inspection, handling precautions, mounting with packing and storage
considerations. The relay tests are classified as Acceptance, Commissioning,
Installation, Functional tests, input and output tests for watchdog alarms.

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this lesson, the participants should be able to:

• Identify various CT and PT Connections.
• List the precautions to be taken when handling Protective Relays during
commissioning tests.
• Explain Mounting, unpacking and storage considerations for Protective Relays.
• List the equipment to be used for testing Protective Relays during
commissioning.
• Describe the general rules to be followed for visual inspection of Protective
Relays.
• Describe the tests to be carried out when the Protective Relays are de-
energized: Visual inspection, Insulation resistance, Watchdog contacts,
Auxiliary Supply, and External wiring.
• Describe the tests to be carried out when the Protective Relays are energized:
Watchdog contacts, Alarm LED, Trip LED, Field voltage supply, Capacitor trip
voltage, Input opto-isolators, and Output Relays.

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6.1.1 INTRODUCTION
An electrca1 power system consists of generators, transformers; transmission and
distribution lines, etc (see Fig. 6.1-1).

Fig. 6.1-1 Complete Power System (Generation, Transmission, and Distribution)

Short circuits and other abnormal conditions normally occur on a power system: The
heavy current associated with short circuits is likely to cause damage to equipment if
unable protective relays and circuit breakers are not provided for the protection of
each section of the power system. Short circuits are usually called faults by power
engineers. The term fault means "defect". Some defects, other than short circuits, are
also termed as faults. For example, the failure of conducting path due to a break in a
conductor is a type of fault.

If a fault occurs in an element of a power system, an automatic protective device is

needed to isolate the faulty element as quickly as possible .to keep the healthy section
of the system in normal operation. The fault must be cleared within a fraction of a
second. If a short circuit persists on a system for a longer period, it may cause damage
to some important sections of the system. A heavy short circuit current may cause a
fire. It may spread in the system and damage a part of it. The system voltage may
reduce to a low level and individual generators in a power station or groups of

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generators in .different power stations may lose synchronism. Un-cleared heavy short
circuit current may cause a total failure of the system.
A protective scheme includes
Circuit Breakers and protective
relays to isolate the faulty
section of the system from the
healthy sections. A Circuit
Breaker can disconnect the
faulty element of the system
when it receives signal from the
protective relay, (see Fig. 6.1-2).

Fig. 6.1-2 Typical Power Protection Scheme

The function of a protective relay is to detect and locate a fault and issue a command
to the Circuit Breaker to disconnect the faulty element. It is a device, which senses
abnormal conditions of a power system by constantly monitoring electrical quantities
of the system differing under normal and abnormal conditions. The basic electrical
quantities that are likely to change .during abnormal conditions are current, voltage,
phase-angle (direction) and frequency. Protective relays utilize one or more of these
quantities to detect abnormal conditions on a power system.

Protection is needed not only against short circuits but also against other abnormal
conditions that may arise on a power system. A few examples of other abnormal
conditions are over-speed of generators and motors, over-voltage, under-frequency,
loss of excitation, overheating of stator and rotor of an alternator, etc. Protective relays
are also provided to detect such abnormal conditions and issue alarm signals to alert
operators or trip Circuit Breakers.

A protective relay does not anticipate or prevent the occurrence of a fault; rather it
takes action only after a fault has occurred. However, one exception to this is the
Buchholz relay, a gas actuated relay, which is used for the protection of power
transformers. Sometimes, a slow breakdown of insulation due to a minor arc may take
place in a transformer, resulting in the generation of heat and decomposition of the
transformer's oil and solid insulation. Such a condition produces a gas, which is
collected in a gas chamber of the Buchholz relay. When a specified amount of gas is
accumulated, the Buchholz relay operates an alarm. This gives an early warning of
incipient faults. The transformer is taken out of service for repair before the incipient
fault grows into a serious one. Thus, the occurrence of a major fault is prevented. If

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the gas evolves rapidly, the Buchholz relay trips the Circuit Breaker instantly. The
cost of the protective equipment generally works out to be about 5% of the total cost
of the system.

6.1.2 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS

Faults are caused either by insulation failures or by conducting path failures. The
failure of insulation results in short circuits, which are very harmful as they may
damage some equipment of the power system. Most of the faults on transmission and
distribution lines are caused by:
• Over-voltages due to lightning
• Switching surges
• External conducting objects falling on overhead lines

Over-voltages due to lighting or switching surges cause flashover on the surface of

insulators resulting in short circuits. Sometimes, insulators get punctured or break.
Sometimes, certain foreign particles, such as fine cement dust or soot in industrial
areas or salt in coastal areas or any dirt in general accumulates on the surface of string
and pin insulators. This reduces their insulation strength and causes flashovers. Short
circuits are also caused by tree branches or other conducting objects falling on the
overhead lines.

Birds also may cause faults on overhead lines if their bodies touch one of the phases
and the earth wire (or the metallic supporting structure, which is at earth potential). If
the conductors are broken, there is a failure of the conducting path and the conductor
becomes open-circuited. If the broken conductor falls to the ground, it results in a
short circuit. Joint failures on cables or overhead lines are also a cause of failure of the
conducting path. The opening of one or two of the three phases makes the system
unbalanced. Unbalanced current flowing in rotating machines set up harmonics,
thereby heating the machines in short periods of time. Therefore, unbalancing of the
lines is not allowed in normal operation of a power system. Other causes of faults are
direct lightning strokes, aircraft, snakes, ice and snow, loading, abnormal loading,
storms, earthquakes, creepers etc. In the case of cables; transformers, generators and
other equipment, the causes of faults are failure of solid insulation due to aging; heat;
moisture or over-voltage mechanical damage; accidental contact' with` earth or
earthed screens, flashover due to over –voltages, etc.

Some times Circuit Breakers may .trip due to errors in the switching operation, testing
or maintenance work; wrong connections, defects in protective devices, etc. Certain
faults occur due to the poor quality of system components or because of a faulty

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system design. Hence the occurrence of such faults can be reduced by improving the
system design; by using components and materials of good quality and by better
operation and timely maintenance.

6.1.3 TYPES OF FAULTS

The faults are classified as two main types:
• Symmetrical faults • Unsymmetrical faults

6.1.3.1 Symmetrical Faults

A 3φ fault is called a symmetrical type of fault. In a 3φ fault, all the three phases are
short circuited. There may be two situations; all the three phases maybe short circuited
to .the ground or they may be short-circuited without involving the ground. A 3φ short
circuit is generally .treated as a standard fault to determine the system fault level.

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6.1.3.2 Unsymmetrical Faults
Single phase to ground, two phases to ground, phase to phase short circuits; single
phase open circuit and two phase open circuit are unsymmetrical types of faults.

• Single Phase to Ground (L-G) Fault

A short circuit between any one of the phase conductors and earth is called a single
phase to ground fault. It may be due to the failure of the insulation between a phase
conductor and the earth or due to a phase conductor breaking and falling to the
ground, (Fig. 6.1-3).

FROM TO
SOURCE LOAD

Fig. 6.1-3 Accidental Ground on One Conductor of 3φ Line

• Two-Phase to Ground (2L-G) Fault

Short circuit between any two phases and the earth is called a double line to ground or
a two phase to ground fault, (Fig. 6.1-4).

FROM TO
SOURCE LOAD

Fig. 6.1-4 Accidental Ground on Two Conductors of 3φ Line

• Phase to Phase (L-L) Fault

A short circuit between any two phases is celled a line to line or phase to phase fault,
(Fig. 6.1-5).

FROM TO
SOURCE LOAD

Fig. 6.1-5 Accidental Fault on Two Conductors of 3φ Line

• Open Circuited Phases

This type of fault is caused by a break in the conducting path. Such faults occur when
one or more phase conductors break or a cable joint or a joint on the overhead lines
fails. Such situations may also arise when Circuit Breakers or isolators open but fail to
close one or more phases. Due to the opening of one or two phases, unbalanced

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currents flow in the system, thereby heating rotating machines. Protective schemes
must be provided to deal with such abnormal situations, (Fig. 6.1-6)

FROM TO
SOURCE LOAD

Open
Fig. 6.1-6 Open in One Conductor of 3φ Line

• Winding Faults
All types of faults discussed above also
occur in the alternator, motor and
transformer windings. In addition to
these types of faults, there is one more
type of fault, namely the short circuiting FAULT
of turns, which occurs on machine
windings, (Fig. 6.1-7).
Fig. 6.1-7 Open in One Conductor of 3φ Line

6.1.3.3 Simultaneous Faults

Two or more faults occurring simultaneously on a system are known as multiple or
simultaneous faults. In simultaneous faults, the same or different types of faults may
occur at the same or different points of the system. An example of two different types
of faults occurring at the same point is a single line to ground fault on one phase and
breaking of the conductor of another phase, both simultaneously present at the same
point. The simultaneous presence of an L-G fault at one point and a second L-G fault
on another phase at some other point is an example of two faults of the same type at
two different points. If these two L-G faults are on the same section of the line, they
are treated as a double line to ground fault. If they occur in different line sections, it is
known as a cross-country earth fault. Cross-country faults are common on systems
grounded through high impedance or Peterson coil but they are rare on solidly
grounded systems.

6.1.4 EFFECTS OF FAULTS

The most dangerous type of fault is a short circuit as it may have the following effects
on a power system, if it remains un-cleared.
(i) Heavy short circuit current may cause damage to equipment or any other
element of the system due to overheating and high mechanical forces set up due
to heavy current.

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(ii) Arcs associated with short circuits may cause fire hazards. Such fires resulting
from arcing may destroy the faulty element of the system. There is also, a
possibility of the fine spreading to other parts of the system if the fault is not
isolated quickly.
(iii) There may be reduction in the supply voltage of the healthy feeders, resulting in
the loss of industrial loads.
(iv) Short circuits may cause the unbalancing of supply voltages and currents;
thereby heating rotating machines.
(v) There may be a loss of system stability. Individual generators in a power station
may lose synchronism, resulting in a complete shutdown of the system. Loss of
stability of interconnected systems may also result. Subsystems may maintain
supply for their individual zones but load shedding would have to be resorted in
the subsystem, which was receiving power from the other subsystem before the
occurrence of the fault:
(vi) The above faults may cause an interruption of supply to consumers, thereby
causing a loss of revenue. High-grade, high speed, reliable protective devices are
the essential requirements of power system to minimize the effects of faults and
other abnormalities.

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6.1.5 FAULT STATISTICS
For the design and application of a protective scheme, it is very useful to have an idea
of the frequency of occurrence of faults on various elements of a power system.
Usually the power stations are situated far away from the load centre, resulting in
hundreds of kilometers length of overhead lines being exposed to atmospheric
conditions: The chances of faults occurring due to storms, falling of external objects
on the lines, flashovers resulting from dirt deposits on insulators are greater for
overhead lines than on other parts of the power system. Table 6.1-1 gives an
approximate idea about the fault statistics.

Table 6.1-1 Percentage Distribution of Faults in Various Elements of Power Systems

Element % of Total Fault
Overhead Lines 50
Under Ground Cables 9
Transformers 10
Generators 7
Switchgears 12
CTs, PTs, Relays, Control Equip. 12

From Talale 6.1-1, it is evident that 50% of the total faults occur on overhead lines.
Hence it is overhead lines that require more attention while planning and designing
protective schemes for a power system.

• TRANSMISSION LINE FAULTS

Table 6.1-2 shows the frequency of occurrence of different types of faults (mainly the
different types of short circuits) on overhead lines. From the table, it is evident that the
frequency of line to ground faults is more than any other type of fault and hence the
protection against L-G fault requires greater attention in planning and design of
protective schemes for overhead lines, (Fig. 6.1-8).

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 Fig. 6.1-8 Transmission Line Faults

Table 6.1-2 Frequency of Occurrence of Different Types of Faults on Overhead Lines

Types of Faults Fault Symbol % of Total Fault
Line to Ground L-G 85
Line to Line L-L 8
Double Line to Ground 2L-G 5
Three Phase 3φ 2

• CABLE FAULTS
In the case of cables, 50% of the faults occur in cables and 50°/o at end junctions.
Cable faults are usually of a permanent nature and hence, automatic reclosures are not
recommended for cables.

6.1.6 DEVELOPMENT OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS

In the very early days of the power industry, small generators were used to supply
local loads and fuses were the only automatic devices to isolate the faulty equipment.
They were effective and their performance was quite satisfactory for small systems.

However, they suffered from the .disadvantage of requiring replacement before the
supply could be restored. For important lines, frequent interruption in power supply is
undesirable. This inconvenience was overcome with the introduction of Circuit
Breakers and protective relays. Attracted armature type electromagnetic relays were
first introduced. They were fast, simple and economic. Their use will continue even in
future as auxiliary relays due to their simplicity and low cost. Later on, induction disc
type inverse time current relays were developed in the early 1920 to meet the
selectivity requirement. They were used for overcurrent protection. For directional and
distance relays, induction cup type units were widely used throughout the world. An

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induction cup type unit was fast and accurate due to its higher torque/inertia ratio. For
greater sensitivity and accuracy, polarized DC relays are being used since 1939.

In .1947, rectifier bridge type comparators were developed in Norway and Germany.
Polarized DC relays, energized from rectifier bridge comparators challenged the
position of the induction cup type relays. At present, they are widely used for the
realization of distance relay characteristics.

Electronic relays using vacuum tubes first appeared in 1928 and continued up to 1956.
They were not accepted because of their complexity, short life of vacuum tubes and
incorrect operation under transient conditions. But electronic valves were used in
carrier equipment for automatic checking of the carrier channel. An alarm was
sounded, if any tube became defective and it was replaced immediately, (Fig. 6.1-9).

Fig. 6.1-9 Development of Protective Relays

Magnetic amplifiers were also used in protective relays in the past. A magnetic
amplifier consists of a transformer and a separate DC winding. As the transformer
action is controlled by the dc winding, the device is also known as Transductor. This
type of relay is well-built but slow in action. At present such relays are not used.

Hall crystals were also used to construct phase comparators. Because of their low
output and high temperature errors, such relays have not been widely adopted except
in the USSR.

The first transistorized relay was developed in 1949, soon after the innovation of the
transistor. Various kinds of static relays using solid state devices were developed in
the fifties. Multi-input comparators giving quadrilateral characteristics were
developed in the sixties. Static relays possess the advantages of low burden on the

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CTs and PTs, fast operation, absence of mechanical inertia and contact troubles, long
life and less maintenance. As static relays proved to be superior to electromagnetic
relays, they were used for the protection of important lines, power stations and sub-
stations. But they did not replace electromagnetic relays. Static relays were treated as
an addition to the family of relays. In most static relays, the output or slave relay is a
polarized DC relay, which is an electromagnetic relay. This can be replaced by a
thyristor circuit, but it is used because of its low cost. Electromagnetic relays have
continued to be used because of their simplicity and low cost. Their maintenance can
be done by less qualified personnel, whereas the maintenance and repair of static
relays requires personnel trained in solid state devices. Static relays using digital
techniques have also been developed recently.

With the growing size and complexity of modern power networks, fast, accurate and
reliable protective schemes will be the demand of the future. Increasing interest is
being shown in the use of on-line digital computers for protection. But their cost is 15
to 20 times more than that of conventional protective schemes. 'The latest fascinating
innovation in the field of computer technology is the development of the
microprocessor, which is making revolution in every activity. With the development
in Very Large Scale Integration "VLSI" technology, microprocessors that appeared in
the seventies have evolved and have made remarkable progress in recent years. The
mass production of inexpensive microprocessors constitutes a major event in electrical
as well as computer technology. In the former area, microprocessors are used to
replace conventional digital and electromechanical logic systems. In the latter area,
they are being used as the basis of all types of computers. With the recent
developments in VLSI technology, sophisticated microprocessors and single chip
microcomputers are being developed. The power industry is also expected to be
affected to a great extent by this marvel of technology. Power engineers are presently
interested in the application of this powerful tool to the problem of protective relays.

The main advantage of microprocessor based protective schemes over the static relays
is their flexibility. The application of microprocessor to protective relays will also
result in the availability of faster, more accurate and reliable relaying units. A
microprocessor increases the flexibility of a relay due to its programmable approach.
It can provide protection at low cost and compete with conventional relays. A number
of relying characteristics can be realized using the same interface. Using a
multiplexer, the microprocessor can obtain the required input signals for the
realization of a particular relaying characteristic. Different programs can be used for
different characteristics. Individual types and number of relaying units is reduced to a
great extent; resulting in a very compact protective scheme. Field tests have

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demonstrated their feasibility and some schemes are under investigation: A number of
schemes have been put into service and their performance is being observed.
Microprocessor-based protective schemes are under the active research and
development stage.

