1.

PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES AND FUNDAMENTALS

1.1. ELECTRICITY

1.1.1. Current

In accordance with the electron theory, an electric current is defined as an orderly movement of
electrons from one part of a circuit to another. To obtain this movement in a simple electric circuit,
it is necessary to have a source of electrical pressure (cell or generator) and a complete external
electric circuit comprising a system of conductors connected to the source. In such a circuit, the
conventional flow is from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. The actual movement of
the electrons is from the negative terminal, where there is an excess of electrons, to the positive
terminal where there is deficit. Each electron, being a minute negative charge of electricity, is
always attracted to a positive charge. Figure 2.1 shows a portion of a conductor within which there
is an electric field of intensity E.
In a metallic conductor the entire current is due to the motion of the free charges and thus in a
metallic conductor electrons move in the opposite direction to the conventional current. The value
of this current is given by the relation:

FIG.2.1. Negative charges crossing a section from right to left are equivalent to positive charges
crossing from left to right.
Q
I= (2.1)
t
Where Q is the net charge flowing across the section in time t . The value of current in MKS
units is in amperes; one ampere represents a quantity of one coulomb of charge flowing per
second.

1.1.2. Voltage

The charge has an associated potential energy because of its position. The electrical potential
difference is defined in terms of potential energy per unit charge. The potential difference between
two points is the work that has to be done to move a unit positive charge between them. This work
has to be done to move the charge against the electric force that is acting on it.
V =¿ Energy to move charge / charge moved (2.2)
The unit of potential difference is the “volt” when the energy is in joules and the charge is in
coulombs.
1 volt =1 joule/coulomb (2.3)
If there is a potential difference of 10 volts between two points in an electrical circuit, this means
that 10 J are needed to move 1C between them.

1.1.3. Resistance

Resistance is opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of current in a circuit, measured in

Ohms. Resistance depends upon:
a) The length of the conductor.
b) The cross-sectional area.

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c) The material of the conductor
d) The temperature of the conductor
The potential difference is proportional to the current, provided there is no change in the physical
state of the conductor.
As, V is proportional to current I , this means:

V =R . I (2.4)
Where R is a constant
The constant R is known as resistance of the conductor. The relation (4) is known as Ohm's law.
The unit of resistance is Ohm which is equal to a flow of current of one ampere through any
conductor held at a potential difference of one volt. The value of resistance for a conductor depends
upon the nature, dimensions and the physical state of the conductor. For a conductor of length L
and area of cross section A , its resistance value is given as:
R=r . L/ A (2.5)
Where r is a constant known as resistivity and its value depends upon the nature of the material.

1.1.4. Alternating current

If we wish to maintain a continuous current in a conductor, we have to maintain a field, i.e. a

potential difference, within it. If the field reverses its direction periodically the flow of charge
reverses and the current is thus alternating between the two constant maximum positive and
minimum negative values. The current changes its amplitude every half cycle as seen in Figure 2.2
(b). In the curve, also recognized as sine wave, we see that the current attains the maximum positive
value starting from zero in half of the cycle and an equal time is required to reach maximum of
negative amplitude value.

1.1.5. Direct current

A direct current shall be flowing in any conductor if the applied field is always in the same direction
even though it may fluctuate in magnitude, Figure 2.2(a). The lead storage batteries and other forms
of cells are true sources of direct current. Use of rectifiers and filters helps in obtaining direct
current from AC sources.

A device used to convert AC to DC is the rectifier which permits current to flow in one direction
only. When a simple rectifier is applied to the AC current pattern in Figure2.2 (b) the result is the
half wave pattern shown in Figure2.2(c). With refinements, such rectifiers can be used to pass all
the AC and then the pattern of Figure2.2 (d) evolves.

AC is also available in three phase circuits. This provides three cycles that follow each other at
interval of 60 degree. When these peaks are full-wave rectified, a very smooth DC is obtained
Figure2.2 (e).

Continuous direct current, alternating current and half wave direct current (HWDC) are used as
magnetizing currents in magnetic particle testing. Each has its own advantages and limitations
depending upon the particular application.

1.2. MAGNETISM

The origin of the magnetism is due to the spin motion of the electrons. Each electron in an atom
besides spinning around its nucleus also spins on an axis through it. The rotation and spin give rise
to magnetic field. The net resultant of their currents or spins is to either cancel the net field or
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strengthen the resultant field. The atom thus behaves as a tiny magnet and is called a magnetic
dipole. The magnetic fields of all such atoms are responsible for the magnetic behaviour of the
substance made of these atoms.
A magnet is a material which has the following special properties:

a) It attracts other magnetic materials such as iron and some other metals. The magnet has an
associated field in its surrounding area.
b) The field lines originate from the north poles and enter into the magnet through south pole.
However, within the magnetic material the field lines travel from south to north pole.
c) All magnets obey the basic rule of attraction and repulsion of other magnets by their respective
poles, i.e. like poles repel and opposite poles attract each other.
d) A tiny magnet such as of compass needle will align itself parallel to earth's magnetic fields, i.e.
in north south direction.

FIG.2.2. Alternating and direct currents

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1.2.1. Magnetic poles

Poles are the points near each end of a magnet where the magnetism appears to be concentrated.
The poles are distinguished by letters N “north seeking” and S “south seeking”. The force of
attraction or repulsion between like poles is given by Coulomb’s law:
m1 x m 2
F= (2.6)
µr 2
Where {m} rsub {1} and m} rsub {2} ¿ are strengths of two poles and r is the distance between
them. µ is known as the permeability of the medium in which the poles are situated.

1.2.2. Permanent magnets

Permanent magnets are produced by heat treatment specially formulated alloys in a strong magnetic
field. During the heat treatment process, the magnetic domains become aligned and remain aligned
after removal of the external field. The magnetic materials suitable for permanent magnets require
certain properties. Such materials are to be magnetically hard and have the following
characteristics.
a) High remanence so that a high degree of magnetism is retained in the absence of a magnetic
field.
b) High coercive field so that it is difficult to demagnetize the material.
c) A large area enclosed by the hysteresis loop, this being a consequence of it having a high
remanence and high coercive force and this is a vital feature since high energy is then needed
to demagnetize.
Commercial permanent magnets will last indefinitely if not subjected to high temperatures, to
physical shock, or to a strong demagnetizing field. If the magnet becomes hot, however, the
molecular structure can be rearranged, resulting in loss of magnetism that is not recovered after
cooling. The point at which a magnetic material loses its ferromagnetic properties is the Curie
temperature. For iron, this temperature is about 800°C, when the relative permeability drops to
unity. A permanent magnet does not become exhausted with use, as its magnetic properties are
determined by the structure of the internal atoms and molecules.

FIG.2.3. Hysteresis loops for typical ferromagnetic materials.

Common examples of permanent magnetic materials include alloys of aluminium, nickel and cobalt
(alnico); copper, nickel and cobalt (cunico); copper, nickel and iron (cunife); and cobalt and
molybdenum (comol).

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1.2.3. Temporary magnets

Materials, such as mild steel which are easily magnetizable, lose part or whole of the magnetism on
removal of the applied field. The magnetic domains which align themselves with the applied field
are thus easily disturbed on the removal of the external field leaving the material partially
magnetized Figure 2.4.

1.2.4. Ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials

Materials can be grouped into three categories:

1.2.4.1.____Ferromagnetic materials
Ferromagnetic materials are materials which have relative permeabilities considerably greater
than 1. Ferromagnetic materials are metals. These materials become strongly magnetized in the
same direction as the magnetizing field. Examples of ferromagnetics are iron, cobalt,
gadolinium and nickel.
1.2.4.2.____Paramagnetic materials
These are materials which have relative permeability slightly greater than one. When such
materials are placed in an intense magnetic field, there is a slight alignment of the electron
spin in the direction of the magnetic flux flow. This alignment exists only as long as the
paramagnetic material is in the external magnetic field. Aluminium, platinum, stainless steel,
vacuum, air, wood, CuSO4 and solid oxygen are examples of paramagnetic materials.
1.2.4.3.____Diamagnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials have a relative permeability less than 1 and the susceptibility is
negative. Bismuth, Ag, Au, Pb, copper, mercury and water are examples of diamagnetic
materials.

1.2.5. Magnetic fields

Magnetic field is described as the area surrounding the magnetized material or magnet where
the effects of the lines of force can be felt. The effect can be repulsive or attractive. The
direction of the magnetic field is defined by the direction in which an isolated North pole (if it
could exist of its own) would tend to move.

1.2.6. Leakage field

1.2.6.1.____Sound material
The basic idea of magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is to locate and identify discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials. Let us examine how a magnetic field can assist us in doing this. Figure
2.4 represents a longitudinal cross section through a piece of magnetized material.

FIG.2.4.
In the absence of a crack or discontinuity, the lines of the magnetic field pass from one end of
the object to the other without breaking through the surface.

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 1.2.6.2.____Surface discontinuity
In the presence of a discontinuity Figure 2.5 some lines of the magnetic field may emerge from
the object and pass through the air.
If very small ferromagnetic particles were sprinkled over the surface of the object shown in
Figure 2.5 they would be attracted and held by the leakage field in the region of the
discontinuity. Even though the discontinuity may be too small to be visible to the unaided eye,
the magnetic field may still be disturbed enough to attract a sufficient number of fine particles
to present a visible indication. These particles may be coloured to make them more visible and
thus make the inspection method more sensitive. Even if the discontinuity is not open to the
surface, Figure 2.6a, the field may be disturbed sufficiently to emerge from the object. Magnetic
particles may then be attracted to the surface just above its location.

FIG.2.5.
1.2.6.3.____Internal discontinuity
A discontinuity that lies deep within the object, however, may not disturb the lines of force
sufficiently to cause them to emerge from the surface. In this case there would be no attraction
of the particles and no surface indication Figure 2.6(b).

FIG.2.6.
In Figure 2.5 we saw the effect of a crack, and in Figure 2.6 the effect of a near surface
discontinuity on the magnetic field. Since the permeability of air is much lower than that of the
ferromagnetic materials, the lines of flux tend to pass through the air outside the bounds of
material. This effect may be predicted mathematically by using the relationship.
B=µH (2.7)
By decreasing m and leaving H unchanged, the value of B will be smaller. This means a lower
flux density will exist in air. The flux or field in air above the discontinuity is known as leakage
flux or leakage field.
1.2.6.4.____Orientation of discontinuities
A discontinuity oriented parallel to the magnetic field in the object will have far less effect on
the field than a discontinuity perpendicular to the field.
Since the discontinuity at “b” in Figure 2.7 disrupts the magnetic field very little, there would
be few if any magnetic particles attracted to it. Discontinuity “a” however causes considerable
disruption of the magnetic field causing some lines of flux to leave the material. Magnetic
particles would be more readily attracted to the surface near “a” marking the discontinuity more
detectable.
The test sensitivity will then be best for discontinuities oriented 90° to the field direction, with
tolerable results possible down to about 75°.

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 FIG.2.7.

1.2.7. Lines of force

The direction and intensity of a field surrounding a magnet can be shown by drawing
imaginary 'lines of force' to indicate the path that an isolated N pole would take if it were free
to move. How close together the lines are drawn depends on the field strength. Lines of field
around a bar magnet and horse shoe magnet are as shown in Figure 2.8 and Figure 2.9.

FIG.2.8: Lines of magnetic force of a bar magnet by means of a small compass needle.

FIG.2.9: Magnetic lines of force of a horse shoe magnet.

Lines of force have the following properties:

a) They are in a state of longitudinal tension and tend to contract in length.
b) They take parallel paths and, acting in the same direction, tend to repel one another. They
never intersect.
c) They emerge from the North Pole and enter the south pole, forming a closed loop through
the magnet.
d) Non- magnetic materials are transparent to lines of force.
e) They are deflected by and tend to pass through magnetic materials and in doing so they
induce magnetism into that material.

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1.2.8. Magnetic field around a conductor

It was noted by Danish physicist Hans Oersted that an electric current in a wire deflects a
nearby compass needle. Since a magnetic needle is deflected only in a magnetic field, it can
be easily concluded that a current in a wire produces a magnetic field around it. The field is
circular and is stronger closer to the wire and becomes weaker as the distance from the wire
increases.

FIG.2.10: Illustration of the right hand rule.

The direction of the lines of force is given by right hand rule which states, "if the wire is
grasped in the right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers of
the hand will circle the wire in the direction of the magnetic field Figure 2.10.

1.2.9. Field distribution in magnetic and nonmagnetic conductors

1.2.9.1.____General
Either a solid or hollow central conductor is used in magnetic particles testing of hollow articles
such as pipe, tubing, rings, flanges, nuts, etc. The magnetic field strength within and around a
current carrying conductor varies with the type, size, and shape of the conductor, i.e. length,
diameter, and material.
1.2.9.2.____Solid nonmagnetic conductor
When current is passed directly through a solid, nonmagnetic conductor, such as a copper bar,
the following observations hold true:
a) The magnetic field strength varies from zero at the centre to a maximum at the surface.
b) The field strength at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of the conductor
increases; for example, if the current is held constant and the radius of the conductor is
doubled, the field strength at the surface is halved. However, the larger conductor is capable
of carrying more current.
c) When current is increased, the field strength increases in proportion, i.e., doubling the
current doubles the field strength.
d) The field strength outside the conductor diminishes with the distance from the centre f the
central conductor. For example, the field at two times the radius from the centre is half the
field at the surface Figure 2.11.
1.2.9.3.____Solid magnetic conductor
The strength of a field within a solid magnetic conductor, such as ferromagnetic steel, is much
greater than in a solid nonmagnetic conductor because of the permeability of steel. Thefield
strength outside a solid magnetic conductor is exactly the same as with a non-magnetic
conductor if the current and radius are unchanged Figure 2.12.

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 FIG.2.11: Field distribution in and around a solid nonmagnetic conductor.

FIG.2.12: Field distribution in and around a solid magnetic conductor.

1.2.9.4.____Hollow non-magnetic conductor
In a hollow, non-magnetic, circular conductor there is no current flow within the void. The
field, zero at the centre of the void, increases to maximum at the outer surface. If a hollow
non-magnetic and a solid non-magnetic conductor have the same outer diameter and the same
current flow, then the outer surface field strengths are equal. Figure 2.13 illustrates the field
distribution in and around a hollow non-magnetic conductor.

FIG.2.13: Field distribution in and around a hollow non-magnetic conductor.

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 1.2.9.5.____Hollow magnetic conductor
When a hollow magnetic conductor is used, the permeability factor is again considered.
Referring to Figure 2.14, the field strength at the outer surface of a hollow magnetic conductor
is the same as that for the solid magnetic conductor, if their outer diameter and current flow are
identical. The field strength at the inner surface is zero and the field outside the conductor is the
same as for other conductors Figure 2.15.

FIG.2.14: Field distribution in and around a hollow magnetic conductor.

FIG.2.15: Field distribution in and around a hollow magnetic cylinder with central
conductor.

1.2.10. Alternating current field distribution

In the foregoing discussion the use of direct current (DC) magnetization has been assumed;
however, most of the rules concerning field distribution do not hold true when alternating
current (AC) magnetization is used. Alternating current tends to flow near the surface of a
conductor, even at commercial frequencies (50 cycles) this tendency is appreciable. This
phenomena is known as “skin effect”.
1.2.10.1.___Solid magnetic conductor
In the case of a solid magnetic conductor carrying alternating current, the field distribution is
similar to that shown in Figure 2.16. The field strength outside the conductor at any instant
decreases in exactly the same way as when direct current is used as the magnetizing force. It
must be remembered however, that while alternating current is flowing, the field is constantly
varying both in strength and direction.

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 1.2.10.2.___Hollow magnetic conductor
Similar differences in field distribution also occur with a hollow magnetic conductor, when
alternating current is used for magnetization. This is shown in Figure 2.17.

1.2.11. Direct current residual fields

Residual circular fields remaining in magnetic conductors after DC magnetizing current is

removed will be distributed in much the same pattern as when the current was flowing. When
the DC is reduced to zero, the field will have less intensity, will conform to the distribution
pattern shown in Figure 6.15 and, there will be substantially no field external to the conductor.
When longitudinal magnetization is used, interruption of the magnetizing DC results in
transient currents being induced inside the specimen. These transient currents may slightly
modify the strength and direction of the residual field.

FIG.2.16: Field distribution in and around a solid magnetic

conductor carrying alternating current.

FIG.2.17: Field distribution in and around a hollow magnetic

conductor carrying alternating current.

1.2.12. Alternating current residual fields

When alternating current used for magnetization is gradually reduced to zero, no residual field
remains in the magnetized article. The article will be completely demagnetized. When the AC is
suddenly interrupted, a residual field may remain depending upon the point in the current cycle
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where the interruption occurs. Distribution of any residual circular field remaining after the
interruption of the magnetizing AC will be approximately the same as that shown in Figures
2.16 and 2.17.

1.2.13. Solenoid

A solenoid is a long tightly wound, cylindrical coil of wire. The magnetic field produced by a
solenoid is shown in Figure 2.18. The lines of force are continuous as in a bar magnet. The field
in the middle of the solenoid is uniform and much stronger whereas it is negligibly weak
outside the solenoid.
Solenoid is an air-cored coil, the axial length being several times greater than the diameter of
the turns comprising it. The magnetic field strength of the coil is proportional to:
a) The number of turns.
b) The magnitude of the current.
c) The radius of the coil.

FIG.2.18: Field around solenoid or coil.

The value of flux density B is given by the formula.

B=µ0n I (2.8)
Where
µ0is the permeability of the free space.
n is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid.
I is the current.

