Block – Electricity Total no.

of Lectures: 10
Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

Applicable Syllabus

COGNITIVE
UNIT NO. SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES (TOPICS)
LEVEL
7 Basic Concept

Explain the magnetic effect of electric current (straight conductor, parallel

7.01 conductors, coil, and solenoid). Explain electromagnetic induction and state U
Faraday's laws and Lenz’s laws.
Ac supply (Average and RMS value of AC current), AC and DC generators.
7.02 Discuss motors, transformers and understanding of the power units- kVA, U
kW, kVAR. (no derivations).
Explain self / mutual inductance, series, and parallel combinations of
7.03 A
inductors. (no derivations)
State the hazards associated with the use of electrical energy (including high
voltage) and the appropriate safe working practices. Describe the conditions
7.04 K, U
which increase the effect of electric shock. Explain the term “intrinsically
safe”.

Cognitive Levels: K – Knowledge; U – Understanding; A – Application

Basic concept of Current Electricity & its Effects:

Current electricity refers to the flow of electric charge in a conductive material. The fundamental concept behind
current electricity is based on the movement of electrons within a conductor. This flow of electrons creates an
electric current, and it is crucial in various electrical systems and devices. Here are some basic concepts and
effects related to current electricity:
a) Electric Current (I): Electric current is the flow of electric charge. In most conductors, such as metals,
electrons are the charge carriers. The unit of electric current is the ampere (A), and it is measured as
the amount of charge passing through a conductor per unit of time.
b) Voltage (V): Voltage, also known as electric potential difference, is the driving force that causes the
flow of electric current. It is measured in volts (V). Voltage represents the energy per unit charge
available to move electrons through a circuit. Ohm's Law relates voltage, current, and resistance: V=I
* R, where V is voltage, I is current, and R is resistance.
c) Resistance (R): Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electric current in a conductor. It is
measured in ohms (Ω). Different materials and components have different resistances, and resistance
can be influenced by factors such as temperature and material properties.
d) Power (P): Power in an electrical circuit is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. It is
measured in watts (W). The relationship between power, voltage, and current is given by P = V * I.

Effects of Current Electricity:

a) Heating Effect: When current flows through a conductor with resistance, such as a heating element
in a toaster or an electric stove, it produces heat. This is known as the heating effect of electric current
and is utilized in various applications like heating appliances and incandescent light bulbs.
b) Magnetic Effect: Moving charges generate a magnetic field. The magnetic effect of current is used in
devices like electromagnets, electric motors, and transformers. Electromagnets are temporary
magnets created by passing current through a coil of wire.
c) Chemical Effect (Electrolysis): Electric current can cause chemical changes in certain materials
through a process called electrolysis. This is the basis for electroplating and various industrial
processes.
d) Lighting Effect: In certain materials, the flow of current can produce light. This is the principle behind
the operation of light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

Magnetic Effect of Electric Current:

The magnetic effect of electric current is a phenomenon where an electric current produces a magnetic field
around the conductor through which the current is flowing. This effect was first discovered by Hans Christian
Ørsted in 1820 and is a fundamental principle in electromagnetism. The interaction between electric currents
and magnetic fields is a key concept in various technologies and devices.

a) Ampere's Circuital Law:

Ampere's Circuital Law describes the relationship between electric current and the magnetic field it
produces.
Ampere’s law states that “The line integral of magnetic field induction B around a closed path in a
vacuum is equal to μ0 times the total current I thread the closed path”.

Ampere’s circuital law is also known as the work law.

“Total work done for moving a unit north pole in a
closed path is equal to current enclosed”.
OR
“Total work done by magneto motive force around a
closed loop.
is equal to the current enclosed by the loop.”
As we know, B = µ * H and in vacuum; µ = µ0 ∮ H. dl = I
If there are N number of conductors carrying a current I in the same direction and placed in a closed
path then by Ampere’s circuital law, ∮ H. dl = NI
This is also known as Magneto Motive Force (MMF) or Magnetic Potential which can be defined as
the magnetic pressure, which sets up the magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit.
MMF = N * I (Amp-turn)
Please Note: Ampere’s law may be derived from the Biot Savart law or Biot Savart's law may be
derived from Ampere’s law. Thus, the two are equivalent in scientific content.

b) Biot Savart law:

Biot Savart's law states that “magnetic field due to a current-carrying conductor at a distance point is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the conductor and point, and the magnetic
field is directly proportional to the length of the conductor, current flowing in the conductor”.

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

c) Magnetic Field due to long straight conductor:

d) Magnetic Flux due to parallel conductor:

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects
Let the two conductors placed in parallel carry currents I1 and I2 amperes. Depending on the direction
of the flow of current, two cases evolve.
• Current in the same direction:
Let the currents flow in an upward direction. The field strength between the two conductors P
and Q increases due to the two fields being in the same direction. Hence, the two conductors
are attracted towards each other.
• Current in opposite direction:
When currents flow in opposite directions the field strength decreases in the space between
the two conductors due to two fields being in the opposite direction.
Because of the lateral repulsion of the lines of force, the two conductors experience a mutual
force of repulsion.

e) Difference between a solenoid and an inductor coil

Not all the inductors are solenoids.
Solenoid Coil

A solenoid is a coil with a ferrous core that An inductor is a wire coil with a fixed core, which
moves. may or may not be present.

