ECEG-3131 Introduction to Electrical Machines

Chapter 1
Electro Magnetic Circuits

Dilla University
School of Electrical Engineering
3rd year, I - semester
By Ollata Kalano
 Outlines

Introduction
Magnetic Field

Magnetic Circuit and its Analysis

Important Terms

Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits

Leakage Flux

Series and parallel of magnetic circuits

Magnetisation or B-H Curve

Magnetic Hysteresis

Electro Magnetic Induction

Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
 INTRODUCTION
 The electrical energy is generally generated from natural
resources such as water, coal, diesel, wind, atomic energy, solar
etc.
 From these sources, first mechanical energy is produced by one
way or the other and then that mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy by suitable machines.
 The devices or machines which convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy and vice-versa are called electro–mechanical
energy conversion devices
 INTRODUCTION
 The operation of all the electrical machines such as DC machines,
transformers, synchronous machines, induction motors, etc., rely
upon their magnetic circuits.
 The closed path followed by the magnetic lines of force is called a
magnetic circuit.
 The operation of all the electrical devices (e.g., transformers,
generators, motors, etc.) depends upon the magnetism produced by
their magnetic circuits.
 Magnetic Field and its Significance
The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of
attraction or repulsion is called magnetic field.
The existence of the magnetic field at a point around the magnet can
also be determined by placing a magnetic needle at that point as
shown in Fig. 1.1. Although magnetic lines of force have no real
existence and are purely imaginary, yet their concept is very useful to
understand various magnetic effects.
Fig. 1.1 Magnetic field
around a bar magnet
 Cont..
 the magnetic lines of force possess the following important
properties:
(i) The direction of magnetic lines of force is from N-pole to the S-pole outside the magnet.
But inside the magnet their direction is from S-pole to N-pole.
(ii) They form a closed loop.
(iii) Their tendency is to follow the least reluctance path.
(iv) They act like stretched cords, always trying to shorten themselves.
(v) They never intersect each other.
(vi) They repel each other when they are parallel and are in the same direction.
(vii) They remain unaffected by non-magnetic materials.
 Magnetic Circuit and its Analysis
The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit
A magnetic circuit usually consists of magnetic materials having high permeability (e.g., iron, soft
steel, etc.). In this circuit, magnetic flux starts from a point and finishes at the same point after
completing its path.
Figure 1.2 shows a solenoid having N turns wound on an iron core (ring). When current
I ampere is passed through the solenoid, magnetic flux I Wb is set-up in the core.
Let l = mean length of magnetic circuit in m;
a = area of cross-section of core in m2;
μr = relative permeability of core material.
Flux density in the core material,

Magnetising force in the core material

Fig. 1.2 Magnetic circuit
 Cont..
• According to work law, the work done in moving a unit pole once round the
magnetic circuit (or path) is equal to the ampere-turns enclosed by the
magnetic circuit

• The above expression reveals that the amount of flux set-up in the core is
(i) directly proportional to N and I i.e., NI, called magnetomotive force (mmf).
It shows that the flux increases if either of the two increases and vice-versa.
• (ii) inversely proportional to l/a μ0 μr called reluctance of the magnetic path. In
fact, reluctance is the opposition offered to the magnetic flux by the magnetic
path. The lower is the reluctance, the higher will be the flux and vice-versa
 Important Terms
• While studying magnetic circuits, generally, we come across the following terms:
1. Magnetic field: The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of
attraction or repulsion is called magnetic field.
2. Magnetic flux (I): The amount of magnetic lines of force set-up in a magnetic
circuit is called magnetic flux. Its unit is weber (Wb). It is analogous to electric
current I in electric circuit.
3. The magnetic flux density at a point is the flux per unit area at right angles to
the flux at that point.
It is, generally, represented by letter ‘B’. Its unit is Wb/m2 or Tesla, i.e.,
 Cont....
4. Permeability: The ability of a material to conduct magnetic lines of force
through it is called the permeability of that material.
It is generally represented by μ (mu, a Greek letter). The greater the
permeability of a material, the greater is its conductivity for the magnetic lines
of force and vice-versa. The permeability of air or vacuum is the poorest and is
represented as μ0 (where μ0 = 4π × 10–7 H/m).
Relative permeability: The absolute (or actual) permeability μ of a magnetic
material is much greater than absolute permeability of air μ0. The relative
permeability of a magnetic material is given in comparison with air or vacuum.
Hence, the ratio of the permeability of material μ to the permeability of air or
vacuum μ0 is called the relative permeability μr of the material.
 cont..