1.2.14. Electromagnet

An electromagnet is a form of magnet whose magnetism lasts till the time the current is flowing
into the wound coil over a soft iron piece. The coil wound in the form of a solenoidconcentrates
the magnetic field in a smaller space. This field is however enhanced to a very large extent
when this coil is wound over a soft magnetic material with a very high permeability. The
strength of this magnetic field varies directly as the product of current and number of turns of
coil per unit length. Besides the application of electromagnet as magnetizing units for magnetic
particle testing such as electromagnetic yokes, there are various other applications in industry
such as relays, lifting magnets, buzzers, bells or chimes and recording heads, etc.

1.2.15. Magnetic flux

The closeness of magnetic lines of force existing in and around magnetized material is a
measure of strength or magnetic flux in that region. A single line of force represents 1 unit of
magnetic flux. Flux is symbolized by Greek letter ɸ (phi) and is measured in units called

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maxwells. A large unit of magnetic flux is known as weber. One weber (Wb) equals 1 x10 8 lines
or maxwells. Gauss and tesla are unit of flux density in CGS and SI system.

1.2.16. Magnetising force

Magnetization force or magnetic field intensity can be defined by the force that would be
experienced by an isolated north pole of strength 1 unit when placed in that field. Field strength
is measured in unit called oersted (Oe). If a magnetic pole of m units experiences a force of F
dynes in a magnetic field, the strength of field at that point is:
F
H= oersteds (2.9)
M
Where 1 oersted (Oe) = 1 gilbert
The intensity of field around a long straight wire is related to the current by the formula:
I
H= (2.10)
2 πr
Where H is the field strength in A.t/m (amperes-turn/metre) at a point r from the wire and I is
current in amperes.

1.2.17. Reluctance

Reluctance is a term related with the magnetism and is a measure of opposition or resistance
offered by the material to the applied magnetic field or magnetization force to magnetize it. The
material with high permeability has low reluctance and vice versa. Reluctance is analogous to
resistance in an electric circuit. Reluctance of the material determines the magnitude of flux
produced, as given by the simple relation:
F
ɸ= (2.11)
R
Where
ɸ = flux (in webers)
F = magneto-motive force in amps-turns
R = reluctance

1.2.18. Hysteresis

Certain ferromagnetic materials when magnetized do not return to a completely demagnetized

state when the magnetizing force is removed. To completely demagnetize the material a certain
reverse magnetic force must be applied unless the material is heated above the Curie point for
that material or the material is mechanically worked. If a variable external field is applied to a
virgin specimen and both the external field and the degree of magnetization or flux density are
measured, a curve representative of the material can be plotted as in Figure 2.19. This curve is
known as hysteresis curve. Hysteresis is the retardation of the magnetic effect when the
magnetizing force H acting on the ferromagnetic material is changed. The point at which there
is no magnetization and no force applied is represented by (o). By increasing the magnetizing
force in small increments the flux increases rapidly at first then slowly until the maximum flux
or saturation point (a) is reached. A further increase in the magnetizing force H will not increase
the flux density B. The rise in flux density is shown by the line o-a. If the magnetic force is now
gradually reduced back to zero the curve (a-b) will show the decrease in flux density. However
there is still some magnetism remaining in the specimen represented by point (b). The amount
of this magnetism is indicated by the distance (o-b) and is called the residual magnetism. If the
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magnetizing current is now reversed and slowly increased in value the flux density (residual
magnetism) within the specimen decreases and is back to zero at point (c). By further increasing
the magnetizing force the specimen becomes magnetized in the opposite direction until once
again saturation is reached at point (d). If the magnetizing force is again gradually reduced to
zero the flux density is reduced a certain amount to (e), however, the specimen will still retain
some residual magnetism represented by o-e. If we now steadily increase the magnetic force in
its original direction the residual flux density is reduced to zero at point (f) and then increases to
the original saturation point (a). The curve represented by the lines a, b, c, d, e, f, is called a
hysteresis curve or hysteresis loop.

FIG.2.19: Hysteresis loops for typical ferromagnetic materials.

1.3. MAGNETIC FIELD CHARACTERISTICS

1.3.1. Remanence

Whenever a magnetic material is subjected to magnetic field it is magnetized to a certain level.

Different materials retain a certain degree of magnetism after the removal of such fields. The
level of residual magnetism is a measure of its remanence value. Hard materials have higher
remanence as compared to those magnetically soft materials. A desirable material to be a
permanent magnet is to have high remanence value. Materials with slender hysteresis curves
normally posses high remanence.

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1.3.2. Permeability

“Permeability” is the term used to refer to the ease with which a magnetic field or flux can be
set up in a magnetic material. For a given material, it is not a constant value but a ratio. At any
given value of magnetizing force, permeability, m, is B/H, the ratio of flux density, B, to
magnetizing force, H.

Several permeabilities have been defined, but material permeability, maximum permeability,
effective (apparent) permeability and initial permeability are used with magnetic particle
testing.

1.3.2.1.____Material permeability
Material permeability is of interest in magnetic inspection with circular magnetization. Material
permeability is the ratio of the flux density, B to the magnetizing force, H, where the flux
density and magnetizing force are measured when the flux path is entirely within the material.

1.3.2.2.____Maximum permeability
For magnetic particle inspection, the level of magnetization generally is chosen to be just below
the knee of a normal magnetization curve for the specific material; the maximum material
permeability occurs near this point.

1.3.2.3.____Effective permeability
Effective (apparent) permeability is the ratio of the flux density in the part to the magnetizing
force, when the magnetizing force is measured at the same point in the absence of the part.
Effective permeability is not solely a property of the material but is largely governed by the
shape of the part and is of prime importance for longitudinal magnetization.

1.3.2.4.____Initial permeability
Initial permeability is that permeability exhibited when both the flux density B, and the
magnetizing force, H, approach zero. With increasing magnetizing force, the magnetic field in
the part increases along the “virgin” curve of the hysteresis loop.

1.3.3. Saturation

This terms refers to the level of magnetization of the magnetic material beyond which any
further increase in the magnetization force will not produce any increase in the magnetic flux.
Atthis stage, all the magnetic domains become aligned in the direction of magnetic field. When
theexternal field is removed many of the domains remain oriented in the same direction and
thus the material retains residual magnetism.

FIG.2.20: Saturation of various materials.

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1.3.4. Normal and tangential components of the magnetic field

In order that a good indication due to magnetic leakage field is developed; the field strength and
direction must be adequate and favourable in relation to size and direction of the discontinuity.
It is thus important to know the field distribution and strengths inside the part or at the surface.

The tangential component of H is that component of the field having direction parallel to the
surface of the part. Since the value of the tangential component of H is the same on either side
of the boundary between the steel and the air, the value measured in air is also a measure of the
field strength close to the surface inside the part. If the permeability of the steel is known the
flux density can be calculated. The magnetic field meter designed to measure the tangential
component of the field is based on Hall effect principle. When a current is passed through a
plateof metallic or semi-conducting material in a magnetic field, a voltage is produced at right
angles to the current flow direction and the field direction. This is known as the Hall effect and
gives a means of detecting and measuring the strength of magnetic fields. The voltage, V ,
produced is given by the formula:

RIH
V= (2.12)
t

Where

I is the current is amperes,

H is the magnetic field strength expressed as amperes per metre, t is the thickness of the
plate in metres,
R is the Hall coefficient of the material of the plate.

Different materials have different coefficients and for the measurement of magnetic fields
suitable elements can be made from germanium, indium antimonide and indium arsenide.
Commercial instruments are available for checking magnetic fields using this principle. The
tangential magnetic field is measured directly or after amplification of the output signal. In
choosing an instrument the following points should be borne in mind. The scale of the
instrument should be calibrated in units of magnetic field and a standard magnet should be
provided for standardization. The range of the instrument should provide accurate
measurements over the range from 80 A/m to 8000 A/m for alternating as well as constant
fields.

1.4. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiations which is due to the moving electric and magnetic
fields. The visible light consist of such waves with frequencies between 3 x 10 12 cycles/sec and 8 x
1012 cycles/sec. Human eye cannot respond to frequencies higher or lower than these. The
electromagnetic spectrum is as shown in Figure 2.21.

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 FIG.2.21 Electromagnetic spectrum.

1.5. VISIBLE AND ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT

As is evident from the Figure 2.21 the ultraviolet region is located in the wave length region
between 200–400 nanometre. The black light region chosen lies in the lower wavelength of
ultraviolet light and is between 320–400 nm region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The eye is
relatively unresponsive to black light particularly when visible light is present. The functional
aspect is that the fluorescent coating on the ferromagnetic particles absorb the black light and
re-emit the absorbed light as visible light in the yellow green region of visible light spectrum.

1.6. TERMINOLOGY AND ABBREVIATIONS

Most of the terms relating to the magnetism have been discussed in the related sections of the
chapter. Few more are described as under:

1.6.1. Oersted

The unit of magnetic field strength in the centimetre-gram second electromagnetic system of
units equal to the field strength at the centre of a plane circular coil of one turn and 1 centimetre
radius when there is a current of 1/2B ab.amp in the coil.

1.6.2. Ampere per meter

The ampere per meter replaces the oersted. The unit of magnetic field intensity in SI system of
units and can be defined by the force that would be experienced by an isolated north pole of
strength 1 unit when placed in that field.

Magnetic field strength is expressed in ampere per meter (A /·m). One ampere per meter
(A/m) equals about one eightieth of an oersted (Oe). The relationship is:

1000
1 Oe= A/m = 79.57747 A /m
4π
1 A /m= 0.013 Oe=13 mOe

1.6.3. Maxwell

A centimetre-gram-second electromagnetic unit of magnetic flux equal to the magnetic flux

which produces an electromotive force of 1 volt in a circuit of one turn linking the flux as the
flux is reduced to zero in 1 second at a uniform rate.

1.6.4. Weber

The Weber replaces the Maxwell. The unit of magnetic flux in the M.K.S. system equal to the
magnetic flux which linking a circuit of one turn, produces in it an electromotive force of 1
volt as it is reduced to zero at a uniform rate.
1 weber=¿ 108 Maxwell

1.6.5. Gauss

Unit of magnetic flux density in the electromagnetic and Gaussian system of units, equal to 1
Maxwell per square centimetre, or 10-4 Weber per square metre.

17
1.6.6. Tesla

The Tesla replaces the gauss. The international system unit of magnetic flux density equal to
one Weber per square metre, or Tesla (T), to indicate flux per unit area symbolized by T.

1 T =104 G

1.6.7. Gilbert

The unit of magnetomotive force in the electromagnetic system equal to the magnetomotive
force of a closed loop of one turn in which there is a current of 1/4p.

1.6.8. Ampere Turn

A unit of magnetomotive force in the metre-kilogram-second (M.K.S.) system defined as the

force of a closed loop of one turn when there is a current of 1 ampere flowing in the loop.

1.6.9. Conductivity

The ratio of the electric current density to the electric field in a material, also known as
electrical conductivity.

Table-2-I: Units from centimeter gram second (CGS) system of units and not accepted for use with SI.
Factor to convert each CGS unit to SI unit is given
Physical Quantity CGS Unit Multiply by SI Unit SI Symbol

Magnetic field intensity oersted (Oe) 103 × (4π)–1 ampere per meter A/m

Magnetic flux maxwell (Mx) 10–8 weber Wb

Magnetic flux density gauss (G) 10–4 tesla T

Magnetic potential
difference gilbert (Gb) 10 × (4 π)–1 ampere A

Potential abvolt 10–8 volt V

Capacitance abfarad 109 farad F

Charge abcoulomb 10 coulomb C

Conductance abmho 109 siemens S

Current abampere 10 ampere A

18
 2. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

2.1. METHODS OF MAGNETIZATION

Consider the simplest shape of specimen, namely, a cylindrical bar; a magnetic field in it may be
one of two kinds. It may be circular or longitudinal. Furthermore, it is evident that as the flaw plane
must be substantially at right angles to the field, the longitudinal field or flux will show up a
circular or circumferential crack, and the circular field will show up a longitudinal crack.

2.1.1. Longitudinal magnetization

A magnetic field wherein the lines of force traverse the part in a direction essentially parallel with
its major axis. All such means of magnetization of the test parts which result in the longitudinal
fields are called methods of longitudinal magnetization. Some of such means are electromagnetic
yokes (AC and DC), coil magnetization (flexible and rigid) and magnetic flow techniques.
When a longitudinally magnetized object contains a transverse discontinuity, a leakage field is
produced that attracts magnetic particles and forms an indication. Figure 3.1 illustrates a typical coil
found in magnetic particle test systems used to locate transverse discontinuities.

FIG.3.1 Longitudinal magnetization (coil shot).

2.1.2. Circular magnetization

The circular magnetization in a part results from current passed directly through the part or through
a central conductor. The lines of magnetic flux are fully contained within the material and emerge
as leakage fields only at surface breaks or discontinuity site.
Recently, with improvement to magnetic particle equipment it is now possible to introduce both
circular magnetism and longitudinal magnetism in such close sequence as to perform magnetic
particle inspection with one step. This is known as "multidirectional magnetism". Discontinuities
oriented both ways, longitudinal and transverse, can be observed at the same time, due to flux
leakage’s building and collapsing with such rapidity to be visible in both directions.

2.2. MAGNETIZATION TECHNIQUES

2.2.1. Yoke technique

2.2.1.1.____Permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are available but their use may be restricted for many applications. This
restriction may be due to application impracticality, or due to the specifications governing the
examination. Permanent magnets can lose their magnetic field generating capacity by being
partially demagnetized by a stronger flux field, being damaged, or dropped. In addition, the particle
mobility created by AC current or HW current pulsations produced by electromagnetic yokes are
19
not present. Particles, steel filings, chips, and scale clinging to the poles can create a housekeeping
problem.
2.2.1.2.____Electromagnets
For this technique, alternating or direct current electromagnetic yokes, or permanent magnet yokes,
shall be used.
With yoke magnetization a magnetic field from a coil system is generated over the poles of an iron
core and then transmitted into the test object. The iron core and the workpiece form a closed
magnetic circuit. The magnetic field lines flow in the test piece in a direct connection line between
the poles thus enabling transverse cracks to be detected. For a successful inspection, magnetization
in two directions transverse to each is required. With yoke magnetization, burning of the test piece
is avoided because only the magnetic field is transmitted into it, no current enters the test piece.
Furthermore, yoke magnetization can be used for test objects with non magnetic surface layers
provided the layer thickness is not greater than 40 mm. Figure 3.2 illustrates magnetization by an
electromagnetic yoke.

FIG.3.2: Electromagnetic yoke.

2.2.2. Coils

For this technique, magnetization is accomplished by passing current through a multi-turn fixed coil
(or cables) that is wrapped around the part or section of the part to be examined. This produces a
longitudinal magnetic field parallel to the axis of the coil.
If a fixed, prewound coil is used, the part shall be placed near the side of the coil during inspection.
This is of special importance when the coil opening is more than 10 times the cross-sectional area
of the part.
Direct or rectified current shall be used to magnetize parts examined by this technique. The required
field strength shall be calculated based on the length “L” and the diameter “D” of the part in
accordance with (i) and (ii), or as established in (iii) and (iv), below. Long parts shall be examined
in sections not to exceed 18 in. (450 mm), and 18 in. (450 mm) shall be used for the part “L” in
calculating the required field strength. For noncylindrical parts, “D” shall be the maximum cross-
sectional diagonal.
Parts positioned towards the side of the coil (low fill factor)
i. Parts with L/D ratios equal to or greater than 4.
The magnetizing current shall be within 10% of the ampere-turns value determined as follows:
35000
Ampere−turns=
L
( )+2
D

20
For example, a part 10 in. (250 mm) long x 2 in. (50 mm) diameter has an L/D ratio of 5. Therefore,
35000 35000
= =5000 ampere−turns
L 5+2
( )+2
D
ii. Parts with L/D ratios less than 4 but not less than 2. The magnetizing ampere-turns shall be
within 10% of the ampere-turns’ value determined as follows:
45000
Amp ere−turns=
L
D
iii. Parts with L/D ratios less than 2 coil magnetization technique cannot be used.
iv. If the area to be magnetized extends beyond 9 in. (225 mm) on either side of the coil’s center,
field adequacy shall be demonstrated using a magnetic field indicator or artificial flaw shims.
v. For large parts due to size and shape, the magnetizing current shall be 1200 ampere-turns to
4500 ampere-turns. The field adequacy shall be demonstrated using artificial flaw shims or a
pie-shaped magnetic field indicator. A Hall-Effect probe gauss meter shall not be used with
encircling coil magnetization techniques.
The current required to obtain the necessary magnetizing field strength shall be determined by
dividing the ampere-turns obtained in steps (i) or (ii) by the number of turns in the coil as follows:
ampere−turns
Ampere(meter reading)=
turns
For example, if a 5-turn coil is used and the ampere-turns required are 5000, use
5000
=1000 amperes (±10 % )
5

FIG.3.3a Part positioned towards the side of the coil (low fill factor).
Parts positioned in the centre of the coil (low fill factor)
43000 R
Ampere−turns= (± 10 %)
6L
{( )−5 }
D
Where,
R = Coil radius, (inch)
L = Part length, (inch)
D = Part diameter, (inch)

21
 FIG.3.3b Part positioned in the centre of the coil (low fill factor).
Flexible cables (coil technique using a flexible cable)
This is a technique of magnetization in which a current carrying cable is tightly wound around the
component. It favours the detection of flaws lying parallel to the cable or within 45° of this
direction Figure 3.4. The area to be inspected should lie between the turns of the coil thus formed.
The coil shall be moved over the component at coil length intervals to ensure that the specified
coverage is achieved.