Solenoid has a longer length compared to its While a coil has a bigger diameter and the
diameter. Also, the distance between its two distance between two loops in a coil is shorter
loops is longer. compared to its diameter.

f) Magnetic Field due to a Long Solenoid:

• A solenoid is a three-dimensional coil wound into a
tightly packed helix.
• The term solenoid refers to a loop of wire, often
wrapped around a metallic core, which produces a
magnetic field when an electric current is passed
through it.
• The term solenoid refers specifically to a magnet
designed to produce a uniform magnetic field in a
volume of space (where some experiment might be
carried out).
• Solenoids are important because they can create
controlled magnetic fields and can be used as
electromagnets.

Assumptions:

• Magnetic Field is constant throughout the length ‘l’

of the solenoid.
• Magnetic field outside the solenoid is negligible
compared to inside the solenoid.

If N be the number of turns and l is the length of the solenoid, by Ampere’s circuital law,
H  l = NI Flux Density:

NI NI
H= AT / m B = wb / m 2
l l

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

Electromagnetic Induction (EMI):

The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction are based on a long series of experiments
carried out by Faraday and Henry.
Electromagnetic Induction or Induction is a process in which a conductor is put in a particular position and
the magnetic field keeps varying or the magnetic field is stationary, and a conductor is moving. This produces
a Voltage or EMF (Electromotive Force) across the electrical conductor. Michael Faraday discovered the Law
of Induction in 1830.

Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction

First law:
Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, EMF is induced, and this EMF is called an induced
EMF if the conductor is a closed circuit, then the induced current flows through it.
OR
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an EMF is induced in that conductor.
Second law:
The magnitude of the induced EMF is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.
EMF = - N * dφ/ dt when the total no. of turns = N

Direction of Induced Current:

The direction of induced current may be found easily by applying either –
• Fleming's Right-hand Rule
The direction of the magnetic field around
a current-carrying conductor can be
determined using the right-hand rule. If
you point your thumb in the direction of
the current flow (conventional current,
from positive to negative), and your fingers
in the direction of the magnetic field, your
fingers will encircle the conductor in the
direction of the magnetic field lines.
It can be used to determine the direction
of current in a generator's windings.

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

• Lenz's Law:
Lenz's Law is a fundamental principle in electromagnetism that describes the direction of an induced
electromotive force (EMF) or current in a conductor loop when the magnetic field around it changes.
The law is named after the Russian physicist Heinrich Lenz, who formulated it in 1834.
Lenz's Law can be stated as "The induced EMF (or current) in a closed loop is always directed in
such a way as to oppose the change in magnetic flux that produced it".

Lenz's Law is often expressed with a negative sign in equations to indicate the opposition to the
change in magnetic flux. Mathematically, this is represented as:
EMF = - N * dφ/ dt the negative sign reflects the opposition to the change.

AC Supply:
An AC signal, or alternating current signal, is a type of electrical signal that periodically changes direction and
magnitude.
In contrast to a DC (direct current) signal, which flows in only one direction, an AC signal oscillates back and
forth, constantly switching between positive and negative values.

Here are some key characteristics of AC signals:

• Cycle: It is one complete set of positive and negative halves of any alternating quantity.
• Time-Period: It is the time required in seconds to complete one cycle of alternating quantity.
• Frequency: The number of cycles per second is known as the frequency of alternating quantity. It is the
reciprocal of the time (f = 1 / T), and its unit is cycle per second or Hertz.
• Amplitude: It is the peak or maximum value of the alternating quantity.
• Wavelength: It is the distance between identical points (adjacent crests or troughs) in the adjacent
cycles of a waveform signal propagated in space or along a wire.
• Phase: The phase of any alternating quantity shows the position of the wave at any time after it has
passed through the zero position of reference.
• Phase difference: When the maxima and minima of two sinusoidal alternating quantities (of the same
frequency) do not occur at the same instant of time, then these two quantities are said to have phase
difference.

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

Average and RMS value of AC:

A sinusoidal waveform consists of various values such as peak value, average value, and RMS value.
Peak value: It is defined as the maximum value that the alternating quantity (current or voltage) reaches in
one cycle (either positive or negative).
Average value: It is defined as the average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating quantity such as
current or voltage over one complete cycle.
Average value = 2 * Peak value/ π
RMS value: RMS (root mean square) is the square root of means of squares of instantaneous values. The
RMS value can be evaluated by either graphical or analytical methods.
RMS value = Peak value/ √2

Generators:
A device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is referred to as a Generator.
EMF = Em sin t volt

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AC Generators:
A device which converts mechanical energy into A.C. electrical energy is referred to as AC Generators.
Principle:
A.C. generators or alternators (as they are usually called) operate on the same fundamental principles of
electromagnetic induction as D.C. Generators.
Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in the magnetic field or by rotating a magnetic field
within a stationary coil.
The value of the voltage generated depends on-
• the number of turns in the coil002E
• strength of the field.
• the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.
Construction & Description:
AC Generator have three main parts as below –

• It consists of 2 poles (north and south) of

a magnet to have a uniform magnetic
field.
• There is a coil of rectangular shape also
known as armature.
• The armature is connected to 2 slip rings
which help in electrical contact with the
brushes.
• The slip rings provide a continuous
connection with the wire around the
armature by using carbon brushes.
• The rectangular coil is capable of rotating
about an axis which is perpendicular to
the magnetic field.
• The axis of rotation is known as axle.