6.1.7 ZONES OF PROTECTION

A .power system contains generators, transformers, bus-bars, transmission and
distribution lines etc. There is a separate protective scheme for each piece of
equipment or element of the power system, such as .generator protection; transformer
protection, .transmission lines protection, bus-bar protection, etc. Thus, power system
.is divided into a number of zones for protection, protective zone covers one or at the
most two elements of a power system. The protective zones are planned for such a
way that the entire power system is totally covered by them and thus, no part of the
system is left unprotected. The various protective zones of a typical power system are
shown in Fig 6.1-10. Adjacent protective zones must overlap each other. The
overlapping between the adjacent zones is unavoidable. If a fault occurs in the
overlapping zone in a properly protected scheme, more Circuit Breakers would trip
than the minimum necessary to isolate the faulty element of the system. A relatively
low extent of overlap reduces the probability of faults in this region and
.consequently, tripping of .too many breakers does not occur frequently, (Fig. 6.1-11).
1 Generator protective zone
1 2 3 2 Generator transformer unit
3 4 4
protective zone
3 Bus bar protective zone
4 Transmission Line protective
zone

Boundary of protective zones decided by location of CTs:

Fig. 6.1-10 Zones of Protection

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 1'

2'
TL'
T' X'
3' Y'
G'
1' 2' 1'
1 T 2 X 1
G 3 2
TL
Y

LEGEND:
G Generator

T Main Transformer

TL, TL′ Transmission Lines

1, 1' Subscript for generator transformer unit protection system covering Circuit Breakers X-X' respectively

2 Subscript for Main Bus protection system covering Circuit Breakers X-X' and also Y-Y'

3, 3' Subscript for transmission line protection systems covering Circuit Breakers Y-Y'
Fig.6.1-11 Overlapping of Neighboring Protective Zones

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6.1.8 PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION
A power system is divided into various zones for its protection. There is a suitable
protective scheme for each zone. If a fault occurs in a particular zone, it is the duty of
the primary relays of that zone to isolate the faulty element. The primary relay is the
first line of defense. If the primary relay fails to operate for any reason, there is a
back-up protective scheme to clear the fault as a second line of defense. The causes of
failures of a protective scheme may be due to the failure of various elements, as
mentioned in Table 6.1-3. The probability of failures is shown against each item.
Table 6.1-3 Equipment and its Percentage of Failures
Name of % of Total % of Total
Name of Equipment
Equipment Failures Failures
Relays 44 Circuit breaker interrupters 14
AC wiring 12 Breaker trip mechanism 8
DC wiring 5 Current transformers 7
PT 3 Breaker auxiliary switches 3
DC supply 1 Breaker trip coils 3

The reliability of a protective scheme should at least be 95%. With proper design,
installation and maintenance of the relays, Circuit Breakers, trip mechanisms, AC and
DC wiring, a very high degree of reliability can be achieved. The back-up relays are
made independent of those factors, which might cause primary relays to fail. A back-
up relay operates after a time delay to give the primary relay sufficient time to operate.
When a back-up relay operates, a larger part of the power system is disconnected from
the power source, but this is unavoidable. As far as possible, a back-up relay should be
placed at a different station. Sometimes, a local back-up is also used. It should be
located in such a way that it does not employ components (PT, CT, measuring unit
etc.) common with the primary relays, which are to be backed up.

There are three types of back-up relays:

(a) Remote back up (b) Relay back up (c) Breaker back up

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6.1.8.1 REMOTE BACK-UP
When back-up relays are located at a neighboring station, they back-up the entire
primary protective scheme including the relay, Circuit Breaker, PT, CT and other
elements in case of a failure of the primary protective scheme.
It is the cheapest and the Zone 3 R-2 Zone 1'
Zone 2'
simplest form of back-up Zone 3'
G S
protection and is a widely Line #1 H Line #2 R Line #3
8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
used back-up protection for F
transmission lines. It is
most desirable because of
Zone 1
the fact that it will not fail Zone 2
due to the factors causing R-1
Zone 3
the failure of the primary Zone 1 Set Inst.
Zone 2 Set With Time Delay.
protection, (Fig. 6.1-12). Zone 3 Set With Longer Time Delay.

Fig. 6.1-12 Remote Backup Protection Scheme

6.1.8.2 RELAY BACK-UP

This is a kind of a local back-up in which an additional relay is provided for back-up
protection. It trips the same circuit breaker if the primary relay fails and this operation
takes place without delay. Though such a back-up is costly, it can be recommended
where a remote back-up is not possible. For back-up relays, principles of operation
that are different from those of the primary protection are desirable. They should be
supplied from separate current and potential transformers, (Fig. 6.1-13).

A B

F1
CB CB CB

CB
1
2
1 Main Protection (Trip the CB after Time Delay in case of a Fault)
2 Main Protection (Trip the CB after Longer Time Delay in case of
a Fault and the Main Protection Failed)

Fig. 6.1-13 Relay Backup Scheme

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6.1.8.3 BREAKER BACK-UP
This is also a kind of a local back-up. This type of a back-up is necessary for a bus bar
system, where a number of Circuit Breakers are connected to it. When a protective
relay operates in response to a fault but the Circuit Breaker fails to trip, the fault is
treated as a bus bar fault. In such a situation, it becomes necessary that all other
Circuit Breakers on that bus bar should trip. After a time-delay, the main relay closes
the contact of a back-up relay, which trips all other Circuit Breakers on the bus if the
proper breaker does not trip within a specified time after its trip coil is energized.
A typical Single-Line, Single- G
Breaker Bus and DC schematic 1 Line 1
diagram, for breaker failure
Line 2
protection on a number of lines 2

at Bus G, are shown in Fig. 6.1- 3 Line 3

14 and Fig. 6.1-15,
N Line N
respectively.

Fig. 6.1-14 Single-Line Single-Breaker Bus

(Local Back-Up Breaker Failure Protective Scheme)

Line 1 Line 2 Line 3 Line 4 Line N

62 X,Y 62 X,Y 62 X,Y 62 X,Y 62 X,Y

50-1 50-2 50-3 50-3 50-N

62 62
86-G
BF

86-G
BF Trip and Lock Out all Breakers on Bus G

62X,Y Breaker Failure Intiating Auxailiaries Operated by The Line relaying.

50 Overcurrent Relay Responsive to Current Flowing Through
The Individual Breaker.
62 Breaker Failure Timer.
86 Lock-Out Relay.

Fig. 6.1-15 DC Schematic for Local Back-Up Protection on Breaker Failure

(Single-Line Single-Breaker Bus with Common Timer)

6.1.9 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION

The basic requirements of a protective system are as follows:
(i) Selectivity or discrimination (ii) Reliability (v) Fast Operation
(iii) Sensitivity (iv) Stability

6.1.9.1 SELECTIVITY OR DISCRIMINATION

32
Selectivity is the quality of a protective relay by which it is able to discriminate
between a fault in the protected section and the normal condition. Also it should be
able to distinguish whether a fault lies within its zone of protection or outside the
zone. Sometimes, this quality of the relay is also called discrimination. When a fault
occurs on a power system, only the faulty part of the system should be isolated. No
healthy part of the system should be affected and should be left operation. The relay
should also be able to discriminate between a fault and transient conditions like power
surges or inrush of a transformer's magnetizing current. The magnetizing current of a
large transformer is comparable to a fault current, which may be 5 to 7 times the full
load current. When generators of two interconnected power plants lose synchronism
because of disturbances, heavy currents flow through the equipment and lines. This
condition is like a short circuit. The flow of heavy currents is known as a power surge.
The protective relay should be able to distinguish between a fault or power surge
either by its inherent characteristic or with the help of an auxiliary relay. Thus, we see
that a protective relay must be able to discriminate between those conditions for which
instantaneous tripping is required and those for which no operation or a time-delay
operation is required.

6.1.9.2 RELIABILITY
A protective system must operate reliably when a fault occurs in its zone of
protection. The failure of a protective system may be due to the failure of any one or
more elements of the protective system. Its important elements are the protective
relay, Circuit Breaker, PT, CT, wiring, battery, etc. To achieve a high degree of
reliability, greater attention should be given to the design, installation, maintenance
and testing of the various elements of the protective system. Dependability and
simplicity of the relaying equipment also contribute to reliability. The contact
pressure, the contact material of the relay and the prevention of contact contamination
are also very important for reliability. A typical value of reliability of a protective
scheme is 95%.

6.1.9.3 SENSITIVITY
A protective relay should operate when the magnitude of its input data exceeds the
preset value. This value is called the pick-up. The relay should not operate when the
value of input data is below its pick-up value. A relay should be sufficiently sensitive
to operate when the value of its operating input data just exceeds its pick-up value.

6.1.9.4 STABILITY
A protective system should remain stable during external fault that does not lie in its
zone even when a large current is flowing through it. The respective Circuit Breaker is

33
supposed to clear the fault. But the protective system will not wait indefinitely if the
protective scheme of the zone in which fault has occurred fails to operate. After a
preset delay the relay will operate to trip the Circuit Breaker.

6.1.9.5 FAST OPERATION

A protective system should be fast enough to isolate the faulty element of the system
as quickly as possible to minimize damage to the equipment and to maintain the
system stability. For a modern power system, the stability criterion is very important
and hence, the operating time of the protective system should not exceed the critical
clearing time to avoid the loss of synchronism. Other points under consideration for
quick operation are protection of the equipment from burning due to heavy fault
currents, interruption of supply to consumers and the fall in system voltage that may
result in the loss of industrial loads. The operating time of a protective relay is usually
one cycle. Half-cycle relays are also available. For distribution systems the operating
time may be more than one cycle.

6.1.10 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS

Protective relays can be classified in various ways depending on their construction,
function and appliction. Appendix-A is provided to indicate the American Standard
Device Numbering and Abbreviation coding for Protective Relays.

6.1.10.1 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS BASED ON

TECHNOLOGY
Protective relays can be broadly classified into the following categories, depending on
the technology used for their construction and operation:
(i) Electromagnetic Relays (ii) Static Relays (iii) Microprocessor-Based Relays

34
• ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS
Electromagnetic relays include attracted armature, moving coil, induction disc and
induction cup type relays. Electromagnetic relays contain an electromagnet (or a
permanent magnet) and a moving part (Fig. 6.1-16). When the actuating quantity
exceeds a certain predetermined value, an operating torque is developed that is applied
to the moving part. This causes the moving part to travel and close a contact to
energize the trip coil of the Circuit Breaker.

(a) Induction Disc Shaded-Pole Relay (b) Solenoid-Type Relay

Moving Fixed
Contact Contact

Rsteraining
Spring

Armature
Coil

Pivot

(c) Armature or Clapper-Type Relay

Fig. 6.1-16 Electromagnetic Relays

• STATIC RELAYS
Static relays contain electronic circuitry that may include transistors, ICs, diodes and
other electronic components. There is a comparator circuit in the relay that compares
two or more currents or voltages and gives an output to drive either a slave relay or a
thyristor circuit. The slave relay is an electromagnetic relay that closes the contact. A
static relay containing a slave relay is a semi-static relay. A relay using a thyristor
circuit is a wholly static relay. Static relays possess the advantages of having low
burden on the CT and PT, fast operation, absence of mechanical inertia and contact
trouble, long life and less maintenance. Static relays have proved to be superior to
electromagnetic relays and they are being used for the protection of important lines,

35
power stations and substations. Yet they have not completely replaced
electromagnetic relays. Static relays are treated as an addition to the family of relays.
Electromagnetic relays continue to be in use because of their simplicity and low cost.
Their maintenance can be done by less qualified personnel, whereas the maintenance
and repair of static relays requires personnel trained in solid state devices. Fig. 6.1-17
shows block diagram of a simplified static relay.

1
DC
SUPPLY
Power
Supply

2 3 4 5 6

LEGEND
1 2 3 4 5 6
Transducer Relay
or Measuring Trip
Circuit Output
Instrument Rectifiers Consists of: Amplifier Circuit.
Transformer •Comparator
• Level DetectorFilters
Secondaries • Voltage Stabilizer

Fig. 6.1-17 Block Diagram of Simplified Static Relay

• MICROPROCESSOR-BASED PROTECTIVE RELAYS

Microprocessor-based protective relays are the latest development in this area. With
the developments in VLSI technology, sophisticated and fast microprocessors are
available. Their applications to the problems of protective relaying schemes are of
current interest to power engineers. The inherent advantages of microprocessor-based
relays over static relays with or a very limited range of applications are attractive
flexibility due to their programmable approach. Microprocessor-based protective
relays can provide protection at low cast and compete with conventional relays. The
present downward trend in the cost of Large Scale Integrated circuits will encourage
wide applications of microprocessor-based relays for the protection of modern
complex power networks, (Fig. 6.1-18).

36
 I1 S1
1 2 3
Port A
IDC PPI
S2 E/C
4 5 PC7
Port Cupper

S3
6
S/C
In Sn PC3
1 2 3 IDC 22 PC2
Port Clower
21
PC1
20 PC0
LEGEND: Channel
1- CT Select
2- I to V cONVERTER
3- Rectifier Port B
4- MULTIPLEXER Trip PB 0
5- A/D Converter Signal
6- MICROPROCESSOR KIT

Fig. 6.1-18 Block Diagram of a Simplified Microprocessor-Based Protective Relay

6.1.10.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS BASED ON

FUNCTION

Protective relays can be classified into the following categories, depending on the
function they are required to perform:
(i) Over-Current Relays (ii) Under Voltage Relays (iii) Impedance Relays
(iv) Under Frequency Relays (v) Directional Relays

These are some important relays for the function they perform that is evident from
their names. For example, an overcurrent relay operates when the current exceeds a
certain limit. An impedance relay measures the line impedance between the relay
location and the point of fault and operates if the point of fault lies within the
protected section. Directional relays check whether the point of fault lies in the
forward or reverse direction. The above relays may be electromagnetic, static or
microprocessor-based relays.

6.1.11 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE SCHEMES

A protective scheme is used to protect equipment or a section of the line that includes
one or more relays of the same or different types. The following are the most common
protective schemes that are used for the protection of a modern power system.
(i) Overcurrent Protection (ii) Distance Protection
(iii) Differential Protection (iv) Carrier-Current Protection

37
6.1.11.1 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
This scheme of protection is used for the protection of distribution lines, large
generator, large motors, equipment, etc. It includes one or more overcurrent relays.
Overcurrent relay operates when the current exceeds its pick-up value.

The principle application of Over-Current Relays is on a radial system, providing both

the phase and ground protection. Over-current relays are also used in industrial
systems and on sub-transmission lines that cannot justify more expensive protection
such as Distance Relays or Pilot Relays.

The inverse-time characteristic of the Over-Current Relay is very suitable for the
protection of radial lines, where the fault current flows in one direction only. The
inverse-time feature allows faults downstream to be cleared by local protective
devices before the relay has time to operate. On the other hand, if the local protection
fails to operate, the time-Over-Current Relay eventually times out and opens the
breaker to clear the fault. Ideally, 3 CTs and three Over-Current Relays will be
installed, one connected per phase, as shown in Fig. 6.1-19(a).

Power Power
Source Source

51 51 51 51 51

51
(a) G (b) 51G

Fig. 6.1-19 Typical Ground and Time Over-Current Protection

An additional relay is connected to measure residual current to detect ground faults. In

some installations, you may find 2 CTs only and two phase relays. The problem here
is that the unmonitored phase would not detect a ground fault, so usually a third CT
and ground fault relay is installed, as shown in Fig. 6.1-19(b). Fig. 6.1-20 shows the
tripping characteristics of Inverse Time Overcurrent relay.

Fig. 6.1-20 Tripping Characteristics of Inverse Time Over-Current Relay

38
6.1.11.2 DISTANCE PROTECTION
Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, for distance
measurement it is appropriate to use relay capable of measuring the impedance of a
line up to a predetermined point. Such a relay is described as a Distance Relay and is
designed to operate only for faults occurring between the relay location and the
selected reach point, thus giving discrimination for faults that may occur between
different line sections.

Distance protection is used for the protection of transmission or sub-transmission

lines; usually 34.5 kV, 69 kV and 115 kV, 230 kV, 380 kV lines. It includes a number
distance relays of the same or different types. The important types are impedance,
reactance and mho type. An impedance relay measures the line impedance between
the fault point and relay location; a reactance relay measures reactance and a mho
relay measures admittance.

The basic principle of measurement involves the comparison of the fault current seen
by the relay with the voltage at the relaying point. By comparing these two quantities,
it is possible to determine whether the impedance of the line up to the point of fault is
greater than or less than the predetermined reach point impedance. A simple example
in Fig. 6.1-21 shows how this comparison is computed using a balanced beam relay.

ZL
SOURCE ZF
R IF
LOAD
iF FAULT
vF VF
TO TRIP CIRCUIT

OPERATING COIL

RESTRAINT COIL

RELAY

Fig. 6.1-21 Balanced Beam Relay Application

The relay is connected at point R and receives a secondary current equivalent to the
primary fault current and a secondary voltage equivalent to the product of the fault
current and the impedance of line up to point of fault. If the relay is designed so that

39
the operating torque is proportional to the current and its restraining torque
proportional to the voltage, then, according to the relative number of Ampere-Turns
⎛ V ⎞
⎜ ⎟
applied to each coil, there will be a definite ratio of ⎝ I ⎠ at which the torque will be
equal. This is termed the balance point or reaches point setting of the relay. With such
an arrangement, any increase in the current coil Ampere-Turn without a corresponding
increase in the voltage coil Ampere-Turns will make the relay unbalanced, so that
⎛ V ⎞
⎜ ⎟
below a given ratio of ⎝ I ⎠ the operating torque will become larger than the restraint
torque and the relay will close its contacts. On the other hand, above the given ratio of
⎛ V ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ I ⎠ , the restraining torque will be greater than the operating torque and the relay will
restrain and the contacts will remain open. Such relays have been designed so that it is
possible to adjust their ohmic reach setting by changing the relationship of the
Ampere-Turns of the operating coil to those on the restraint coil, making it possible to
select a setting suitable for the length of the line to be protected.
The locus of points where the operating and restraining torques are equal, is described
as the boundary characteristic of the relay and since it is dependent on the ratio of
voltage and current and the phase angle between them, it may be plotted on an R/X
diagram. The locus of power system impedances such as those of faults, power swings
and loads may be plotted on the same diagram and in this manner the performance of
the relay in the presence of system disturbances may be studied.