FIG.3.4 Flexible cable technique (using cable wound around the specimen).

2.2.3. Magnetization by passage of current

When the current is passed into the magnetic test part clamped between heads of a machine or
clamps at the ends of the cable carrying current the resultant field is circular. This type of field is
suitable for the detection of flaws lying parallel or oriented 45° to the major axis. Figure 3.5
illustrates the magnetic fields and possible detectable orientation of flaws.
It is recommended that current should be from 700 to 900 A/in. for part diameters up to 5 in., from
500 to 700 A/in. for diameters over 5 in. and up to 15 in., and from 100 to 300 A/in. for diameters
over 15 in.

FIG.3.5 Head shot- circular magnetization (current through part).

2.2.4. Prod magnetization (localized circular field)

In the current flow (prods) technique a current from an external source is passed between two
contact areas established on the surface of the component by means of two hand held prods, as
shown in Figure 3.6.
The field produced is circular in the localized region between the prods. The prod contact technique
has a special ability to produce indications which lie wholly below the surface, often quite deep.
The current depends on the prod spacing and thickness of material. For prod spacing of under 19
mm, the current requirement is 90-110 A/inch, whereas for prod spacing of 19 mm and above, the

22
current requirement is 100-125 A/inch. Prod spacing for practical examination purposes is limited
to about 8 inch maximum. Prod spacing less than 3 inch is usually not practical due to banding of
the particles around the prods.

FIG.3.6 Prod magnetization.

2.2.5. Central conductor

The use of central conductor is made for inspection of hollow cylindrical shaped test objects. The
field distribution in and around a hollow magnetic cylinder with current carrying central conductor
is as shown in Figure 3.7.
The use of central conductor is suitable for inspection of many small sized cylindrical shaped
articles such as springs, nuts and short cylindrical washers in one go. For objects of different
diameters, the inspection is done in stages keeping different current values. The technique is
employed to find longitudinal discontinuities inside and outside the cylinders and transverse cracks
in the wire of the spring.

FIG.3.7 Field strength distribution in and around a hollow magnetic conductor.

2.2.6. Magnetization technique by induction

In certain situations where L/D ratio of part is such that a coil shot is not effective. Thus two step
head shot and coil shot technique do not disclose satisfactorily all defects in whatever direction.
Inspection of bearing race was thus made using induced current method. The experimental set up is
as shown in Figure 3.8. This technique provides a complete and reliable test without making contact
on the race, and requires only a single processing.

23
 FIG.3.8 Current and field distribution in a bearing race being magnetized by the
induced current method

2.3. WORK METHODS

2.3.1. Remanent fields

Certain magnetic materials such as hard steels are highly reluctant to initial magnetization but are
capable of retaining considerable magnetism after the removal of the magnetic intensity or
magnetization force. In such a case the field remaining known as remanent or residual is utilized to
inspect the articles. The inspection media as magnetic powder in dry or wet form is applied and
indications are observed. The residual method employed for highly retentive materials is not as
sensitive as continuous method, but it may be sensitive enough to reveal all discontinuities that
would warrant rejection. It is usually difficult to indicate sub-surface defects by this method.

2.3.2. Continuous field

Continuous magnetization is employed for most applications utilizing either wet or dry magnetic
powder as inspection media. The sequence of operation for wet and dry continuous methods are
different and are discussed as under.
2.3.2.1.____Wet continuous magnetization
This method generally applies to those parts processed on a horizontal wet bench type unit. It
involves bathing the parts with the inspection medium to provide an abundant source of suspended
particles on the surface of the part and terminating the bath application simultaneously with the
initiation of the magnetizing current. Thus there is no application of the inspection medium while
the current is flowing. The duration of the current is typically of the order of seconds.
2.3.2.2.____Dry continuous magnetization technique
Since the dry particles lose mobility when they contact the surface of the part, therefore, it is
imperative that the part be under the influence of the applied magnetic field while the particles are
still air borne and free to migrate to leakage fields. This means that the flow of the magnetizing
current is started before the application of the dry magnetic particles and terminated after the
application of the powder has been completed and any excess has been blown off. Examination with
dry particles is usually carried out in conjunction with prod type localized magnetization, and build-
up of the indication is observed as the particles are being applied.

2.3.3. Dry method

In this method the inspection medium is in the form of dry magnetic particles as fluorescent or non-
fluorescent. Dry magnetic powders are normally applied with the continuous magnetizing
techniques utilizing AC or HWDC magnetization currents or yoke magnetization. AC or HWDC
are used for better particle mobility than DC or full wave rectified AC current. Dry powders should
24
be applied in such a manner that a light uniform dust-like coating settles upon the surface of the test
part while the part is being magnetized. Usually specially designed powder blowers and hand
powder applicators are employed. The dry magnetic particles technique is excellent for surface and
near surface discontinuities. The dry powders are heat resistant and some powders are usable at
temperatures of up to 600° F (315°C).

2.3.4. Wet method

The method incorporates the use of fluorescent or non-fluorescent magnetic particles suspended in a
vehicle (carrier fluid) at a recommended concentration applied either by spraying or flowing over
the areas to be inspected during the application of the magnetization current (continuous method) or
after turning off the field current (residual technique). The bath concentration for fluorescent
particles should be 0.1 to 0.4 mL and 1.2 mL to 2.4 mL of vehicle (per 100 cc) as recommended by
ASME code for non-fluorescent particles unless otherwise specified by the particle manufacturer.
The suspension vehicles are low viscosity oil or conditioned water. Oil vehicles to be used in wet
magnetic particle examinations should have the following characteristics:
a) Low viscosity, in order not to impede particle mobility.
b) Minimum flash point of 200°F (93°C) in order to minimize fire hazards.
c) Low inherent fluorescence if used with fluorescent particles, that is, it should not interfere
significantly with the fluorescent particles.
d) Odourless to be not objectionable to the user.
e) Non-reactive, that is it should not degrade suspended particles.
Water may be used as a vehicle (carrier fluid) for wet magnetic particles provided suitable
conditioning agents are added which provide proper wet dispersing, in addition to corrosion
protection for the parts being tested and equipment in use. The following are recommended
properties for water vehicles containing conditioning agents for use with wet magnetic particle
examination:
a) Impart good wetting characteristics.
b) Impart good dispersability; it should thoroughly disperse the magnetic particles without the
evidence of particle agglomeration (lumping of powder).
c) Minimize foaming: it should not produce excessive foam which would interfere with
indication formation or cause particles to form scum on the foam.
d) Noncorrosive: it should not corrode parts to be tested or the equipment in use.
e) Low viscosity: the conditioned water should not exceed a maximum viscosity of 3 cSt (3
centi Stokes) at 100°F (38°C).
f) Nonfluorescent: the conditioned water should not fluoresce if intended for use with
fluorescent particles.

2.4. TESTING TECHNIQUES

2.4.1. Testing techniques for work pieces of differing alloy, shape and condition

The magnetization by coil shot and circular field work quite satisfactory regardless the size of
the object. However for very large parts their application becomes impracticable. In this case
the diameter of the coil needs to be very large since one of the restrictions made in the empirical
relations (1–3) is the cross-sectional area of the part not to be greater than 1/10th of the cross
sectional area of the coil. Thus for a six inch shaft this would require a 19 inch coil and for a 12
inch diameter part, the coil diameter has to be 38 inch. Similarly the current required becomes
25
very large for larger parts. In case of circular magnetization there is a simple rule of subjecting
the part to a current of 1000 Amps per inch of the part which means a requirement of 12000
Amps for a 12 inch dia. part. For such levels of currents the sources are normally not available
and have to be procured. Furthermore these rules apply to uniform objects of cylindrical shape.
For irregular shapes it becomes more difficult to predict current and field distribution. This
difficulty becomes even larger for irregular shaped large parts.

2.4.2. Testing techniques with various types of current

There are basically two types of electric current in common use and both are suitable for
magnetizing purposes for magnetic particle testing. These are direct current (DC) and alternating
current (AC). The strength, direction and distribution of fields are greatly affected by the type of
current employed for magnetization.
The fields produced by alternating current tend to be confined to the surface due to skin effect
whereas the magnetic fields produced by direct current generally penetrate the entire cross section.

2.4.3. Field direction for some specific cases

The knowledge of field distribution in parts with irregular shape is required when attempting to
subject it to magnetic particle examination. As the shape of the part becomes complex the problem
becomes correspondingly more difficult. If we compare the behaviour of longitudinal fields in bar
magnet and in the upset portion of a magnetized bar, we notice that there is a departure area of field
pattern in the upset portion from a true longitudinal field Figure 3.9.

FIG.3.9 Behaviour of a longitudinal field in the upset portion of a magnetized bar.

External poles are formed at points C and X and field direction will tend to become radial along the
surface BC. Such a direction is favourable for locating circumferential cracks in the fillet at B and
in the surface BC but may not be favourable for locating circumferential cracks on surface ‘CX’.
2.4.3.1.____Other symmetrical shapes - rings
A ring is another symmetrical shape that can be magnetized both in the circular direction and in the
longitudinal direction. The directions of flux for rings reflect a different concept than for a bar. A
ring is conceptually a bar bent into a circle. The longitudinal flux along the length of the bar now
flows around the bent bar to form the circle.
Another concept is that the ring is a slice cut form a hollow cylinder Figure 3.10. The longitudinal
flux in a ring flows around the circle in the same direction as the circular field flows in the cylinder.
Therefore, to produce longitudinal magnetization in a ring. it is magnetized using a through
conductor.
It is often desirable to have a longitudinal field in a large ring: however, due to its size and weight it
is not feasible to use a central conductor. One alternate method is to place it in a coil with the ring in
a plane perpendicular to the plane of the coil. As shown in Figure 3.11, the field will flow along two
sides of the ring in a longitudinal direction.
One method for obtaining a circular field in a ring is by the direct magnetizing method of flowing
the current through the ring as a conductor. Figure 3.12 shows a ring clamped between two contacts
and the current flowing around each side of the ring.

26
The bar must be magnetized twice, rotating it about 90 for the complete ring to be magnetized. A
ring can also be magnetized in the circular direction by induced magnetism. Figure 3.13 shows this
method using a toroidal magnetic field, which allows the complete ring to be magnetized in one
operation, instead of the two steps as required by the direct contact method.

FIG.3.10 A ring is a slice of a cylinder.

FIG.3.11 A ring magnetized in a coil.

FIG.3.12 Direct contract method of magnetizing rings.

27
 FIG.3.13 Induced current method of magnetizing ring shaped parts
A way to induce a longitudinal field in a large ring is to wrap a cable coil around the ring. This
method will enable a high flux density to be created in the ring, since the cable coil can have a
number of turns. Figure 3.14 shows the flow of the current and flux in a ring with a wrapped coil.
This technique is often applied on large ring forgings.

Figure 3.14 Longitudinal field induced in a large ring with a conductor cable coil.
2.4.3.2.____Other symmetrical shapes — discs
The disc is another symmetrical shape found often in machinery components such as wheels, gears,
and circular saw blades. The disc conceptually can be considered to be a round flat plate. The
through conductor will provide a flux in the circumferential direction around the disc. Using the
disc as a conductor will provide a flux across the disc. By turning the disc through 90 degrees the
flux will cross the opposite part of the disc. The toroidal magnetic field can be used for saw blades
where contract cannot be made with the saw teeth. Figure 3.15.
2.4.3.3.____The case of a square bar circularly magnetized
The rule of magnetizing current values for circular magnetic field is based on the diameter of the
round bar or longest diametrical dimensions i.e. a diagonal for a square bar. Measurement of field
intensity at corners has shown that the strength is thus not uniform over a square cross section. It
does not follow either the rule of decrease with distance from the centre as in the case of round bar
Figure 3.16.
2.4.3.4.____A rectangular bar circularly magnetized with direct current
We compare the behaviour of current distribution between a 2 inch (50 mm) square bar and a
rectangular bar 2 inch (50 mm) by 6 inch (150 mm) cross-section and wish to produce a field of the
same strength as for 2 inch (50 mm) square bar. If we interpret the 1000 ampere/inch (40
ampere/mm) rule as applying to longer dimension of cross section of such a bar, a current of 6000
amperes is indicated. When such a bar was subjected to 6000 DC magnetizing current, on
comparison of field intensity measurement of tangential component of H measured and compared
with 2 inch (50 mm) square bar the field strength values found at various points were as under
Figure 3.17.
The field strength at the corners of 2 by 6 inch (50 by 150 mm) bar and the 2 by 2 inch bar was
approximately same.
The field at the centre of the 6 inch (150 mm) face of the rectangular bar was 1.75 times the field at
the centre of the 2 inch (50 mm) face of the 2 inch (50 mm) bar.

28
 FIG.3.15 Magnetization of disc type test specimens.

FIG.3.16 Field distribution in a square bar, circularly magnetized with direct current.

FIG.3.17 Field distribution in a rectangular bar, circularly magnetized with direct current.
2.4.4. Appropriate field intensity
It is an essential consideration in magnetic particle testing method to ensure the adequacy of
existing fields and their direction to be favourable in relation to the size and direction of the
discontinuity, in order that a good indication can be produced at leakage field points. The operator
should thus have knowledge of field strengths and distribution inside the test part for a successful
examination.
2.4.5. Test sequences
A successful examination of a part or inspection surface, when using the magnetic particle
inspection method is dependent upon the close observation of the following inspection requirements
in their logical sequence of application.
a) Preparation of the inspection surface.
b) Magnetization of the inspection surface. Indicating medium selection and application.
Interpretation of discontinuities.
c) Demagnetization.

29
d) Post cleaning.
A further brief discussion on the above sequence and respective requirements is as under.
2.4.5.1.____Part surface
Part surface condition has an influence on the sensitivity of the magnetic particle testing method.
Surface conditions such as being rough, smooth and painted ask for relevant measures to obtain best
conditions before starting a particular method.
2.4.5.2.____Magnetization of the inspection surface
There has to be a choice made between continuous method (dry or wet) and residual. Similarly
there is a need of strict control and check on the choice of magnetizing current, direction of the field
and values of current.
2.4.5.3.____Indicating medium selection and application
Choice has to be made between dry powder and wet inspection medium as well as for their being
fluorescent or non fluorescent. All these considerations are essential because they have a direct
influence on the overall sensitivity desired.
2.4.5.4.____Interpretation of indications
In magnetic particle testing an indication could be any magnetically held magnetic particle pattern
on the surface of the part being tested. Knowledge of some history of part's manufacture, intended
use, related discontinuities and knowledge of the code help in interpretation of the indications.
2.4.5.5.____Demagnetization
Ferromagnetic materials may require demagnetization before or after inspection. These may be
essential in certain situations such as:
a) To prepare for inspection.
b) To prevent damage to moving parts.
c) To prepare for subsequent magnetization. To prevent instrument interference.
Post cleaning
Finished parts processed with wet inks should be immediately cleaned and dried to prevent the
chances of surface corrosion or wear between moving parts.

2.5. MISCELLANEOUS FIELD PRACTICES

2.5.1. Preparation of the wet and dry suspension for coloured and fluorescent particles

Three basic types of materials are available:

a) The oil base pastes, either black, red or fluorescent
These are primarily for use with oil suspensions, though with suitable water conditioners they can
be used with water. Their use is rapidly being abandoned in favour of the newer dry concentrates.
b) Dry concentrate powders, either black, red or fluorescent
One type is used with water as the suspension, and a second type for suspension in oil.
c) Water conditioners
These are used to suspend oil pastes in water, and to make up the quantity of conditioner in the
water bath when needed.

30
The dry powder concentrates are now preferred for both oil and water baths. The new self
dispersing particles are readily picked up by the pump circulating system, and are easily maintained
in suspension.
2.5.1.1.____Making up the bath for dry powder concentrate
When a new bath is to be made up for a new unit or after dumping a dirty bath from a unit in use, it
is important to ensure that agitation system is clean, and, not clogged by dried particles or
accumulated dirt such as lint or shop dust. Next, fill the tank with oil or water as required and
operate the agitation system to make sure it is functioning properly. Measure out the required
amount of powdered concentrate in the graduated cup and pour it directly into the bath liquid in the
tank. The agitation system should be running and the concentrate poured in at the pump intake, so
that it will be quickly drawn into the pump and dispersed. After 30 minutes of operation the bath
strength should be checked with a settling test. One may have to add the concentrate or dilute if the
settled material is not within desired limits.
2.5.1.2.____Bath for oil paste and oil bath
The procedure is similar to that followed in the case of the dry powder concentrates, except that the
paste must be weighed out instead of measured. It is transferred to a mixing cup or bowl. Add bath
liquid, a little at a time, and mix, until a smooth thin slurry has been produced. This slurry is then
poured into the liquid in the tank at the point where the agitation system will pick it up and disperse
it. After agitating for thirty minutes the strength should be checked by a settling test as in the case of
the dry powder concentrate.
2.5.1.3.____Settling test
The suspension is agitated for 30 minutes to ensure an even distribution of the particles in the
vehicle. Then 100 mL of the bath is pumped through the hose nozzle into the pear -shaped
centrifuge tube and allowed to settle for 30 minutes. The amount of particles (measured in mL)
settling in the bottom of the centrifuge indicates the concentration of solid matter (particles) in the
bath. In measuring the solid matter in the centrifuge, foreign matter such as lint and dirt, which
settles on top of the particles is not even considered. If the particle reading is high, liquid (vehicle)
is added. If low, paste or liquid concentrate containing particles is added.
2.5.1.4.____Centrifuge tube test
Low signal- to- noise ratio is the principal reason for failure to detect fluorescent indications — it is
nearly impossible to detect fluorescent indications in high fluorescent backgrounds, for either
automated tests or the human eye. The principal causes of low signal-to-noise ratio are: (1)
excessive current density, (2) excessive magnetic particles in suspension, (3) excessive fluorescent
background in the vehicle, or (4) excessive particle contamination. The settling test can detect the
last three causes.
In a typical settling test, done with fresh particles, a concentration of 0.1 to 0.5 mL particles should
be found in a 100 mL centrifuge tube for fluorescent particles and from 1.2 to 2.4 mL per 100 mL
of vehicle for non-fluorescent particles.
The settling test may also be used to determine two of the primary kinds of bath contamination: (1)
the loose fluorescent material from the particles themselves, and (2) extraneous oils (such as cutting
oils) that remain on the test object after cleaning. The degree of such contamination can be
monitored with a centrifuge tube that retains an initial sample of the vehicle for referencing
purposes. This is then compared to a concentration test after at least one hour of settling.
Another source of contamination is sand from prior sand blasting operations, residue from grinding
or shot dirt. These contamination sources are the result of inadequate pre -cleaning and can be
determined by a settling test comparison.