• Stator: The main responsibility of the stator coil is to generate a strong magnetic field. This can be
done by using electromagnets or more no. of turns.
• Rotor: The main responsibility of a rotor coil is to provide an infrastructure where a coil can rotate on
its axis inside a magnetic field, or a magnetic field can be rotated within a stationary coil.
• Commutator: The main responsibility of the commutator is to take away the generated EMF to an
external load (e.g. industry, household, etc)
The main elements of the commutator are–
o Slip Rings (AC) and Split Rings (DC)
o Carbon Brushes
Working:

• Consider a rectangular coil (armature) having N turns and

rotating in a uniform magnetic field with an angular velocity of 
radian/second.
• Let’s say the angle between A (Area vector of coil) & B (Magnetic
Field) is θ.
• At any given time θ = t
• When the armature rotates between the poles of the magnet
upon an axis perpendicular to the magnetic field, the flux which
links with the armature changes continuously.
• Due to this, an emf is induced in the armature. This produces an
electric current through the galvanometer and the slip rings and
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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

EMF Calculation:
According to Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, the e.m.f. induced in the coil is given by the rate of
change of flux linkage of the coil.
• Hence the value of the induced e.m.f. (e) = - d(NØ)/dt volt
As we know, Ø= Øm cos t
e = - N d (Øm cos t)/dt volt
After differentiating the above equation –
e = - N Øm  (-sin t) volt
e = NØm sin t volt
When t = 90˚, then sin t = 1 and e has maximum value,
• Say, Em = NBA = NBA (2πf) = NØm

After putting the value of Em,

e = Em sin t volt

Similarly, the equation for induced current i,

i = Im sin t Amp

Synchronous speed of AC Generator:

Let, Ns be the synchronous speed of the AC Generator
• Ns = 2 f / P rps
• Ns = 120 f / P rpm

Numerical:
Calculate the highest speed at which the alternator can be operated –
a. 50 Hz frequency, and
b. 60 Hz frequency.
Solution:
As we know, the minimum possible value of P = 2
Synchronous speed, Ns = 120 f / P rpm
• Case (a)
o f = 50 Hz
o Ns = 3000 rpm
• Case (b)
o f = 60 Hz
o Ns = 3600 rpm

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

DC Generators:
Introduction:
A device which converts mechanical energy into D.C. (unidirectional) electrical energy is referred as D.C.
Generators
Principle:
Like A.C. generators, D.C. generators also operate on the same fundamental principles of electromagnetic
induction.
The value of the voltage generated depends on -
o the number of turns in the coil.
o strength of the field.
o the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.
Parts of DC Generator:

Yoke or Magnetic Frame:

• The outer frame of a dc machine is called a yoke.
• Its main purpose is to provide mechanical strength/ support to the whole assembly and protect it from
dust, dirt, moisture, etc…
• Carries magnetic flux produced by field winding and provides a low reluctance.
• Types:
o Cast Iron: Small machines → where Low cost is a priority.
o Cast Steel: Large machine → where weight is a priority.
In comparison to Cast iron, cast steel provides double permeability and half weight.
Field Winding:
• Field coils are formerly wound and placed on each pole and are connected in series.
• Current is passed through filed winding which magnetises the pole core and pole shoe.
• They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they form alternate North and South poles.
• Types: (a) Copper (usually used) (b) Aluminum
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Poles:
• Pole Core:
o Poles cores are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding.
o Poles core carry field winding to produce the magnetic flux.
• Pole Shoe:
o Pole shoe support field coils
o Pole shoe spread out the flux in the air gap uniformly.
▪ They are always laminated to ensure uniform distribution of magnetic flux.
Armature Core:

Armature Core:

• It is the rotor of a DC generator/ motor.

• Its main responsibility is to rotate the armature
conductors in a uniform magnetic field.
• It is cylindrical with slots to carry armature
winding.
• Material used: Silicon steel stamping
(Lamination 0.3mm to 0.6 mm)

Armature Winding:
• When it is rotated by the prime mover it cuts the magnetic flux line.
• Type: Lap Winding (A = P) or Wave Winding (A = 2).
Commutator (Split Ring Commutator):

• The main responsibility of the commutator is –

o to collect the current generated in armature
conductors.
o To convert AC into DC
o A commutator consists of a set of copper
segments (no. of copper segments = no. of
armature coil) which are insulated from each
other.

Need of Split Ring Commutator:

• Apply Fleming’s right-hand rule.

o After half a cycle direction of the
induced current gets changed.
o With a split ring commutator,
connections of the armature
conductors also get reversed when
the current reversal occurs.

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

Brushes:

• Brushes are usually made from carbon or

graphite.
• Brushes rest on commutator segments and slide
on the segments when the commutator rotates
keeping the physical contact to collect the
current.
• They are also useful to lubricate the commutator.