R-X DIAGRAM
In general, electromechanical relays respond to one or more of the congenital torque
producing input quantities:
• Voltage • Current
• Product of voltage, current and angle • Physical or design force such as spring
θ between them

Similar consideration holds for the solid state relays as well. For the product type
relay such as the Distance Relay, analyzing the response of the relay for all conditions
is difficult because the voltage varies for each fault or it varies for the same fault but
with different system conditions.

Consider an ideal short circuit at location F in the single phase system shown in Fig.
6.1-22. The Distance Relay under consideration is located at line terminal A. The
primary voltage and current at relay location are related by ( Z F = E P ) where the
P
IP
subscript 'P' represents primary quantities.

40
 S A ZF B
(1:n i ) R + j X F

ZS
(1:n e )

ES EP
Rab Rba
θ
IS
IP

Fig. 6.1-22 Voltage, Current and Impedance as seen by Distance Relay

In terms of the secondary quantities of CTs and PTs, the relay sees the primary ZFP as
ES n
ZFS, where ( Z FS = = Z FS i ) . Where 'ni and ne' are the CT and PT turns ratios.
IS ne

In general, the ratio E/I is known as the apparent impedance seen by the relay. This
impedance may be plotted as a point on the complex R-X plane. This is the plane of
the (apparent) secondary ohms. One could view the impedance in a voltage phasor,
provided that the current is assumed to be the reference phasor and of unit magnitude.
This way of looking at the apparent impedance seen by a relay, as the voltage phasor
at the relay location, is often very useful when relay responds to changing system
conditions.

For example, consider the apparent impedance seen by the relay when there is normal
power flow in the transmission line. If the load current is of constant magnitude and
the sending end voltage at the relay is constant, the corresponding voltage phasor and
hence the impedance will describe a circle in the R-X plane. Lighter load, meaning a
smaller magnitude of the current, produces circles of larger diameters. Similarly, when
the load Power Factor is constant, the corresponding locus of the impedance is a
straight line through the origin.

Fig. 6.1-23 shows these contours for varying load current magnitude and Power
Factors. Note that when the real power flows into the line , the corresponding apparent
impedance lie in the right half of the plane, while a reversed power flows into the left
half plane. Similarly lagging Power Factor load plots in the upper half plane, while a
leading Power Factor load plots in the lower half plane. Zero power transfer
corresponds to points at infinity. A line open at the remote end will have leading
reactive current and hence the apparent impedance will map at large distance along
the negative X-axis. Now consider the fault at location F, as shown in Fig. 6.1-22. The

41
corresponding apparent impedance at F is shown in Fig. 6.1-23. As the location of the
fault is moved along the transmission line, the point F moves along the straight line
AB in Fig. 6.1-23. Thus the transmission line as seen by the relay maps into the line
AB in the R-X plane. The line AB makes an angle θ with the R-axis, where θ is the
impedance angle of the transmission line. For an overhead transmission line θ lies
between 70° and 88°, depending upon the system voltage, the larger angles being
associated with higher transmission voltages.
When the fault is on the X

transmission line, the apparent Power Into Bus Power Into Line
Light Load
impedance plots on the line Heavy Load E Load with
Lagging pf
AB. For all other faults or B
ZF F
loading conditions, the
impedance plots away from the θ R
A I
line AB. Often it is convenient ZS
S Load with
to plot the source impedance Leading pf

(Zs) also on the R-X diagram,

as shown in Fig. 6.1-23.
Line Charging

Fig.6.1-23 Impedance Plot for Lag and Lead PF as

seen by Distance Relay

6.1.12 THREE PHASE DISTANCE RELAYS

On a three phase power system, there are 10 distinct types of a possible faults:
• Three phase-to-phase faults (A-B, B-C or C-A).
• Three phase-to-ground faults (A-G, B-G or C-G).
• Three double-phase-to-ground faults (A-B-G, B-C-G or C-A-G).
• Three phase or three phase-to-ground faults (A-B-C or A-B-C-G).

The equations that govern the relationship between voltages and currents at the relay
location are different for each of these faults. We should, therefore, expect that it will
take several Distance Relays, each of them energized by a different pair of voltage and
current inputs to measure the distance to the fault, correctly. It is a fundamental
principle of Distance Relaying, that regardless of the type of fault involved, the
voltage and current used to energize the appropriate relay are such that the relay will
measure the positive sequence impedance to the fault. Once this is achieved, the zone
setting of all relays can be based upon the total positive sequence impedance of the
line, regardless of the type of the fault. We will now consider various type of faults
and determine the appropriate voltage and current inputs to be used for the Distance
Relays responsible for each of these fault types.

42
• PHASE FAULTS
For any phase to phase Fault detection, a Distance Relay is connected, where the line-
to-line voltage between the two phases has a fault supplying the difference between
the currents in the two phases and measuring the positive sequence impedance to the
fault, Z1f.:
Ea − Eb Eb − Ec
Z1f = (Phase A - B fault) Z1f = (Phase B −C fault)
Ia − Ib Ib −Ic
E c − Ea
Z1f = (Phase C −A fault)
I c − Ia

The difference of phase voltages and currents used in the above equations are known
as 'delta' voltages and currents and we know that relays energized by the delta
voltages and currents respond to the positive sequence impedance to a multiphase
fault. A complement of 3φ Distance Relays covers the seven multiphase faults
between them. For double phase or double phase to ground faults, one of the three
relays measures the positive sequence impedance to the fault. For a three phase fault,
all the three relays measure the correct impedance. The connections of phase relays
are shown in Fig. 6.1-24.

A
B
C

R bc R ab R ca

C B
A

Fig. 6.1-24 CT and PT Connections for Distance Relays for Phase Faults

• GROUND FAULTS
As in case of the phase relays, it takes three ground Distance Relays to cover the three
single phase to ground faults. The three ground Distance Relays are also used to
measure the correct distance to the fault in case of a three phase fault. A schematic
connection diagram for the three ground Distance Relays is shown in Fig. 6.1-25. A

43
full complement of phase and ground Distance Relays will require six measuring
elements connected, as shown in Fig. 6.1-24 and Fig. 6.1-25.

A
B
C

R cg Rbg Rag

C B A

Fig. 6.1-25 CT and PT Connections for Distance Relays for Ground Faults

6.1.12.1 DISTANCE RELAY TYPES

Distance Relays may be classified according to the shape of their operating zones.
Traditionally, all zone shapes have been circular. However, far more complex zone
shapes can be achieved with modern solid-state and computerized relays, although
some of the older terminology continues to be used in describing the latter relays.

The four general relay types recognized according to the shapes of their operating
zones with their respective characteristic shapes, (Fig. 6.1-26) are:
a) Impedance Relays b) Admittance or Mho Relays
c) Reactance Relays (Element Type) d) Quadrilateral Relays (Static Type)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Types of mpedance Relay Characteristics

Fig. 6.1-26 Types of Impedance Relay Characteristics

The Impedance Relay has circular shape centered at the origin of the R-X diagram.
The Admittance Relay (Mho) has a circular shape that passes through the origin. The
Reactance Relay has a zone boundary defined by the line parallel to the R-axis. The
zone extends to infinity in three directions as shown in Fig. 6.1-26(c).

44
The Quadrilateral Relay characteristics, as the name implies, is defined by four
straight lines. This last characteristic is only available in solid state or computerized
relays. More complex shapes can be obtained by using one or more of the above relay
types in logical combination providing a composite tripping zone boundary.

6.1.12.2 CARRIER-CURRENT PROTECTION

This scheme of protection is used for the protection of EHV and UHV lines, generally
115 kV and above. A carrier signal in the range of 50-500 kHz is generated for the
purpose. A transmitter and receiver are installed at each end of a transmission line to
be protected. Information regarding the direction of the fault current is transmitted
from one end of the line section to the other. Depending on the information, relays
placed at each end trip if the fault lies within their protected section. Relays do not trip
in case of external faults. The relays are of distance type and their tripping operation is
controlled by the carrier signal.

In the protective relaying application of power systems, the Relay Engineer is almost
immediately confronted with the necessity of providing a channel of communication
between two or more system locations for the transmission of Relay "intelligence"
from one point to another. His primary concern is to provide adequate Relay
protection to detect, locate, and isolate system faults promptly and, at the same time,
maintain adequate availability of power to consumers.

The most effective relaying schemes require that the information is available at two or
more locations to be compared. Such comparison permits simultaneous tripping of all
terminals of a line section. The communication channel provides the necessary link
for this comparison of Relay intelligence. When a fault occurs, each location supplies
the information for coordination in determining whether the section is to be tripped or
left on line. The selection of the best communication channel for protective relaying is
governed by a number of considerations. The distance between stations, nature of
terrain and functions required all affect the selection of the most desirable link.

At the present time, the following methods are in common use:

1. Microwave Radio - utilizing radio transmitters and receivers operating in the
1700 to 6800 MHz frequency band.
2. Power Line Carrier - utilizing Transmitters and Receivers operating in the 30 to
200 kHz frequency band and using the power transmission line as the propagation
medium for these signals.

45
3. Audio Tone Equipment - using transmitters and receivers operating in the 600 to
3 kHz frequency band, utilizing a privately owned or leased pilot wire channel or
as modulation on microwave channels.
4. Fiber Optic Communication System - The fiber optic system consists primarily
of a light source and transmitter at the sending end. The optical light source
converts the electrical signal into optical signal and may be a semiconductor laser
or Light Emitting Diode (LED), a waveguide carrier and a receiver.
5. Pilot Wire Equipment - using either 60 Hz power frequency or DC signals.

From the preceding, it is obvious that the primary technical difference between the
various systems is the area within the frequency spectrum in which they operate. Each
system utilizes different means of signal propagation for optimum performance. For
instance, microwave transmission utilizes radio antenna for the transmitted signal,
usually concentrated into a “beam” focused and directed to the receiving terminal.
Likewise, carrier frequencies could also be transmitted over a pilot wire circuit.
However, the usual pilot wire construction would introduce prohibitive losses in
transmission. A circuit intended primarily for protective relaying must meet rigid
standards of reliability and security against false operation. In addition, many
applications require the channel to include facilities for telephone communication,
telemetering, load control, frequency control or supervisory control. Each of these
facilities has its peculiar channel requirements that add complexity to the system.
Careful consideration must be given to the overall channel requirements and the
protective relaying function must of necessity be given top channel priority.

• POWER LINE CARRIER CONCEPT

As one of the more important and widely used communication channels in the electric
utility field, power line carrier offers a reliable secure means of communicating relay
intelligence from one point to another. The carrier system is composed of transmitters
and receivers operating in the frequency range of 30 to 200 kHz with coaxial cable
connections to a Line Tuner and then to the transmission line through a Coupling
Capacitor. Line Traps, which present high impedance to one or more carrier
frequencies, serve primarily to prevent a carrier-blocking signal from being shorted to
ground by an external fault. Other devices, such as Band-Pass Filters and hybrids are
used in some applications. A simple block diagram of one terminal carrier relaying is
shown in Fig. 6.1-27.

46
 CT TL

Line Trape

Circuit
Breaker COUPLING
CAPACITOR

PT
Trip Coil
CAREER
Transmitter
Line
Protective Tuner
Relays Reciver

Fig. 6.1-27 Block Diagram of one Terminal Power Line Carrier

The protective Relays receive their intelligence from the current and potential
transformers in the protected line. Under fault conditions the Relays operate, initiating
a signal in the carrier transmitter that passes through the Line Tuner and Coupling
Capacitor to the transmission line and then over the line to the remote terminal.
Comparison of this signal with the Relay status at the remote terminal determines
whether the line section is to be tripped out or kept intact on external faults. The Line
Trap prevents the carrier signal from being grounded by an external fault. The
Receiver should be capable of providing an adequate output to operate Receiver
Relays under the line conditions of attenuation and noise. Bandwidth is very important
to be considered when using the equipment on lines having other carrier channels. The
spacing of frequencies between channels determines the number of channels that can
be made available in the carrier frequency spectrum. The frequency selected also has
an important bearing on line attenuation.

• DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
This differential scheme of protection (device # 87) is used for the protection of
generators, transformers, motors of very large size, bus zones, etc. CTs are placed on
both sides of each winding of a machine. The outputs of their secondaries are applied
to the relay coils. The relay compares the current entering a machine winding and
leaving the same. Under normal conditions or during any external fault, the current
entering the winding is equal to the current leaving the winding. But in the case of an
internal fault on the winding, these are not equal. This difference in the current
activates the relay. Thus, the relay operates for internal faults and remains inoperative
under normal conditions or during external faults. In case of bus zone protection, CTs
are placed on the both sides of the bus bar, (Fig. 6.1-28 & Fig. 6.1-29)

47
 PROTECTED
I1 EQUIPMENT I2

Op
I1 R R I2

Op = Operating Winding
Relay
R = Restraining Winding

Fig. 6.1-28 Simple Differential Operation (Normal or External Fault Condition)

PROTECTED
I1 EQUIPMENT I2

Op
I1 R R I2

Op = Operating Winding
Relay
R = Restraining Winding

Fig. 6.1-29 Simple Differential Operation (Internal Fault Condition)

6.1.13 AUTOMATIC RECLOSING

About 90% of faults on overhead lines are of transient nature. Transient faults are
caused by lightning or external bodies falling on the lines. Such faults are always
associated with arcs. If the line is disconnected from the system for a short time, the
arc is extinguished and the fault disappears. Immediately after this, the Circuit Breaker
can be reclosed automatically to restore the supply.

Most faults on EHV lines are caused by lightning. Flashover across insulators takes
place due to overvoltages caused by lightning and exists for a short time. Hence, only
one instantaneous reclosure is used in the case of EHV lines. There is no need for
more than one reclosure for such a situation. For EHV lines, one reclosure in 12
cycles is recommended. A fast reclosure is desired from the stability point of view.
On lines up to 33 kV, most faults are caused by external objects such as tree branches,
etc. falling on the overhead lines. This is due to the fact that the support height is less
than that of the trees. The external objects may not be burnt clear at the first reclosure
and may require additional reclosures. Usually three reclosures at 15-120 seconds'

48
internals are made to clear the fault. Statistical reports show that over 80% faults are
cleared after the first reclosure, 10% require the second reclosure and 2% need the
third reclosure, while the remaining 8% are permanent faults. If the fault is not cleared
after 3 reclosures, it indicates that the fault is of permanent nature. Automatic
reclosures are not used on cables as the breakdown of insulation in cables causes a
permanent fault, in general.

6.1.14 INSTRUMENT (CURRENT AND VOLTAGE)

TRANSFORMERS
Current or voltage instrument transformers are necessary for isolating the protection,
control and measurement equipment from the high voltages of a power system and for
supplying the equipment with the appropriate current and voltage. Generally, these are
1A or 5Α for the current coils and 120 V for the voltage coils. The behavior of current
and voltage transformers during and after the occurrence of a fault is critical in
electrical protection since errors in the signal from a transformer can cause
misoperation of the relays. In addition, factors such as the transient period and
saturation must be taken into account when selecting the appropriate transformer.
When only voltage or current magnitudes are required to operate a relay, the relative
direction of the current flow in the transformer windings is not important. However,
the polarity must be kept in mind when the relays compare the sum or difference of
the currents.

6.1.14.1 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS FOR PROTECTION

Current transformers are used to reduce the heavy current flowing in an element of a
power system to low values that are suitable for relay operation. The current rating of
a protective relay is usually 5 or 1 Ampere.
Besides reducing
the current level,
S1
the CT also isolates P P S2
S
the relay circuit S

from the primary

circuit that is a high
voltage power P
S1
S2
circuit and allows
the use of S3
S4
standardized S
current rating for
relays, (Fig. 6.1-
Fig. 6.1-30 Current Transformers
30). CT could be in

49
single core form or
double core form.
The current transformer is a series
Primary
transformer. Its primary winding H1 H2 Current
is connecting in series with the
X1 X2
circuit in which the current is to Secondary
be measured (Fig. 6.1-31), and the Current
A
secondary winding supplies a
current proportional to the Fig. 6.1-31
primary current.

• REQUIREMENTS OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS FOR PROTECTION

The requirements of CTs used for protective relays are quite different from those of
instrument CTs. A CT used for instrumentation must be accurate over the normal
working range of currents, whereas a CT used for protection is required to give a
correct ratio up to several times the rated primary current. It is due to the fact that the
relay has to perform reliably at normal currents as well as at fault currents. Usually
fault currents are many times the normal rated currents. For many applications, its
accuracy is not important at currents less than the rated values.