31
 2.5.1.5.____Bath maintenance
The strength of the bath is maintained by adding paste or oil as indicated by results of the settling
test. In adding paste, a thin “slurry” is first made. This procedure is identical to the procedure used
in the initial preparation of the bath. Paste is never directly added to the bath because it does not
disperse properly. When in use, the bath eventually becomes contaminated by dirt, lint and chips to
a degree that efficient formation of discontinuity indications is hindered.
Degree of contamination is determined by the amount of foreign matter settling with the paste in the
bottom of the centrifuge tube during the settling test. The bath should be checked on a regular
schedule depending on the inspection volume: weekly if the volume is high; monthly if the volume
is low. When the bath is contaminated beyond usefulness, it is discarded, the bath tank and the
liquid system are thoroughly cleaned and a new bath is mixed. Contamination can be minimized by
keeping the bath covered when not in use.

2.5.2. Techniques for checking field sensitivity

2.5.2.1.____Field indicators for calibration test pieces

Different field indicators have been developed for checking the sensitivity of a particular method or
technique. Some of them can be used for the calibration purposes for the equipment as well as the
test pieces. Some of the well known field indicators discussed in text books and specifications are
discussed in brief in the following paragraphs.
a) Magnetic field indicator
To be sure that a sufficient and well oriented magnetic field has been formed on the area to be
inspected, the field can be measured with a special device when current magnetization is used. A
magnetic particle field indicator as shown in Figure 3.18 is used to establish the adequacy of the
magnetic field. The magnetization current has to be sufficient to develop the pattern in the indicator
clearly. The field indicator is used by positioning the indicator on the sample while applying current
and ferromagnetic particles. The production of a pattern (usually a cross) of discernible
ferromagnetic particles indicates that adequate field strength has been generated in the test object.
b) Shim discontinuity standards
Shim indicators are thin foils of high permeability material containing well-controlled notch
discontinuities Figure 3.19. Frequently, multiple shims are used at different locations and different
orientations on the test object to examine the magnetic field distribution.
One popular version of the shim indicator is a strip of high permeability magnetic material
containing three slots of different widths. The strip is placed in contact with the testing surface and
shares flux with the test object. For the purposes of producing test indications, the slots in the strip
act as if they were cracks in the test object. A principal limitation of this standard is that a 50 mm (2
in.) gauge length is needed.

FIG.3.18 Magnetic field indicator.

32
Another type of shim (sometimes called a block) has been used in Japan since the 1960s Figure
3.20. As described in Japanese Industrial Standard G 05665, these indicators are used for examining
the performance of the apparatus, magnetic particles and suspension, and the strength and direction
of effective magnetic field on the surface of the test article.
The blocks are available in a variety of thicknesses and slot depths. Linear and circular slots are
available. Circular slots are particularly effective when the direction of the magnetic flux is not
known. The shims are taped to the test object (slotted side in close contact with the part), in areas
where the strength and direction of the magnetic field are in question. The slots share magnetic flux
with the test object and simulate slightly subsurface discontinuities.

FIG.3.19 Shim indicators for magnetic field verification,

(a) simple shim and (b) slotted strip.

FIG.3.20 Japanese type A standard test shims, (a) circular and (b) linear.
Field indicators for evaluating the sensitivity of the test
a) Split prism test block
The prism block shown in Figure 3.21 is a reference standard containing an artificial discontinuity.
Truncated half-prisms are built with one face at an angle and when two such components are bolted
together, an artificial crack is formed. The sloped surface of the block can be positioned at variable
distances from the conductor.
When current is passed through the conductor, the leakage field from the crack gradually weakens
along the prism face. A specified amperage is applied through the conductor and the length of the
magnetic particle indication is used to measure the test sensitivity.

33
 FIG.3.21 Prism sensitivity indicator.
b) Magnetized test blocks
Another version of the block standard consists of two ground steel blocks forming an artificial crack
at their contact surfaces similar to the discontinuity formation in the split prism test block. On one
of the face ends, a small permanent magnet is fixed below a brass cover, causing magnetic flux
leakage from the artificial discontinuity. This leakage field decreases with greater distance from the
magnet so that longer discontinuity indications reveal higher test sensitivity.

FIG.3.22: Block standard containing a permanent magnet.

2.5.2.2.____Work pieces for evaluating magnetic particles
In the course of use a certain amount of magnetic particles is removed from the wet bath by clinging
either magnetically or mechanically to the surface of the parts. In time, depending on the number of
parts tested, this results in a bath with insufficient magnetic particles and more testing material must
be added. Other reasons such as evaporation of liquid when the unit is not in use, also acts to
change the bath concentration. Frequent tests for bath concentration are a most important
requirement. A weak bath will result in faint indication and thus tends to reduce the severity of a
discontinuity; or a faint indication which might be produced by a bath of proper concentration,
might be missed entirely, if the bath is below strength.
a) Test blocks
Various test blocks containing a series of artificial defects, just below the surface and having
graduated depths, have been developed. One version of such a device, shown in Figure 3.23,
consists of a piece of soft iron having a hole drilled through it, through which a copper rod is
passed.
A tapered slot, cut into the upper surface of the block and filled with a non magnetic material
constitutes an artificial defect of varying depth. The block can be used either in a coil for
longitudinal magnetism check or by passing current through the copper rod passed through the hole.
Figure 3.23 shows the block in use for both tests. Bath strength is indicated by the length of the

34
indication when a current of specified strength is passed. For wet continuous method, if the bath is
good, and the circuits are operating correctly, the following results should be obtained.

FIG.3.23 (a) Test block for measuring bath strength. (b) Test block in use between heads of unit.
(c) Test block in use in coil.

For a 5 turn coil or Head (current Amp DC) Approximate length of indication
(% of defect length)

500 zero
1000 50%
1500 100%

Failure to obtain the above results could be due to one or more of the following.
Quality of the bath is poor, too strong or too weak. Head and/or coil circuit is not operating
correctly. The technique is not being applied correctly.
b) Ketos ring specimen
The test ring specimen is a tool used in evaluating and comparing the overall performance and
sensitivity of both dry and wet, fluorescent and non-fluorescent magnetic particle technique using a
central conductor magnetization technique. The test ring is circularly magnetized with full-wave
rectified AC passing through a central conductor with a 1 in. to 11/4 in. (25 mm to 32 mm) diameter
hole located in the ring center. The conductor should have a length greater than 16 in. (400 mm).
The currents used shall be 1400, 2500, and 3400 amps. The minimum number of holes shown shall
be three, five, and six, respectively. The ring edge should be examined with either black light or
visible light, depending on the type of particles involved. This test shall be run at the three
amperages if the unit will be used at these or higher amperages. The amperage values stated shall
not be exceeded in the test. If the test does not reveal the required number of holes, the equipment
shall be taken out of service and the cause of the loss of sensitivity determined and corrected. This
test shall be run at least once per week Figure 3.24.
The number of indications formed on the outer rim of the ring will indicate the sensitivity of the
system in use. The test ring specimen should be made from AISI tool steel cut from annealed round
stock. Its hardness should be in the range of 90 to 95 HRB.

35
 Hole 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Dia 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07
Distanc
0.07 0.14 0.21 0.28 0.35 0.42 0.49 0.56 0.63 0.70 0.77 0.84
e

FIG.3.24 Ring specimen with article sub-surface discontinuities.

2.5.3. Reasons for demagnetization

2.5.3.1.____Demagnetization is required:
a) When the part is to be plated or painted. Adhering particles would interfere with these
processes;
b) When the part is to be remagnetized at a lower level than the original magnetization step;
c) When parts tested will be moving parts. Particles of metal or magnetic particles could cause
failure;
d) When parts are to be subsequently machined;
e) When parts are to be electric arc welded; this prevents possible arc blow;
f) When the residual field will affect instruments sensitive to magnetic fields, e.g., aircraft
parts.
2.5.3.2.____Demagnetization is not required:
a) When post cleaning is a stringent requirement and all inspection materials must be removed;
When parts are of low retentivity, e.g. low carbon plate;
b) If the material tested consists of structural parts, e.g. weldment, large castings;
c) When the part is to be remagnetized in another direction at the same or higher level than the
original magnetization;
d) When the part tested is a finished article and no external leakage field exists;
e) If the part will be magnetized anyway in a following process, e.g. held on a magnetic chuck;
f) When the part will be heat treated above its Curie point, This is 770°C (139°F) for most
steels that are inspected, by magnetic particles.

2.5.4. Residual magnetism

Parts fabricated from ferromagnetic material retain a certain amount of residual magnetism (or
remanant field) after exposure to a magnetization force. This field is dependent upon the following:

36
a) Magnetic characteristics of the particular material, i.e. whether of high permeability or low
reluctance.
b) Strength of the applied magnetization force.
c) Direction of the magnetization; longitudinal or circular.
d) Geometry of the part.

2.5.5. Demagnetization methods

The basis of all demagnetization processes is subjecting the magnetized article to the influence of a
continuously reversing magnetic field that gradually reduces in magnitude causing a corresponding
reversal and reduction of the field in the article. Figure 3.25 shows graphically how the method
works. The curve at the upper right of the drawing represents the flux in the part as indicated on
diminishing the hysteresis loop. The sine wave or curve of a reversing current at the bottom of the
graphs is used to generate the hysteresis loops. As the current decreases in value with each reversal,
the loop shrinks and traces a smaller and smaller path. When the current reaches zero the remanent
field in the part will also have approached zero.
2.5.5.1.____Alternating current demagnetization
An a.c coil is the most common method of demagnetization. The coil is usually designed to operate
at line voltage and frequency (usually 50 c.p.s). When the part is placed in the coil, it is subjected to
a reversing field due to the cyclic action of the current. The magnitude of the field can be gradually
reduced by slowly withdrawing the part from the coil, or the part can be held stationary while the
coil is being withdrawn. The coil should not be de-energized until the part has been withdrawn to a
position beyond the influence of the coil. The method is advantageous for high production rates.
Typical AC-demagnetizer is shown in Figure 3.26.

FIG.3.25 Demagnetization flux curve projected from hysteresis curve.

FIG.3.26 Demagnetization coil.

2.5.5.2.____Reversing DC demagnetization
In demagnetization with reversed direct current, the desired magnetic field is obtained by means of
a coil or passage of current through the part itself. The direct current is alternately reversed in
direction and reduced in amplitude. If a coil is used, the part is left in the coil until the
demagnetization cycle has been completed. The method is very effective and usually employed on
articles which are difficult to demagnetize. Approximately 30 reversals and reduction in current
values help in achieving reliably demagnetization of the articles.

37
 2.5.5.3.____AC circular field demagnetization
This method is similar to AC demagnetization except the current is passed directly into the parts.
The magnitude of the current is systematically reduced to zero by some suitable device. This
method is used for large parts.
2.5.5.4.____AC and DC yoke demagnetization
Yokes are usually used for demagnetizing small parts having very high coercive forces. They are C-
shaped and are usually designed for demagnetization of a specific type of a part. Some AC yokes
are similar in operation to the AC coil method whereby the part is passed between the pole faces
(max. field intensity) and then withdrawn. Direct current yokes are usually based upon the reversing
DC method. Some designs utilize damped oscillations to obtain the required reversing and
diminishing fields.
Vibration
This means of demagnetization is not recommended, due to possible damage of the part under test.
Heating to Curie point
When ferromagnetic materials are subject to heat treating or heating (approximately1200 to 1600°F
(649 to 871°C) for many metals), the molecules become agitated and revert back to their
unmagnetized state, effectively demagnetizing the part.
Verification of the remanent fields
2.5.5.5.____Field indicator
The use of pocket sized device known as ‘field indicator’ is made to check and determine the
relative intensity of the leakage field emanating from the part. The relative intensity of leakage field
is measured by bringing the field indicator Figure 3.27 to the part and noting the deflection of the
pointer. The edge of the field indicator case at pivot end of the pointer should be closest to the part
being investigated. The required degree of de-magnetization is usually specified as a maximum
field indicator reading.
The amount of the movement of the needle indicates the strength of the field. Some process
specifications use this device to specify the degree of demagnetization desired. They often
recommend a maximum of less than two divisions for critical inspection and less than five divisions
for parts in which a somewhat higher residual field can be tolerated. The direction of deflection of
the meter needle represents the polarity of the magnetic field.
2.5.5.6.____Compass indicator
A compass is at times used for indicating the presence of external leakage fields. A compass, placed
on a non-ferromagnetic surface and a magnetized part (aligned due east and west), is moved slowly
toward east or west side of the compass case. The presence of the external field will cause the
needle to deviate from its normal north-south alignment.

FIG.3.27 Field indicator.

38
 3. EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES

3.1. KNOWLEDGE OF EQUIPMENT

Many different varieties of standard magnetic particle test equipment are available for industrial
use. A magnetic particle unit or system must fulfil two basic requirements.
i. To accurately perform a non-destructive test based on amperage requirements, test object
size, magnetic field levels and suitable testing area.
ii. To perform the test with or without operator intervention at a rate required by the particular
production or inspection facility.
The following list is a summary of the choices and considerations that determine the configuration
of a magnetic particle testing system for a specific application:
a) Location and nature of testing.
b) Particle type (wet or dry, fluorescent or non-fluorescent).
c) Degree of automation desired.
d) Demagnetization requirements.
e) Output current requirements (types and strengths).
f) Requirements of main supply line (single phase or three phase).
g) Accessories needed for the application.
h) Test specifications requiring verification.
i) Equipment size/dimension for corresponding test jobs.
j) Magnetization requirements of the test object.
Thorough understanding of the magnetic testing technique especially its capabilities and limitations
plus test object's magnetic characteristics, its geometry and intended service are important factors
that affect the choice of a particular system.

3.1.1. Permanent magnets

When the poles of a horse shoe magnet or a permanent magnet yoke are placed upon the surface of
the ferromagnetic test specimen, the field travels through the part from one pole to other. The flux
lines are relatively straight, the strength at any point depending on the strength of the magnet and
the distance between the magnet. Permanent magnets in the form of yokes are normally used for
areas such as active high pressure gas pipelines where safety considerations do not allow the use of
prods with arcing possibilities.
Permanent magnets in the form of yokes should be capable of lifting a load of 18 kg at maximum
poles spacing. Some of the drawbacks to the use of permanent magnets are:
a) It is not possible to vary the strengths of the field.
b) Large areas or masses cannot be magnetized with enough strength to produce satisfactory
indications.
c) If the magnet is of very strong field it may be difficult to remove it from contact with the
part.

3.1.2. Electromagnetic yoke

The basic principle is similar to that discussed above. A yoke is a U-shaped piece of soft magnetic
material, either solid or laminated, around which is wound a coil carrying the magnetizing current
Figure 4.1.

39
 FIG.4.1 AC yoke.
The hand held electromagnetic yoke supplies a high intensity, unidirectional magnetization field
between the poles when placed on a magnetic part and energized. Such yokes are often specified by
their lifting power or by the tangential field between the legs. The lifting power of the DC yokes
and the AC yokes should be 40 lb (18 kg) and 10 lb (4.5 kg) respectively at the maximum poles
spacing that will be used. Unlike permanent magnetic yokes there is no lifting problem in removing
the test part in the unmagnetized condition, which is possible by switching off the current. Both AC
& DC yokes are available. The DC yoke operates from a 12 volt automotive battery drawing a
current of 12 amperes. This yoke is primarily used for the following purposes:
a) To locate surface cracks of moderate to large size.
b) For locating cracks in welds or castings.
c) For locating fatigue cracks during overhaul of large assemblies. Very recently yokes with
four poles have been developed in which by switching between the poles in pairs at right
angle to each other discontinuity detection in all directions can be performed in a single step.

3.1.3. Portable and stationary equipment Portable equipment

Portable units are some times referred as mobile when mounted on carts due to their weight
exceeding a certain limit. Portable equipment is available in a variety of sizes, shapes and weights.
Portable equipment operates on the same principles as stationary equipment. Portable equipment is
usually operated on 240 volt AC and is rated between 500 and 1500 amperes output, depending on
model and type Figure 4.2.
Different models provide DC or AC/DC output. The step-down transformer for demagnetization is
omitted.