Working of DC Generator:
• Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field (or a conductor is moved in a magnetic
field), an emf gets induced in the conductor.
• The magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from the emf equation of dc generator.
• If the conductor is provided with a closed path, the induced current will circulate within the path.
• In a DC generator, field coils produce an emf and the armature conductors are rotated into the field.
Thus, an emf is generated in the armature conductors.
EMF Equation of DC Generator:
• Let,
o Ø = flux produced by each pole (Weber)
o P = number of poles in the DC Generator
o Total Flux Produced by all Poles = Ø * P wb
o N = speed of armature conductor (rpm)
o Time Taken by a conductor to complete one revolution = 60/N
o Z = Total no. of armature conductors in the slot of armature
o A = no. of parallel path in which armature conductors are distributed
o The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A

o As per, Faraday’s law of induction, e = dØ/ dt

▪ e = total flux/ time taken
▪ e = (PØN)/ 60
o We know that induced emf in each path is the same across the line, therefore.
▪ Let, Induced emf of DC generator (E)
▪ E = emf of one conductor × number of conductors connected in series.
o E = (PØNZ)/ 60A
▪ For wave winding, A = 2
▪ For Lap winding A = P

Types of DC Generator:

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

The Electric Motor:

An electric motor is used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Example – Fan, Mixer Grinder, Water Pumps, Washing Machines, HDD, Drills, etc…
Different Parts of an Electric Motor and Their Function:

• A power supply – mostly

DC for a simple motor.
• Field Magnet – could be a
permanent magnet or an
electromagnet.
• An Armature or rotor.
• Commutator.
• Brushes.
• Axle

• Power Source: A simple motor usually has a DC power source. It supplies power to the motor
armature or field coils.
• Commutator: It is the rotating interface of the armature coil with a stationary circuit.
• Field Magnet: The magnetic field helps to produce torque on the rotating armature coil by Fleming’s
left-hand rule.
• Armature Core: Holds the armature coil in place and provides mechanical support.
• Armature Coil: It helps the motor to run.
• Brushes: It is a device that conducts current between stationary wires and moving parts, most
commonly the rotating shaft.
Working Principle:
The working of an electric motor is because a current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it.
To better understand, imagine the following situation.
Take two bar magnets and keep the poles facing each other with a small space in between. Now, take a
small length of a conducting wire and make a loop. Keep this loop in between the space between the
magnets such that it is still within the sphere of influence of the magnets. Now for the last bit. Connect the
ends of the loop to the battery terminals.
Once electricity flows through your simple circuit, you will notice that your loop “moves”. So why does this
happen? The magnetic field of the magnets interferes with that produced due to electric current flowing in the
conductor. Since the loop has become a magnet, one side of it will be attracted to the north pole of the
magnet and the other to the south pole. This causes the loop to rotate continuously. This is the principle of
working of an electric motor.
Types of Electric Motor:

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

Electromagnetic Induction:
• Electromagnetic or magnetic induction produces an electromotive force across an electrical conductor in
a changing magnetic field.
𝑑𝜑
• As per Faraday's law of EMI, the value of the induced E.M.F. is - 𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹. = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
• Type of induced E.M.F
o Dynamically induced EMF:
In dynamically Induced E.M.F. the field remains stationary and conductors cut across it.
▪ E.g. Generator, Galvanometer, etc…
o Statically induced EMF:
In statically induced E.M.F. conductor or coil remains stationary and the flux linked with it is
changed by simply increasing or decreasing the current producing this flux.
▪ Two types of Statically Induced EMF
❖ Self-Induced EMF
❖ Mutually Induced EMF
Self-Inductance:
• Self-inductance is the property of the current-carrying coil that resists or opposes the change (increase
or decrease) of current flowing through it.
• It is also referred to as inertia or electromagnetic inertia.
• In simple terms, we can also say that self-inductance is a phenomenon where there is the induction of a
voltage in a current-carrying wire.
• The above property of the coil exists only for the alternating current.
• Self-inductance is always opposing the changing current and is measured in Henry (SI unit).

𝑑𝜑
𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹. = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹. = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡

𝑵𝝋
𝑳=
𝒊
Mutual Inductance:
The ability of one coil to produce an E.M.F. in the nearby coil by induction when the current in the second coil
changes is called as mutual inductance.

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𝜑12 𝜑21
𝑀 = 𝑁2 OR 𝑀 = 𝑁1
𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝜑12 𝜑21
𝐾= OR 𝐾= = ≤1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝜑1 𝜑2

𝑀 2 = 𝐾 2 𝐿1 𝐿2 OR 𝑀 = ±𝐾√𝐿1 𝐿2

Difference between Self & Mutual Inductance:

Aspect Self-Inductance Mutual Inductance
Self-inductance is the property of a coil or Mutual inductance is the property of two coils
conductor that opposes any change in the or conductors where a change in current in one
Definition
current flowing through it, creating an induced coil induces an electromotive force (EMF) in
electromotive force (EMF) in the same coil. the other coil.
Symbol L M
Unit Henry (H) Henry (H)
Induces EMF in the adjacent coil in the
Direction of Opposes the change in current in the same
direction that opposes the change in current in
EMF coil.
the first coil.
Depends on the characteristics of both coils,
Depends only on the characteristics of the coil
Dependency their relative orientation, and the distance
or conductor itself.
between them.

Energy is transferred between the coils as

Energy Stores energy in the magnetic field within the
magnetic fields link and unlink during changes
Stored coil or conductor.
in current.

