2 0 2 3

2 3 - M AKALY
3 - M A K ALY 20
A L Y 2 0 2
3 - M A K
A L Y 2 0 2
2 3 - M A K
L Y 2 0
MAKA

NO PAIN
..........
...NO GA
IN

MAKALY
2023
IMPORTANT
NOTES

MR. HYTHAM AHMED

A) What’s meant by:
1) An electric current: is a flow of free electrical waves that flows through a conductor from one extreme to
the other
2) The intensity of electric current: is the amount of electricity that passes through a section of a conductor in
a time of 1 second
3) Ampere: It is the electric current produced by the flow of an electric quantity of 1 coulomb in a time of 1
second
4) Electromotive force: The amount of total work done to move a charge of 1 coulomb through a closed
electrical circuit
5) The potential difference between two points: is the amount of work done to move an amount of electricity
of 1 coulomb between these two points
6) Volt
volts: It is the potential difference when one amount of work is done to transfer an electric charge of one
coulomb or the potential difference between two ends of a conductor whose resistance is 1 ohm and a current of
1 ampere passes through it
7) Ohm's law: The current in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends at
constant temp
8) Kirchhoff's first law is the law of conservation of charge: The sum of the electric currents entering a point
in a circuit is equal to the sum of the currents leaving it
9) The law of conservation of energy in an electric circuit and Kirchhoff II: The sum of the electromotive
force moving in any closed path is equal to the sum of the potential differences across the circuit
10) magnetic flux density: it’s the total number of magnetic field lines passing perpendicular through unit area
surrounding a point
11) weber: It is the magnetic flux that if it vertically cuts one turn of a coil, and when it is vanishes in one
second, an induced emf = 1 volt is generated between its two ends
12) the magnetic field: The area surrounding the magnet from all sides and showing the effects of the magnetic
force
13) permeability: is the ability of the medium to pass magnetic flux through it
14) neutral point :it’s the point at which the magnetic field vanishes

1
15) Tesla: It is magnetic flux density that generates a force of one newton on a straight wire of length 1 meter
carrying an electric current of 1 ampere placed perpendicular to a magnetic field
16) Galvanometer sensitivity: The angle of deviation of the galvanometer pointer from the zero position when
a unit current is passing through it
17) Standard resistance : It is the resistance (fixed + variable) that is connected to the device in series to make
the pointer make full scale deflection to the end of the current gradient and the beginning of the resistance
gradient, i.e. its calibration until it measures an unknown resistance value
Vector
18)magnetic dipole moment: It to plane
is estimated of coil
that the emenate
magnetic fromacting
coupling north on
pole.
a coil carrying a current
of a cubic current whose level is parallel to the magnetic pole of unit intensity is estimated
19) Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction: producing of induced emf and induced current when a wire
make tie variation
time variation of intersectionwith
of intersection with magnetic
magnetic eldfield

20) Lenz law: The direction of the induced current in a coil is such that it opposes the change in the flux
causing it
21) Transformer loses 20% when operate : transformer efficiency and 80% It is the ratio of the power in the
secondary winding to the power given in the primary
22) backward induced emf in motor: It is the driving force generated in the motor coil by induction when it
rotates and cuts the flux lines and works on the regularity of its rotation
23) Eddy currents: They are induced electric currents that are generated in a piece of metal as a result of a
change in the number of magnetic flux lines that cross it
24) Alternating currents: It is the current whose intensity changes from zero to maximum, then decreases to
zero in half a cycle, then reverses direction and increases in intensity to maximum, then returns to zero in the
second half of the cycle
25) Electric capacitor: It consists of two parallel metal plates with an insulator between them. When charged,
one of the plates is positive and the other is negative. It is used to store electrical energy in the form of an
electric field
26) oscillating circuit: It is a circuit that contains an induction coil and a capacitor. The energy stored in the
form of an electric field in the capacitor is exchanged into energy stored in the form of a magnetic field in the
coil, and high-frequency oscillations are generated
27) Capacitance of a capacitor: It is the ratio between the charge on one of the plates to the potential
difference between the two plates in the capacitor or the amount of charge on one of the two plates that is added
to the potential difference by unit
28) Resonant circuit (Tunning): A circuit containing a coil and a capacitor of variable capacitance. It is used
in radio receivers to select the station to be heard
29) Impedance: Equivalent resistance, capacitive reactance, and inductive reactance in an AC circuit
30) The black body: It is the body that absorbs all the rays that fall on it of different wavelengths and then re-
radiates them in an ideal way. It is a perfect absorber and a perfect emitter

2
fi
31)Wien’s
wine’s Law:
law: The wavelength affected by the maximum intensity of radiation is inversely proportional to the
Kelvin temperature of the radiating source
32) Surface Potential Barrier: Attractive force that attracts electrons inwards and prevents them from being
released from the surface of the metal
33) De Broglie equation: The wavelength of a wave associated with a moving object is equal to the ratio
between Planck's constant and the object's momentum
34) Photoelectric emission: the phenomenon of the emission of electrons from metallic surfaces when light of
a suitable frequency falls on them
35) Photon: a quantity of energy that is uncharged and has mass and momentum