5. Magnetic field intensity: The force acting on a unit north pole (1 Wb) when
placed at a point in the magnetic field is called the magnetic intensity of the field
at that point.
 It is denoted by H In magnetic circuits, it is defined as mmf per unit length
of the magnetic path. It is denoted by H, mathematically,

6. Magnetomotive force (mmf): The magnetic pressure which sets-up or tends to

set-up magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is called magnetomotive force. As per
work law it may be defined as under:
 The work done in moving a unit magnetic pole (1 Wb) once round the magnetic
circuit is called magnetomotive force.
 In general mmf = NI ampere-turns (or AT)
 It is analogous to emf in an electric circuit
 Cont..

7. Reluctance (S): The opposition offered to the magnetic flux by a magnetic

circuit is called its reluctance.
• It depends upon length (l), area of cross-section (a) and permeability (μ = μ0 μr)
of the material that makes up the magnetic circuit. It is measured in AT/Wb.

• It is analogous to resistance in an electric circuit.

8. Permeance: It is a measure of the ease with which flux can be set-up in the
material. It is just reciprocal of reluctance of the material and is measured in
Wb/AT or henry.

9. Reluctivity: It is specific reluctance and analogous to resistivity in electric

circuit.
 Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits
.
 Comparison between Magnetic and Electric Circuits

Ampere-turns Calculations
 Ampere-turns Calculations
In a magnetic circuit, flux produced,
 Series Magnetic Circuits
• A magnetic circuit that has a number of parts of different dimensions and
materials carrying the same magnetic field is called a series magnetic circuit.
Such as series magnetic circuit (composite circuit) is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit,

Fig. 1.5 Series magnetic circuit

 Parallel Magnetic Circuits
A magnetic circuit which has two or more than two paths for the magnetic flux is
called a parallel magnetic circuit. Its behaviour can be just compared to a parallel
electric circuit. Figure 1.6 shows a parallel magnetic circuit. A current carrying
coil is wound on the central limb AB. This coil sets-up a magnetic flux ϕ1 in the
central limb which is further divided into two paths i.e., (i) path ADCB which
carries flux ϕ2 and (ii) path AFEB which carries flux ϕ3.

Fig. 1.6 Parallel magnetic circuit

 Cont...

It is clear that ϕ1 = ϕ2 + ϕ3

The two magnetic paths ADCB and AFEB are in parallel. The ATs required for this parallel
circuit is equal to the ATs required for any one of the paths.
If S1 = reluctance of path BA i.e., l1/a1 μ0 μr1

S2 = reluctance of path ADCB i.e., l2/a2 μ0 μr2

S3 = reluctance of path AFEB i.e., l3/a3 μ0 μr3

Total mmf required = mmf required for path BA + mmf required path ADCB or path AFEB.
i.e., Total mmf or AT = ϕ1 S1 +ϕ2 S2 = ϕ1 S1 + ϕ3 S3
 Leakage Flux
The magnetic flux which does not follow the intended path in a magnetic circuit is called
leakage flux.