Commonly found in solenoids, transformers, Utilized in transformers and inductive coupling

Application
and inductors. for wireless power transfer.

Transformers, where the primary and

When the current in a coil changes, it induces
secondary coils are magnetically coupled.
Examples a voltage in the same coil.
Inductive coupling in wireless charging
A simple inductor in an electric circuit.
systems.

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Effect of Mutual Induction in Series Connected Inductors:

Two coils are connected in series such that their Two coils are connected in series such that their
fluxes are in the same direction. fluxes are in the opposite direction

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑒1 = −𝐿1 𝑒′1 = −𝑀 𝑒1 = −𝐿1 𝑒′1 = 𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑒2 = −𝐿2 𝑒′2 = −𝑀 𝑒2 = −𝐿2 𝑒′2 = 𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Total induced E.M.F. = e1 + e2 + e’1 + e’2 Total induced E.M.F. = e1 + e2 + e’1 + e’2
𝑑𝑖 di
=− (𝐿 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀) =− (𝐿 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀)
𝑑𝑡 1 dt 1
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹. = −𝐿 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹. = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐋 = 𝐋𝟏 + 𝐋𝟐 + 𝟐𝐌 𝐋 = 𝐋𝟏 + 𝐋𝟐 − 𝟐𝐌

Effect of Mutual Induction in Parallel Connected Inductors:

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2

di di1 di 2
= +
dt dt dt
di1 di di di
e = L1 + M 2 = L2 2 + M 1
dt dt dt dt

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Energy Stored inside Inductor and Capacitor:

Energy Stored in Inductor Energy Stored in Capacitor
An inductor stores energy in magnetic field form The electrical field formed between the plates of a
when an electric current is flowing through it. charged capacitor stores energy. The electrical field
increases as the capacitor charges. A charged
capacitor retains its energy in the field between its
plates even after being removed from the battery.

𝟏 𝟏
Energy Stored = 𝑳 𝑰𝟐 Energy Stored = 𝑪 𝑽𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

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Numerical:
1. The field winding of a d.c. electromagnet is wound with 960 turns and has a resistance of 50 Ω when
the exciting voltage is 230 V, and the magnetic flux linking the coil is 0.005 Wb. Calculate the self-
inductance of the coil and the energy stored in the magnetic field.

I = 4.6 A; L = 1.0435 H; E = 11.04 Joule

2. A circuit has 1000 turns enclosing a magnetic circuit 20 cm2 in section. With 4 A, the flux density is
1.0 Wb/m2 and with 9A, it is 1.4 Wb/m2. Find the mean value of the inductance between these
current limits and the induced e.m.f. if the current falls from 9 A to 4 A in 0.05 sec.

L = 0.16 H; E.M.F. = 16 V

3. A direct current of one ampere is passed through a coil of 5000 turns and produces a flux of
0.1mWb. Assuming that whole of this flux threads all the turns, what is the inductance of the coil?
What would be the voltage developed across the coil if the current were interrupted in 10 −3 second?
What would be the maximum voltage developed across the coil if a capacitor of 10μ F were
connected across the switch breaking the d.c. supply?

L = 0.5 H; E.M.F. = 500 V; V = 224 Volt

4. Two identical coils X and Y of 1,000 turns each lie in parallel planes such that 80% of flux produced
by one coil links with the other. If a current of 5 A flowing in X produces a flux of 0.5 mWb in it, find
the mutual inductance between X and Y.

Flux linked with Y = 0.4 mWb; M = 0.08 H

5. A flux of 0.5 mWb is produced by a coil of 900 turns wound on a ring with a current of 3 A in it.
Calculate (i) the inductance of the coil (ii) the e.m.f. induced in the coil when a current of 5 A is
switched off, assuming the current to fall to zero in 1 milli second and (iii) the mutual inductance
between the coils, if a second coil of 600 turns is uniformly wound over the first coil.

L = 0.15 H; E.M.F. = 750 V; M = 0.1 H

6. If a coil of 150 turns is linked with a flux of 0.01 Wb when carrying a current of 10 A; calculate the
inductance of the coil. If this current is uniformly reversed in 0.1 second, calculate the induced e.m.f.
If a second coil of 100 turns is uniformly wound over the first coil, find the mutual inductance
between the coils.

L1 = 0.15 H; E.M.F.1 = 30 V; M = 0.1 H

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

Transformer:
Introduction:
• Transformer is a static device in which electrical power in one circuit is transferred into the electrical
power of another circuit with the same frequency.
• It can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with corresponding decrease or increase in current.
Principle:
• It is based on the core principle of Electromagnetic Induction (Mutual Induction between the two
circuits linked by common magnetic flux).
Need:
• It saves power in long range transmission by raising the voltage in the circuit (Step-up transformer).
• Almost the entire world production of electrical energy is transformed twice, thrice or even more
before being utilized, by means of transformer.
• Transformer does not change the frequency of electrical supply. It merely changes the amplitude of
the voltage from one electric circuit to another.
• Transformer is a static device, so has no rotational losses and the efficiency as high as 99% can be
obtained.
Construction:
These two differ by how the windings are wound around the magnetic core.