36) Dual nature: it means that the wave has particle properties besides its wave properties. This was confirmed
with value one and that the moving body has wave properties besides its physical properties. De Broglie
.discovered this
37) Microscope: is the physical model used to study the wave properties of light
38) The pumping process for laser production: It is the process of giving the active substance the energy
necessary to excite it, and it is either optical, electrical, thermal or chemical pumping
39) Resonant cavity: It is the container that contains the active medium for the laser amplification process
40) Laser: light amplification stimulated emission radiation
41) Coherence: the property of agreement of photons in phase
42) Impurity atom: It is an atom of a trivalent or pentavalent element that is added to a pure semiconductor
crystal to increase its electrical conductivity
43) Spontaneous emission: the emission of radiation from the excited atom when it moves from a higher
energy level to a lower energy level after the end of the life period automatically without an external influence
44) Linear emission spectrum: The spectrum produced when an excited atom transitions from a higher energy
level to a lower energy level

45) Continuous Spectrum: The spectrum that includes a continuous or continuous distribution of frequencies
or wavelengths (all wavelengths)
46) Linear Spectrum: A spectrum that includes a non-continuous distribution of frequencies or wavelengths
(few)
47) Thermodynamic equilibrium of a semiconductor crystal: it is at a certain temperature the number of
bonds that break per second and thermal energy is needed when the bonds heal per second and give thermal
energy and the number of electrons and holes remains constant and the temperature is constant
48) depletion region: a region on both sides of the double junction that is devoid of charge carriers

3
 49) Reference rays: Parallel rays used in stereoscopic imaging that have the same wavelength as the rays
reflected from the object
50) potential barrier in a Diode
double junction: the lowest potential difference that appears on both sides of the
double junction and prevents diffusion of charge carriers between the two crystals
51) Negative crystal: a type of impure semiconductor produced by inoculating
doping the pure crystal with atoms of
pentavalent elements
52)Doping process: adding atoms of trivalent or pentavalent elements to a pure quadruple semiconductor crystal
with the aim of concentrating an increase in the concentration of electrons or holes
53) Amplification Ratio: The ratio of the collector current to the base current when a transistor is connected by
the common emitter method
54) The law of mass action: the product of multiplying the concentration of electrons by the concentration of
holes is equal to a constant value for each temperature and equal to the square of the concentration of electrons
or holes in a pious semiconductor crystal when the temperature is constant
55)Ampli
Amplification ratio:
cation Factor : The ratio of collector current to base current in a transistor

56) Logic gates: parts of the electronic circuit in modern devices that perform logical operations on the basis of
digital electronics
57)Damping process: it’s process in oscillating circuit of decreasing energy exchange between capacitor and
coil due to energy dissipated in wire between them
58) Raster: complete image formed at CRT screen due to sweep beam of electrons screen by vertical and
horizontal plates

4
fi
B) Scientific basis:
1) Voltmeter: the torque acting on the coil carrying current placed in magnetic field
2) Galvanometer: the torque acting on the coil carrying current placed in magnetic field
3) Transformation of the galvanometer into an ammeter (ammeter with a moving coil): the magnetic effect
of the electric current, the magnetic coupling moment (Torque) by connecting a small resistance connected in
parallel called the shunt resistance
4) Ohmmeter: ohm’s law for closed circuit
5) Dynamo: electromagnetic induction
6) Transformer: mutual inductance between two coils
7) Motor: Coupling torque resulting from the passage of an electric current in a rotating coil in a magnetic field
8) The current rectifier in the dynamo: replacing each half of the cylinder in place of the other with the two
brushes
9) Fluorescent lamp: self-induction of the coil where the magnetic energy stored in the coil is discharged into
the gate emptied of air and contains inert gas, which causes collisions between its atoms that lead to ionization
and collision with the surface of the normally fluorescent tube, which leads to elastic emission
10) Electromagnetic induction furnaces: eddy currents A . recent statement when the number of magnetic flux
lines that penetrate a piece of metal changes, induced currents are generated in it, and the temperature of the
metal piece rises to its melting point.
11) Thermistor (hot wire ammeter): The thermal effect of electric currents
12) The resonance circuit in the wireless receiver: the absence of reactance when equal to (xl = xc), so the
current is greater than it can be
13) Electrolytic capacitor: the effect of the negative charges of the plate connected to the negative electrode on
13)
the electrons in the positive plate causing a charge with a positive charge
14) Vibrating circuit: the exchange of electrical energy stored in the capacitor with magnetic energy stored in
the coil
15) Remote sensing: the persistence of thermal radiation for a person for a period after his departure(BBR)
16) Night vision devices: thermal radiation analysis and thermal radiation imaging (BBR)
17) Electron microscope: the wave property of the electron and the control of its accompanying wavelength -
De Broglie phenomenon
18) Photocell: The phenomenon of photoelectric emission to convert light energy into electricity
19) Laser production: amplification of the intensity of light by stimulated emission or bringing the atoms of
the active medium to the state of reverse reflection
20) Computer: Digital Electrons

5
 21) Pn junction : the current passes in one direction only when its conductor is forward connected, and no
current passes if it is connected back
22) Laser generation (laser action): reversible housing and stimulated emission
23) Holography (holographic or three-dimensional imaging): the interference of light - the laser and the
interference between the reference rays and the rays reflected from the body
24) Spectrograph(spectrometer): analysis of light as it falls on a prism at the minimum deviation
25) X-rays: Accelerated electrons collide with a heavy target. They lose all or part of their energy. This energy
is emitted in the form of X-rays.
26) Cathode ray tube: thermal emission - the emission of electrons from the surface of a metal when heated
27) Impure Semiconductors: increase the electrical conductivity, the negative semiconductor is grafted with a
pentagonal or
pentavalent ortrivalent
ternary element (Doping process)
28) Logic Gates: Binary system and Digital Electronics
29) Transistor as a switch: the base connection is in front, current passes in the collector and works as a switch
on and vice versa
30) Diode: Connecting the binary link, in front of it, a current pass, and in the back, no current passes, because
the resistance is small or large