FIG.4.2 Portable unit (usually 500 to 1500 amps capacity AC and HWDC).
3.1.3.1.____Mobile equipment
Often it is necessary to bring the test equipment to an article located in another area. The type of
equipment used for such purpose is mobile and sturdy and is able to provide various types and
40
methods of required tests. The following paragraphs deal with mobile equipment and its
capabilities.
3.1.3.2.____Current and voltage selection
A typical mobile equipment operates on 240 or 440 volt AC and provides both AC and half- wave
DC variable up to approximately 3000 amperes. Selection of AC or HWDC is easily changed by
switching cables on output lugs located on the front.
3.1.3.3.____Method used with mobile equipment
Prods are usually used with mobile equipment. However, clamps and magnetic leeches serve the
same purpose. Yokes, or the wrapping of a cable into a coil, can be used. Also, a central conductor
may be hooked up between the two cables, if needed.
While the dry magnetic particle powder is most frequently used with this type of equipment, the wet
method can also be employed by the use of an external tank or expendable, one-time materials.
This unit provides large currents and remains mobile, usually 3000 to 10000 amperes AC and
HWDC current.
3.1.3.4.____Stationary equipment
Hand operated, stationary, horizontal wet method is widely used for small manufactured parts.
Stationary equipment normally contains a built-in tank with a pump which agitates the wet particle
bath and pumps inspection fluid through a hand held hose for application to the test object. A part is
clamped within the magnetizing coil between the copper contact faces of the head and tail stock. At
the operator's option the parts can be magnetized circularly with current between the heads or
longitudinally with current through the coil or both if desired. While the part is magnetized, the
operator applies the liquid inspection medium and then views the surface for indications. Most units
are provided with inspection hood and black lights so that the fluorescent magnetic particle
inspection medium can be used. Stationary units are generally designed to operate from a 440V
three phase alternating current source and to deliver alternating or rectified magnetizing currents.
Current control is infinitely variable. For magnetic particle testing of large complex castings,
welded structure or plate, overall magnetization with high magnetizing current is usually employed.
The currents up to 12000 amperes is required for such application. Figure 4.4 is a modern bench
type stationary unit.

FIG.4.3: Standard mobile unit.

Present day stationary units perform multidirectional magnetization through two to three
magnetizing circuits, making it possible to detect all discontinuities in all directions. There are two
basic types of electric current, namely, alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). The other
forms of magnetizing current is half wave rectified AC, full wave rectified AC and rectified three
phase AC. Use of rectifiers help in obtaining either form of the rectified AC. Since the magnitude of
the rectified DC is varying and also in the absence of use of filters would contain small value AC

41
components thus the DC is in a way pulsating. The wave forms of all types of current are shown in
Figure 4.5 (a–e).

FIG.4.4: Wet horizontal magnetic particle test equipment

3.1.4. Types of current and concepts of testing capacity

3.1.4.1.____Alternating current (AC)

The use of magnetizing (AC) current is made for surface open discontinuities. The alternating
current and its magnetic field produced, tend to remain confined to the surface only due to the
phenomena known as skin effect. Thus use of alternating current is not recommended for detection
of sub-surface defects. The AC induced fields help in better particles mobility and a better
indication of discontinuities.
3.1.4.2.____Direct current (DC) or half wave rectified AC (HWDC)
Direct current produce mores deep penetrating fields than AC and thus is more sensitive for sub-
surface discontinuities. Half wave rectified AC single phase current produces fields formaximum
sensitivity of inspection. This is so because the pulsating field increases the particle mobility and
enables particles to line up more readily in the leakage fields. The pulse peaks produce a stronger
magnetizing force.
3.1.4.3.____Full wave rectified single phase AC
The use of pulsating unidirectional current is sometimes made for magnetic particle testing. In
general it possesses no advantage over half wave and is not as satisfactory as three phase rectified
current when straight DC is required because of its high ripple. It also draws a higher current from
the AC lines than does half wave for a given magnetizing effect, which is a distinct disadvantage.

42
 3.1.4.4.____Three phase rectified AC
In the three phase AC, there are three separate currents following sine wave curves each at 50 or 60
cycles per second but with peaks of their individual curves 1/3 rd of a cycle apart Figure 8.5 e.
When three phase alternating current is rectified, the full wave rectification system is used, the
result is DC with very little pulsations. For magnetic particle testing purposes, it has all the effects
which are required when DC magnetization is indicated i.e. deeper penetration and more favourable
power transmission and line load characteristics.

FIG.4.5: Direct and alternating currents.

3.1.4.5.____Penetration characteristics
The AC method is more sensitive than DC or HWDC, in showing surface discontinuities. Figure
4.6 compares the abilities of various methods to detect subsurface discontinuities. The graph plots
amperage against depth of discontinuity. This experiment was performed using the test specimen
shown at the lower right in Figure 4.6. The lowest amperage that gave a minimum threshold
indication at various discontinuity depths was recorded.

FIG.4.6. Threshold sensitivities of various test methods.

43
3.1.5. Demagnetization equipment

The need for having demagnetizer equipment is vital for removing the residual magnetism parts, in
particular those where such a field is going to affect their serviceability, further machining and
inspection. On semi-automatic equipment the demagnetizer is commonly integral with the test
equipment and automatically demagnetizes parts as they pass by on the conveyor. They can be hand
operated or automatic and can operate intermittently or continuously. The demagnetizer is chosen
on the basis of part size, complexity of shape, retentivity of the test objects and level of
demagnetization required. It is advisable to consider the requirement of such a demagnetizer to be
incorporated in the magnetic particle test equipment at the time of its purchase.

FIG.4.7. Typical demagnetization unit (1. Trak, 2. Demagnetization coil, 3. Movable

carriage, 4. Timer and switch, 5. Indicator lamp)
3.1.5.1.____Demagnetization with alternating current
A common method of demagnetizing small to moderate-size parts is by passing them through a coil
through which alternating current at line frequency is passing (usually 50 to 60 Hz). Alternatively,
the 60-Hz alternating current is passed through a coil with the part inside the coil, and the current
gradually reduced to zero. In the first method, reduction of the strength of the reversing field is
obtained by axially withdrawing the part from the coil (or the coil from the part) and for some
distance beyond the end of the coil (or part) along that axial line. In the second method, gradual
decay of the current in the coil accomplishes the same result. Passing a part through an alternating
current coil is usually the faster and more preferred method. Small parts should not be loaded into
baskets and the baskets passed through the coil as a unit, because alternating current will not
penetrate into such a mass of parts, and only a few parts on the outer edges will be demagnetized,
and these possibly only partly demagnetized. Small parts can be demagnetized in multiple lots only
if they are placed in a single layer on a tray that holds them apart and in a fixed position with their
long axes parallel to the axis of the coil. Large parts are not effectively demagnetized with 60-Hz
alternating current, because of its inability to penetrate. Alternating current with 25-Hz frequency is
more effective.
Machines that provide decaying alternating current have a built-in means for automatically reducing
the alternating current to zero by the use of step-down switches, variable transformers. When
decaying alternating current is used, the current may be passed directly through the part instead of
through a coil. Passing the current through the part is more effective on long circularly magnetized
parts than the coil method, but does not overcome the lack of penetration because of the skin effect,
unless frequencies much lower than 60 Hz are used.
3.1.5.2.____Demagnetization with direct current
Methods of demagnetizing with direct current are essentially identical in principle to the alternating
current methods just described. By using reversing and decreasing direct current, low frequency
reversals are possible, with resulting more complete penetration of even large cross sections. One
reversal per second is a frequency commonly used. It is a successful means of removing circular
magnetic fields especially when the current is passed directly through the part, and can be used to
44
demagnetize large parts. When a coil is magnetized using direct current at one reversal per second,
the part remains in the coil for the duration of the entire cycle.
3.1.5.3.____Oscillating circuits
Oscillating circuits are a means of obtaining a reversing decaying current for demagnetizing
purposes. By connecting a large capacitance of the correct value across the demagnetizing coil, the
coil becomes part of an oscillatory circuit. The coil is energized with direct current and when the
source of current is cut off, the resonant resistance-inductance-capacitance circuit oscillates at its
own resonant frequency, and the current gradually diminishes to zero.
3.1.5.4.____Yokes
Either direct or alternating current yokes, provide a portable means for demagnetizing parts. The
space between the poles of the yoke should be such that the parts to be demagnetized will pass
between them as snugly as possible. With alternating current flowing in the coil of the yoke, parts
are passed between the poles and withdrawn. Yokes can be used on large parts for local
demagnetization by placing the poles on the surface, moving them around the area and then
withdrawing the yoke while it is still energized. Yokes using low frequency reversing direct current,
instead of alternating current, are more effective in penetrating larger cross sections.

3.1.6. Maintenance and use of the equipment

Some critical maintenance procedures are required for mobile magnetic particle testing systems. For
instance, the cooling intake of the unit must be kept clean to permit the free flow of the air,
especially if the unit is moved into a dirty testing environment. Prod tips are another source of
concern. They may become corroded or burned, hindering a good contact with the test object.
Defective prod tips can produce arc burns and these are proven source of cracking. Similarly,
clamps should have good copper mesh gripping points. Frayed cables and continuous overheating
decrease the conductivity of the cable. This produces heat, increases resistance and reduces the
amperage available for testing. Connectors and cable joints with the test part should be tight and
solid to help prevent overheating.

3.2. ACCESSORIES

3.2.1. Contact points

The number of accessories available for use in magnetic particle testing is extensive. Some are
available from the manufacturers of magnetic particle equipment; others are made up for specific
purposes. The need for accessories usually depends on the type and method of application of the
test selected. An accessory may speed up a procedure but, if its use in any way impairs the quality
of the test, the accessory defeats its purpose. Table 4-II illustrates some frequently used accessories
and their application. In Figure 4.8 some of the types discussed above are shown.
Table 4-II: Accessories and their use
Cables Used with mobile or portable magnetic particle equipment to carry the current to prod
or solenoid
Contact heads Electrode assembly used to clamp and support a part to facilitate passageof current
through the part for circular magnetization.
Contact clamps Used instead of prods to facilitate good contact with article or when onemanoperation
is required.
Contact blocks Used to facilitate cable connection from stationary equipment for externaluse of prods
or coils.
Demagnetizing unit Used to demagnetize ferrous metals containing residual magnetism.

45
 Field indicator Used in measuring residual magnetism in an article.
Leeches Used as prods or clamps.
Liquid applicator Used in applying fluorescent or non-fluorescent test medium: can beeither manual,
electric, or air operated.
Mesh/Contact pad Used between contact points and article tested to avoid sparking andburns.
Powder applicator Used to apply magnetic particle powder to the test area: can be a powder puff,
or powder blower, hand-operated, electric, or air.
Prods Used for magnetizing of welds, sheet, or plate.

FIG. 4.8 Accessories.

3.2.2. Vessels for checking bath concentration

The bath used with the wet method of magnetic particle testing consists of a liquid vehicle in which
the particles of known concentrations are suspended. The required test sensitivity is achieved only
for correct concentration. Too light a concentration leads to very light indication of discontinuities;
too heavy a concentration results in too much overall coverage, which may mask or cause incorrect
interpretation of discontinuity indication. The vessel used for knowing the concentration is a
graduated glass flask. This is accomplished through the use of a pear-shaped centrifuge tube with a
1-mL stem (0.05-mL divisions) for fluorescent particle suspensions or a 1.5-mL stem (0.1-mL
divisions) for nonfluorescent suspensions.
The suspension is agitated for 30 minutes to ensure even distribution of particles in the vehicle.
Then 100 -mL of bath is pumped through the hose nozzle into this pear shaped centrifuge tube and
allow it to settle for approximately 60 min with petroleum distillate suspensions or 30 min with
water-based suspensions before reading. The volume settling out at the bottom of the tube is
indicative of the particle concentration in the bath Figure 4.9.
For fluorescent particles, the required settling volume is from 0.1 to 0.4 mL in a 100 mL bath
sample and from 1.2 to 2.4 mL per 100 mL of vehicle for nonfluorescent particles unless otherwise
specified by the particle manufacturer. Concentration checks shall be made at least every eight
hours (Article 7 (2013)).

46
 (a) (b)
FIG.4.9 Vessels for checking bath concentration, a) for fluorescent, b) for nonfluorescent

3.2.3. Field indicator (Berthold test piece)

A magnetic field indicator is used for checking the adequacy and direction of the part
magnetization. A suitable and sufficient flux or field strength is indicated when a clearly defined
lines of magnetic particles forms across the copper face of the indicator. The construction of the
indicator is as follows. The test piece consists of a remanence free shielding ring into which an iron
cylinder sectioned into four quarters is placed. The iron cylinder is covered by a thin brass plate,
which can be varied in distance to and from the work piece.

FIG.4.10 Field indicator (Berthold test piece).

3.2.4. Calibration pieces (JIS)

JIS (Japanese Standard Institute) has mentioned the standard reference block type A, and C in
their specification G 0565-1982. Their use is made for examining the performance of apparatus,
magnetic particles and suspensions. It is also used for measurement of strength and direction of the
effective field on the surface of the test article. Figure 4.11 illustrates type A, JIS standard block
circular and linear. Type B is a reference standard similar to annular ring.
JIS type C standard block are similar to type A, and are used in situation where the application of
the latter is difficult for dimensional reasons such as examining the narrow area.

FIG.4.11 Japanese type A standard test shims, (a) circular and (b) linear.
47
3.2.5. Magnetic field measurement equipment (gauss meter)

Leakage field intensities can be measured quantitatively or by employing comparative methods.

Gauss meter
Gauss meter measures the flux density inside a part. The Gauss meter is an instrument that
measures the total change of flux through a coil, independent of the rate of change. It consists of
a coil connected to a ballistic galvanometer through suitable long time circuitry. When the
magnetic flux through the coil changes either by moving the coil or the part or otherwise
varying the field in the part by some means, the needle of the galvanometer swings and
indicates the amount of change. The change in the flux may be either in positive or the negative
direction. Knowing the area of the coil, the average flux density within the coil can be
calculated. Figure 4.12 illustrates an arrangement for measuring flux in bearing race.
Generally, the coil should be made to fit closely; however, little error is introduced by the coil
fit, unless the coil fit is very poor. The change in flux is obtained by first setting the meter to
zero with the magnetizing current off, and then noting the reading when the current is turned on.
The value of flux is obtained by the formula:
Deflection
Flux=K x =10000 x D/ N
Number of turns
Where,
K is a constant and as an example is 10000.
D is the deflection read on the galvanometer.
N is the number of turns in the coil.
Flux density is measured, then, by dividing the value obtained with the area of coil.

FIG.4.12. Gauss meter to measure the flux in a bearing race.

3.2.6. Ultraviolet lamps

The need of using ultraviolet lamps arises during inspection with fluorescent magnetic powder.
The black light equipment usually consists of current regulating transformer, a mercury arc
bulb, and filter. The bulb and filter are contained in a reflector lamp unit and the transformer
housed separately.

48
The deep red purple filter is designed to pass only those wave lengths of light which shall
activate the fluorescent material. At least five minutes warm up time is required to reach the
required arc temperature. The mercury vapour lamps are gaseous discharge devices in which an
electric arc takes place in a controlled atmosphere and emits light whose characteristics depend
on the nature of that atmosphere. The construction of a mercury vapour bulb is shown in the
Figure 4.13.

FIG.4.13 Construction drawing of the high pressure mercury arc lamp.

3.2.6.1.____Starting up of mercury vapour arc lamps
When the lamp is first turned on the mercury in the cartridge (Mc) is not in vapour form but is
condensed in droplets on the inside of the tube. To facilitate starting a small amount of neon gas
is incorporated into the cartridge, and a starting electrode (ES) is sealed through one end of the
tube near one of the main electrodes. When a voltage is first applied a discharge will take place
from the starting electrode through the neon. The glow discharge carries a small current, limited
by the protective resistor R, but sufficient to vapourize and ionize mercury and eventually cause
an arc to strike between the main electrodes. The heating and ionization process requires from 5
to 15 min of starting time when the lamp is first turned on.
3.2.6.2.____Measurement of black light intensity
Present day, the specially designed meters calibrated in watts per square metre or microwatt per
square centimeter are required to measure the intensity of black light sources. An example of
such a meter is J-221, which measure long wave ultraviolet, shown in Figure 4.14. The J-221
meter scale extends to 6000 microwatt per centimeter square. With a multiplier screen the scale
is extended by five times.

FIG.4.14 Meters used to measure ultraviolet long wave irradiance.

The intensity readings are taken directly by illuminating the surface with black light source and
meter placed at the location of interest. The readings are normally taken with sources of light
placed at a distance of 15 inch (40 cm) or others as specified by a referencing code.

49
3.2.7. Coloured and fluorescent powders

The particles used in either dry or wet magnetic particle examination techniques are finely
divided ferromagnetic materials which have been treated to impart colour (fluorescent and
nonfluorescent) in order to make them highly visible (contrasting) against the background of the
surfaces being examined.
The dry magnetic particle powder is made in almost any colour, the most frequent employed
colours are light grey, black, red, or yellow. Fluorescent dry powders are also available, but
their use is limited for economy reasons. They require a black light source and means to darken
the work area.
Fluorescent wet method particles glow as bright yellow green when viewed under black light.
Non fluorescent particles are usually black or reddish brown, although other colours are
available. Since the contrast (sensitivity) is invariably higher with fluorescent materials, these
are utilized in most wet process examinations.

3.2.8. Colour for increasing contrast

Choice of selecting dry powder of a particular colour is made to achieve maximum detection
sensitivity or contrast. The brightness of the fluorescent magnetic powder should be maintained
at the established level so as the indication and background brightness can be kept at a constant
level. Excessive increase in brightness can cause high background fluorescence which may
result in difficulty in indication interpretation, while inadequate brightness can result in
indications being undetected. Sometimes a thin coating of contrasting paint is applied on the
test surface to increase the visibility of indications if present.