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Working:

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through
electromagnetic induction. It typically consists of two coils of wire, known as the primary and secondary
windings, which are usually wound around a common core made of ferromagnetic material. The primary
winding is connected to the input voltage, and the secondary winding is connected to the output load.
Here's a step-by-step explanation of the working of a transformer:
Input Voltage Applied (AC): The transformer is designed to work with alternating current (AC). When an AC
voltage is applied to the primary winding, it creates an alternating magnetic field around the primary coil.
Magnetic Field Induction: The alternating current in the primary winding induces an alternating magnetic
field in the ferromagnetic core. The changing magnetic field is essential for the process of electromagnetic
induction.
Mutual Induction: The changing magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary winding through the
process of mutual induction. According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, a changing magnetic
field within a coil induces an electromotive force (EMF) in any nearby coil.
Output Voltage Generated: The induced voltage in the secondary winding depends on the turn’s ratio
between the primary and secondary windings. The turns ratio is the ratio of the number of turns in the
secondary winding to the number of turns in the primary winding. The induced voltage in the secondary
winding is given by:
V2 = (N2/ N1) * V1
Isolation and Voltage Transformation: Transformers provide electrical isolation between the primary and
secondary circuits because they share only the magnetic field. The voltage transformation is achieved based
on the turn’s ratio.
If, N2 > N1 - Step-up transformer - increasing the voltage,
N2 < N1 - Step-down transformer - decreasing the voltage.
Load Connected to Secondary: The output voltage is then used to power an electrical load connected to
the secondary winding. The load can be a variety of electrical devices such as lights, motors, or other
electronic systems.

In summary, a transformer works by using the principle of electromagnetic induction to transfer electrical
energy from the primary winding to the secondary winding, with the voltage in the secondary winding
determined by the turn’s ratio. Transformers are crucial in power distribution, voltage regulation, and
electrical isolation in various applications, including power transmission and distribution systems.

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EMF Equation:

• As shown in the figure, the flux increases

from zero value to maximum value Φm in
one-quarter of the cycle i.e. in 1/4f sec.
𝛷𝑚
• Avg. rate of change of flux = 1 Wb/sec
⁄4𝑓

• Average E.M.F. / turn volts = 4𝑓𝛷𝑚

𝑟.𝑚.𝑠. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
• 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 Factor = = 1.11
average value
• r.m.s. value of E.M.F./turn =1.11 x 4f Φm =
4.44f Φmvolts.

Now, r.m.s. value of the induced E.M.F. in whole of the primary winding = (Induced E.M.F. / turn) x No. of
primary turns.
𝐸1 = 4.44𝑓𝑁1 𝛷𝑚 = 4.44𝑓𝑁1 𝐵𝑚 𝐴 OR 𝐸2 = 4.44𝑓𝑁2 𝛷𝑚 = 4.44𝑓𝑁2 𝐵𝑚 𝐴

E1 E2
= = 4.44 f m It means that E.M.F./turn is the same in both the primary and
N1 N2 secondary windings.

In ideal transformer with no load, V1=E1 and E2 = V2, where V2 is terminal voltage.
𝐼1 𝐸2 𝑁2
From the values of E1 and E2 we can write, = = =𝐾
𝐼2 𝐸1 𝑁1
Classification of Transformer:
Transformers can be classified on different basis like:
• Based on Construction
a) Core type
b) Shell type
• Based on Working
a) Step-down
b) Step-up
• Based on Application
a) Power transformer
b) Distribution transformer
• Based on Number of Phases
a) Single phase
b) Three phases
• Based on Cooling Methods
a) Air or Natural Cooled
b) Oil immersed
• Special Units
a) Instrument Transformer (current and potential transformer)
b) Bell transformer
c) Welding transformer
d) Pulse transformer
• Based on Number of Windings
a) Single winding (auto transformer)
b) Two winding (normal transformer)
c) Three winding (with delta-connected tertiary winding)

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

Transformer Losses:

Copper Loss:
• Copper loss is related to Resistance and Current.
• Transformer windings have some resistance, so when a current flowing through the transformer
Copper Loss (Cu loss) occurs.
• Copper loss is also known as "I squared R Losses".
• Generally, the transformer has two windings primary winding and a secondary winding both have
their individual resistance, so, therefore, the total copper loss will be: Pc = I12R1 + I22R2
Effect of Copper Loss:
• The main effect of Copper Loss in a Transformer is it creates heat which may damage the winding.
Reducing Copper Loss:
• Copper Loss can be reduced by increasing the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
• Keeping a constant load current.
• Making conductors with high-conductivity materials.
Iron or Core Loss:
• As iron loss is caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer it is also called Core Loss.
o Basically, the Iron loss is constant.
o Iron loss depends upon the following:
▪ Input voltage
▪ magnetic properties of the materials used in the Core.
▪ Frequency
• The iron loss has two components, Hysteresis Loss, and Eddy Current Loss
Eddy Current Loss:
o In a transformer, when the AC power supply is given, then the primary winding creates an
alternating flux which is linked with the secondary winding.
o Due to mutual induction, an EMF is induced in the secondary winding.
o In the transformer, the Core (where ferromagnetic material is filled) is used as a path for
conducting flux from primary winding to secondary winding.
o So, the alternating flux also linked with the steel core, creates an emf in the core.
o Due to the emf in the core, a current gets induced, which produces heat and creates a loss
which is called Eddy Current Loss.
o Eddy current loss can be reduced by laminating the core.
Hysteresis Loss:
o We know that the Transformer works on AC supply, so the alternating flux works in the
transformer.
o When alternating flux conducting from primary winding to secondary winding through the
core, it creates the reversal of magnetization in the transformer core.