6
C) Uses or applications of all of them:
1) Kirchhoff's Law: Analysis of complex electrical circuits that do not apply to Ohm's Law
2) Voltmeter: used to measure large continuous voltage differences
3) Ammeter: It is used to measure the intensity of large DC current
4) Galvanometer: measure weak DC current
5) Transformer: it’s a device that transfer electricity from generations places to consume by increasing or
decreasing voltage (work by AC source)
6) ohmeter: It is used to directly measure the value of an unknown resistance
7) The pair of spring coils in the sensitive galvanometer: current input and output (current connections) -
they act as an anti-magnetic torque until the coil is stabilized, the coil is returned to the zero position after
cutting the current
8) The spring in the thermometer:
H.W.A the silk thread that pulls the hot wire when it is stretched, so the reel rotates
with the pointer on it to read the current gradually
9) Transformers in the transmission of electrical energy: the step up transformers at the generation station
raise the voltage, and the current passing through the wires decreases, thus reducing the lost capacity. At the
consumer, the stepdown transformers work to restore the voltage to the value required for the consumer.
10) shunt (resistance) in a thermometer: so that an appropriate current pass through the hot wire, and thus can
measure the strength of the current
11) ampere right hand rule: it is used to determine the direction of the field in a straight wire through which
an electric current pass, as you imagine we grasp the wire with the current, so the rest of the fingers wrap with
the field
12) Screw Rule: Determining the direction of the field in a circular coil and (solenoid) so that the direction of
rotation indicates the direction of the current, so the direction of impulse is the field and determining the
direction of the dipole moment
13) Fleming's left-hand rule: Determine the direction of movement of the wire with an electric current. When
placing the fingers of the left hand perpendicular so that the door points to the direction of the field and the
middle to the current, the thumb points to the direction of movement.
14) Fleming's right-hand rule: Determine the direction of the induced current in a straight wire that cuts the
lines of the flux. When the fingers of the right hand are placed perpendicularly so that the index finger points to
the direction of the field and the thumb to the direction of movement, the middle one indicates the direction of
the induced current
15) Lenz's rule: Determine the direction of the current induced in a coil
16) Fluorescent lamp: It is used for efficient lighting
17) Platinum and iridium wire in a H.W.A
thermometer: It stretches significantly so that the pointer moves
18) Coil self-inductance: Romkurf coil - fluorescent lamp illumination

7
19) Eddy currents: an application of induction furnaces
20) Induction furnaces: Used in melting metals
21) The silicon soft iron of the transformer: increases the concentration of the magnetic flux because the
permeability coefficient of iron is large and the presence of silicon increases the specific resistance and to
reduce eddy currents
22) Two brushes of Carbon in the dynamo or the motor: It transmits the electrical current from the coil to
the external circuit, or vice versa
23) The electrical transformer at the electricity production stations: It helps in the transfer of electrical
energy without a large loss of energy Step up transformer
24) The high voltage difference between the two ends of the fluorescent lamp: helps to ionize the atoms and
light the lamp and the ions collide with the fluorescent material lining the tube wall
25) Thermometer: measuring the effective value of the alternating current and the intensity of the direct
electrical current
26) Electric capacitor: works to store electrical energy in the form of an electric field and re-discharge it when
needed
27) The variable capacitor in the resonance circuit: controlling the frequency of the circuit until its
frequency agrees with one of the radio frequencies
28)soft iron core in transformer: Reduces energy loss and increases transformer efficiency
29) Vibrating circuit: used to generate high-frequency oscillations that are used in wireless transmission
30) tunning circuit: used in wireless receivers to test the station to be heard
31) Electron microscope: It is used to see viruses and objects whose length is less than the wavelength of light,
and it has great analysis power.
32) Laser action: Lasers are used in medicine, industry, agriculture, and stereoscopic imaging
33) Photocell: In the calculator, by making the light switch in the elevators, opening the doors automatically,
and the calendar counter in the banks.
34) Holography (holographic imaging): obtaining images in three dimensions and used in artistic
performances
35) Spectrograph: Analyzing light into its ordered and unordered components and obtaining a pure spectrum
36) The filament, the grid, the anode and the cathode in a cathode ray tube: the filament to heat the cathode
or metal - the cathode emits electrons - the grid controls the beam or number of electrons reaching the screen -
the anode gains electrons energy and speed and collects them in a beam and attracts them to the screen
37) Cathode ray tube: It is used in the work of television sets, computers, and others
38) Coolidge tube: X-ray generation
39) microwaves (microwaves): radar or in military applications (night vision devices) - Communications