3.2.9. Morphology of the particles

The morphology of the particles is the study of different forms of the particles regarding their
shape, size, colour (visible and fluorescent), magnetic behaviour and applicability etc. The
magnetic particles generally have high permeability to allow the ease of magnetizing and
attraction to the discontinuity and low retentivity so they will not be attracted (magnetic
agglomeration) to each other. These particles are designed for use either as a free flowing dry
powder, or for suspension at a given concentration in a suitable liquid medium.
The indicative power of magnetic powders is mainly determined by the following properties of
the powder:
a) Magnetic properties
b) Visibility properties
c) Mobility properties
d) Geometric properties
3.2.9.1.____Magnetic properties
The particles of the testing medium must possess two important magnetic properties: high
permeability and low retentivity. Permeability is defined as the degree of ease with which a
particle is magnetized; retentivity, as that property which causes particles to retain, to a greater
or lesser degree, a certain amount of residual magnetism. Particles incorporating high
permeability and low retentivity are strongly attached to leakage fields, but do not remain
magnetized when removed from the influence of the magnetic field.
3.2.9.2.____Geometric properties

50
Grain size of the particles used should correspond approximately to the gap of the crack to be
identified. Coarse grains are either not held in place because of their weight, or are more easily
rinsed away by the carrier liquid (wet method). If the particles are too small, the formation of
bridges over the gaps of cracks becomes difficult. In practice, cracks may be expected which
have different gaps. Thus it is more practicable to use a mixture of powders of different grain
sizes.
In general, the dry powder method is carried out using average grain size of between 60 to 300
microns, whereas the wet method is usually carried out using grains of smaller sizes (a few
microns), in order to be able to identify very fine surface cracks.
The spherical-shaped particle offers a high degree of mobility but is not so strongly attracted to
leakage fields because of its shape. On the other hand, the long, slender, jagged particle is
strongly attracted to leakage fields but has low mobility. A multi- facet, nugget- shaped particle
is a good compromise in that it reasonably combines the optimum qualities of the other two
shapes. Particle size is an important consideration. Small particles are required to detect weak
leakage fields, larger sizes are used only when specifications allow their use, since a weak
leakage field is unable to hold a large particle, but is able to retain one of smaller size. Thus,
dry powder magnetic particles are made up in a wide range of sizes though all will pass through
a l00 mesh screen.
In the wet method, oxides of iron are used as magnetic particles. They are of lower permeability
than the metallic dry particles and have neither the most desirable shape nor variety of sizes.
They are extremely fine in size so that they will remain in suspension to maintain mobility as
long as possible before settling out. Even so, the bath must be continually agitated to maintain
the particles in suspension. When using fluorescing magnetic powders, one usually chooses
magnetic particles which have a slightly rougher surface finish. This helps increase adhesion,
and thus the life of the fluorescent coating.
3.2.9.3.____Visibility properties
For proper visibility, colour contrast of powders against surfaces on which they are used is
important. Good lighting is essential. Iron oxides are red-black, carbonyl iron powder has a grey
colour. In addition to the colour contrast, the brightness contrast (luminance difference) is of
extreme importance. This requirement for brightness difference is met particularly well by
fluorescent magnetic powders. The individual magnetic powder particles are given a coating of
some fluorescent material. When excited by ultraviolet light, the substance gives off a yellow-
green or orange-coloured fluorescence.
3.2.9.4.____Mobility properties
When the particles are applied to a test specimen they must be applied in such a way that they
are free to form a pattern or indication in the presence of leakage fields.
(a) In the dry method, mobility is obtained by dusting or blowing the particles over the surface
of the article. The ideal procedure, from the point of mobility, is to float a cloud of particles
with very low velocity up to the surface being tested. This condition is obtainable only with
special equipment. The floating action permits the leakage field at the discontinuity to catch and
hold some particles as they move by. Mobility is also obtained by vibrating the article after the
particles have been applied. Since the alternating field's influence causes the particles to
"dance", AC is used advantageously to provide mobility.
(b) The principal advantage of the wet method is the excellent mobility of the suspended
particles. A low viscosity liquid is used so that the mobility of the suspended particles is not
impeded by the liquid.
3.2.9.5.____Methods of application

51
Dry magnetic particles are commonly applied from shaker cans or bulbs. This method is the
simplest, but not necessarily the best. Automatic particle- blowing equipment is usually
economical in its use of particles and, in most instances, is the most satisfactory way of floating
dry particles to the test surface with minimum velocity. Wet suspensions are caused to flow
over the surface to be examined, or the article is immersed in a bath of the suspension. Flow
application is usually used with continuous magnetic particle testing, and the immersion bath
with residual testing.

3.3. SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT APPROPRIATE TO THE NATURE OF THE TEST

The selection of the equipment is one of the very important operating decisions for any
technique. This decision depends on the size, shape, number and variety of the parts to be
tested. For production testing of many parts which are relatively small, but not necessarily
identical in shape, a bench type unit with clamping head contacts for circular magnetization,
and a built-in coil for longitudinal magnetization is commonly used. In such applications wet
continuous method is generally selected, although some dry powder units of this type have been
in service.
In situations where the parts are large, portable units using prods or c-clamp contacts and hand-
wrapped coils may be most convenient. Half-wave and dry powder are often used with such
units as in the inspection of welds and large castings.
In some cases no-power is available to operate magnetizing equipment in the area where the
inspection must be carried out, or the nature of the inspection does not justify the purchase of
more expensive equipment. In such cases permanent magnet yokes may be used; or
electromagnet yokes operated either by AC or rectified AC if some current source can be had.
Yokes using automobile or other storage batteries as a source of energizing current are another
solution of the no-power problem. In explosive areas, permanent magnet yokes furnish a safe
way to secure local magnetization for maintenance inspection. Inspection with these devices is
usually limited to spot checking or occasional testing of miscellaneous parts.

3.4. SPECIAL EQUIPMENT

Special purpose units may be manual, automatic, or semi-automatic machines. They are
designed for one specific part or class of items. The magnetizing system and the handling
devices are designed for specific configurations. The magnetizing features are designed to
minimize handling of large or heavy parts and provide for sufficient localized flux density to
assure that critical discontinuities of certain types and sizes are detected. Specialized machines
can be designed to control the method and reproducibility level of the test at specific quality
levels.

3.4.1. Portable equipment

The most modern of the series of portable units is the power back shown in Figure 4.15. This
type of unit delivers from 4000 to 6000 amps output of magnetizing current, either AC or half
wave rectified DC with infinitely variable current control. The current "dial amps" system
automatically delivers the selected amount of current to the external magnetizing circuit and
automatically compensates for variations in load impedance and line fluctuations.

3.4.2. Stationary installations

The stationary magnetizing (special unit) may or may not always be complicated or expensive.
Sometimes a special accessory can be built for a standard unit and do the job adequately. In
other cases, of course when all processing and handling is automatically controlled and

52
sequenced, the unit is necessarily more complex and more costly. Figure 4.16 given below
shows a special circuit for crankshaft inspection which is a standard unit equipped with special
fixtures to process crankshafts automatically.

FIG.4.15: A modern portable magnetizing unit.

FIG.4.16: Largest bench-type magnetizing unit for large diesel crankshafts.

3.4.3. Automated equipment

Automatic magnetic particle units are special purpose machines designed for the inspection of
items that are all of the same configuration. Some automatic units can be adjusted to handle
similar items of different dimensions. One of the most important reasons for using an automatic
machine is that it will provide the correct inspection in a reproducible fashion.
Before an automatic machine is ordered, the configuration of the part should be in a final design
stage. The type of material and the critical high stress areas must be known and the
manufacturing method determined. A prototype part will be needed for check-out of the
machine.
The visual inspection for magnetic particle indications obtained with automatic machines is still
principally accomplished by inspectors. There are some machines that have been developed for
special applications that provide fully automated inspections, including analyses of the detected
indications. These systems used different lighting and viewing systems that incorporate photo-
cells connected to scanning mirrors. Some scanners use a laser for illumination where very
small discontinuities are to be detected.
Maintenance of automatic machines is an important consideration. The magnetizing units are
quite rugged, but automatic mechanisms require specialized maintenance care. If at all possible,
an in-house maintenance capability is desirable since the automatic system is usually a one-of-a

53
kind machine. An automatic system is required upon to handle high production; when it is
inoperative, total production capability can be lost.

FIG.4.17: Automatic system for magnetic particle testing of seamless tubing:

(a) loading side; (b) inspection station; and (c) example of fluorescent particle indication of
spiral seams

54
 4. CODES, STANDARDS, SPECIFICATIONS AND PROCEDURES

4.1. INTERPRETATION OF PROCEDURES FOR THE APPLICATION OF TESTS USING

VARIOUS TECHNIQUES

Magnetic particle testing is performed in accordance with a written procedure. Many large
companies that make extensive use of magnetic particle testing have prepared their own versions of
the procedures that are to be used in their operations. These are usually rather broad in their
approach, except that they may be limited to those specific procedures applicable to their product.
These procedures are normally peculiar to a particular technique and equipment. Similarly, many
technical societies have prepared broad procedural guides for the use of their members who wish to
learn about or use magnetic particle testing method. Some of the organizations such as American
Society of the Mechanical Engineers (ASME), American Welding Society (AWS), American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the Society of Automotive Engineers etc. have
developed such procedures. These procedures, if referenced by some referencing code, become
mandatory and all the stated requirements have to be met. The written procedure should include at
least the following elements, either directly or indirectly or by reference to the applicable
documents.
a) The procedure should be on company letterhead so as to clearly demonstrate its origin. The
procedure should have its own code number and the latest issue number.
b) Identification of the test objects to which the procedure applies including material and alloy.
c) Areas of the test object to be examined.
d) Direction of magnetization to be used, the order in which they are applied and any
demagnetization procedures used between shots.
e) Methods of establishing magnetization (prods, yoke, cable wrap, multidirectional system).
f) The type and level of magnetizing current (alternating current, half wave direct current or full
wave direct current) and the equipment used.
g) The current level or the number of ampere turns used and the duration of its application.
h) Type of magnetic particle material (dry or wet, visible or fluorescent) and the method and
equipment used for its application.
i) Type of records and method of marking objects after testing.
j) Acceptance criteria and disposition of objects after testing.
k) Post test demagnetization and cleaning requirements.
l) Sequence of magnetic particle testing as related to manufacturing process operations.
All valid indications formed by magnetic particle examination are the result of magnetic flux
leakage fields. Indications may be relevant or non-relevant. Indications caused by particles being
held by non-magnetic forces are false: examples include particles lying in the depression at the side
of a weld, or particles wedged into rust or scale on the surface.

4.2. COMPOSITION OF TEST PROCEDURES INCLUDING INSTRUCTIONS FOR

VARIOUS METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

4.2.1. Various materials and shapes

The magnetic particle examination method is applied to detect cracks and other discontinuities on or
near the surface of ferromagnetic materials.

55
The sensitivity is greatest for surface discontinuities and diminishes rapidly with increasing depth of
surface discontinuities below the surface. Typical types of discontinuities that can be detected by
this method are cracks, laps, seams, cold shuts, and laminations. In principle, this method involves
magnetizing an area to be examined and applying ferromagnetic particles (the examination
medium) to the surface. The particles will form patterns on the surface where cracks and other
discontinuities cause distortions in the normal magnetic field. These patterns are usually
characteristic of the type of discontinuity that is detected. Whichever technique is used to produce
the magnetic flux in the part, maximum sensitivity will be to linear discontinuities oriented
perpendicular to the lines of flux. For optimum effectiveness in detecting all types of
discontinuities, each area should be examined at least twice, with the lines of flux during one
examination approximately perpendicular to the lines of flux during the other. The shape and
material of the test job has great influence on the choice of a particular technique. The method
works best on steels and alloys that have high permeability. Discontinuities lying wholly below the
surface are more likely to be located in soft steels having high permeability than hardened steels and
alloys which in nearly all cases have low permeability. In case of grey or malleable iron castings,
surface cracks are easily located. The method also works well on metallic nickel and cobalt. On the
other hand, stainless steel and other alloys which are in austenitic state cannot be tested with
magnetic particles at all, since iron in this state is non magnetic.

The use of any technique produces either a circular field, longitudinal or combination of both in
quick successions. For creating circular field, use of either prods, direct contact passage of current
into the job or by the conductor passed through the bore of circular job is made. The value of
current required is calculated on the basis of the outer diameter of the jobs. But in case of jobs with
shapes other than true symmetrically circular, this value is taken as the greatest cross-sectional
diagonals in plane perpendicular to the current flow.

For longitudinal magnetization by coil of a bar with uniform cross section, flux density is
approximately uniform over the cross section at any point except at each end of the bar. However, if
there is an upset portion, along the length of the bar, the field tends to flow out into the upset
portion but does not do so uniformly. When attempting to magnetize a part of irregular shape, the
analysis of the probable path of field should be made. Sometimes separate coil magnetizations must
be applied to various projections of the test part to ensure proper field direction at all locations. A
satisfactory procedure can usually be worked out for the most complicated shapes after some
experimentation.

4.2.2. Selection of the equipment

The decision on the selection of the equipment depends on size, shape, number and variety of parts
to be tested. For production testing of numerous parts which are relatively small, use of horizontal
bench type stationary units with clamping head contacts for circular magnetization and a built-in
movable coil for longitudinal magnetization is commonly made. If the parts are large, portable units
using prods or C-clamp contacts and hand wrapped coils may be a convenient choice.

4.2.3. Field detection

It is very essential to ascertain during magnetic particle inspection the adequacy of field strength
and direction. This is an essential requirement for producing a good indication of existing defects. It
is thus very important for the operator to ensure that a field of sufficient intensity and of desired
direction exists within the magnetized job. Flux meters help in determining experimentally the flux
density within the part. Similarly other meters are available which measure the existing flux on a
point just above the part. Use of Berthold field indicator is very conveniently made by placing them
on the job at the site of interest during magnetization. The formation of the pattern on the face of the
indicator shall ensure the adequacy of the existing field strength and direction.

56
4.2.4. Intensity

For achieving the desired level of magnetic field intensity during the use of different techniques, use
of certain relationships is made. A brief picture of some such guidelines is as under.

4.2.4.1.____Electromagnetic yoke
The field intensity is dependent on the thickness of the job and the distance between its poles. It
decreases with the increase of the pole separation and thickness of the job.

4.2.4.2.____Prod magnetization
The field intensity is dependent upon the separation of prod tips and thickness of job. Prod spacing
of up to 8 inch (200 mm) and a minimum of 3 inch (75 mm) is recommended.

4.2.4.3.____Coil magnetization
The field generated is longitudinal and the value of direct or rectified current is based on the ratio of
length to diameter of the job. For non-cylindrical jobs, diameter value is the maximum cross-
sectional diagonal. Depending upon the values of L/D, different relationship is used for calculating
the value of magnetizing current.

4.2.4.4.____Head shot
The current is passed directly into the jobs, the resultant field is circular in nature. The value of
current is dependent on the outside diameter of the job. The value of current is the same as for
central conductor or threading bar.

4.2.5. Type of current

The choice is dictated by the location of defects, whether they are open to the surface of the part or
located wholly below the surface. Choice of current lies between AC and some form of DC (Full
wave rectified or half wave rectified (HWDC). For surface open defects, AC is the first choice
whereas for deeper penetration ability of straight DC or rectified half wave and full wave, the use of
later is made. Thus the magnetizing equipment to be used should also have the ability to generate
the type of current desired.

4.2.6. Selection of inspection media

The selection has to be decided between dry and wet method and secondarily among the various
colours that are available, including fluorescent particles. This decision is principally influenced by
the following considerations:

Whether the defect sought is on the surface or wholly below the surface: For deep-lying defects dry
powder is more sensitive.

The size of the defect, if on the surface: The wet method is usually best for very fine and shallow
defects.

Convenience: Dry powder with a portable half wave rectified unit, for instance, is easy to use for
occasionally large parts in the shop or foundry, or for field inspection work.

57
4.2.7. Sequence of testing

The sequence of operation in magnetic particle testing applies to the relationship of timing and
application of particles and magnetizing current. Two basic techniques apply, continuous and
residual, both of which are commonly employed in industry today.

4.2.7.1.____Wet continuous magnetization

The technique is applied for most applications utilizing either dry or wet particles. The sequence of
operation for the ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ continuous magnetization techniques are significantly different.
The `wet' continuous magnetization technique generally applies to those parts processed on a
horizontal wet bench type unit. In practice it involves bathing the part with the inspection medium
and terminating the bath application simultaneously with the initiation of the current. Thus there is
no application of inspection medium while the current is flowing. Typically there may be a slight
overlap relative to cessation of bath application and flow of the magnetizing current.

4.2.7.2.____Dry continuous magnetization

In this method, the initiation of the current is done prior to the application of the dry powder, and
terminated after the application of the powder has been completed and excess powder blown off.

4.2.7.3.____Residual magnetization
In this case the examination medium is applied after the magnetizing force has been discontinued.
The method has some usefulness for retentive materials.

4.2.8. Demagnetization

All ferromagnetic materials will retain some residual magnetism, the strength of which is dependent
on the retentivity of the part. Residual magnetism does not affect the mechanical properties of the
part. However, a residual field may permit chips to adhere to the surface affecting subsequent
machining operations, as well as painting or plating. Additionally, if the part will be used in
locations near sensitive instruments, high residual fields could affect the operation of these
instruments. Furthermore, a strong residual magnetic field in a part to be arc welded could interfere
with this operation. Residual fields may also interfere with subsequent magnetic particle
examination. Demagnetization is required only if specified in the drawings, specification or
purchase order. When required, an acceptable level of residual magnetization and the measuring
method shall also be specified.