When some current is passed through a solenoid, as shown in Fig. 1.7, magnetic
flux is produced by it. Most of this flux is set-up in the magnetic core and passes
through the air gap (an intended path). This flux is known as useful flux ϕu.
However, some of the flux is just set-up around the coil and is not utilised for
any work. This flux is called leakage fluxϕl.
Total flux produced by the solenoid.
Fig. 1.7 Leakage flux
ϕ = ϕu + ϕl
 Cont...
Leakage co-efficient or leakage factor: The ratio of total flux (ϕ) produced by
the solenoid to the useful flux (ϕu) set-up in the air gap is known as leakage co-
efficient.
It is generally represented by letter ‘λ’

Fringing: It may be seen in Fig. 1.7 that the useful flux when sets-up in the air
gap, it tends to bulge outwards at b and bc since the magnetic lines set-up in the
same direction repel each other.
This increases the effective area in the air gap and decreases the flux density.
This effect is known as fringing. The fringing is directly proportional to the
length of the air gap
 Example 1

An iron ring of 400 cm mean circumference is made from round iron of cross-section 20
cm2. Its permeability is 500. If it is wound with 400 turns, what current would be required to
produce a flux
of 0·001 Wb?

Solution:
The magnetic circuit is shown in Fig. 1.8.
Mean length of magnetic path, lm = 400 cm = 4 m
Area of X-section of iron ring, a = 20 × 10–4 m2
Absolute permeability, μ0 = 4π × 10–7
Now mmf = flux × reluctance Fig. 1.8 Magnetic circuit
 Example 2
A coil of insulated wire of 500 turns and of resistance 4 Ω is closely wound on iron ring. The
ring has a mean diameter of 0·25 m and a uniform cross-sectional area of 700 mm2.
Calculate the total flux in the ring when a DC supply of 6V is applied to the ends of the
winding. Assume a relative permeability of 550.
Solution:
Mean length of iron ring, l = πD = × × 0·25 = 0·25πm
Area of cross-section, D = 700 mm2 = 700 × 10–6 m2
Current flowing through the coil

Fig. 1.9 Magnetic circuit

Total flux in the ring,
 Example 3
The ring shaped core shown in Fig. 1.10 is made of a material having a relative permeability
of 1000. The flux density in the smallest area of cross-section is 2 T. If the current through
the coil is not to exceed 1·5 A, compute the number of turns of the coil.

Solution:

Fig. 1.10 Series magnetic circuit as per data

 Example 4
A magnetic core made of annealed sheet steel has the dimensions as shown in Fig. 1.11. The
crosssection everywhere is 25 cm2. The flux in branches A and B is 3500 m Wb, but that in the
branch C is zero. Find the required ampere-turns for coil A and for coil C. Relative permeability
of sheet steel is 1000.

Fig. 1.11 Given parallel magnetic circuit Fig. 1.12 Flux distribution in the parallel
magnetic circuit
Solution:
The given magnetic circuit is a parallel circuit. To determine the ATs for coil
‘A’, the flux distribution is shown in Fig. 1.12.
Since path ‘B’ and ‘C’ are in parallel with each other w.r.t. path ‘A’
 Cont...

 Electro Magnetic Induction
The phenomenon by which an emf is induced in a circuit (and hence current flows when
the circuit is closed) when magnetic flux linking with it changes is called electro-magnetic
induction.

Fig. 1.28 Electromagnetic induction


Example 2
 Classification Of Hydro-electric Plants
• Hydro power plants are classified Based upon
(1) Quantity of water available
(2) Available of Head
(3) Nature of load
(4) Scale of power

1. According to water available

A. Run-off River plants Without Pondage
B. Run-off River plants With Pondage
C. Reservoir Plants
 Run-off river plants without pondage

 It doesn’t store water, It uses water as it comes

 It uses water only when available
 Generating capacity primarily depending on the rate of flow of water
 During rainy season some quantity of water wasted without using for the
generation of power
 During low run-off periods due to low flow rates , the generating capacity of
plant is low
 Run-off river plants with pondage

 Usefulness of a run-off river plant is increased by pondage

 Pondage permits storage of water during the off-peak periods and use of this
water during peak periods
 It is cope up by the size of the pondage
 This plant can be used on parts of the load curve requirement, within certain
limitations
 It is more useful than a plant without pondage or storage
 RESERVOIR PLANTS

 Majority of the plants are this type.