8
40) The
The deflector
plates ingroup in the cathode
the cathode radiation tube: changing the path of the electron beam to touch the
ray tube
screen point by point until the image is complete
41) Remote sensing: in the discovery of forensic evidence and identification of sources of natural wealth and in
medicine and military applications
42) Night vision devices: seeing moving objects in the dark
43) Wien’s Law: Calculating the temperature of any object such as stars and others, given the wavelength and
vice versa
44) The electric field or the potential difference between the cathode and the target in a Coolidge tube:
gives electrons high energy and speed until they hit the target forcefully.
45) The filament in a Coolidge tube: a source of electrons
46) Laser device: It is used to weld the retina in the eye, and in medicine, industry, body imaging, and others
47) The objective lens in the spectrometer: collecting the rays of each wavelength or color of the analyzed
spectrum into a specific focus.
48) Pn junction (reverse connection of the binary link): AC rectification half-wave
49) Resonant Cavity: Amplification and amplification (increasing the number of photons) by means of
chromatic reflections
50) Reference rays: interference with the rays reflected from the body to form the encoded image on the
hologram
51) Analog to digital converter in TV transmitting stations: It converts signals from analog to digital
52) Laser radiation in the treatment of retinal detachment: welding the retina in the eye and protecting it
from retinal detachment causes high intensity
53) Laser beams in the military fields: missile guidance with high precision, atomic bombs and laser radar
54) De Broglie principle: Electron microscope
55) Transistor as a switch: used in logic gates and electronic circuits
56) Impure semiconductors: the work of binary conductors that are used as switches, rectifiers, and the work
of a transistor
57) Logic gates: used in computer circuits, means of communication, and logical operations in gates
58) Digital electronics technology: used in mobile phones, computers, laser discs, and others
59) Diode: rectifying alternating current and as a switch on- off

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D) Explain:
1) The resistance of a conductor decreases with increasing cross-sectional area with constant length and
temperature?
Because the relationship between area and resistance is an inverse relationship
2) The resistance of a wire changes with temperature?
Because the increase in temperature increases the amplitude of vibration of the metal particles, and thus the
collision of the electrons of the electric current with the particles of the metal increases, so the resistance to the
flow of electrons increases, so the resistance changes
3) The scales of both the H.W.A and the ohmmeter are not uniform?
The ohmmeter is irregular because the intensity of the current is inversely proportional to the sum of several
resistances, only the unknowns that do not change, so they are not regular, and the thermal ammeter is
proportional to the deviation with the square of the current, not the current, where the Q 𝛼 I2
4) The same conductor may have more than one resistance at the same temperature?
If the conductor is in the form of a rectangle , according to the entry of the current on any base and the exit from
the opposite face, and the faces differ in area and length

5) Two parallel wires are attracted if the current flows in them in the same direction, and the two wires
repel if the current in them is opposite?
If they are in the same direction, the resultant magnetic flux density between the two wires is less than the one
outside them, so a magnetic force is generated that moves the two wires from the highest position in density to
the lowest, and the two wires are attracted.
If they are different in direction, the resultant magnetic flux density between the two wires is greater than the
one outside them, so a magnetic force is generated that moves the two wires from the highest position in density
to the lowest, and the two wires repel each other.
6) Two parallel wires, separated by a distance, carrying an electric current, and having no neutral point
of equilibrium?
Because if the two currents are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, there is no neutral point of
equilibrium
7) The average alternating current strength over a full cycle is zero, but the average power over a full
cycle is not zero?
Because in the first half of the circuit the current is positive and the second half is negative while the energy of
the first half of the circuit is positive and the second half is also positive because the energy is equal to the
square of the current in the resistance where the higher energy is in the form of heat
8) galvanometer scale pointer is made of Aluminum?
So that it is light so as not to affect the torque

10
9) Does the backward emf play a role in protecting the coil in the motor?
Because the original current, if it passes through the coil, may lead to its burning or damage, because the current
is strong, and the reverse EMF is less than this current, so the total current in the coil decreases
10) The motor speed is regular even though the torque is not constant?
It is due to the backward EMF that maintains the motor speed
11) Is there no transformer that is 100% efficient or perfect?
Because there is no loss of part of the electrical energy in the form of heat - the energy of the wires is lost, and
in the heart - part of the primary to secondary flux is lost
12) Wounding the wires composed of coils double coiled?
Until the magnetic flux does not exist or the self-inductance vanishes because the field of the other winding and
the coil becomes inductive and non-reactive and only its resistance remains (To over come self induction)

13) Could a coil operating on an alternating source be damaged when the source is replaced by another
continuous one with the same effective electromotive force?
The coil has resistance only with the Dc source , but with the alternating source it has ohmic resistance and
inductive reactance for that current.
14) EMF is generated in the motor coil when it rotates between the poles of the magnet (uniform motor
speed)?
To generate a backward emf and a reverse current that works to regularize and stabilize the rotation speed of the
coil
15) Transformer doesn’t work on DC source?
Because the direct current creates a constant magnetic flux and generates an instantaneous induced emf, the
theory of transformer work depends on mutual induction or a variable flux.
16) Divide the silicon iron cylinder in the dynamo and the motor into insulated discs?
To reduce the effect of eddy currents, the temperature of the coils does not rise
17) There is a high voltage difference between the two ends of a fluorescent lamp?
Until an electrical discharge occurs and the gas molecules recombine, until the electrons collide with the
fluorescent material of the inner wall, and it lights up in a color as usual.
18) Connect an ohmmeter to a standard resistor and a battery?
It is connected to a resistance to make the pointer deviate to the end of the current scale and the beginning of the
resistance, that is, it is calibrated - and it is connected to a battery that has a constant driving force until the
pointer deviates as a result of the passage of current, i.e. forming an electrical circuit