Although the performance required from a current transformer (CT) varies with the
type of protection, high grade CTs must always be used. Good quality CTs are more
reliable and result in less application problems and, in general, provide better
protection. The quality of CTs is very important for differential protection schemes
where the operation of the relays is directly related to the accuracy of the CTs under
fault conditions as well as under normal load conditions. CTs can become saturated at
high current values caused by nearby faults. To avoid this, care should be taken to
ensure that under the most critical faults, the CT operates on the linear portion of the
magnetization curve. In all these cases, the CT should be able to supply sufficient
range of linear current.

CAUTION
The secondary circuit of current transformers must be continuously closed
either by instruments or relays connected in series with it or else by a
metallic band when the primary circuit has current flowing through it.

50
• CURRENT TRANSFORMER POLARITY
Current transformer polarity is important. At the instant current is flowing into the
primary polarity mark, it is flowing out of the secondary polarity mark (Fig. 6.1-32A).
A general rule that can be applied to both potential and current transformers is to
consider the secondary polarity mark a continuation of the primary polarity mark,
(Fig.1-32 B & C).

+ +
H1 H1
±

±
X1 X1 +
+

(A) (B) (C)

Fig. 6.1-32 Current Transformer Polarity

• CURRENT TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

Current Transformers can be connected in numerous configurations each designed for
a specific application. The connections and polarity relationships are even more
critical when Current Transformers are used to supply informational input to
protective relays, Watt-Hour meters and other recording and measuring devices.
Ia Ia

Ib Ib

Ic Ic

I b Ic
Ia 3I o Ia I b
Ib Ic Ic I a

A) Star (Y) Connection B) Delta ( ) Connection

I a

Ib

Ic

I b =I -I
c a

C) Open Delta Connection

Fig. 6.1-33 Current Transformer Connections

51
The most commonly used Current Transformer connections are the star connection,
delta connection, open-delta connection, Fig. 6.1-33 A, B & C. The transformer
connections to the system and the polarity identifications are illustrated for use in
various protective schemes.

6.1.14.2 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS FOR PROTECTION

With Potential/Voltage Transformers (PTs), it is essential that the voltage from the
secondary winding should be as near as possible proportional to the primary voltage.
In order to achieve this, PTs are designed in such a way that the voltage drops in the
windings are small and the flux density in the core is well below the saturation value
so that the magnetization current is small, so that magnetization impedance is
practically constant over the required voltage range. The secondary voltage of a PT is
usually 100-120 V with corresponding line-to-neutral values. The majority of
protection relays have nominal voltages of 110 or 63.5 V, depending on whether their
connection is line-to-line or line-to-neutral.
H1 To Measuring To Protection
Circuit Circuit
x1
Primary
Voltage
V 66 / 0.100 0.100 kV
/
3 3 3
x2

H2
Fig. 6.1-34 Potential (Voltage) Transformer

From CT V
AVR
From CT
F W VAR

13.8 0.100 13.8 0.100

/ KV / KV
3 3 3 3

Fig. 6.1-35 Potential Transformer supplying its load

The voltage transformer primary winding is connected to the terminals of the circuit
where voltage is to be measured (Fig. 6.1-34) and the secondary winding supplies a
voltage proportional to the primary voltage (usually 120 VAC secondary).

52
 A
Power A LOAD
Source W

Fig. 6.1-36 Elementary Connections of Instrument Transformers

The voltage transformer is constructed with primary and secondary windings wound
on a high quality steel core. The winding turns ratios are precisely controlled to
prevent significant voltage ratio errors and thus a high degree of accuracy is obtained.
The accuracy of the transformer is also affected by
Polarity Subtractive
the losses produced in the magnetic core. x 1 H
1

Therefore, voltage transformers are carefully IS

IP

I PI
designed and constructed to minimize these errors. S

H
The construction of a voltage transformer is x 2
2

illustrated in Fig. 6.1-37.

Fig. 6.1-37 Construction of
Voltage Transformer

Voltage transformers are essentially very similar to distribution transformers;

however, because the winding resistance is very low, little heat dissipates from the
windings. Therefore solid insulation without regard for cooling ducts in the winding
can be used. Since the transformers are accordingly small and compact, the advantage
of combining the lead-in bushings with the transformer is greater than it would be
with larger transformers.

• FUSING AND PROTECTION OF PT

Simple fuses are used to protect an electromagnetic PT from accidental overloads and
short circuit across its secondary terminals for normal operation. For primary winding,
the current depends on the primary voltage. The PT can be protected by High-Rupture
Capacity (HRC) fuses on the primary side for voltages up to 66 kV. At voltages
exceeding 72.5 kV, primary fuses are impracticable and it has become common
practice abroad to connect HV transformers directly to the line conductor 145 kV. PTs
could be fitted with Buchholz relay protection. Capacitor PTs are invariably solidly
connected to the system so that there is no primary protection.

53
The secondary side of PTs is protected by means of fuses
or miniature Circuit Breakers or a combination of both. Fuse
There is an advantage in using MCBs as they can be
arranged to give a signal in the event of their tripping out.
PT
With fuse protection, only auxiliary relays would have to be
provided to indicate a fuse failure. The same disadvantage is Signal
inherent in HT fuse protection of PTs, (Fig. 6.1-38). The HT
MCB
fuses also provide a means of isolating the PTs, if necessary.

Fig. 6.1-38

• PT CONNECTIONS
The potential transformer (PT/VT) is designed to be connected in parallel with the line
to transform (reduce) the Line voltage to 115/120 volts for relay. The most commonly
used Current Transformer connections are the star connection, delta connection, open-
delta connection, Fig. 6.1-39 & Fig. 6.1-40 (A, B, C and D). The manner in which the
transformers are connected into the system and the polarity identifications are
illustrated for use in various protective schemes.
A A

L-1 H2 H1
x1
B H1 x2 x2 x 1B Load
H2 x2 Connection
L-2
C H1 H2 x1 C
L-3

Fig. 6.1-39 Delta/Wye (Δ/Y) Connection

A B C A B C

H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2

x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1

N A B C
A B C

Fig. 6.1- 40(A) Delta/Delta (Δ/Δ) Connection Fig. 6.1- 40(B) Wye/Wye Earthed (Y/Y) Connection

54
 A
Broken B
Delta C

H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2

x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1

A B C
N A B C

Fig. 6.1-40(C) Broken Delta Connection Fig. 6.1-40(D) Open Delta Connection

NOTE: To keep the voltage at the meters and relays at a safe value, the secondary
circuit must be grounded

55
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56
 TASK 6.1-1
TRANSFORMER TURNS RATIO
OBJECTIVES

1. Check Turns Ratio of Current Transformer.

MATERIALS, TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

1 - Multi-Amp Test Set 1 – 20:1 CT

PROCEDURE

RATIO TEST
:There are two methods for testing a current transformer for ratio:
• Current • Voltage.

The current method uses a high current source to pass current (up to full rated) into the
primary of a CT and measuring the amperage on the secondary. This method utilizes
heavy cable, as shown in Fig. 6.1-1 and some type of high current source, as shown in
Fig. 6.1-2 such as a generator or a low-voltage, high-current test set.

Fig. 6.1-1 Primary Injection Multi-Amp Test Set

57
1. Receive from your instructor 100 A
P1
the following:
S2
a. CT to be checked for its
Turns Ratio. Primary A
b. Two Ammeters. Injection S1
Test Set
c. Primary Injection Test Set.
d. AC Supply. P2 5A

100 /5 CT

Fig. 6.1-2 Low Voltage, High Current Source

2. Connect the circuit as shown in the above Fig. 6.1-2

NOTE
A current equal to the rated value is sent through the primary
of CT by primary Injection Test Set.

3. Measure the reading of Ammeters A1 and A2.

4. Divide the value of A1 by A2.

NOTE
A 1 Re ading
The ratio of is Current Ratio and should equal
A 2 Re ading
approximately the ratio marked on the CT Nameplate.

58
 TASK 6-1-2
OVERCURRENT RELAY

OBJECTIVES
1. To investigate the Time-Current Characteristics of Directional Over-Current
Relay.

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

1. DIRECTIONAL UNIT TEST EQUIPMENT
Secondary Injection Type Multi-amp Model SR-51
• Phase Angle Meter • Test Leads.
• Phase Shifter • Power System Ploy-meter

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
TESTING PROCEDURES FOR DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY
¨ Westinghouse Type CR
¨ General Electric Type IBC
A Directional Over-Current Relay trips a circuit when it senses two abnormal
conditions in the following sequence:
1. Current flow must be reversed.
2. Reversed current flow must be higher than a preset amount and the flow
must continue for a predetermined time.

This relay is composed of two units, a directional unit and an overcurrent unit.
The directional unit is similar to a single phase Wattmeter. It contains a voltage
and current actuated coil. When these two coils are energized, a torque is
produced on true unit's disc. A 180° shift in phase relationship between the
voltage and current produces a reverse torque on the disc. Normally, the torque
produced holds the directional unit contacts open. When the current flow in the
circuit reverses, the unit's disc will rotate to close the directional unit contacts.

The overcurrent unit of the relay is similar to the Time Delay Overcurrent
Relay. The directional unit contacts must be closed before operating torque will
be produced on the induction disc of the overcurrent unit. Thus, the Directional
Overcurrent Relay requires reversal as well as a minimum quantity of current
flow before it will trip a Circuit Breaker.

59
TYPES OF TESTS
1. DIRECTIONAL UNIT
• Minimum Pickup

2. OVERCURRENT UNIT
• Minimum Pickup
• Time Current Characteristics

The test procedure is arranged to test each element of the relay individually.
The directional element contacts must be blocked closed or bypassed to permit
complete testing of the overcurrent element.

SETUP OF RELAY TEST SET

CONTROL POSITION
"Power ON" Switch OFF
"Timer Operation Selector" UPPER-"NO MAINT."
Switch LOWER-"CONT."
Main Control Zero (counterclockwise)
"Aux. Power" Switch “INT.”
"Voltmeter Range" Switch To read voltage in upper 1/3 of scale
"Voltmeter Selector" Switch “D.E.T.”
"Aux. Selector" Switch “D.E.T.”
"Aux. Control Zero (counterclockwise)
"AC Range" Switch 10A
"DC Range" Switch 5A
Switch So that desired current may be read in UPPER 1/3
"Main Ammeter Range"
of scale
"Voltage Relay-D.E.T." Switch As desired -Positions 1-4 (See Step 4)
Output#1-#2" Switch Output #1

60
PROCEDURE-I
I. DIRECTIONAL UNIT TEST
1. Connect the MULTI-AMP relay tester to a suitable source of power and
ground as indicated on the nameplate.
Be sure the main switch is off and check that the "Power On" light is off.
2. Connect Polarity terminal ± of relay directional unit current operating coil to
the Polarity terminal of "AC Output #3" (f) (right-hand binding post). The
other relay operating coil terminal should be connected to the desired tap of
"AC Output #1" (10 Volt).

3. Connect the relay voltage polarizing coil to "AC Output #3 terminals. The polarity
terminal "t" of the relay voltage polarizing coil should be connected to Non-
Polarity terminal of "AC Output #3". (left-hand binding post)

4. Turn "DET" (Direct. Element Test) Switch to desired position.

NOTE
Positions l, 2, 3 and 4 are factory wired to produce values given below
POSITION VOLTS AMPERES
1 1 4
2 2 4
3 1 8
4 2 8

Positions 5 through 9 are left unwired to permit use for any particular
values common to the user system. The installation of a resistor in these
unwired positions may produce any reasonable values of current and voltage.

5. Turn Power ON and observe "Power ON" light illuminated.

6. Initiate unit by pressing "Initiate" Switch.

7. Rotate "Main Control" clockwise to increase output until the relay directional
unit contacts close. Read and record the values of voltage and current on the
respective meters.

8. Reverse leads from test set to potential coil of relay. Relay Directional Unit
contacts should resist closure.

61
II OVERCURRENT UNIT TEST
SETUP OF RELAY TEST SET
CONTROL POSITION
"Power ON" Switch OFF
"Timer Operation Selector" Switch UPPER-"NO MAINT"
LOWER-"CONT"
Main Control Zero (counterclockwise)
"Aux. Power" Switch “EXT”
"Voltage Range" Switch To read voltage in upper 1/3 of scale
"Voltage Selector" Switch “AC-3”
"Aux. Selector" Switch “AC-3-24”
"Aux. Control" Zero (counterclockwise)
"AC Range" Switch 10A
"DC Range" Switch 5A
"Main Ammeter Range" Switch so that desired current may be
read in upper 1/3 of scale
"Voltage Relay-Test"(Direct Element) SET NORM
Switch
Output #1/#2" Switch Output #1

PROCEDURE-II
1. Block Directional Unit contacts closed and follow procedure for "Induction
Disc Overcurrent Relay".

2. Connect the "Phase Shifter" Model CS-5 to a suitable source of 3φ power or

Model CS-6 to a suitable 1φ source. Check "Power ON" light. BE SURE THE
MAIN SWITCH IS OFF.

3. Connect Model SR-51 Relay Tester to a suitable power source and ground as
indicated on the nameplate. Check the "Power ON" light. BE SURE THE
MAIN SWITCH IS OFF.

4. Using continuity leads, connect the "PAM." jack on the SR-51 to "Current
Coil Input" terminals on Model CS-5 or CS-6. Connect black lead to polarity
(±) on CS-5 or CS-6.

5. Using light leads, connect the "Phase Shifter Output" terminals to the Aux.
Power Input" terminals on the SR-51. “±” terminals should be connected
together.

62
6. Using light leads, connect the voltage polarizing coil of the relay directional
unit to "AC Output #3" terminals of the SR-51; relay polarity terminal "t" to
"AC Output # 3 " polarity terminal “±”.

7. Using regular leads, connect current operating coil of the relay directional unit
to "Output #1"; relay polarity terminal "f" to "Output #1" polarity terminal
“±”.

8. Rotate "Main Control" knob clockwise to desired current value as read on

Main Ammeter.

9. Adjust "Coarse" and "Fine" Controls on Model CS-5 or CS-6 to desired phase
angle as read on phase angle meter. This should be angle of maximum torque
as determined from manufacturer's instruction bulletin.

10. Rotate "Aux. Control" clockwise until the relay directional unit contacts close.
Read value of voltage on voltmeter.

11. Record values of current, voltage and phase angle at which directional unit
contacts close.
NOTE
At the end of test, be sure to remove all blocking from Relay

63
64
 APPENDIX-A
ASDFN DEVICE DESIGNATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
Device # Definition/Function Device # Definition/Function

1 Master Element is the initiating device, such as a 11 Reserved for future application.

control switch, voltage relay, float switch, etc that

serves either directly, or through such permissive

devices as protective and time-delay relays to place an

equipment in or out of operation.

2 Time-Delay Starting or Closing Relay is a device 12 over-speed device is usually a direct-connected

that functions to give a desired amount of time delay speed switch that functions on machine overspeed.

before or after any point or operation in a switching

sequence or protective relay system, except as

specifically provided by device functions 62 and 79

described later.

3 Checking or Interlocking Relay is a device that 13 Synchronous-Speed Device, such as a centrifugal.

operates in response to the position of a number of speed switch, a slip-frequency relay, a voltage relay,

other devices, or to a number of predetermined an undercurrent relay or any type of device, operates

conditions in an equipment to allow an operating at approximately synchronous speed of a machine.

sequence to proceed, to stop, or to provide a check of

the position of these devices or of these conditions for

any purpose.

4 Master Contactor is a device, generally controlled by 14 Under-Speed Device functions when the speed of a

device No. 1 or equivalent and the necessary machine falls below a predetermined value.

permissive and protective devices that serves to make

and break the necessary control circuits to place an

equipment into operation under the desired conditions

and to take it out of operation under other or abnormal

conditions.

5 Stopping Device functions to place and hold an 15 Speed or Frequency, Matching Device functions

equipment out of operation. to match and hold the speed or the frequency of a

machine or of a system equal to, or approximately

equal to, that of another machine, source or system.

6 Starting Circuit Breaker is a device whose principal 16 Reserved for future application.

function is to connect a machine to its source of

starting voltage.

7 Anode Circuit Breaker is one used in the anode 17 Shunting or Discharge Switch serves to open or to

circuits of a power rectifier for the primary purpose of close a shunting circuit around any piece of

interrupting the rectifier circuit if an arc back should apparatus (except a resistor), such as a machine

65
 occur. field, a machine armature, a capacitor or a reactor.

Note: This excludes devices that perform such

shunting operations as may be necessary in the

process of starting a machine by devices 6 or 42, or

their equivalent and also excludes device 73

function that serves for the switching of resistors.

8 Control Power Disconnecting Device is a 18 Accelerating or Decelerating Device is used to

disconnecting device-such as a knife switch, circuit close or to cause the closing of circuits that are used

breaker or pullout fuse block-used for the purpose of to increase or to decrease the speed of a machine.

connecting and disconnecting, respectively, the source

of control power to and from the control bus or

equipment.

Note: Control power is considered to include auxiliary

power that supplies such apparatus as small motors

and heaters.