The ease of demagnetization is dependent on the coercive force of the metal. In general,
demagnetization is accomplished by subjecting the part to a field equal to or greater than that used
to magnetize the part, then continuously reversing the field direction while gradually decreasing it
to zero.

4.2.8.1.____Effectiveness of demagnetization
It can be indicated by the use of appropriate magnetic field indicators or field strength meters.
However, a part may retain a strong residual field after having been circularly magnetized and
exhibit little or no external evidence of this field. Therefore, the circular magnetization should be
conducted before longitudinal magnetization if complete demagnetization is required.

4.2.9. Post inspection cleaning

Post-test cleaning is necessary where magnetic particle materials could interfere with subsequent
processing or with service requirements.

58
Typical post cleaning techniques employed are: (1) the use of compressed air to blow off unwanted
dry magnetic particles; (2) drying of wet particles and subsequent removal by brushing or
compressed air; and (3) removal of wet particles by flushing with solvent. Other suitable post-test
cleaning techniques may be used if they will not interfere with subsequent requirements.

4.2.10. Acceptance Standards

The acceptability of parts examined is not specified herein. Acceptance standards are a matter of
agreement between the manufacturer and the purchaser and should be stated in a referenced
specification or code.

4.3. STANDARDS

4.3.1. Qualification and certification of personnel

For NDT to be economically effective, it must locate defects quickly and accurately. The accuracy
and speed at which an operator can perform a non-destructive inspection is based not only on his
training and experience but also on the quantity and reliability of the test equipment. Manufacturers
of aerospace and nuclear products spend considerable time and money to train and certify an
inspector for each non-destructive testing method. His effectiveness is directly related to training,
available equipment and working conditions.

To avoid unreliable results of an NDT examination, besides using standardized equipment and test
methods, the person carrying out the examination must also be properly educated, trained and
certified in the method. Various standards are available to cater for this requirement. Lately, there is
being started an effort to harmonize the education, training and certification. Some of the standards
of this type are:

ISO/FDIS 9712-99: Non-destructive testing — qualification and certification of personnel.

MIL-STD-410: Qualification of inspection personnel (magnetic particle and liquid

penetrant).

DIN 54160: Requirements for non destructive testing personnel.

SNT-TC-IA: Recommended practice for non-destructive testing personnel,

qualification and certification.

IIS/IIW-589-79: Recommendation relating to the training of non-destructive testing

personnel.

ASTM E-543: Recommended practice for determining the qualifications of non-

destructive testing agencies.

4.3.2. Internal specifications and corresponding standards

Materials or product producers frequently have their products non-destructively inspected on their
own or at an independent NDT facility prior to being shipped to the prime contractor. MIL-STD-
410 and SNT-TC-IA presently specifies the procedures by which an NDT facility can qualify its
own personnel; However, to qualify independent or vendor NDT facilities, the prime contractor
must survey and certify each one separately. Each prime contractor therefore must establish
procedures for performing this task. The NDT facilities, on the other hand, must comply with all the
different requirements specified in order to remain certified.

59
4.3.3. Codes and standards

4.3.3.1.____Codes and specifications

Codes and specifications are similar types of standards that use the verbs "shall" or "will" to
indicate the mandatory use of certain materials or actions or both. Codes differ from specifications
in that their use is mandated with the force of law by governmental jurisdiction. The use of
specifications becomes mandatory only when they are referenced by codes or contractual
documents. A prime example of codes is the ASME boiler and pressure vessel code which is a set
of standards that assures the safe design, construction and testing of boilers and pressure vessels.

4.3.3.2.____Standards
Standards are documents that govern and guide the various activities occurring during the
production of an industrial product. Standards describe the technical requirements for a material,
process, product, system or service. They also indicate, as appropriate, the procedures, methods,
equipment or tests to determine that the requirements have been met.

There are different NDT standards available for respective methods issued by different international
standard-issuing organizations. Some of these organizations and their standards on magnetic
particle testing are given below:

a) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

i. ANSI/ASTMA 275 Magnetic particle examination of steel forgings. ANSI/ASTMA
456 Magnetic particle inspection of crankshaft forging.
ii. ANSI/ASTME 125 Reference photographs for magnetic particle indications of ferrous
castings.
iii. ANSI/ASTME 269 Definition of terms relating to magnetic particle inspection.

b) American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

i. A275 Magnetic particle examination of steel forging.
ii. A456 Magnetic particle inspection of large crankshaft forgings.
iii. E125 Standard reference photographs for magnetic particle indications on ferrous
castings. E269 Definition of terms relating to magnetic particle inspection.
iv. E709 Standard recommended practice for magnetic particle examination.
v. D56 Test methods for flash point by tag closed test.
vi. D93 Test methods for flash point by Pensky Martens closed tester.
vii. D96 Test methods for water and sediment in crude oils.
viii. D445 Test methods for kinematic viscosity of transparent and opaque liquids and the
calculation of dynamic viscosity.
ix. D808 Test methods for chlorine in new and used petroleum products (bomb method).
D2393 Test methods for viscosity of epoxy resin and related components.

c) Department of Defence, USA (DOD)

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 i. MIL-STD-27 1, ACN- 1 Non-destructive testing requirements for metals. MIL-STD-
1949 Magnetic particle inspection.
ii. Part a) Magnetic inspection units.
iii. Part b) Magnetic particle inspection unit, light weight.
iv. Part c) Magnetic rubber, inspection process.

d) American Welding Engineers (AWS)

i. D1-1 Structural welding code.
ii. D14-6 Welding of rotating elements of equipment.
iii. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
iv. AMS 2300F Premium aircraft quality steel (cleanliness, magnetic particle inspection
procedure (also MAM 2300).
v. AMS 2301G Aircraft quality steel cleanliness, magnetic particle inspection procedure.
AMS 2640J Magnetic particle inspection.
vi. AMS 3040 Magnetic particle inspection, material dry method.
vii. AMS 3041A Magnetic particles, wet method, oil vehicle.
viii. AMS 3042 A Magnetic particles, wet method, dry powder.
ix. AMS3043 A Magnetic particles, wet method, oil vehicle, aerosol canned. AMS 3044
B Magnetic particles, fluorescent wet method, dry powder.
x. AMS 3045 B Magnetic particles, fluorescent wet method, oil vehicle ready to use.
AMS 3046 B Magnetic particles, fluorescent wet method, oil vehicle, aerosol
packaged. AMS 3061 Inspection vehicle.

e) British Standards Institution (BS)

i. BS 6072 Methods for magnetic particle flaw detection.
ii. BS 3683 Glossary of terms used in non destructive testing ‘Part-2’ Magnetic flaw
detection.
iii. BS 4069 Magnetic flaw detection inks and powders.
iv. BS 4489 Method for assessing black light used in non-destructive testing.
v. BS 5044 Contrast paint used in magnetic particle flaw detection.
vi. BS M35 Method for magnetic particle flaw detection of materials and components.

f) Japanese Institute of Standards (JIS)

i. JIS G 0565 Methods for magnetic particle testing of ferromagnetic materials and
classification of magnetic particle indications.

g) American Petroleum Institute (API)

i. API-5A Specification for casing, tubing and drill pipe.

61
 ii. API-5AC Specification for restricted yield strength casing and tubing.API-5AX
Specification for high strength casing, tubing and drill pipe. API-5L Specification for
line pipe.
iii. API-5LU Specification for ultra high-test heat treated line pipe.
iv. API-RP 5A5 Recommended practice for the field inspection of new casting, tubing
and plain end drill pipe.

h) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Edition 2013

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers set up a committee in 1911 to formulate standard
rules for the construction of steam boiler and other pressure vessels. This committee is now called
the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committee.

The committee's function is to establish rules of safety governing the design, fabrication and
inspection during construction of boilers and unfired pressure vessels; and to interpret these rules
when questions arise regarding their intent. The committee has published the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code (BPV code) as an American Standard. The first code was published in 1914
and revised and updated editions have been issued at regular intervals since. The ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code contains the following sections:
Section I: Rules for Construction of Power Boilers
Section II: Materials
Section III: Rules for Construction of Nuclear Facility Components
Section IV: Rules for Construction of Heating Boilers
Section V: Nondestructive Examination
Section VI: Recommended Rules for the Care and Operation of Heating Boilers
Section VII: Recommended rules for care of power boilers
Section VIII: Rules for Construction of Pressure vessels
Section IX: Welding, Brazing, and Fusing Qualifications
Section X: Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels
Section XI: Rules for In-service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components

Section XII: Rules for Construction and Continued Service of Transport Tanks

General format of section V (2013)

Section V contains requirements and methods for NDE, detailed in 24 articles which become
ASME code requirements when referenced by other sections. These methods are intended to detect
surface and internal discontinuities in materials, welds and fabricated parts and components.
Article-1 serves as an introduction and covers general requirements such as manufacturers
examination responsibility, duties of the authorized inspector, written procedures, inspection,
examination and qualification of personnel. The balance of section V is organized in two sub-
sections, A and B, Mandatory appendix-I & II Non-mandatory appendix- A. Subsection A (Articles
1 & 2 and 4 to 17) defines the specific NDE methods required by the ASME code. Subsection B
(Articles 22 to 26 & 29 to 31) contains the basic standards, procedures and recommended practice
documents of each of the NDE techniques as adopted from the American Society for Testing of
Materials (ASTM). Article-7 and article-25 are related to Magnetic particle testing.

62
63
 5. PRESENTATION AND RECORDING OF RESULTS

5.1. PREPARATION OF REPORT ON THE TESTING

After magnetic particle examination in accordance with established procedure is done, a written
report is to be prepared. This report shall include at least the following information:

a) Area to be examined (entire part or specific area).

b) Type of magnetic particle material (dry or wet, visible or fluorescent).
c) Magnetic particle equipment.
d) Part surface preparation requirements.
e) Magnetizing process (continuous, true-continuous, residual).
f) Magnetizing current (alternating, half-wave, direct).
g) Means of establishing part magnetization (prods, yoke, cable wrap, etc.).
h) Direction of magnetic field (circular or longitudinal).
i) Magnetic field strength (ampere turns, field density, magnetizing force, and number and
duration of application of magnetizing current). Application of examination media.
j) Interpretation and evaluation of indications. Type of records.
k) Demagnetizing techniques, if required, and Post-examination cleaning, if required.
In addition to the above mentioned procedure parameters, the test report should include the
following information:
a) Work location

b) Description & identification of the component tested.

c) .Date of test

d) Stage of test (e.g. before heat treatment, before or after final machining)

e) Reference to the written test procedure

f) The instruction sheet number used

g) Name of the company

h) Name and signature of the person performing the tests

5.2. PREPARATION AND COMPLETION OF THE REPORT FORM

The results of all magnetic particle test shall be recorded. Records shall be identified, filed and
made available to the procuring agency on request. Records shall provide traceability to the
specific test object or the lot inspected and shall identify the testing facility and the procedure
used in the testing. Each inspection or production organization normally develop a standard
tests results report form in which all the desired procedural information and results are given.
The results on discontinuities are normally quoted for their location & size and a final comment
on their acceptance/rejection against the quoted specification or standard. A typical test form is
as attached Figure 10.1.

64
 5.3. DOCUMENTATION OF THE FINDINGS

Records should outline inspection details and accurately describe the location and shape of any
indications. It is important that the inspection records list serial numbers and item numbers of
what has been checked, including the extent of the inspection, and they should refer to written
procedures (techniques). A copy of the inspection report is frequently filed to illustrate the work
carried out.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION REPORT

Course No. Report No. Examination Date: Page: of

JOB DESCRIPTION/ DATA:

Identification of the Part or Component: Part or Component form:

Material: Thickness: Outside Dia.:

Extent of Examination/ Area of interest: Stage of Examination:

Part Surface Preparation /

Part Surface Condition:
Pre Cleaning Method:

EXAMINATION INFORMATION/ PARAMETERS

Examination Standard: Acceptance Standard:

Magnetizing Current: i. Type:

Instruction Sheet No.:
ii. Amperage:

Method of Examination/ i. Continuous:

Magnetizing Equipment
Sequence of Operation: ii. Residual:

Magnetizing Technique: Magnetic Field Direction:

Examination Medium (Magnetic Particles): Verification of Magnetic Field Adequacy:

Light Intensity Measurement: i. White Light:

Lighting Equipment:
ii. Black Light:
Method of Particle Application: i. Suspension:
Method of Excess Particle Removal:
ii. Spraying:

Job Surface Temperature: Residual Magnetic Field after Demagnetization:

Demagnetization Technique: Post Examination Cleaning Technique:

EXAMINATION RESULTS
VISUAL EXAMINATION

Name of Examiner Organization

Signature Date

65
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION REPORT

Course No. Report No. Examination Date: Page: of

EXAMINATION RESULTS

Indication / Type / Nature and orientation Size (mm) Location (mm) Remarks
DefectNo. of Indication / Defect (Dia. / Length) (from “0” reference) Accept / Reject

Remarks: (if any)

Name of
Organization
Examiner

Signature Date

66
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION REPORT

Course No. Report No. Examination Date: Page: of

Sketch

Name of Examiner Organization

Signature Date

FIG.6.1 Inspection report form.

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5.3.1. To locate the indications within the component

5.3.1.1.____Location and identification with reference to the test piece

To record size, number and location of all linear and round indications, use of sketches is made
to show location, direction and frequency of indications. For the inspection of welds, any
indication whose major dimension is greater than 1/16 inch (1.5 mm) is considered to be
relevant. The following indications are unacceptable as per ASME code, Section VIII, Div.-1.
a) All linear relevant indications.
b) All round indications if their dimension exceeds 3/16 inch (5 mm).
c) 4 or more round indications in line if the distance between indications is less than 1/16
inch (1.5 mm).
In the above paragraph, the word linear refers to an indication whose major dimension is more
than three times the width and where it is equal or less than three times the width it is called
round indication.
5.3.1.2.____Location of defects
The location of defects is determined by two co-ordinates L and W. L is the distance from
certain reference mark of the weld. W is measured from weld centre line. The different sides of
the weld are identified by letters A and B. The location of the defect is measured from the
centre of the defect. The orientation of the defect is reported in relation to the weld. A defect is
longitudinal if it is parallel to the weld and transverse if it is perpendicular to the weld as
indicated in Figure 6.2.

FIG.6.2 Location of defects in welded job.

5.3.2. Preservation of indications by photography

5.3.2.1.____Photographic technique (non-fluorescent)

Direct photography makes excellent record of non-fluorescent powder pattern for future record
and reference. When photographing fluorescent indications, a K2 or G filter over the lens of the
camera is essential to filter out black light.
a) Using transfer techniques Lacquer transfer technique
If it is desired to retain the indication in place on the test specimen, a transparent lacquer is
sprayed over the indication. Spraying or dipping is more effective than brushing because the
latter, no matter how carefully done, tends to disturb and mar the pattern. Stock lacquers are
thinned at least three-to-one before being used for this purpose. When the wet method has been
used, the surface is allowed to dry before the lacquer is applied.
b) Lacquer mixtures
There is another method using lacquer that employs a coloured lacquer as a suspension for a
ferromagnetic powder of a different colour. The lacquer-particle mixture is applied, the

68
magnetic field is induced before the lacquer sets, and the pattern becomes permanently fixed
after the lacquer dries. A white lacquer with black ferromagnetic powder in suspension gives a
black pattern on a white background and can be applied on practically any surface, or the
lacquer can be applied first, allowed to dry, and the ferromagnetic powder applied afterwards.
The resultant patterns are then photographed.
c) Transparent tape transfer technique
Probably the most convenient and, by far, the most widely used method of preserving
indications and patterns is the transparent tape method. If the dry magnetic particle method is
used, excess powder is carefully blown away or otherwise removed. If the wet method is
employed, sufficient time is allowed for the liquid vehicle to evaporate from the particles
composing the indication. Then a strip of transparent tape is carefully laid over the indication
and gently pressed down with the fingers or a rounded stick. When the tape is peeled off, it
brings the indication with it. The strip is then laid on white paper for photographing, on tracing
paper for blueprinting, or on a page of a permanent record book. With care, the transferred
pattern remains well-defined and accurate in every detail, and may serve as well as the original
pattern as a basis for judging and studying the indication.

5.3.3. Knowledge of documentation system

Permanent records of the appearance of indications can be of great value for a number of
purposes. Records showing the typical appearance of acceptable or rejectable indications of
discontinuities are useful for the guidance of inspectors in the testing of large number of similar
parts. A record of indications of discontinuities which are subsequently investigated by
sectioning or other means is an essential part of such report. Some times a part is put back into
service containing a known discontinuity which experience has shown to grow slowly.
Comparison of the indications obtained at next inspection with the records of the previous ones
is a positive means for checking such growth rate. The documents supporting such inspection
records should incorporate parameters such as:
(1) wet particle concentration; (2) dry particle bulk permeability; (3) dry particle visual contrast
with inspected surface; (4) dry particle filler content; (5) verification of saturation for circular
magnetism; (6) intensity of ultraviolet light at the test surface; (7) time intervals between
ultraviolet intensity checks; (8) relation between field strength at the centre of a coil and the
current through the coil; and (9) time intervals between magnetizing coil current calibration.
In case of magnetic particle testing the recording of indications is done by methods such as
sketching, photography, use of cellulose transparent tape and fixing by lacquer spray.

5.3.4. Management and control of complete documentation

Users of non-destructive testing need to have the capability to call up easily the results of
previous and other method inspection in order to better interpret NDT data and results. In
addition, they must also be alert to the possible deterioration of such records under storage and
to the accuracy and completeness of any reproductions (such as microfilms, for example) that
have been made.
At present it is recognized that the rapid increase in the use of computerized inspection
equipment makes it feasible to maintain NDT results as digital records on magnetic or optical
media. The new capability to call up previous inspection data obtained in manufacture or in a
previous maintenance inspection offers great promise for improvement in interpretation and
reliability of inspection.