11
19) The coil of the galvanometer is wrapped around a cylinder of iron soft core ?
To focus the overflow lines, collect them, and make them in the form of radii, and thus the plane of the coil is
always parallel to the overflow, so the torque is a maximum value proportional to the intensity of the current
only
20) The ohmmeter scale is the opposite of the ammeter scale?
Because resistance and current are inversely proportional when the potential difference is constant
21) Does the motor coil continue to rotate in the same direction?
It causes the metal cylinder to split into two isolated halves (due to presence of commutator)
22) Undivided galvanometer cylinder?
Because the galvanometer cylinder is fixed in a constant magnetic field, there are no eddy currents
23) The pointer of the galvanometer in the middle of the scale?
To determine the current flowing in the circuit
24) The growth of the current in a spiral coil whose core is iron is slower than its growth in a straight
wire, and its growth in a metal core is slower of the two?
Current when it grows in a straight wire: it suffers only from ohmic resistance only
Spiral coil with iron core: When the current passes through the turns, the turns are magnetized and a magnetic
field is generated from them that affects the rest of the turns that the current has not reached, as if it were
magnetic approaching them and induced them to generate a reverse induced current
In the metal coil: when the original current collapses, it works as if it were a magnet that moves away from the
rest of the turns, and a direct self-induced current is generated in these turns in the same direction. This current
remains for a period after the original current has disappeared.
25) Could the potential difference across a component of a series circuit be greater than the potential
difference of the source?
In the case of an alternating current circuit with resistance and reactance’s, and the voltages collect vectors, the
voltage difference on one of the components may be greater than the source voltage
26) The average emf generated by a coil over a quarter of a turn is equal to the average emf generated by
a coil over half a turn?
Because the change in the flux during half a cycle is twice the change in the flux during a quarter of a cycle, and
also the time of half a cycle is twice the time of a quarter of a cycle due to the uniformity of the speed, so it is
constant
27) The inductive reactance of a DC current is zero, while the capacitive reactance is infinite?
The inductive reactance of the DC current = zero because f=0  XL=2πfl while the capacitive reactance
XC= frequency = zero, so the capacitive reactance is infinity

12
28) The thermometer
H.W.A scale sections are not equal?
Because the amount of heat generated in the Iridium platinum wire is directly proportional to the square of the
current intensity
29) Increase the magnification power of the electron microscope?
Because the movement energy of the used electrons is very large, that is, their speed is high, so the wavelength
is very small, less than the dimensions of the body, and thus the details of the body can be monitored
30) In the atomic bomb produces enormous
huge energyenergy?
?

To convert mass into energy, it is calculated from the Einstein relation E = mC 2, where the square of the speed
of light is very large, so its energy is large
31) A light microscope is not suitable for seeing and magnifying viruses, while an electron microscope is
suitable for that?
Because the length of the virus is less than the wavelength of light, and the condition for magnification is that
the length of the body is greater than the wavelength used, while in the case of an electron microscope, the
wavelength accompanying the electrons can be controlled so that it is less than the length of the virus.
32) The wavelength of the spectrum characteristic of x-rays depends on the type of target material?
Because the higher the atomic number of the element of the target material, the lower the wavelength of the
produced radiation, as it is the result of several electrons from an outer orbit to an inner orbit in the same atom
of the target material
33) Is helium-neon gas used in gas laser work only?
This is due to the convergence of the energy values of the meta-stable excitation levels in each of them
34) there is a reflective or half-reflective mirror in a helium-neon laser?
To reflect the photons several times between them to allow the opportunity to induce the largest number of
excited neon atoms and amplify the beam until it becomes the maximum intensity that comes out of the semi-
reflective
35) Laser beam propagation in parallel lines?
Due to it’s coherence and monochromaticity and t’s
its intensity remains constant

36) A three-dimensional image of the body is only formed using laser beams?
Because they are coherent rays that are in phase, there is interference between them

37) Can the diode be likened to a circuit switch?

Because it closes and opens the circuit (backward and forward connection)

13
38) ohmmeter is used to check the pn junction ?
Because when measuring and switching its poles, you find that the resistance is either very large or very small
39) X-rays are used to study the structure of crystals?
Because it has the property of diffraction when it passes through the crystals, where interference occurs between
the waves that pass through the atoms, as if they were many openings.
40) The appearance of dark black lines when photographing the spectrum of the sun?
Because the spectrum emanating
emmited from the interior of the sun contains all wavelengths, and when it passes
through the outer shell of the sun, it contains elements in the gaseous state, each element absorbs its own
spectrum, and dark absorption spectrum lines appear, which are Fraunhofer lines
41) Some semiconductors are used as sensors for natural factors?
Because some semiconductors are sensitive to natural factors such as light, heat, pollution, etc., they are used as
sensors
42) Lasers do not obey the inverse square law?
Because the laser beams are parallel (and interconnected) and do not disperse, so the intensity is constant, so it
is not subject to the inverse square law, which states that the intensity is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance.
43) X-ray emission is the reverse process of the photoelectric phenomenon?
Because X-rays are produced from the collision of accelerated Catons with a heavy metal target, high-frequency
electromagnetic waves are produced, while the photoelectric phenomenon causes high-frequency photons to fall
on a metal, electrons are emitted
44) In a Coolidge tube, the line emission required to have a high voltage difference, even though it does
not depend on the voltage difference?
Because it needs high energy to remove the electron from the level close to the nucleus, but its value does not
depend on the potential difference, but depends on the type of target material
45) Not seeing the radiation emmiting
emanating from the earth?
Because the Earth's surface temperature is low, the wavelength associated with the maximum intensity of
radiation is large and falls in the invisible infrared region.
46) The helium-neon laser is an example of converting electrical energy into light and heat energy?
Because it gives electrical energy to excite the atoms and results in a laser beam of light energy and the
emission of infrared rays as a result of falling from higher to lower levels other than laser radiation, which is
thermal energy