9 Reversing Device is used for the purpose of reversing 19 Starting-To-Running Transition contactor is a

a machine field or for performing any other reversing device that operates to initiate or cause the

functions. automatic transfer of a machine from the starting to

the running power connection.

10 Unit Sequence Switch is used to change the sequence

in which units may be placed in and out of service in

multiple-unit equipments.

20 Electrically Operated Valve is a solenoid- or motor- 33 Position Switch makes or breaks contact when the

operated valve that is used in a vacuum, air, gas, oil, main device or piece of apparatus that has no device

water, or similar lines. function number, reaches a given position.

Note: The function of the valve may be indicated by

the insertion of descriptive words such "Brake" or

"Pressure Reducing" in the function name, Such

"Electrically Operated Brake Valve".

21 Distance Relay is a device that functions when the 34 Motor-Operated Sequence Switch is a multi-

circuit admittance, impedance or reactance increases contact switch that fixes the operating sequence of

or decreases beyond predetermined limits. the major devices during starting and stopping, or

during other sequential switching operations.

22 Equalizer Circuit Breaker is a breaker that serves to 35 Brush-Operating, or Slip-Ring Short-Circuiting

control or to make and break the equalizer or the Device is used for raising, lowering, or shifting the

current-balancing connections for a machine field, or brushes of a machine, or for short-circuiting its slip

for regulating equipment, in a multiple-unit rings, or for engaging or disengaging the contacts of

installation. a mechanical rectifier.

66
23 Temperature Control Device functions to raise or to 36 Polarity Device operates or permits the operation of

lower the temperature of a machine or other apparatus, another device on a predetermined polarity only.

or of any medium, when its temperature falls below, or

rises above, a predetermined value.

Note: An example is a thermostat that switches on a

space heater in a switchgear assembly when the

temperature falls to a desired value as distinguished

from a device that is used to provide automatic

temperature regulation between close limits and would

be designated as 90T.

24 Reserved for future application. 37 Undercurrent or Underpower Relay is a device

that functions when the current or power flow

decreases below a predetermined value.

25 Synchronizing, or Synchronism-Check, Device 38 Hearing Protective Device is one that functions on

operates when two AC circuits are within the desired excessive bearing temperature, or on other abnormal

limits of frequency, phase angle or voltage, to permit mechanical conditions, such as undue wear that may

or to cause the paralleling of these two circuits. eventually result in excessive bearing temperature.

26 Apparatus Thermal Device functions when the 39 Reserved for future application.

temperature of the shunt field or the armortisseur

winding of a machine, or that of a load limiting or load

shifting resistor or of a liquid or other medium exceeds

a predetermined value; or if the temperature of the

protected apparatus, such as a power rectifier, or of

any medium decreases below a predetermined value.

27 Undervoltage Relay is a device that functions on a 40 Field Relay is a device that functions on a given or

given value of undervoltage. abnormally low value or failure of machine field

current, or on an excessive value of the reactive

component of armature current in an AC machine

indicating abnormally low field excitation.

28 Reserved for future application. 41 Field Circuit Breaker is a device that functions to

apply, or to remove, the field excitation of a

machine.

29 Isolating Contactor is used expressly for 42 Running Circuit Breaker is a device whose

disconnecting one circuit from another for the principal function is to connect a machine to its

purposes of emergency operation, maintenance, or test. source of running voltage after having been brought

up to the desired speed on the starting connection.

30 Annunciator Relay is a non-automatically reset 43 Manual Transfer or Selector Device that transfers

device that gives a number of separate visual the control circuits so as to modify the plan of

67
 indications upon the functioning of protective devices, operation of the switching equipment or of some of

and that may also be arranged to perform a lock-out the devices.

function.

31 Separate Excitation Device connects a circuit such as 44 Unit Sequence Starting Relay is a device that

the shunt field of a synchronous converter to a source functions to start the next available unit in a

of separate excitation during the starting sequence; or multiple-unit equipment on the failure or on the

one that energizes the excitation and ignition circuits non-availability of the normally preceding unit.

of a power rectifier.

32 Directional Power Relay is one that functions on a 45 Reserved for future application.

desired value of power flow in a given direction, or

upon reverse power resulting from arc back in the

anode or cathode circuits of a power rectifier.

46 Reverse-Phase, or Phase-Balance, Current Relay is 57 Short-Circuiting or Grounding Device is a power

a device that functions when the polyphase currents or stored energy operated device that functions to

are of reverse-phase sequence, or when the polyphase short-circuit or to ground a circuit in response to

currents are unbalanced or contain negative phase- automatic or manual means.

sequence components above a given amount.

47 Phase-Sequence Voltage Relay is a device that 58 Power Rectifier Misfire Relay is a device that

functions upon a predetermined value of polyphase functions if one or more of the power rectifier

voltage in the desired phase sequence. anodes fails to fire.

48 Incomplete Sequence Relay is a device that returns 59 Overvoltage Relay is a device that functions on a

the equipment to the normal, or off, position and locks given value of overvoltage.

it out if the normal starting, operating or stopping

sequence is not properly completed within a

predetermined time.

49 Machine, or Transformer, Thermal Relay is a 60 Voltage Balance Relay is a device that operates on

device that functions when the temperature of an AC a given difference in voltage between two circuits.

machine armature, or of the armature or other load

carrying winding or element of a DC machine, or

converter or power rectifier or power transformer

(including a power rectifier transformer) exceeds a

predetermined value.

50 Instantaneous Overcurrent, or rate-of-Rise Relay is 61 Current Balance Relay is a device that operates on

a device that functions instantaneously on an excessive a given difference in current input or output of two

value of current, or on an excessive rate of current rise, circuits.

thus indicating a fault in the apparatus or circuit being

protected.

51 AC Time Overcurrent Relay is a device with either a 62 Time-Delay Stopping, or Opening, Relay is a

68
 definite or inverse time characteristic that functions time-delay device that serves in conjunction with the

when the current in an AC circuit exceeds a device that initiates the shutdown, 4stopping, or

predetermined value. opening operation in am automatic sequence.

52 AC Circuit Breaker is a device that is used to close 63 Liquid or Gas Pressure, Level, or Flow Relay is a

and interrupt an AC power circuit under normal device that operates on given values of liquid or gas

conditions or to interrupt this circuit under fault or pressure, flow or level, or on a given rate of change

emergency conditions. of these values.

53 Exciter or DC Generator Relay is a device that 64 Ground Protective Relay is a device that functions

forces the DC machine field excitation to build up on failure of the insulation of a machine,

during starting or that functions when the machine transformer or of other apparatus to ground, or on

voltage has built up to a given value. flashover of a DC machine to ground.

Note: This function is assigned only to a relay that

detects the flow of current from the frame of a

machine or enclosing case or structure of a piece of

apparatus to ground, or detects a ground on a

normally ungrounded winding or circuit. It is not

applied to a device connected in the secondary

circuit or secondary neutral of a current transformer,

or current transformer., connected in the power

circuit of a normally grounded system.

54 High-Speed DC Circuit Breaker is a circuit breaker 65 Governor is the equipment that controls the gate or

that starts to reduce the current in the main circuit in valve opening of a prime mover.

0.01 second or less, after the occurrence of the DC

overcurrent or the excessive rate of current rise.

55 Power Factor Relay is a device that operates when 66 Notching, or Jogging, Device that functions to

the power factor in an AC circuit becomes above or allow only a specified number of operations of a

below a predetermined value. given device, or equipment, or a specified number

of successive operations within a given time of each

other. It also functions to energize a circuit

periodically, or that is used to permit intermittent

acceleration or jogging of a machine at low speeds

for mechanical positioning.

56 Field Application Relay is a device that automatically 67 AC Directional Overcurrent Relay is a device that

controls the application of the field excitation to an AC functions on a desired value of AC overcurrent

motor at some predetermined point in the slip cycle. flowing in a predetermined direction.

68 Blocking Relay is a device that initiates a pilot signal 82 DC Reclosing Relay is a device that controls the

for blocking of tripping on external faults in a automatic closing and reclosing of a DC circuit

transmission line or in other apparatus under interrupter, generally in response to load circuit

69
 predetermined conditions, or co-operates with other conditions.

devices to block tripping or to block reclosing on an

out-of-step condition or: on power swings.

69 Permissive Control Device is generally a two- 83 Automatic Selective Control, or Transfer Relay is

position, manually operated switch that in one position a device that operates to select automatically

permits the closing of a circuit breaker, or the placing between certain sources or conditions in an

of an equipment into operation, and in the other equipment or performs a transfer operation

position prevents the Circuit breaker or the equipment automatically.

from being operated.

70 Electrically Operated Rheostat is a rheostat that is 84 Operating Mechanism is the complete electrical

used to vary the resistance of a circuit in response to mechanism or servomechanism, including the

some means of electrical control. operating motor, solenoid, position switches, etc, for

a tap changer, induction regulator or any piece of

apparatus that has no device function number.

71 Reserved for future application. 85 Carrier, or Pilot-Wire, Receiver Relay is a device

that is operated or restrained by a signal used in

connection with carrier-current or DC pilot-wire

fault directional relaying.

72 DC Circuit Breaker is used to close and interrupt a 86 Locking-Out Relay is an electrically operated hand

DC power circuit under normal conditions or to or electrically reset device that functions to shut

interrupt this circuit under fault or emergency down and hold am equipment out of service on t2ie

conditions. occurrence of abnormal conditions.

73 Load-Resistor Contactor is used to shunt or insert a 87 Differential Protective Relay is a protective device

step of load limiting, shifting, or indicating resistance that functions on a percentage or phase angle or

in a power circuit, or to switch a space heater in other quantitative difference of two currents or of

circuit, or to switch a light, or regenerative, load some other electrical quantities.

resistor of a power rectifier or other machine in and

out of circuit.

74 Alarm Relay is a device other than an annunciator, as 88 Auxiliary Motor, or Motor Generator is one used

covered under device No. 30 that is used to operate, or for operating auxiliary equipment such as pumps,

to operate in connection with, a visual or audible blowers, exciters, rotating magnetic amplifiers, etc.

alarm.

75 Position Changing Mechanism is the mechanism that 89 Line Switch is used as a disconnecting or isolating

is used for moving a removable circuit breaker unit to switch in an AC or DC power circuit, when this

and from the connected, disconnected, and test device is electrically operated or has electrical

positions. accessories, such as an auxiliary switch, magnetic

lock, etc.

76 DC Overcurrent Relay is a device that functions 90 Regulating Device functions to regulate a quantity,

70
 when the current in a DC circuit exceeds a given or quantities, such as voltage, current, power, speed,

value. frequency, temperature, and load, at a certain value

or between certain limits for machines, tie lines or

other apparatus.

77 Pulse Transmitter is used to generate and transmit 91 Voltage Directional Relay is a device that operates

pulses over a telemetering or pilot-wire circuit to the when the voltage across an open circuit breaker or

remote indicating or receiving device. contactor exceeds a given value in a given direction.

78 Phase Angle Measuring, or Out-of-Step Protective 92 Voltage, Power Directional Relay is a device that

Relay is a device that at a predetermined phase angle permits or causes the connection of two circuits

between two voltages or between two currents or when the voltage difference between them exceeds a

between voltage and current. given value in a predetermined direction and causes

these two circuits to be disconnected from each

other when the power flowing between them

exceeds a given value in the opposite direction.

79 AC Reclosing Relay is a device that controls the 93 Field Changing Contactor is a device that

automatic reclosing and locking out of an AC circuit functions to increase or decrease in one step the

interrupter. value of field excitation on a machine.

80 Reserved for future application. 94 Tripping, or Trip-Free Relay is a device that

functions to trip a circuit breaker, contactor, or

equipment, or to permit immediate tripping by other

devices; or to prevent immediate reclosure of a

circuit interrupter, in case it should open

automatically even though its closing circuit is

maintained closed.

81 Frequency Relay is a device that functions on a 95-99 Used only for specific applications on individual

predetermined value of frequency, either under or over installations where none of the assigned numbered

or on normal system frequency or rate of change of functions from 1 to 94 is suitable

frequency.

Note: A similar series of numbers, starting with 201 instead of 1, should be used for those device functions in a machine, feeder or other

equipment when these are controlled directly from the supervisory system. Typical examples of such device functions are 201, 205, and

294.

71
SUFFIX LETTERS *Note: In the control of a circuit, breaker with so-called X-

Suffix letters are used with device function numbers for Y relay control scheme, the X relay is the device whose

various purposes. In order to prevent possible conflict, any main contacts are used to energize the closing coil and the

suffix letter used singly, or any combination of letters, contacts of the Y relay provide the anti-pump feature for

denotes only one word or meaning in an individual the circuit breaker.

equipment. All other words should use the abbreviations as

contained in American Standard Z32.13-1950, or latest \These letters indicate the condition or electrical quantity

revision thereof, or should use some other distinctive to that the device responds, or the medium in which it is

abbreviation, or be written out in full each time they are located, such as:

used. Furthermore, the meaning of each single suffix letter, A Air, or Amperes

or combination of letters, should be clearly designated in C Current

the legend on the drawings or publications applying to the E Electrolyte

equipment. F Frequency, or Flow

L Level, or Liquid
The following suffix letters generally form part of the P Power, or Pressure
device function designation and thus are written directly PF Power Factor
behind the device number, such as 23X, 90V, or 52BT. Q Oil
These letters denote separate auxiliary devices, such as:
S Speed
X
T Temperature
Y Auxiliary Relay
V Voltage, Volts, or Vacuum
Z
VAR Reactive Power
R Raising Relay
W Water, or Watts
L Lowering Relay
These letters denote the location of the main device in the
0 Opening Relay
circuit, or the type of circuit in which the device is used or
C Closing Relay the type of circuit or apparatus with which it is associated,
CS Control Switch when this is necessary, such as:
CL "a" Auxiliary-Switch Relay A Alarm or Auxiliary Power
OP "b" Auxiliary-Switch Relay AC Alternating Current
U "up" Position-Switch Relay AN Anode
D "down" Position-Switch Relay B Battery, or Blower, or Bus
PB Push Button BK Brake

BP Bypass

BT Bus Tie

C Capacitor, Compensator, or Carrier Current

CA Cathode

DC Direct Current

E Exciter

F Feeder, or Field, or Filament

72
 G Generator, or Ground*. ML Load-Limit Motor

H Heater, or Housing NIS Speed Adjusting or Synchronizing, Motor

L Line S Solenoid

M Motor, or Metering TC Trip Coil

N Network, or Neutral** U Upper operating Coil

P Pump V Valve

R Reactor, or Rectifier All auxiliary contacts and limit switches for such devices

S Synchronizing and equipment as circuit breakers, contactors, valves and

T Transformer, or Test, or Thyratron rheostats are designated as follows:

TH Transformer (high-voltage side) a Auxiliary Switch, open when the main device

TL Transformer (low-voltage side) is in the de-energized or non-operated

TM Telemeter position.

U Unit b Auxiliary Switch, closed when the main

**Suffix "N" is generally used in preference to “G" for device is in the de-energized or non-operated

devices connected in the secondary neutral of current position.

transformers, or in the secondary of a current transformer aa Auxiliary Switch, open when the operating

whose primary winding is located in the neutral of a mechanism of the main device is in the de-

machine or power transformer, except in the case of energized or non-operated position.

transmission line relaying, where the suffix "G" is more bb Auxiliary Switch, closed when the operating

commonly used for those relays that operate on ground mechanism of the main device is in the de-

faults. energized or non-operated position.

These letters denote parts of the main device, divided in e, 1, h, Special Auxiliary Switches other than a, b, aa,

the two following categories: ab, ac, and bb. Lower-case (small) letters are to be

All parts, except auxiliary contacts and limit switches as ad, or ba, used for the above auxiliary switches.

covered later. bc, bd, Note. If several similar auxiliary switches are

Many of these do not form part of the device number, and etc. present on the same device, they should he

should be written directly below the device number, such as designated numerically 1, 2, 3, etc. when

20 43. -ff or -T necessary.

BB bucking bar (for high speed DC circuit LC Latch-Checking Switch, closed when the

breaker) circuit breaker mechanism linkage is re-latched

BK Brake after an opening operation of the circuit

C Coil, or Capacitor breaker.

CC Closing Coil LS Limit Switch

HC Holding Coil These letters cover all other distinguishing features or

IS Inductive Shunt characteristics or conditions, not specifically described in

L Lower Operating Coil 2-9.4.1 to 2-9.4.4, that serve to describe the use of the

M Operating Motor device or its contacts in. the equipment such as:

A Accelerating, or Automatic
MF Fly-Ball Motor

73
 B Blocking, or Backup

C Close, or Cold

D Decelerating, Detonate, or Down

E Emergency

F Failure, or Forward

H Hot, or High

HR Hand Reset

HS High Speed

IT Inverse Time

L Left, or Local, or Low, or Lower, or Leading

M Manual

OFF Off

ON On

O Open

P Polarizing

R Right, or Raise, or Reclosing, or Receiving, or

Remote, or Reverse

S Sending, or Swing

T Test, or Trip, or Trailing

TDC Time-Delay Closing

TDO Time-Delay Opening

U Up

SUFFIX NUMBERS

If two or more devices with the same function number and

suffix letter (if used) are present in the same equipment,

they may be distinguished by numbered suffixes such as,

52X-1, 52X-2 and 52X-3, when necessary.