69
 6. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS, LIMITATIONS OF THE METHOD

6.1. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

The indications developed due to magnetic leakage fields are interpreted first to be relevant or
non-relevant. The final decision after having determined the indications to be a relevant
discontinuity is to assess whether it will have an effect on the intended role of the part. One
must consider parameters such as cost, life, failure probability, and the tolerance of the material
to this type of defect, as guidelines for making a judgement to tolerate, to rework or to scrap the
part. For cases where working documents do not specify, it is of worth to discuss some
considerations that will assist in the evaluation.

6.2. INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS WITH REFERENCE TO THE MANUFACTURING

PROCESS

The procedural steps discussed so far will result in the presentation for analysis or interpretation
of a magnetic particle pattern caused by a defect, flaw or discontinuity. This section will deal
with interpretation of the discontinuity and comment on the effect of the flaw when the part is
placed in service.

In non-destructive testing terms such as indication, defect, discontinuity and flaw are often
wrongly interchanged. Formally, an indication is a response requiring an interpretation to
determine its significance. In magnetic particle inspection, this could be any magnetically held
magnetic particle pattern on the surface of a part being tested. A defect is a discontinuity whose
size, shape, orientation or location makes it detrimental to the useful service of the part. A flaw
is an imperfection in an item or material, which may not be harmful.

When viewing a magnetic particle indication it is necessary to know something of the part’s
history and intended use. This will simplify interpretation and may also assist in determining
whether an indication is surface or sub-surface. The trained technician can assess from codes,
standards or engineering guidelines whether the discontinuity or flaw is likely to be harmful to
the part’s intended service.

Discontinuities open to the surface usually produce sharp, distinct, tightly held indication
patterns. This is especially true of very fine tight cracks, etc., which are difficult to see but are
especially harmful.

Discontinuities below the surface tend to produce less distinct indications. They have a more
diffused or fuzzy pattern than surface indications.

6.2.1. Processing discontinuities and magnetic particle indications

These discontinuities are related to occur during the various manufacturing processes such as
forming, extruding, rolling, machining, welding, heat treatment and plating etc.

6.2.1.1.____Seams
Indications from a seam are usually straight, sharp and fine. They are often intermittent when
the seam is partially sub- surface and may present very little indication.

70
 6.2.1.2.____Laps
Since in most cases a lap is not normal to the surface, the indications will be heavy and irregular
due to the defect being present in the metal at an angle. If scale is included in the lap, small fern
like indications will stem from the main indication.
6.2.1.3.____Burst
Magnetic particle inspection is an effective method to inspect ferrous materials for surface or
near surface bursts. They give indications similar to heat treat cracks except that the lines are
less jagged or broken. Another difference is that bursts will not be related to design features.
6.2.1.4.____Machining tears
This type of discontinuity will be typified by short, irregular lines which show up at right angles
to the direction of machining.
6.2.1.5.____Heat treatment cracks
Heat treatment cracks form a distinct well defined thin sharp magnetic particle pattern,
characteristically a group of short, jagged lines grouped together and quite often in a curved
series.
6.2.1.6.____Grinding cracks
Grinding cracks characteristically form a fine shallow network. The defect root is very sharp
and would provide a notch for the initiation of a fatigue failure. Because of their limited depth,
grinding cracks will seldom provide a heavy build up of indicating medium. The orientation of
the discontinuity will vary from the single line indication to groups with varying orientation.

6.2.2. Welding discontinuities and magnetic particle indications

Magnetic particle inspection is used extensively on welds particularly in irregular sections

where the contour of the part or the configuration of the surface at the welded junction makes
both radiography and ultrasound inapplicable. The following is a listing of the more prominent
types of welding discontinuities.
6.2.2.1.____Lack of penetration
Lack of penetration is, by its nature, the deepest of the weld defects and should be inspected for
by using dry powder dc magnetising current. The indication will be broad and fuzzy which is
typical of a sub surface discontinuity. Magnetic particle inspection is a surface or near surface
inspection and should not be regarded as capable of inspecting for this condition to a depth
exceeding 6 mm.
6.2.2.2.____Inclusions
Inclusions found in elements may be of any shape, and may be metallic or non-metallic (i.e.
oxides, sulphides, slag). Elongated slag inclusions are usually found at the fusion zone, but
isolated irregularly shaped inclusions may be found at any area in the weld. The MP testing
method is confined to machine weldment where the discontinuities are surface or near surface
and even then would in most cases provide an unpronounced indication, jagged and irregularly
shaped.
6.2.2.3.____Porosity
Gas pockets occurring in the weld metal appear as voids. Magnetic particle testing can locate
only near surface pores.

71
 6.2.2.4.____Shrinkage cracks
An uneven cooling rate or contraction of the weld may result in sharp discontinuities called
shrinkage cracks. These are common in welding and are adequately located by magnetic particle
inspection.
6.2.2.5.____Incomplete fusion
Failure of the weld metal to fuse to the base metal will cause the discontinuity known as lack of
fusion. The indication that results is of weak pattern denoting either a surface or subsurface
defect which follows the weld edge.
6.2.2.6.____Cracks
Cracks in the weld metal, crater cracks and cracks in the heat affected zone are easily detected
by magnetic particle inspection. Cracks may occur in any direction with respect to the axial
direction of the weldment.
6.2.2.7.____Incomplete penetration
The detection of incomplete penetration can only be realised in a weldment of fairly light
section. The indication is difficult to recognise as it is broad and poorly defined.
6.2.2.8.____Other indications
Near surface conditions such as slag inclusions, gas pockets, and other voids may be detected if they
are of the size and shape to create a sufficient disturbance of the magnetic lines of force.

6.2.3. Service discontinuities responding to magnetic particle testing

The defect types covered in this series are those which occur from the operational loadings and the
environment to which the component may be subjected in operation.
6.2.3.1.____Overload
The exposure of a part to loading much in excess of the design performance constitutes an overload.
The potential damage, which will occur at notches or fillets, will, if incipient, be apparent as a sharp
distinct indication and easily distinguishable by magnetic particle inspection.
6.2.3.2.____Fatigue Cracks
When a part is subjected to cyclic applications of stress, microscopic cracks develop in or adjacent to
areas of stress concentration and will grown with repeated stress applications until fatigue cracks
develop and component failure occurs. This would occur at oil holes, fillets, keyways, splines and
threads, generally where design was faulty or the material has been damaged. Since fatigue cracks
originate at a surface they are readily indicated in ferromagnetic materials by magnetic particle
examination. They give a sharp clear pattern which is generally uniform and unbroken throughout its
length.
6.2.3.3.____Corrosion
The occurrence of corrosion is significant in that stress-raisers may develop from corrosion pits, plus
the material structure may be weakened by reduction of the cross section. The indication which results
during the magnetic particle examination should be analysed for two effects: the extent of surface
damage and the possibility of further underlying defects:
6.2.3.4.____Stress Corrosion
Defect types vary from very shallow to very deep cracks, usually following the grain flow of the
material. This defect type is most prevalent in nonmagnetic materials. However, when a
ferromagnetic material is being inspected for stress corrosion, magnetic particle inspection can apply.

72
6.2.4. Non-relevant magnetic particle indications

Design features or material properties can lead to leakage fields which will result in real MPI
indications. These indications are termed non-relevant and the operator must have the ability to
recognise these indications as being not significant.
6.2.4.1.____Structural changes
A magnetised part with an abrupt change in section will have an increase in internal flux density at the
change. When this flux leaves the material, external poles will be formed and can cause an indication.
Because of its proximity to a change in section, and the different quality of the indication, it is usually
possible to distinguish such an indication from a structural change. The most damaging feature of this
type of non-relevant indication is that it might mask an actual defect.
6.2.4.2.____Magnetic writing
When two ferromagnetic materials come in contact with one another and when one or both are
magnetised, external poles will be formed at the points of contact, these will attract the indicating
medium and form an indication. The most common occurrence is when parts come into contact with
each other during inspection. While magnetic writing usually presents vague diffused indications,
under certain inspection circumstances it can be distinct and clear enough to look like a defect. If
suspected a part may be easily checked for the magnetic writing effect by demagnetising and re-
inspecting.
6.2.4.3.____Brazing
When the MPI method is used on ferromagnetic materials joined by brazing, the result will be a
particle pattern outlining the joint. This indication is not related to harmful discontinuity, but to the
flux fields encountering a nonmagnetic interface. Magnetic particle inspection is not feasible here and
another inspection method would be required to investigate more fully.
6.2.4.4.____Magnetically dissimilar materials
The inadvertent joining of hard steel to soft steel by welding will result in sharp change in
permeability. The welded joint will act as a concentrated leakage field and a magnetic particle pattern
will be formed which will be indicative of the serviceability of the welded joint.
6.2.4.5.____Cold working
When metal is plastically deformed at a temperature below that of re-crystallization, this cold working
hardens the steel, with a consequent change in permeability. The difference in permeability between
the affected area and the remainder of the part is quite often sufficient to provide an indication. The
indication from cold working will re-appear under repeated magnetisation and can thus be
distinguished from the similar indications of magnetic writing.
6.2.4.6.____Longitudinal magnetization
When a part is longitudinally magnetised using a coil or a magnetic yoke, poles are formed at the ends
of the part and where the yoke arms contact the surface. The indicating medium will be attracted to
and concentrate in these areas, forming an indication.
6.2.4.7.____False indications
False indications are those in which the indication has no relation to the magnetic disturbances
associated with the inspection method. The indications thus found are caused by poor inspection
practices such as poor cleaning, poor drainage, or the entrapment of the medium by a coarse surface.
These problems can be eliminated by proper inspection technique.

73
6.2.5. Evaluation of results according to the criteria of the procedure and specifications

The decision on evaluation, however, becomes very simple in the presence of applicable
documents such as procedure and acceptance standards. Normally the indications are
characterized as linear or round. Linear being those with lengths greater than three times width
whereas round are those with lengths equal to or less than three times the width. The parts are
thus automatically accepted or rejected on the basis of mere presence of a certain type of
oblique discontinuity. Normally the criteria of acceptance/rejection are the length or size for
linear, diameter for round and separation between them in different situations. There are usually
given recommendations on the fate of jobs found with un-acceptable defects such as to be
repaired/rechecked, cut out of complete welds or scrap in the extreme case for very critical
parts.

6.2.6. Additional possibilities for making the results more conclusive

The absolute identification of a given discontinuity involves the use of supplemental tests and
these tests often require the actual cutting up of a specimen, or otherwise probing into it to see
what the discontinuity really is that lies at or below surface to produce the indication. This
effort shall make results more conclusive and reliable. Many of these tests are simple and can
be performed with a minimum amount of laboratory or testing equipment. Others require
specialized equipment and experience involving the use of testing laboratories and methods of
metallurgical investigation.

To wipe off the magnetic particles forming an indication is almost instinctive and some times
the defect, if a surface crack, is quite readily seen, once the exact location has been revealed by
the indication. A low power hand glass is a most convenient pocket tool to aid the eye in such a
first check. If the surface is rough, or is covered with a light film of rust, polishing the area
where the indication appeared with fine emery cloth usually renders the defect more visible for
study.

Another simple check is to wipe off the indication and again apply the powder or liquid
suspension of particles, to see whether the indication will be reproduced by the residual field in
the specimen. Since the residual method is always less sensitive than the continuous, it is
obvious that if the original indication was produced by the continuous method, the manner in
which it reappears by the residual method gives at once some indication of its severity and
extent.

Often times it is worth while, in order to confirm the indication, to demagnetize the part and
repeat the test from the start to make sure that the indication really does come back in the same
form as originally.

6.3. SENSITIVITY AND LIMITATIONS

Sensitivity and limitations have already been discussed in chapter-1

6.4. APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING AND OTHER METHODS OF

TESTING FOR SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE FLAWS.

Applications and limitations of most of the NDT methods have already been discussed in chapter-1
sec. 1.1.3.

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6.5. SAFETY

The expendable materials used in magnetic particle tests consist of iron powders, mineral pigments,
magnetic oxides, fluorescent organic pigments, petroleum distillate carriers, wetting agents, corrosion
inhibitors and a variety of cleaning compounds and solvents. As a group they are not highly
dangerous chemicals but they must be used with care.
In the course of operation, magnetic particle test materials can have direct, unsafe effects on human
operators (typical exposure to chemical solvents) or they can affect the environment in ways that are
potentially hazardous (oil vehicle spills, for example).
Chemical substances should not be allowed prolonged contact with the skin. Wetting agents and
solvent extract natural oils from the skin, causing inflammation and irritation. These chemicals should
not be allowed to enter the mouth or eyes. Almost any compound other than water can irritate the eyes
and many materials react with the tissues of mouth, throat and stomach. Solvent vapours, spray mists
and dusts must not be inhaled. Vapours can irritate breathing passages and many kinds of vapours
react immediately with the human nervous system. The flammability of carrier vehicles and cleaning
solvents must always be considered.

6.5.1. Implementations of industrial safety standards in facilities and equipment and in their
operation

There are three important safety considerations for magnetic particle testing personnel: (1) the
inherent risks of the test site; (2) the potential dangers from an interaction between the test system and
the testing environment; and (3) the hazard possible from a magnetic particle testing system itself.
Magnetic particle tests are conducted in a variety of potentially dangerous sites: high on the
superstructure of sky scrapers under construction, under water, and in tightly confined pressure
vessels. The testing personnel must first be made aware of the environment's particular safety
requirements and must learn to operate within the site's own safety limits.
Secondly, it must be recognised that magnetic particle test systems can react adversely with certain
environmental conditions. Test systems using prods, for example, can be sources of electrical arcing.
In the presence of explosive vapours or flammable gases, electrical hazards become doubly dangerous
as the cause of ignition.
Finally, there is the safety considerations needed for the test system itself. Primary among these are
(1) the cautions associated with the electrical and mechanical systems; and (2) the care needed when
using petroleum distillates and other particle vehicles.

6.5.2. Use of material safety data sheet

In the past, it was often difficult to know the hazards involved in the use of a chemical product. If the
product was highly flammable or toxic, a label was required to carry certain warnings. However, as
product liability cases began to award large settlements to users injured by products carrying
insufficient warnings, some suppliers began to provide relatively detailed hazard information about
their products.
As per ruling by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, OSHA Hazard Communication
Rule (29 CFR 1910.12000), it became compulsory and mandated the use of material safety data
sheets (MSDS) for all chemicals that are hazardous or contain hazardous ingredients. The MSDS
must be supplied to a customer with the initial shipment of any applicable chemical and must be
updated whenever significant new information is discovered. Material safety data sheets must be
available to the user of the product in the work area.

75
6.5.3. Electrical equipment safety

Magnetic particle tests are performed in different environments with different electrical and
mechanical safety considerations. In the controlled conditions of a testing facility, relatively simple
operating and safety procedures may be adopted. For sites where explosive gases are always below a
prescribed minimum concentration the electrical safety procedures can be much like those for a
controlled testing facility. But test environment where explosive gas concentration are known to be
high, stringent safety procedures are adopted.
In refineries and chemical plants, there is often the danger of explosion caused by electrical
components. In the case of off shore oil rigs, magnetic particle testing is performed underwater and
special attention may be paid to the design and operation of the magnetising circuits.
Before designing equipment that might be subject to any form of electrical hazard, consult relevant
codes. Using the creation of sparks as an example, several techniques have been developed for safe
use of electrical equipment in potentially explosive atmospheres. The philosophy of such design first
presents a basic choice: (1) completely eliminate the possibility of sparking; or (2) permit sparking but
control the environment so that an explosion cannot occur.

6.5.4. Hazards of using toxic and inflammable materials

Hazardous materials are those that are toxic, corrosive, combustible or otherwise potentially
hazardous to personnel or property, or which involve liquid or solid residuals that cannot be disposed
of without prior treatment for compatibility to Federal, state or local environmental requirement, or as
otherwise defined as hazardous by the specified documents.
There are few unusual fire hazards associated with the magnetic particle testing media. Oil based wet
method vehicles are hard to ignite at room temperature but can catch fire if sprayed or atomised near
ignition sources such as high energy arcs or red hot surfaces. As a mist in air, the concentration of oil
droplets may be high enough to sustain combustion in the same way that a dust such as flour may
explode if a hot ignition source is present. Aerosol cans heated above 55 °C (130 °F) can burst and
add their contents to an existing fire. Even dry magnetic powders can burn if finely distributed over a
red hot surface. They do not burn with the vigour of an oil spray but an alarming and dangerous
shower of sparks often occurs. In addition, some chlorinated solvents break down under heat,
producing very toxic substances such as carbon monoxide and phosgene gases.

6.5.5. Materials equipments and accessories for the protection of persons and facilities.

6.5.5.1.____General housekeeping
Good housekeeping is essential to avoid accidents. A good housekeeping means that every one knows
his duties as well as the safety devices available with the factory. Following points have
considerations:
a) Good working layout.
b) Emergency escape routes.
c) Proper storage/handling facilities.
6.5.5.2.____Protection
a) Either a mobile fume extraction fan unit, or breathing apparatus should be used by the operator.
b) To conclude, hazards of fumes and dusts can be minimised by improving general ventilation of
the place where magnetic particle testing is carried out. Using local exhaust units.
c) Wearing individual respiratory protective equipment and use gloves to protect hands
d) Wear safety boots to protect the feet if the work is to be carried out at site.

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e) Use helmet to protect head injury while working at site
f) Observe all other site safety precaution while working at site.

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