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects
o This reversal of the magnetization in the transformer core creates a loss which is called
Hysteresis Loss.
o The Hysteresis Loss depends upon the frequency, the value of flux density, grade of the iron
core.
o Hysteresis Loss can be reduced by using Silicon Steel in the Transformer Core.
Stray Loss:
• Practically coefficient of coupling is always less than 100%.
• All the produced flux in the primary winding is not linked with the secondary winding of the
transformer.
• So, the loss that occurs due to the leakage flux of leakage magnetic field is called Stray Loss.
• Stray loss can be minimized by using core material which has high permeability and low
reluctance.
Dielectric Loss:
• The losses in insulating material in the transformer are called Dielectric Loss.
• Dielectric electric loss occurs in transformer insulating oil, solid insulation between transformer core
laminations.
• Dielectric Loss can create a short circuit, heating inside the transformer.
Other Losses:
• Magnetostriction or Humming Losses
o The expansion and contraction of the iron core (laminations) is due to the magnetic effect of
alternation current flowing through the transformer coils.
o This effect is called Magnetostriction, which is the basic cause of transformer noise.
• Mechanical Loss
o In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces
between the primary and secondary windings.
o These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and
consuming a small amount of power.
Numerical:
1. A transformer has a primary coil and a secondary coil with the number of loops are 500 and 5000.
Input voltage is 220 V. What is the output voltage? V2 = 2200 V

2. A transformer has primary coil with 1200 loops and secondary coil with 1000 loops. If the current in
the primary coil is 4 Ampere, then what is the current in the secondary coil. I2 = 4.8 Amp

3. Based on the figure below, what is the primary voltage of the transformer? V1 = 264 V

4. A 10 KVA, 500/250 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has a net area of cross section 90 cm2 and
maximum flux density is 1.2 wb/m2. Calculate the number of turns on both primary and secondary.
N1 = E1/ 4.44 f Φm = 208.54 N2 = E2/4.44 f Φm = 104.27

5. A single-phase transformer has 500 primary & 1000 secondary turns. The net area of cross section
is 60 cm2 if the primary winding be connected at 50 Hz supply at 500 V, calculate:
• The peak value of the flux density in the core
• The voltage induced in secondary winding.

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

Power:

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Voltage & Current Representation:

• Types:
o Complex representation of voltage and Current
Alternating quantities are represented by complex numbers.
Rectangular or Cartesian Representation
▪ Any alternating quantity can be represented in complex form with real
and imaginary parts like, i = a + jb; v = c + jd

o Polar Representation

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Resistive Load Only:

Comparison between Active and Passive Elements and Devices:

Active Component Passive Component
Active Device transforms and injects power or Passive Device utilizes power or energy into a
energy into a circuit. circuit.
Examples: Diode, Transistor, SCR, ICs, DC Examples: Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors,
generator, Current & Voltage sources etc. Transformer, Motors etc.
Active element produces energy in the form of Passive element stores energy in the form of voltage
voltage or current. or current.
They have function and provide power gain They do not have function provide power gain.
(Amplifier).
It can control the flow of current. It cannot control the flow of the current.
Active components require an external & conditional Passive Components do not require any external
source to operate in the circuit. source to operate in the circuit.
They have gain more than 1, so they can amplify the They have gain less than 1, so they can’t amplify the
signal. signal.
They are energy donor. They are energy acceptor.
They lay in Linear category. They lay in Non-Linear category.

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Unit 7 – Current Electricity & its Effects

Electrical Energy Hazards:

Electrical energy, while incredibly useful, carries a range of potential hazards, especially at high voltage levels,
and poses various hazards that can result in serious injuries, fatalities, or damage to equipment. Here are
some common hazards associated with the use of electrical energy:
• Electric shock: Exposure to electrical current can cause electric shock, which occurs when current
flows through the body. Even low levels of current can be dangerous and may lead to injury or death.
• Burns: Electrical energy can cause thermal burns if there is contact with energized equipment or
conductors. High temperatures can result from electrical faults, arcs, or short circuits.
• Arc flash and blast: In high-voltage systems, the release of energy during a fault can cause an arc
flash and blast. This can result in intense heat, light, and pressure waves, leading to severe burns,
injuries, or even fatalities.
• Fire: Electrical faults, such as short circuits or overloads, can cause fires. Arcing or sparking can ignite
flammable materials in the vicinity of electrical equipment.
• Explosions: In certain environments, such as those with flammable gases or vapours, electrical
equipment can cause explosions if there is an electrical fault.
• Electromagnetic fields (EMF): High-voltage power lines and equipment can produce
electromagnetic fields that may have potential health effects on nearby individuals. Prolonged
exposure to strong EMF can lead to various health issues.
• Cable and wire hazards: Damaged or improperly installed cables and wires can pose hazards such
as electrical fires, shock, or short circuits.
• Isolation failure: Inadequate isolation of electrical circuits or equipment during maintenance or repair
work can lead to unexpected energization and pose a serious risk to workers.
• Equipment failure: Electrical equipment, especially at high voltage, can fail due to various reasons
such as ageing, overloading, or manufacturing defects, leading to hazards.
• High voltage dangers: High voltage increases the potential for electric shock and electrical
breakdown. Special precautions and equipment are required while working with high-voltage systems.
• Inadequate grounding: Improper grounding can lead to the accumulation of voltage on equipment
and create a risk of electric shock or equipment damage.
Conditions Which Increase the Effect of Electric Shock:
Electric shock occurs when an electric current passes through the human body. Several factors can increase
the severity or likelihood of electric shock. Here are conditions that can amplify the effect of electric shock:
• Higher Voltage: The severity of electric shock is directly related to the voltage. Higher voltages can
cause more severe injuries.
• Current Flow Path: Severity of the shock depends on the current path. If it is passing through vital
organs, such as the heart or brain, can lead to more severe injuries.
• Duration of Contact: The length of time an individual is in contact with an energized source influences
the impact of electric shock. Prolonged exposure can result in more severe injuries.
• Current Path Resistance: The resistance of the body tissues plays a role in the severity of electric
shock. Dry skin has higher resistance, while wet or sweaty skin lowers resistance, allowing more
current to flow through the body.
• Frequency of the Current: In some cases, alternating current (AC) may be more hazardous than
direct current (DC) at the same voltage.
• Health Conditions: Individuals with certain medical conditions, such as heart conditions, may be more
susceptible to the effects of electric shock.
• Moisture and Conductive Materials: Moisture increases the conductivity of materials, making it
easier for electric current to flow through the body. Working in wet conditions or with conductive
materials can enhance the risk of electric shock.
• Grounding: The availability of a proper grounding path can affect the consequences of electric shock.
If a person is well-grounded, more current can flow through their body, increasing the severity of the
shock.
• Body Size and Resistance: Smaller individuals generally have higher body resistance, which may
reduce the flow of electric current through their bodies. Conversely, larger individuals may have lower
resistance, allowing more current to pass through.

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• Multiple Current Paths: If there are multiple paths for the current to take through the body, the risk of
injury may increase. The current may pass through vital organs or interfere with the nervous system
more extensively.
Safe working practices:
Working with electricity demands respect and caution.
Before you start:
• Plan and prepare: Assess the task and identify potential hazards. Ensure you have the right tools and
equipment for the job. Refer to electrical diagrams and schematics if available.
• Turn off the power: Always isolate the circuit you'll be working on by switching off the breaker or
removing the fuse. Double-check with a voltage tester to confirm it's de-energized.
• Wear proper PPE: Use insulated gloves, safety glasses, and non-conductive footwear to protect
yourself from shocks and arc flashes.
• Create a safe work environment: Clear the work area of clutter and ensure proper ventilation. Keep
flammable materials away from electrical equipment.
• Post warning signs: If necessary, put-up signs indicating ongoing electrical work to prevent others
from accidentally turning on the power.
While working:
• Stay dry: Avoid working with electricity in wet conditions or with wet hands. Water conducts electricity
and increases the risk of shock.
• Use insulated tools: Choose tools specifically designed for electrical work with insulated handles and
non-conductive shafts.
• Work one-handed: Keep one hand in your pocket when working on live circuits to minimize the risk
of completing a circuit through your body.
• Don't overload circuits: Be mindful of the load capacity of each circuit and avoid plugging in too
many appliances or devices at once.
• Inspect cords and equipment: Regularly check for damaged wires, frayed plugs, or loose
connections. Replace faulty equipment immediately.
• Use Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs): It can help prevent serious shocks by quickly cutting
off power if there's a leakage current. Consider using them in areas with moisture or potential for
ground faults.
• Never work alone: Especially for high-voltage tasks, having a qualified helper nearby can be crucial
in case of an emergency.
Intrinsically safe: A design approach or certification that ensures a device or equipment is constructed in a
way that prevents it from producing sparks, arcs, or temperatures high enough to ignite potentially explosive
atmospheres. Intrinsic safety concept is commonly associated with electrical and electronic equipment used
in environments where flammable gases, vapours, or dust may be present. Key features are: -
• Low Energy Levels: Intrinsically safe devices are designed to operate at low energy levels, reducing
the risk of generating sparks or excessive heat that could ignite flammable substances.
• Current Limiting: The electrical circuits are often designed with current-limiting elements to prevent
excessive current flow in the event of a fault.
• Protected Enclosures: The device is enclosed in a protective housing that prevents the release of
electrical energy, sparks, or heat into the surrounding atmosphere.
• Certification: Intrinsically safe devices typically undergo testing and certification by relevant
authorities or organizations to ensure they meet specific safety standards. Certification may vary
depending on the region and industry.
• Use of Barriers: Intrinsic safety often involves the use of barriers (intrinsically safe barriers) that limit
the electrical energy reaching a hazardous area. Barriers can be installed between the control system
and the hazardous area to provide an additional layer of protection.
• Inherently Safe Components: The components within the device, such as resistors and capacitors,
are selected and designed to be intrinsically safe.
• No Hot Surfaces: The device is designed to avoid hot surfaces that could potentially ignite flammable
materials.

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