Devices Performing more than one Function

If one device performs two relatively important functions in

an equipment so that it is desirable to identify both of these

functions, this may be done by using a double function

number and name such as:

27-59 Undervoltage and Overvoltage Relay

74
 LESSON 6.2
POWER DISPATCHING

75
76
 LESSON 6.2
POWER DISPATCHING
LESSON OVERVIEW

DESCRIPTION

This lesson explains the objectives of power dispatching and overviews the list of
power dispatcher duties and responsibilities, pertaining to the procedures of issuing
clearances and transfer clearances.

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this lesson, the participants should be able to:

• Understand objectives of power dispatching
• List power dispatcher duties and responsibilities.
• Understand procedures of issuing clearances and transfer clearances.
• Know the relation between power dispatcher and network operator.
• List communication means for information transmission.

77
78
OVERVIEW OF SYSTEMS OPERATION DEPARTMENT
POWER DISPATCHING DIVISION
The main function of this division is to coordinate with all the power plants and
transmission substations scattered in the Eastern Province for monitoring the
generation and the transmission of power. The Power Dispatchers always keep in
touch during the 24-hour period with all power plants to match generation of the
power with the total demand of the cities and factories. They also coordinate with
power transmission technicians to perform the required maintenance for the
transmission lines and substations.

There are actually four groups (shifts) to manage the power dispatching activities. The
dispatching work is broken into three sections. The first section undertakes the duties
of Energy Management Systems (EMS). The second section handles the control
of high voltage transmission network (69 kV and above) and the third section
takes care of low voltage (13.8 kV).

The EMS computer has the capability to display the production of each generator, the
power consumption, the spinning reserves and the weather summary. One or two
operators from each shift are assigned to monitor the EMS system. The operators on
EMS console always attempt to keep the power frequency around 60 Hz and this
could be achieved by controlling the spinning reserves (400 MW). In other words,
when one turbine trips for any reason and if the spinning reserves are less than 400
MW, this will cause the other turbines to shut down. All the jobs of EMS are
performed through the computer. When there is a short or excess in the power supply,
the computer sends electrical pulses to the governor (steam turbine valve/gas turbine
valve) through SCADA system (RTUs). The governor will automatically adjust the
operation of the generator to meet the demand. In some cases, where the steam turbine
produces less than 180 MW or the gas turbine produces less than 50 MW, the EMS
system is put on manual operation. Then the dispatcher from his console in the power
control center will coordinate with all power plants to keep the total generation with
60 Hz and 400 MW as spinning reserves. For example, when the frequency becomes
less than 60 Hz, the dispatcher can ask the power plant by telephone to raise the
supply to some extent and when the case is the opposite, he requests the reduction of
the power supply. Furthermore, two operators from each shift are responsible to
control the power transmission network of 69 kV and above for the whole Eastern
Province. In addition to that, two or more operators are required to control the power
transmission network of 13.8 kV and below for Dammam Region (DRCC). Therefore,
when the transmission line technicians decide to perform maintenance for part of

79
transmission network such as transformer, Oil Circuit Breaker, bus bars, a
transmission line, the maintenance crew foreman prepares equipment outage request
and then he sends it to the Dispatching Scheduler. The scheduler studies the request to
avoid any conflict with other requests, then if is OK, he requests the dispatcher next
day to coordinate with the involved Network Operator for switching On/Off
procedure.

SCADA DIVISION
Due to the size and complexity of power system, the cost of manual operation and
the attendance, SEC decided to apply Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Systems (SCADA) to make it possible for them to maintain relatively complete
knowledge of conditions on the power system or the portions of the systems for
which they are responsible as well as to remotely control the equipment such as
Circuit Breakers, generators, transformers and other devices. The SCADA
function is performed by the M9000 Power Control Systems (PCS). The M9000
provides the Power Dispatcher with continuous up-to-date information required
to monitor the state of power system and control power system devices. SCADA
Division is responsible for maintaining the M9000 hardware and the software in
order to assure smooth operation for the SCADA system. Two units are
established to undertake the operation and the M9000 system with a total
manpower of 30, approximately.

80
SOFTWARE UNIT
The unit here maintains all the software programs required to make the M9000
computer system operational. The M9000 computer system cannot understand the
human language, therefore, this system is built with more than one hundred software
programs to keep the system operational and process/display/update/report the data
and make it available for the dispatcher. In other words, those set of programs are
intended to assist the dispatcher in protecting power system most efficiently.

If we look at one of those programs, for example, Automatic Generation Control

Program (AGC) designed for matching the total power generation with the instant
demand. In the second example, the Alarm Processing Program is responsible for
informing the Operator/Dispatcher of any violation that happened on the power
system network, so that the right action could be taken.

HARDWARE UNIT
This unit handles all the required maintenance for the SCADA system consisting of
master station (PCC), remote terminals (RTUs) and some communication links
between the master and remote units. The communication links can be wire circuits,
microwave channels, fiber optics or Power Line Carrier. The reliability of SCADA
system has been increased by using alternative communication channels so that in
case of any failure in the communication circuit, the affected RTUs can be connected
to another communication circuit.

In SCADA system, the master unit sequentially scans the Remote Terminal Unit by
sending a short message to each RTU to inquire whether the RTU has anything to
report. If it does, the RTU will send a message back to the master unit and the data
received will be put into the memory of the computer. If required, a control message
will be sent to the RTU and an alarm or message will be printed on the master
typewriter and displayed on the screen. Therefore, the RTUs in all stations can be
monitored every few seconds to provide the operators at the control center with up-to-
date review of system conditions. When any problem occurs at remote station, a
message will be sent from the remote unit to the master and the normal scan will be
interrupted long enough for the master to receive the message and provide an alarm so
that the operator can take immediate action or in some cases the master unit can
automatically perform pre-determined control actions.

The RTUs of SCADA system are located at selected stations in order to perform
certain pre-selected functions. RTUs are equipped with microcomputer having

81
memory to be able to do some functions without the direction of the master unit.
However, any operations performed are reported to the master on the next scan.

The remote units are also equipped with modems so that they can accept message
from the master and signal back to the master that message have been received and the
desired operations performed. Relays located in the RTUs are used to open or close
the selected control circuits to the controlled equipment on command from the master
unit and to sense when an operation has been performed so that the RTU can signal
back to the master that the desired operation has been completed. Transducers in the
remote units are used to convert such quantities as voltage, current or watt to direct
current or voltage proportional to the measured quantity and then by means of analog
to digital (A/D) converters convert the quantity to digital form used by the system.
Furthermore, the remote units can be equipped with Sequence of Events (SOE)
records to record all the faults occurring with the time and date.

The master unit is the heart of the SCADA system. All the operations of an RTU are
made through master unit and are reported back to the master from the RTUs. The
master unit consists of digital computer and equipment to permit communication
between the master unit and the RTUs. Such equipment includes modems to connect
the digital pulses used by the computer to a form (analog pulses) that can be
transmitted and received from the RTUs. Signals between the master unit and the
RTUs are usually tones of audio frequency and the message are normally transmitted
through the power transmission or lines.

In addition to the computer, peripheral equipment necessary for the proper operation
of the system is provided. Such equipment consists of a control console, keyboards,
CRTs (screens), pen recorders, disk driver and data base. Furthermore, the system is
equipped with printers, loggers and copiers to provide the operator at the master
station with written message of actions performed by the master unit and of data sent
back from the RTUs. In addition, a simplified one-line diagram of the power system is
normally supplied in the form of a large map-board (wall map) that shows when
stations are normal and when abnormal conditions exist.

The CRT screen has the capacity to provide graphic displays with one line diagrams.
With color CRTs different colors can be used to distinguish between voltage levels,
changes of colors can be used to indicate whether a Circuit Breaker is open or closed.
A flashing indication is automatically used for a device that has changed its state as
well as an audible alarm to alert the operator for the condition. The flashing indication
and the audible alarm stop when the operator acknowledges the alarm condition.

82
SOE LINK TO HARRIS PCC COMPUTER
The SOE is a "stand-alone" system that includes other equipment (computer, station
remotes, consoles, etc) totally independent of the PCC and any other system.
Although the SOE system is independent as a convenience to the dispatcher, a link
from the SOE computer through the PCC local RTU to the Harris computer is
established. The purpose of this link is to allow the SOE system to advise the
dispatcher through the Harris console CRT of incoming data and major system
failures.

SOE alarm messages sent to the Harris console are, as follows:

1. SOE Data Received - This message indicates that SOE events are being
logged on the dispatcher's I/O printer.
2. SOE Remote Unit Failed - This alarm message indicates that a station remote
is not responding.
3. SOE I/O Printer Failed - This alarm message indicates that either the
dispatcher's or programmer's I/O printer failed.
4. SOE Disc Failed - This alarm message indicates that a disc associated with the
SOE master station computer has failed.

DISPATCHER AND PROGRAMMER CONSOLES

There are two consoles provided with the SOE systems, one for use by the
dispatchers, the other by the programmers. The consoles are General Electric
Terminel 300 I/O stations. The dispatcher station located on the floor of the PCC is
the primary console device for operating the system. The programmer station located
in the computer room serves as a backup to the dispatcher. Should the dispatcher
station fail, backup to the programmer station is automatic. The programmer station
can only be used for dispatching if the dispatcher is placed out-of-service. The
dispatcher station allows the user to type in requests to SOE computer. The station
produces a hard copy of all requests, alarms and event messages.

POWER DISPATCHER
The Power Dispatcher is the controller of all operations, switching, grounding and
issuing of clearances on the transmission and receiving substation systems including
the transformer low side buses and tie breakers. All switching on this system is carried
out from his direct instruction and reported back to him on completion. The Power
Load Dispatcher is totally responsible for coordinating all functions affecting the SEC
power system. He is responsible for issuance of clearances to perform work, which
affects the system. The dispatcher controls all outgoing power and all actions
regarding buses or transmission lines. When doing any switching actions on the

83
outgoing lines, Network Operator must follow the orders of the power load dispatcher
exactly. He tells the Network Operator every step that must be performed. Network
Operator must perform these steps exactly and in a timely manner. While performing
these steps, he always considers safety. The SEC Safety Manual outlines the specific
actions during switching and it must be read and understood thoroughly by everyone
involved in switching actions.

CONTROL CENTER FUNCTION

Control center ensures that the system operates in a safe and efficient manner
involving the current operation of switching programs and accurate logging of all
operations. Control center also takes all reasonable precautions to ensure continuity of
supply and maintain the stability of the system ensuring compliance with SEC safety
rules at all times. In order to achieve these objectives, the control center (Power
Dispatching) must:
• Keep an overall view of the Network and ensure accurate updating of the system
operation diagrams as operations are carried out.
• Authorize all switching, earthing and clearances.
• Ensure that accurate records are kept of issuing times of instructions for switching'
and the time of completion of operations by Network Operators.
• Coordinate switching between different areas.

DESK OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITIES

All Network Operators work closely with the Power Dispatcher desk operator. He is
not a member of a crew in the field but directs many of their activities. As a worker
within the Central Dispatch Group, he is responsible for coordinating the field
activities so that different systems are not interrupted during work performed by
company craftsmen.

Many of the duties performed on the job of a Power Dispatcher desk operator, are:
• Directing normal operation of the power system.
• Monitoring system demands via the Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
system (SCADA).
• Determining and directing isolation of power system lines and equipment.
• Directing operation of power system in emergencies.

Each Dispatch Center maintains an accurate log of all the high voltage switching and
clearances, as shown in Fig. 6.2-1(a,b). Every entry records the operation carried out

84
 in the time and operator’s name. The logbook is kept as a permanent record and stored
in safe place.
Every member of the Power Dispatch Unit is responsible for updating system records,
correcting errors and alterations as they become known and communicating such
changes to all concerned (operation, maintenance and engineering).

Power Dispatch Division must receive a list of names of personnel duly authorized to
receive clearance from Transmission Division. Clearances shall be issued to those
authorized persons only.

F
Fig. 6.2-1(a) Power Dispatch Switching Order Fig. 6.2-1(b) Equipment Outage Request

ISSUING CLEARANCES
After being satisfied that the switching and tagging have been done properly, the
Power Dispatcher will contact the qualified person, who is in direct charge of the
work to be performed:
1. The official name or number of the line or equipment on which the work will be
done.
2. The name of each switch and device that is opened, closed or blocked and properly
tagged.

85
3. That the equipment is ready to be tested for voltage and if it is found to be de-
energized, temporary grounds may be applied and work started. Care must be
taken to guard against adjacent energized circuits or parts.

4. A clearance number is issued and recorded, covering the specific scope of work.

TRANSFER OF CLEARANCE
The power dispatcher must be informed that if an employee holding a clearance on
line or equipment desires to transfer his clearance to another authorized employee. If
the Power Dispatcher gives permission, the men under direction of the first employee
shall be notified. The name of the employee to whom the clearance is transferred shall
be properly recorded.

RELATION BETWEEN NETWORK OPERATOR AND POWER

DISPATCHER
All dangerous occurrences and electrical accidents are recorded in station logs and
must be reported immediately to the Power Dispatcher. A failure of supply from
whatever cause to or from any part of the HV System is immediately reported to
Power Dispatcher. The switching operations are carried out following an agreed
written switching program setting out each step of the operation in the order they are
performed and approved by central Power Dispatcher. However, when a minor
switching operation has been agreed with the switching Foreman, (raising no-load tap
changer as in an emergency when it is necessary to isolate a fault and back feed) one
person will coordinate the switching operation and record each instruction together
with the time and operator’s name as the instruction is carried out.

The electrical switching program together with the work to be performed will be
discussed with Central Power Dispatcher. The discussion should be detailed enough to
ensure complete understanding of the operation to be performed and cover the use of
appropriate safety devices.

Any unsafe situation that may exist, whether it is with equipment or an unsafe act by
an employee or contractor, must be reported immediately to the Power Dispatcher.

All switching instructions received by Network Operator from Power Dispatcher must
be carried out without delay. Any delay is promptly reported to the issuer of the
instructions.

When switching shows any sign of distress after operating, its condition is reported to
the relevant Power Dispatcher control center.

86
When issuing switching orders, the dispatcher states in detail and in proper sequence
the switching to be performed and shall require the Network Operator to repeat the
order word for word.

If the Network Operator receives an order from the Dispatcher, the execution of
which, in his opinion, would cause a hazardous condition or jeopardize personnel or
equipment, the network Operator shall be expected to cease all switching and inform
the Dispatcher of the condition.

Network Operator shall not execute more steps of a switching operation than have
been ordered by the Dispatcher.

Where switching orders are given by telephone or radio, each speaker shall satisfy
himself as to the identity and authority of the other person before carrying out the
instructions.

Before any work can be performed on energized lines, 2.4 kV and above permission
must be received from the Dispatcher.

During the time energized lines are being worked on, the personnel performing the
work must maintain communications with the Dispatcher as safeguard to the men
working on the line.

Each earthing operation must be reported to Power Dispatcher as soon as possible

after completion. The Power Dispatcher records time and precise location of main
earths.

Power Dispatcher’s sanction must be taken for Permits to work and sanctions for test
and to record the issue and cancellation of each clearance.

When several clearances are issued for work associated with the same circuit, the
Power Dispatcher ensures that all permits are cancelled before earths are removed.

87
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88
 LESSON 6.3
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

89
90
 LESSON 6.3
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
LESSON OVERVIEW

DESCRIPTION

This lesson covers telecommunications areas within the scope of the course giving
the participants an overview of principles of different types of modulation
techniques using Power Line Carrier (PLC), Microwave Radio and Fiber Optics as
communication Media.

OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this lesson, the participants should be familiarized with:

• Telecommunications Activities
• Radio Communication System, Information Transfer and Modulation
• Communication System, Input / Output Devices, Transmitter, Channel: AM
Receiver, Tuned RF Receiver and Super-Heterodyne Receiver
• Communication Media, Power Line Carrier (PLC), Microwave Radio, Fiber
Optics
• General System, Fiber Optic Receiver, Multiplexing

91
92
INTRODUCTION
Communication may be broadly defined as the process by which information is
exchanged or transferred from one point to another. When the information is to be
conveyed over any distance, a communication system is usually required. In
electronics, it is the transmission and reception of information (voice/data). Likewise,
information is defined as the communication of knowledge or intelligence. For the
purpose of this course, it is defined as any electrical signal representing voice or data.

Various techniques have been developed for communications. We will present an

overview of Radio Systems, Wave Propagation, Antennas and fiber optic
Communication, showing only the introductory concepts that may facilitate any future
study of these subjects and help in recognizing SEC equipment and facilities.

INFORMATION TRANSFER
The most significant advance in increasing communications range was radio.
Basically, the audio or sound waves are converted to an electrical signal then into
audio waves and transmitted to a distant receiving station. However, if the audio
signal is transmitted at its original frequency, a number of problems exist. First to be
efficient, the transmitting antenna must be at least 1/4 to 1/2 wavelength long. This
means that for a low frequency (say 3 kHz) signal, the antenna would have to be at
least 25 kilometers long. Second, even if the antenna problem is solved, only one
station could transmit at a time. This is because all stations would be operating on the
.same audio frequencies. Third, transmission systems at these frequencies are very
inefficient. All of these problems can be solved by using a higher frequency signal as
a "Carrier" for the audio information. In essence, the speech or data signal is
superimposed on a much higher frequency for transmission and then transferred and
converted back to audio frequencies or data by the receiver. The former is called
Modulation, while the latter is Demodulation.