14
47) The speed of photoelectric electrons varies from the surface of the same metal falling light of a certain
frequency?
Because according to the difference in proximity or distance from the surface, the surface electrons have a
greater speed than those far from the surface of the metal when the same light falls, where the electron produced
from inside the metal loses part of the energy until it comes out to the surface
48) Speed difference for photoelectrons liberated from the surface of the metal?
Because the photoelectrons are not only liberated from the upper layer of the surface of the metal, but they are
also liberated from the layers following it, and that is because the rays penetrate to a depth that places atoms.
Therefore, the electrons emitted from the inner dish are exposed during their release to collision with the atoms
of the layers, and thus lose some of their energy. As for the surface electrons, they do not. You lose something
in its energy, so it will be faster
49) Linear spectrum appears from high voltage and does not appear with low voltage?
Because the wavelength of the characteristic linear spectrum does not depend on the voltage difference, but it is
necessary for the appearance of a high voltage that gives the accelerated electrons a large energy that can eject
the level electron close to the nucleus outside the atom, so this happens with high voltage only
50) A silicon crystal that contains impurities of boron is called a crystal of what type p ?
Because the concentration of holes is greater than the concentration of electrons
51) Do you prefer digital electrons over analog electrons in electronic devices?
Because digital electrons do not cause noise, and noise can be removed easily, and it is sent in the form of a
code, and it is easy to store and easy to design the circuit for it
52) The base thickness of the transistor must be small?
In order not to lose a large percentage of charge carriers during it, and the distribution constant is close to the
correct one
53) In a transistor circuit, most of the emitter current is directed toward the collector, while the base
current is very small?
Because the thickness of the base is small, it does not consume a large amount of electric charge carriers
54) The presence of defects in the sound and picture in the analog transmitter?
Because there are irregular electrical signals in nature called electrical noise from the random movement of
electrons and works to confuse the electrons

15
E) Compare:
Lenz rule Fleming right hand rule
Determine the direction of the current induced Determine the direction of the current induced in
in a coil that cuts the lines of flux the wire cuts the lines of flux
optical microscope Electron microscope
- light rays are used -Electron rays are used
-Uses glass lenses -He uses electronic lenses
-Viruses cannot grow -It can enlarge viruses
Helium-neon laser beam A fluorescent lamp beam when both of them
pass through the spectrometer
It has one pure wavelength and only one line Many lines appear because the light is impure and
appears in the spectrometer is composed of many wavelengths
The electric motor Sensitive galvanometer in terms of the
direction of current in the coil when connected
to a battery
The current passing in opposite directions in Current flows in one direction in the coil
the coil causes two halves of the cylinder that
indicate mode
Induction coil Non- inductive coil
a) A magnetic field is generated in it when a a) A double wound coil that does not generate a
current is passed through it magnetic field
b) An induced emf is generated in it when the b) No induced emf is generated in it
current in it changes c) The current is growing rapidly
c) The DC in it grows slowly and collapses d) It does not have a reactance with the
slowly reciprocating source
d) Its reactor is generated when it is
connected to an alternating source
analog measuring devices Digital measuring devices
It depends on reading an indicator, including It relies on reading a digital meter whose value
measuring voltage, current and resistance indicates the voltage, current or resistance on a
small screen without an indicator and it relies on
digital electronics
Dynamo The engine in terms of the splited metal
cylinder and the number of turns
a) Uni-direction of the current by switching a) Unify the direction of the torque by alternating
its brushes every half cycle its brush contacts every half cycle
b) Stabilizes the current intensity - the b) Torque stabilization and increases engine
induced emf increases power and efficiency
Cases that generate backward induced emf Cases that generate forward induced emf
Increase in current - decrease in resistance - Reducing the current - increasing the resistance -
increase in current - bring the coil or magnet decreasing the current - removing the coil or
closer together - close the circuit - insert the magnet - opening the circuit - removing the
primary coil into the secondary coil primary coil inside the secondary coil

16
 Strong characteristic line spectrum Soft continuous spectrum in terms of the cause
of the occurrence
It results from the collision of the accelerating The effect of the electric field of the target atoms
electron emitted from the cathode with one of results in the blocking of the accelerating electron
the electrons in the energy levels close to the emitted from the cathode, so energy decreases
nucleus, which may cause it to leave the atom due to collision and scattering.
and be replaced by an electron from a higher
level.
The electric motor The galvanometer with a moving coil in terms
of the direction of the current
The direction
Current of thehalf
reversed each current changes
cycle due every
ti commutator The direction of the current does not change
and force but torque half
still in one direction
cycle
Direction of rotation of the electric motor The polarity of the diode connection in terms
coil of the method used
Fleming left hand rule Ohmmeter
Photon or electron in terms of loss in the following phenomena
The process of the photoelectric effect In which the incident photon loses all its energy
phenomenon to one of the electrons associated with the surface
of the material
The continuous process of emitting x-rays In which the accelerated electron gradually loses
its energy as a result of collisions and scattering
with the atoms of the substance
Compton phenomenon In which the incident photon loses part of its
energy to a free electron inside the material
line X-ray emission process In which the accelerating electron loses part or all
of its energy to one of the electrons in the inner
levels of the atom of the substance
The negative sign in Faraday Negative sign in Lens
It means that the direction of the emf The direction of the induced current is such that it
generated in the coil is opposite to the opposes the change causing it
direction in the case of an increase or
decrease in the magnetic field that cuts the
coil turns
Phenomena that scientifically explain the Phenomena that scientifically explain the
microscopic model macroscopic model
Compton phenomenon - photoelectric X-ray diffraction - reflection of light
phenomenon
cathode rays Lasers
It is negative electrons that deviate in the Electromagnetic waves have a constant speed of
electric and magnetic fields can be light
accelerated
normal photography Holography
a) The image results from the difference in a) The image results from the intensity difference,
intensity only. The image is flat the phase difference, and the path difference
b) use normal light b) The image is 3stereoscopic
dimensionalin a three-way laser