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MODULATION TYPES
In the process of modulation, some characteristic of a high frequency sine wave is
varied in accordance with the information or modulating signal. This signal may be an
audio waveform, a digital pulse train, a television picture or any other form of
information. The important consideration is that it is transferred to a higher frequency
for efficient transmission. The modulated high frequency sine wave is called the
Carrier. Since, three characteristics of the sine wave carrier can be varied, it follows
that:
• Amplitude Modulation (AM)
There are three types of modulation. • Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Phase Modulation (PM)

AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Fig. 6.3-1 shows the block diagram of the basic method of generating an AM
waveform. The AM Modulator has two inputs, high frequency carrier (fc) and
modulating audio signal (fm). The Modulator mixes the two input signals and
generates an AM Output waveform, as shown. The AM Modulated Output is called
the Modulation Envelope having both positive and negative half cycles of the output
waveform.
The amplitude and frequency of the
modulating signal determines the
shape of the modulation envelope.

Fig. 6.3-1 Amplitude Modulation

PERCENT AMPLITUDE MODULATION (%AM)

Percent Modulation is the degree of modulation that is defined as the Percent Ratio of
the difference between the maximum and the minimum to the sum of the maximum
and the minimum peak to peak modulated carrier and is measured in %. Percent AM
Modulation is also known as Modulation Factor that varies from 0 to 1. Percent AM
Modulation is given by the equation:
E − E min
Percent Mode = max × 100
E max + E min
An unmodulated AM carrier is said to be a Continuous Wave and has 0% modulation.

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 AM SIDEBANDS
An AM wave is a representation of the audio signal with which the carrier is
modulated. The modulated wave consists of a carrier frequency that varies in
amplitude proportional to the amplitude and frequency of the modulating signal. An
AM modulated wave is a complex wave that contains two other frequencies and the
carrier itself. The other two frequencies are carrier plus the modulating frequency (fc
+ fm), and carrier minus modulating frequency (fc - fm). The other two frequencies
present in the modulated wave are created by the non-linear action of the modulator
and are called the Sidebands. The intelligence is contained in the AM sidebands. The
AM wave has no modulating signal frequency, although it does represent the
modulating signal. The three frequency components of an AM signal, therefore, are:
• Carrier Frequency • Upper Sideband • Lower Sideband
(fc + fm) (fc - fm)

As the modulating frequency is increased, the sideband frequencies move farther apart
from the carrier.

AM BANDWIDTH (BW)
The bandwidth of an AM system is twice the highest modulating signal:
BW = 2 × fm(max) =fH - fL Where: BW = Bandwidth
fm(max) = Highest modulating frequency

EXAMPLE 6.3-1
Determine the upper and lower sidebands in an AM modulated wave with 1 MHz
carrier frequency and 10 kHz modulating frequency. Draw the frequency
spectrum of modulated wave, showing the two sidebands in Fig. 6.3-2 and
determine the band width (BW).
SOLUTION AMPLITUDE

Upper Sideband
fH= fC + fm=1 MHz + 10 kHz
= 1.01 MHz
Lower Sideband
f (MHz)
fH= fC - fm=1 MHz – 10 kHz = 0.99 MHz
fL fc fH
BW = 2 × fm(max) = 2 × 10 kHz = 20 kHz 0.99 1MHz 1.01

Fig. 6.3-2 AM Sidebands

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FREQUENCY MODULATION
Fig. 6.3-3 shows Frequency Modulated
(FM) waveform. The information or
modulating waveform is shown in Fig.
6.3-3(a), while the unmodulated carrier is
shown in Fig. 6.3-3(b). In FM unlike AM,
the modulating signal changes the
frequency of the carrier rather than its
amplitude, higher at maximum
modulating signal peak and lower at
lower peak, as shown in Fig. 6.3-3(c). Fig. 6.3-3
(a) Modulating Signal
(b) Unmodulated Carrier
(c) Frequency Modulated Waveform
MODULATION INDEX AND SIDEBANDS
In AM, the side bands add to or subtract from the constant amplitude carrier,
which results in the modulation envelope. However, in frequency modulation, the
waveform remains at constant amplitude regardless. This means that, as sideband
number, amplitude, or distribution change, the carrier must also change to keep the
resultant waveform amplitude constant. This interrelationship between carrier and
sidebands is represented by the Modulation Index (m), as shown in Table 6.3-1. That
is, the Modulation Index determines the number of significant sidebands, their
amplitude and the carrier amplitude.

Table 6.3-1 lists sidebands and carrier amplitudes at various modulation indices.
Sidebands with amplitudes <1 % of original carrier being insignificant are left out.

96
 Table 6.3-1 Modulation Index and Sidebands
MODULATION

INDEX CARRIER SIDEBANDS

(m)

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th

0.00 1.00 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.25 0.98 0.12 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0.50 0.94 0.24 0.03

1.00 0.77 0.44 0.11 0.02

1.50 0.51 0.56 0.23 0.06 0.01

2.00 0.22 0.58 0.35 0.13 0.03

2.50 -0.05 0.50 0.45 0.22 0.07 0.02

3.00 -0.26 0.34 0.49 0.31 0.13 0.04 0.01

4.00 -0.40 -0.07 0.36 0.43 0.28 0.13 0.05 0.02

5.00 -0.18 -0.33 0.05 0.36 0.39 0.26 0.13 0.05 0.02

6.00 0.15 -0.28 -0.24 0.11 0.36 0.36 0.25 0.13 0.06 0.01

-
7.00 0.30 0.00 -0.30 0.16 0.35 0.34 0.23 0.13 0.06 0.02
0.17

- -
8.00 0.17 0.23 -0.11 0.19 0.34 0.32 0.22 0.13 0.06 0.03
0.29 0.10

- - -
9.00 -0.09 0.24 0.14 0.20 0.33 0.30 0.21 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01
0.18 0.27 0.06

- - -
10.00 -0.25 0.04 0.25 0.06 0.22 0.31 0.24 0.20 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01
0.22 0.23 0.01

- - -
12.00 -0.05 -0.22 -0.08 0.20 0.18 0.05 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.20 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.01
0.07 0.24 0.17

- - - -
15.00 -0.01 -0.21 0.04 0.19 0.13 0.21 0.03 0.10 0.24 0.28 0.25 0.18 0.12
0.12 0.17 0.22 0.09

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EXAMPLE 6.3-2
Given Table 6.3-1 for Modulation Index of 0.5, determine the magnitude of
carrier, first and second sidebands.

SOLUTION
Carrier Amplitude = 0.94
First Sideband Amplitude = 0.24
Second Sideband Amplitude = 0.03

COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
The basic block diagram of a communications system is shown in Fig. 6.3-4. It
consists of an input device, transmitter, transmission channel, receiver and an output
device. Let's discuss each of these items.

Fig. 6.3-4 Communications System

INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES
An input or output device is nothing more than a transducer, such as a microphone and a
loudspeaker, respectively. The microphone converts sound waves into electrical signals,
while the loudspeaker converts the electrical signals into sound waves. The same is true
for television broadcasting. The visual input device is a TV camera, which converts
light into electrical signals. The output device is the cathode ray, "picture tube", which
converts the electrical signals into light to form a picture on the TV screen.

TRANSMITTER
It is usually impractical to transmit the input signal at its original frequency.
Therefore, the transmitter must transfer the input signal at a higher frequency. It does
this through the Process of Modulation. Thus, the transmitter consists of a high
frequency carrier generator and a Modulator. It may also use amplifiers to increase its
power output.
CHANNEL
The transmission channel can be any radio frequency between approximately 3 kHz
and 300 GHz. It could also be any light wave frequency. Fig. 6.3-5 shows the radio
frequency spectrum. It is divided into several frequency bands from 3 kHz-30 kHz,

98
Very Low Frequency Band (VLF) to 30 GHz-300 GHz, Extremely High Frequency
Band (EHF). Each of these bands has specific characteristics.
1Hz

10Hz
VERY-LOW FREQ. (VLF)
3KHz – 30kHz
100Hz

1kHz
LOW FREQ. (LF)
AUDIO FREQUENCIES
10kHz (AF) 30kHz – 300kHz
POWER LINE CAR.
15Hz – 20kHz
100kHz

MEDIUM FREQ. (MF)

1MHz
300KHz – 3MHz

10MHz

HIGH FREQ. (HF) STANDARD BROADCAST

100MHz
BAND
3MHz – 30MHz
540kHz – 1600kHz
1GHz
RADIO FREQUENCIES SHORT WAVE
(RF) VERY HIGH FREQ. BROADCAST
100GHz (VHF)
3kHz – 3000GHz TV CHANNELS
30MHz – 300MHz 2-6
1000GHz 54MHz - 88MHz

FM BAND
ULTRA HIGH FREQ. 88MHz - 108MHz
(UHF)
TV CHANNELS
300MHz – 3GHz
7 - 13
174MHz - 216MHz

SUPER HIGH FREQ. TV CHANNELS

(SHF) 14 - 83
470MHz - 890MHz
3GHz – 30GHz

EXTREMELY HIGH
FREQ. (EHF)
30GHz – 300GHz

Fig. 6.3-5 Radio Frequency Spectrum

For example, the Medium Frequency (MF) band allows local communications during
daylight hours and longer range communications at night. The standard AM broadcast
band is located within this band. The international short-wave broadcasting band is
located in the 3 MHz-30 MHz High Frequency (HF) band. These frequencies allow
world-wide communications and, therefore, are the best for international broadcasting.

99
The television channels are located in the Very High Frequency (VHF) and Ultra High
Frequency (UHF) bands. These frequencies offer local fade-free communications on
radio and TV sets.

AM RECEIVERS
AM DETECTORS
As shown earlier, an audio signal is impressed onto a carrier wave in the form of
amplitude variations. It is then amplified and applied to a transmitting antenna. This
modulated signal is radiated and propagated and a small fraction of it is collected by
the receiving antenna. The receiver must amplify this extremely weak signal and
since the signal is one of many collected by the antenna, the receiver must select the
desired signal while rejecting all others. Finally, since modulation took place in the
transmitter, demodulation must be performed in the receiver to recover the original
modulating signal. The circuit that performs this function is called AM Demodulator
or Detector.

DIODE DETECTOR
The most popular AM Demodulator is the Diode Detector used in virtually all AM
receivers. Its purpose is to recover the envelope from the AM waveform. Fig. 6.3-6
illustrates the Diode Detector. The AM input consists of three frequency components
- carrier, Upper Side-Band (USB) and Lower Side-Band (LSB). These signals are
applied to D1 and are mixed across its nonlinear resistance. The difference signal is
the modulating information. The next step is to separate this low frequency signal
from the high frequency RF carrier. This is accomplished by capacitor (C1), which
acts as a short circuit to ground for the RF signal and a high reactance for the audio
signals. The final step in AM detection is to separate the audio from the DC
component. This is done quite simply using a coupling capacitor (C2), as shown in
Fig. 6.3-6.

Fig. 6.3-6 Diode Detector Circuit

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TUNED RF RECEIVER
If a simple diode detector was connected directly to an antenna, there would be no
means of selecting a specific signal. In fact, all signals present at the antenna would
be demodulated and the output would be a jumbled mess. One way to select the
desired signal is to connect a tuned RF amplifier between the antenna and detector.
However, the bandwidth of a single RF amplifier is not narrow enough to reject all
the unwanted signals. Therefore, several RF amplifiers must be used, as shown in
Fig. 6.3-7.

This decreases the bandwidth to a point where only one signal will pass to the
detector. The RF amplifiers will also increase the amplitude of the desired signal
before it is applied to the detector. Thus, the additional RF amplifiers increase both
the sensitivity and selectivity of the receiver. The audio amplifier amplifies the audio
frequency signal and drives a satisfactory output to the loud speaker.

Fig. 6.3-7 Tuned RF Receiver

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SUPER-HETERODYNE RECEIVERS
The block diagram of a typical, standard AM broadcast Super-Heterodyne receiver is
shown in Fig. 6.3-8. The RF amplifier is similar to that used in the tuned RF receiver.
It provides signal gain and a limited degree of selection. However, the majority of the
receiver's selectivity and gain are obtained from the later stages. In fact, in some
receivers, the RF amplifier is eliminated altogether.

Fig. 6.3-8 Standard AM Broadcast Super-Heterodyne Receiver

The mixer local oscillator is the key to the Super-Heterodyne action that converts the
selected RF signal to a fixed frequency for further amplification. In this case, the fixed
frequency is 455 kHz, a commonly used Intermediate Frequency (IF). It is called an
"Intermediate Frequency" because it is between the original radio frequency and the
detected audio frequency. The amplified IF signal is coupled to the detector where the
original modulating information is recovered. In the standard AM receiver of Fig. 6.3-
8, the detector is a simple diode demodulator. A single-sideband receiver would
require a product detector and a BFO. The detected audio is then amplified and
applied to the speaker.

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
The communication system is a very important part of the control system. Without it,
the whole idea of remote data collection and control would be impossible. The
communication system connects the local system with the central system. The data are
transmitted in the communication system in serial format since there is always a
physical distance between the different control subsystems.

The communications media that establish the path for the movement of data between a
local and central system can take several physical shapes, each with special
characteristics, which have some effect on the communication system. Wires and
cables perhaps first come to mind, but today microwave, radio links and Power Line
Carrier are used for this purpose, as shown in Fig. 6.3-9.

102
 Fig. 6.3-9 Communication Media

The SEC communication network consists of the following major systems, as shown
in Fig. 6.3-10:
• Cables and Wires • Wireless (Radio)
• Power Line Carrier • Fiber Optic

CABLE AND WIRES

Cables owned by power utilities that are used for telecommunication purposes are
especially designed, taking into account mechanical strength, high voltage insulation
requirements, etc. It is common for a multi-pair communication cable to be buried
along the medium voltage power cables in many urban distribution networks.
Communication cables may also exist between other sites in a power company. Such a
cable can easily be used for data transmission.

103
 Fig. 6.3-10 Telecommunications system at SEC-EOA

COAXIAL CABLES
A coaxial cable is a cable designed for a large signal bandwidth for high speed
communications than ordinary cables. It has an inner wire surrounded by insulation
and tinned copper mesh for shielding. A protective cover protects the conductors. The
coaxial cable is used for interconnecting computer equipment and as a medium for
communication over medium distances.

POWER LINE CARRIER (PLC)

PLC uses the TL conductors as a communication medium and is widely used
telecommunication system, as shown in Fig. 6.3-11 and Fig. 6.3-12, showing the
schematic structure of power line carrier. PLC is a widely used system of
telecommunication whereby the high voltage lines, usually operating at 100 kV and
above, have superimposed carrier frequency, which when modulated, conveys
information. The type of information is usually associated with the operation of the
power system, such as protection signaling and remote control.

A PLC link is generally used for different purposes, such as speech communication
(telephony), teleprotection and data communication. This implies that the available
band must be split up into speech channels and data channels. Speech and
teleprotection generally have the highest priority and thus only the remaining
bandwidth can be used for telecontrol purposes.

PLC systems are made up of three parts:

• Terminal assemblies, transmitters and receivers.

104
• Coupling devices and tuning equipment used to connect the terminal assemblies to
the high-voltage system.
• High voltage system.

Fig. 6.3-11 Schematic Structure of Power Line Carrier

Fig. 6.3-12 shows a schematic structure of power

line carrier. The audio frequency signals from the
User Equipment as Substation feeds into the PLC
equipment. The output of the PLC equipment is
RF signal within the 60 kHz – 500 kHz frequency
range. The output is applied to the Coupling
Capacitor (CC). The Coupling Capacitor drops
down the 60 Hz transmission line voltage,
typically from 13.8kV, 115kV, 230kV and 380kV
to a level safe for the PLC equipment. Fig. 6.3-12 Schematic Structure of
Power Line Carrier
The audio frequency signals from the User Equipment at Substation "A", as shown in
Fig. 6.3-13, feeds into the PLC equipment. The output of the PLC equipment is a high
power, typically 20W or 100W, RF signal over a certain chosen band within the 60–
500 kHz frequency range. The output goes through a Coax Cable then into the
Isolating Matching Transformer to isolate the Coax cable output to the CCVT input
signal. The CCVT, aside from coupling the signal to the transmission line, also drops
down the 60 Hz transmission line voltage that is typically 13.8/110/230/380 kV to a
level safe for the PLC equipment and personnel. The Line Trap prevents the RF signal
from getting into the local and remote substations and be shorted to ground. At the
same time, it allows only the 60 Hz power frequency into the said substations. Signals
typically processed by the PLC system are those from and to SCADA, SOE, telephone
and protection circuits.

105
 Fig. 6.3-13 PLC Equipment coupling to TL

RADIO COMMUNICATION
Radio links are useful for communication over long distances, up to 100–200 km, as
shown in Fig. 6.3-14. Using repeaters, communication may be provided over even
longer distances. A radio link communication system has the advantage of being
independent from power lines. Thus, outages on radio links are not directly due to
maintenance or faults on power lines.

Fig. 6.3-14 Radio Link Communication System

MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION
The microwave radio occupies in a typical frequency band, normally 2-12 GHz. The
microwave link is frequently chosen as a transmission media where long distance
communication by telephone transmission is uneconomical or impractical, as shown
in Fig. 6.3-15(a-b). The repeaters may still be used to amplify the signal over much
longer distances.

106
 (a) (b)
Fig. 6.3-15 Microwave Antennas
Microwave is efficient for data transmission to remote places. If the communication
system is built up with microwave links in a loop configuration, a high reliability and
high performance system may be designed. If a link is lost due to equipment failure,
data can still be transmitted in the loop in other directions. In high performance
systems one can use PLC combined with microwave to ensure both back-up facilities
and high communication speed.

FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATIONS

In recent years, optical fibers have gained considerable attention. Using light for
sending messages may not appear to be the best solution, but an optical transmission
has a large number of advantages:
• Large information capacity – Bandwidth 500 MHz or above.
• Insensitive to noise and electrical disturbances such as sparks and interference.
• More secure transmission medium, low error rates.
• Low volume of material with low weight and dimensions.

The most advantageous feature, for use in power system control, is the fact that a
communication link of optical fibers has very small dimensions and can withstand a
harsh electrical environment. Fig. 6.3-16 shows details of a Fiber Optic Cable
assembly with color-coded fiber bundles

107
 Fig. 6.3-16 Fiber Optic Cable
Fig. 6.3-17 shows a single fiber optic
cable. The first characteristic is used
when a number of optical fibers are
integrated into a power line. Using the
power line as a medium of transmission,
new possibilities open for integrating
communication facilities over long
distances and in complex structures.

Fig. 6.3-17 Single Fiber Optic Cable

A fiber optic communication system is similar in basic concept to any other type of
communication system. A block diagram of a general communication system, as
shown in Fig. 6.3-18, conveys the signal from the information source over the
transmission medium to the destination point. The communication system, therefore,
consists of a Transmitter/Modulator linked to the information source, transmission
medium and Receiver/Demodulator at the destination point.

For fiber optic communications, the system shown in Fig. 6.3-18(a) may be
considered in slightly greater detail in Fig. 6.3-18(b). In this case the information
source provides an electrical signal to a transmitter comprising an electrical stage
driving an optical source to modulate the lightwave carrier. The optical source
providing the electrical-to-optical conversion may be either a semiconductor laser or
high intensity Light Emitting Diode (LED). The transmission medium consists of a
fiber optic cable. The receiver consists of an optical detector driving an electrical stage
demodulating the optical carrier. Photodiode (p-n, p-i-n or avalanche) or
phototransistor is utilized for the detection of the optically modulated signal and the

108
de-modulating circuit providing optical-to-electrical conversion for voice or data
recovery. Thus there is a requirement for electrical interfacing at either end of the
optical link for the signal processing. The optical carrier may be modulated using
either an analog or digital information signal. In the system shown in Fig. 6.3-18(b),
analog modulation involves the variation of the light emitted from the optical source
in a continuous manner. With digital modulation, however, discrete changes in the
light intensity are obtained by on-off pulses of the optical source.

Fig. 6.3-18(a) General Communication System

Fig. 6.3-18(b) Fiber Optic Communication System

Fig. 6.3-19 shows a block diagram of a typical digital fiber optic link. Initially the
input digital signal from the information source is suitably encoded for optical
transmission. The laser drive circuit directly modulates the intensity of the
semiconductor laser with the encoded digital signal. Hence a digital optical signal is
launched into the fiber optic cable. The Avalanche Photo-Diode (APD) detector is
followed by an amplifier, equalizer and filter to provide gain as well as linear signal
processing and noise bandwidth reduction, as shown in Fig. 6.3-20. Finally, the
signal obtained is decoded to recover the original digital information.

Fig. 6.3-19 Digital Fiber Optic Link using Laser Source and Avalanche Photo-Diode
(APD) Detector

109
 Fig. 6.3-20 Block Diagram of Major Elements of Fiber Optic Receiver

It is necessary to insert repeaters at regular intervals, as shown in Fig. 6.3-21. The

repeater incorporates a line receiver in order to convert the optical signal back into the
electrical. In the case of analog transmission, it is amplified and equalized before it is
retransmitted as an optical signal via a line transmitter. When digital transmission
techniques are used, the repeater also regenerates the original electrical. A
regenerative repeater is simply called a regenerator before it is retransmitted as a
digital optical signal. In this case, the repeater may additionally provide alarm,
supervision and engineering information to the sending and receiving facilities.

Fig. 6.3-21 Repeaters for Long Distance Fiber Optic Communication System

MULTIPLEXING
In order to maximize the information transfer over fiber optic communication link, it
is usual to multiplex several signals onto a single fiber. It is possible to convey these
multi-channel signals by multiplexing in the electrical time or frequency domain, as
with conventional electrical line or radio communication, prior to intensity modulation
of the optical source. Hence, digital pulse modulation schemes may be extended to
multi-channel operation by Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) where narrow pulses
from multiple modulators under a common clock control from the individual channels
are interleaved and transmitted, sequentially, thus enhancing the bandwidth utilization
of a single fiber link.

Similarly, a number of baseband channels may be combined by Frequency Division

Multiplexing (FDM). In FDM the optical channel bandwidth is divided into a number
of non-overlapping frequency bands and each signal is assigned one of these bands of
frequencies. The individual signals can be extracted from the combined FDM signal

110
by appropriate electrical filtering at the receive terminal and hence, the Frequency
Division multiplexing is generally performed electrically at the transmit terminal prior
to intensity modulation of a single optical source. However, it is possible to utilize a
number of optical sources each operating at a different wavelength on a single fiber
link. In this technique, often referred to as Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(WDM), the separation and extraction of the multiplexed signals (wavelength
separation) is performed with optical filters, such as interference filters, diffraction
grating filters or prism filters.

Finally, a multiplexing technique that does not involve the application of several
message signals onto a single fiber is known as Space Division Multiplexing (SDM).
In SDM each signal channel is carried on a separate fiber within a fiber within a multi-
fiber cable. The good optical isolation offered by fibers means that cross coupling
between channels can be made negligible. However, this technique necessitates an
increase in the number of optical components required (e.g. fiber, connectors, sources,
detectors) within a particular system and therefore is not widely used.

ADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION

Communication using an optical carrier wave guided along a glass fiber has a number
of extremely attractive features. Furthermore, the advances in the technology to date
have surpassed even the most optimistic predictions creating additional advantages.
Hence it is useful to consider the merits and special features offered by fiber optic
communications over more conventional electrical communications, as follows:

(a) ENORMOUS POTENTIAL BANDWIDTH

The optical carrier frequency in the range of 1013-1016 MHz (generally in the near
Infra-Red (IR) around 1014 MHz or 105 GHz) yields a far greater potential
transmission bandwidth than metallic cable systems (coaxial cable bandwidth ≈500
MHz) or even millimeter wave radio systems (systems currently operating with
modulation bandwidths of 700 MHz). Therefore, the information carrying capacity of
fiber optic systems is already proving far superior to the best copper cable systems.
(b) SMALL SIZE AND WEIGHT
Fiber optics have very small diameters, which are often no greater than the diameter
of a human hair. Hence, even when such fibers are covered with protective coatings
they are far smaller and much lighter than corresponding copper cables. This is a
tremendous boom towards the alleviation of duct congestion in cities, as well as
allowing for an expansion of signal transmission within mobiles such as aircraft,
satellites and even ships.

111
(c) ELECTRICAL ISOLATION
Fiber optics fabricated from glass or sometimes plastic polymers are electrical
insulators and therefore, unlike their metallic counterparts, they do not exhibit earth
loop and interface problems. Furthermore, this property makes fiber optic
transmission ideally suited for communication in electrically hazardous environments
as the fibers create no arcing or spark hazard at abrasions or short circuits.

(d) IMMUNITY TO INTERFERENCE AND CROSSTALK

Fiber optics form a dielectric waveguide and are therefore free from Electro-Magnetic
Interference (EMI), Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) or switching transients giving
Electro-Magnetic Pulses (EMP). Hence the operation of fiber optic communication
system is unaffected by transmission through an electrically noisy environment and
the fiber cable requires no shielding from EMI. The fiber cable is also not susceptible
to lightning strikes if used overhead rather than underground.

(e) SIGNAL SECURITY

The light from fiber optics does not radiate significantly and, therefore, provide a high
degree of signal security. Unlike the situation with copper cables, a transmitted optical
signal cannot be obtained from a fiber in a non-invasive manner without drawing
optical power from the fiber. Therefore, any attempt to acquire a message signal
transmitted optically may be detected. This feature is obviously attractive for military,
banking and general data transmission for computer network applications.

112
(f) LOW TRANSMISSION LOSS
The fiber optic cables exhibit very low attenuation or transmission loss in comparison
with the best copper conductors. Fibers have been fabricated with losses as low as 0.2
dB/km to facilitate the implementation of communication links with extremely wide
repeater spacing, thus reducing both system cost and complexity.

(g) RUGGEDNESS AND FLEXIBILITY

Although protective coatings are essential, fiber optics may be manufactured with
very high tensile strengths. Perhaps surprisingly for a glassy substance, the fibers may
also be bent to quite small radii or twisted without damage that has contributed for
further development of many different cable structures.

(h) SYSTEM RELIABILITY AND EASE OF MAINTENANCE

These features primarily stem from the low loss property of fiber optic cables,
reducing the requirement for intermediate repeaters or line amplifiers to boost the
transmitted signal strength. Hence with fewer repeaters, system reliability is generally
enhanced in comparison with conventional electrical conductor systems. Furthermore,
the reliability of the optical components is no longer a problem with predicted
lifetimes of 20-30 years now quite common. Both these factors also tend to reduce
maintenance time and costs.

(i) POTENTIAL LOW COST

The glass fiber providing the fiber optic transmission medium is made from sand, not
a scarce resource. In comparison with copper conductors, fiber optic cables offer the
potential for low cost line communication. As yet this potential has not been fully
realized because of the sophisticated and expensive processes to manufacture ultra
pure glass and the lack of production volume. At present, fiber optic cable is
reasonably competitive with coaxial cable, but not with simple copper wires (twisted
pairs). However, it is likely that in the future it will be cheaper to use fiber optics with
their superior performance than almost any type of electrical conductor. Moreover,
overall system costs when utilizing fiber optic communication on long-haul links are
generally reduced to those for equivalent electrical line systems because of the low
loss and wideband properties of the optical transmission medium. The low cost
potential of fiber optic communications not only provides strong competition with
electrical transmission systems, but also with microwave and milli-meter wave radio
transmission systems. Although these systems are reasonably wideband, the relatively
short span "line of sight" transmission necessitates expensive antenna towers at
intervals no greater than a few tens of kilometers.

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SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION (SCADA)
SCADA refers to a system that collects data from various sensors at a factory, plant or
in other remote locations and then sends this data to a central computer for control and
monitoring. SCADA is a term that is used broadly to portray control and management
solutions in a wide range of industries. Some of the industries where SCADA is used
are Water Management Systems, Electric Power, Traffic Signals, Mass Transit
Systems, Environmental Control Systems, and Manufacturing Systems. A SCADA
system usually includes signal hardware (input and output), controllers, networks, user
interface (HMI), communications equipment and software. All together, the term
SCADA refers to the entire central system. The central system usually monitors data
from various sensors that are either in close proximity or off site (sometimes miles
away). For the most part, the brains of a SCADA system are performed by the Remote
Terminal Units (RTU). The RTU consists of a programmable logic converter. The
RTUs are usually set to specific requirements, however, most RTUs allow human
intervention, for instance, in a factory setting, the RTU might control the setting of a
conveyer belt and the speed can be changed or overridden at any time by human
intervention. In addition, any changes or errors are usually automatically logged for
and/or displayed. Most often, a SCADA system will monitor and make slight changes
to function optimally; SCADA systems are considered closed loop systems and run
with relatively little human intervention.

One of key processes of SCADA is the ability to monitor an entire system in real time.
This is facilitated by data acquisitions including meter reading, checking statuses of
sensors, etc that are communicated at regular intervals depending on the system
requirement. Besides the data being used by the RTU, it is also displayed on screen
for comparison or to override settings or make manual changes. SCADA can be seen
as a system with many data elements called Points. Usually each point is an output to
monitor or sensor input. Usually points can be either hard or soft. A hard data point
can be an actual monitor; a soft point can be seen as an application or software
calculation. Data elements from hard and soft points are usually always recorded and
logged to create a time stamp or history.

USER INTERFACE (HMI)

A SCADA system includes a user interface, usually called Human Machine Interface
(HMI). The HMI of a SCADA system is where data is processed and presented to be
viewed and monitored by an attendant/operator. This interface usually includes
controls where the individual can interface with the SCADA system. HMIs offer an
easy way to standardize the facilitation of monitoring multiple RTUs or
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs). Usually RTUs or PLCs will run a pre

114
programmed process. Monitoring each of them individually can be difficult usually
because they are spread all over the system. Because RTUs and PLCs historically had
no standardized method to display or present data to an operator, the SCADA system
communicates with PLCs throughout the system network and processes information
that is easily disseminated by the HMI.

HMIs can also be linked to a database that can use data gathered from PLCs or RTUs
to provide graphs of trends, logistic info and schematics for a specific sensor or
machine or even make troubleshooting guides accessible. In the last decade,
practically all SCADA systems include an integrated HMI and PLC device making it
extremely easy to run and monitor a SCADA system.

SCADA SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE COMPONENTS

SCADA systems are extremely advantageous way to run and monitor processes. They
are great for small applications such as climate control or can be effectively used in
large applications such as monitoring and controlling a nuclear power plant or mass
transit system.

SCADA can come in open and non proprietary protocols. Smaller systems are
extremely affordable and can either be purchased as a complete system or can be
mixed and matched with specific components. Large systems can also be created with
off-the-shelf components. SCADA system software can also be easily configured for
almost any application, eliminating the need for customized intensive software
development.

Fig. 6.3-22 shows 275 HART Interface Menu Tree for Model 1151 SMART
Transmitter as part of SCADA system.

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 275 HART INTERFACE MENU TREE
FOR MODEL 1151 SMART TRANSMITTER

1. PROCESS 1. Pressure
VARIABLES
2. Percent
3. Analog

1. TEST DEVICE 1. Self Test

2. Status

1. Keypad Input
1. RERANGE 2. Apply Values
2. Loop Test
2.
DIAGNOSTICS 1. Digital-to-Analog Trim
AND SERVICE 2. TRIM ANALOG 2. Scaled D/A Trim
OUTPUT
3. CALIBRATION
1. Zero Trim
2. Lower Sensor Trim
3. SENSOR TRIM 3. Upper Sensor Trim
4. Sensor Trim Points
1. Tag
2. Unit
Online Menu
3. RANGE VALUES 1. Keypad Input
4. DEVICE INFO. 2. Apply Values
1. DEVICE SETUP
2. PV 5. Transfer Function
3. AO 1. Date
3. BASIC SETUP 6. Damp 2. Descriptor 1. PROCESS 1. Pressure
4. LRV
3. Message 2. % Range
5. URV VARIABLES
4. Write Protect
5. Meter Type
2. SENSOR 1. SENSOR TRIM 1. Zero Trim
SERVICE 2. Characterize 2. Lwr Snsr Trim
3. Upr Snsr Trim
1. SENSORS 3. Unit 4. Snsr Trim Pts
PRESSURE SNSR

1. PROCESS 1. Pressure
VARIABLES 2. % Range

2. SIGNAL 2. RANGE VALUES

4. DETAILED 3. Unit 1. Keypad Input
CONDITION 4. Transfer Function
SETUP 2. Apply Values
5. Damp

1. PROCESS 1. Pressure
VARIABLES 2. % Range
3. OUTPUT 3. Analog Output

CONDITION
5. REVIEW 2. ANALOG OUTPUT
1. Loop Test
2. Digital-to-Analog Trim
3. Analog Output Alarm 3. Scaled D/A Trim

4. HART OUTPUT 1. Poll Address

2. Number of Request Preambles
4. DEVICE 3. Burst Mode
4. Burst Option
INFO.

1. FIELD DEVICE INFO. 1. Tag

2. SENSOR INFO. 2. Date
3. Meter Type 1. Meas. Type 3. Descriptor
4. Self Test 2. Isolator Matrl. 4. Message
3. Fill Type 5. Model
4. Flange Type 6. Write Protect
5. Flange Mat. 7. Revisions #s
6. O-Ring Mat.
7. DV Mat.
8. # of Rmt Seals
9. RS Type
10. RS Mat.
11. RS Fill

Fig. 6.3-22 275 HART Interface Menu Tree for Model 1151 SMART Transmitter

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 ENGINEERS' COURSE

CRAFT APPRECIATION FOR ENGINEERS (CAFE)

PROTECTION & CONTROL
Book 2 of 2

Edition : 2008 Feb.

Division : Syllabus Planning and Curriculum Writing
Division (SPCWD)
Department : Training Services Department (TSD)

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