17
F:Rules name

Name Law
1 Ohm’s law R=

2 Ohm’s law for closed circuit It =

3 Power lost in wire P = I 2R

4 Power of battery P = V B. × I
st
5 1 Kirchhoff law (node) I = I or I =0
6 2nd Kirchhoff law (loop) V = IR or V =0
7 Ampere circular law B=
µ

8 Faraday’s law emf = -N

∆∅
∆

9 Wien’s law λ T
=
λ T

10 Einstein law for atomic bomb E = mc2

11 Einstein for photo electric effect Ein = Ew + K.E

12 De-Broglie relation h
λ=
P

13 3-d image Phase =

. .

14 Mass action law n x p = ni2

15 𝜃 (5 f elmanhag) a) 𝜙 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 (wire - m.f)
b) F = BILsin 𝜃 (wire – m.f)
c) emf = BLVsin 𝜃 (dir. of motion – m.f)
d) τ = BIANsin 𝜃 (⊥ to coil – m.f)
E)emf = NABw sin 𝜃 ((⊥ to coil – m.f )

18
G:Measuring units:

Equivalent units Physical quantity

1. J/c =J/S.A = volt =
𝐰𝐞𝐛
= kg.m2 .s -3 .A-1 (potential difference)
𝐬

2. A = C/S = V/Ω (current intensity)

3. J/S = Watt =V.c/s = V.A =A2.Ω =V2.Ω (POWER)

4. N =Kgm.s-2 (force – weight)

5. kgm2 .s-3 .A-2 = V/A= Ohm =Web/c Resistance

6. ohm. m = v.m/A RESISTIVITY

7. coulomb = A.S = Farad. volt Quantity of charge

8. second = Hz-1 = farad. volt/A = Time

Farad.Ω
𝐍 𝐕.𝐒
9. 𝐀.𝐦 = Tesla = 𝐦𝟐 =
𝐰𝐞𝐛 (Magnetic flux density)
𝐦𝟐

10. web =
𝐍.𝐦
= V.S = T.m2 (Magnetic flux)
𝐀

11. Tesla. m/A = web/A. m = N/A2 (Magnetic permeability coefficient)

𝐍.𝐦
12. A.m2 = 𝐓𝐞𝐬𝐥𝐚= Kg .m2 / sec 2 .T (Magnetic dipole moment)

13. J.S/m = kg m/s (Linear momentum)

14. J.S = Kgm2 .s-1 = J/Hz=watt.s2 (Plank’s constant)

15. H=V.S/A=Ω.S=Web/A Self-inductance

16. Rad/sec , degree / sec Angular velocity

17. Z – R –XL – Xc Ohm

19
 18. Capacitance of capacitor Farad = Coulomb /volt

19. Efficiency of transformer – current No unit

gain – current distribution -

H . factors affecting on : lazm t5ly balk mnha :

Resistivity – conductivity Temp – kind
kinf of material ( msh length
lebhth w area )
M Core – N – distance – vol ( msh current )
L Core – N – distance – geometry of coil msh current )
Sensitivity of galvanometer B – A-N – friction – spring torque (msh angle w current )
Direction of force on wire Direction of current – direction of m.F
Polarity of C.C + solenoid Direction of current
Vce in transistor Connection of base ( if F  Vce small / if B  Vce high )
Direction of current in R Potential of terminals of this wire ( current pass from high to low voltage )
No of free e or holes in pure Temp ( as temp increase  no of free charge increase )
crystal
Kind of force between 2 wires Direction of current in both ( if same  attraction , if opposite  repulsion

I ) non uniform devices :

a) Ohmmeter ( wide then decrease divisions )  due to we put Rx only on scale not Rt
b) Hot wire ammeter (small then increase divisions )  due to θ ά I2

J) some Important materials in physics

Core of transformer Silicon soft iron

Wire of coil in transformer Thick cu wires
Brushes in dynamo Carbon of graphite
Target in Coolidge tube Tungsten (high atomic no + high melting point )
Wire in hot wire ammeter Platinum – iridium (sensitive for current )
Cathode in photo cell Cesium (low work function )
Active medium – lasing medium in He-Ne Ne atoms
Doping atoms to obtain n type Phosphorous – antimony
Doping atoms to obtain p type AL – boron
Glass of laser tube Quartz
Cylinder of galvanometer + dynamo + motor Fe (high permeability )

20
K)affect of temp on :
a)cu wire : resistance increase and free electrons still same
b)si crystal : conductivity increase till certain limit (free charge increase  ni  increase )

L)state condition of : when ?

Wire affected by force Lies between 2 regions of different magnetic flux
density and move toward weak region
Coil affected by torque Carry a current and placed not normal to m.F
Transistor switch on Base (p) connected forward
Transistor switch off Base(p) connected backward
Light incident on metal and emit electrons with k.E Frequency of incident light > critical frequency of
metal
Amplify minute object by microscope Wavelength of microscope < or equal dimension of
object
Current pass from low voltage to high Inside source of electricity
No neutral point formed between 2 wires carry a Current in 2 wires equal and opposite so no neutral
current point formed
Galvanometer read weak current and it’s pointer When torque in coil = that for spiral springs (eqm)
indicate it
Hot wire ammeter read effective value of passing When quantity of heat in wire = that out from wire to
current surrounding
As frequency of incident light > critical one for metal Special case : when bounded energy of level of e
and no electrons ejected from metal more than energy of incident light so e not liberated
Stimulated emission E of incident photon = difference between two
energy level + photon pass before life time end of
level
3D image Laser beam take information from body + meet with
reference beam (laser ) at hologram + bright the
hologram with laser no 3 to solve the code
Obtain pure spectrum from spectrograph Open at focus of lens + prism at min deviation + each
color parallel to each other

21
M:Important Graphs
1) Battery in case Rule 𝑽 = 𝑽𝑩 − 𝑰𝒓
of discharge
Slope = - r

2) Battery in case Rule 𝑽 = 𝑽𝑩 + 𝑰𝒓

of recharge
Slope = r

3) Ammeter 𝑰𝒈 ×𝑹𝒈
Rule 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒈 +
𝑹𝒔

Slope = 𝑽𝒈 = 𝑰𝒈 𝑹𝒈

4) Voltmeter Rule 
𝑰 = 𝑽𝒈 + 𝑰𝒈 𝑹𝒎
V

Slope = 𝑰𝒈

22
5) Stages of AB  Backward induction
induced BC constant current
current (No induction )

CD forward induction

6) Time of
growth 𝑪 𝑩 𝑨

𝑪 𝑩 𝑨

7) Dynamo starts
rotates from
perpendicular
position

8) Dynamo starts
rotates from
Parallel
position

9) Relation
between R &
Frequency in
(R-circuit)

23
10) Vector V & I are in the same phase
diagram of
(R-circuit)

11) Phase
diagram of
(R-circuit)

12) Vector V leads I by 90

diagram of Or
(L-circuit) I lags V by 90

13) Phase
diagram of
(L-circuit)

24
14) Vector I leads V by 90
diagram of Or
(C-circuit) V lags I by 90

15) Phase
diagram of
(C-circuit)

16) Relation Q & V are in the same phase

between Q &
V of capacitor
connected to
Dc source

17) Phase
diagram of
R-L circuit

25
18) Phase
diagram of
R-C circuit

19) Phase
diagram of
R-L-C circuit Vt(1)
Z Note :

Vt(2) Vt(1) if V(L) > V(C)

θ
θ Z Vt(2) if V(L) = V(C)
Vt(3) if V(L) < V(C)
Z
Vt(3)

20) Relation
between
XL,XC,R,Z,I
with F

26
21) Relation
between
wavelength &
current
intensity
(Wien’s Law)

22) Relation When 𝝂 > 𝝂𝑪

between
current &
intensity of
light

23) Relation When 𝝂 < 𝝂𝑪

between
current &
intensity of
light

24) Relation Note intersection part with

between K.E X axis is called frequency
and critical
Frequency
And slope = h (Plank const)

Rule: E = Ew + K.E

27
25) Relation Wavelength (1,2) are line X-
between rays
current
intensity and
wavelength Wavelength (Min) is
of X-rays continuous X-ray

26) Relation Note : Line X ray affected by

between type of target only (atomic
current number) & doesn’t affect by
intensity and potential difference
wavelength between target and
of X-rays on filament
changing
atomic
number of Note when atomic number
target increase  Wavelength of
line X-ray decrease while
continuous wavelength
remains constant

27) Relation Note : continuous X ray

between affected by potential
current difference between target
intensity and and filament only & doesn’t
wavelength affect by type of target
of X-rays on (atomic number)
changing
potential
difference
between Note when Potential
target and difference between
filament filament and target increase
 Wavelength of
continuous X-ray decrease
while
line X-ray wavelength
remains constant

28
28) Relation Region of (X, Z) is forward
between connection (Key closed)
current and
voltage of And region (Y) is reveres
pn junction connection (Backward) no
current pass (Key open)

29) Transistor as If Vout is large  Vin is

inverter small

If Vout is small  Vin is

large

30) Transistor 𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪

Slope = - RC

29
M:Important Drawings
1) Traditional current 2)Real Current (Electron direction)

3)Magnetic flux density for circular 4)Magnetic flux density for solenoid
coil

5)Two wires in same direction 6) Two wires in opposite direction

7) Two perpendicular wires 8)Two coils are perpendicular

2 2
B1 B2

30
9) Attraction magnetic force 10) Repulsion magnetic force

11) Galvanometer 12) Ammeter

13)Voltmeter 14) Ohmmeter

15) Dynamo 16)Motor

31
17) Commutator 18) Hotwire Ammeter

19)Oscillating circuit 20) Tunning Circuit

21)CRT 22) Photocell

23)Compton effect 24) De Broglie exp

32
25) Energy levels in H atom 26)Coolidge Tube

27)Spectrometer 28)Helium Neon Laser device

29) He -Ne emission 30)Hologram

31)Forward connection (Pn junction) 32) Backward connection (Pn junction)

33
33)Transistor as key open 34)Transistor as key closed

35)Not gate 36) AND gate

37)OR gate

34
N:Important Notes

35
36
37
38
39