 It permit carrying over storage from wet season to the next dry season
 Water is stored behind the Dam and is available to plant with proper control
 It has better capacity and can be used through out year
 It can be used as a base-load plant or peak load plant as required
 It can also be used on any portion of the load curve as required
 2. According to Available Head

a. Low head (2-30m)

b. Medium head (30-70m)
c. High head (71-500m)
A) Low Head Plants
 Small dam is built across the river to provide the necessary head(upto 30m)
 The excess water is allowed to flow over the dam itself
 Used turbines: Francis, Propeller or Kaplan turbine
 No surge tank is required
 B) Medium Head Plants
 Forebay is provided at the beginning of penstock serves as water reservoir for
such plants
 Generally in this plants water carried in open canals from main reservoir to the
forebay and then to the power house through penstock. The forebay itselfs works
as a surge tank
 Prime mover or Turbines: Francis, Propeller and Kaplan
 C) High Head Plants

 All water is carried from the main reservoir by a tunnel upto the surge tank and
then from surge tank to the power house through pen stock
 Heads more than 300 m
 Pelton wheel turbine preferred
Types of Hydroelectric Installation
 4. Scale of Hydropower Projects

Mini-hydro
 Large-hydro
 Above 100 kW, but below 1 MW
 More than 100 MW feeding into a large  Either stand alone schemes or more often
electricity grid feeding into the grid
Micro-hydro
Medium-hydro
 From 5kW up to 100 kW
 15 - 100 MW usually feeding a grid  Usually provided power for a small
community or rural industry
Small-hydro
in remote areas away from the grid.
 1 - 15 MW - usually feeding into a grid Pico-hydro
 From a few hundred watts up to 5kW
 Remote areas away from the grid.
 Types of Hydroelectric Installation

Run – Off - River Micro Run – Off - River

Micro Hydro example
 Classification of Hydro Turbines
 Reaction Turbines
 Derive power from pressure drop across turbine
 Totally immersed in water
 Angular & linear motion converted to shaft power
 Propeller, Francis, and Kaplan turbines
 used for medium and low head
Impulse Turbines
 Convert kinetic energy of water jet hitting buckets
 No pressure drop across turbines
 Pelton, Turgo, and crossflow turbines  used for high head
 Classification of Hydro Turbines

According to the nature of working of water on blades

Types of Hydropower Turbines
 Advantages of hydro electric power

• Water is cheapest and reliable source of generation of electric power.

• It’s maintenance cost is low
• No fuel transportation problem
• Running cost of plant is low
• The life of plant is more and effect of age is comparatively small on the
overall efficiency of the plant
• In addition to power generation it is used for
irrigation and flood control purposes.
 Disadvantages of hydro electric power

• The power produced by the plant depends upon quantity of water in the dam
and rainfall.
• The cost of transmission is high
• Erection of the plant takes long time
• Initial cost of the plant is high.
Hydropower Calculations
 Cont’d
In order to ensure an adequate supply of water, most hydroelectric schemes use dams for
retaining a reservoir of water. This reservoir is replenished by rainfall from the surrounding
countryside so that the depth of water varies with the local climate. Let the head (e.g. height) of
water in the reservoir be h metres. For a mass of water m kilogrammes, the potential energy in
watt-seconds or joules is

where g is the gravitational acceleration in m/s2. The energy WP can also be expressed in terms of
the volumetric flow rate Q and the density ρ of the water

where Q is in m3/s.
Now the potential energy lost in falling is equal to the kinetic energy KE gained by the water
plus the energy losses incurred.

where V is the velocity of the water impinging on the blades of the turbine. Neglecting the
losses the maximum possible value for the velocity,
 Example
Q#1: A water reservoir contains a head of water 400 m above the turbine level. The overall efficiency of the penstock, turbine and generator

is 80%. It is required to generate 300 MW of electrical power. What is the necessary mass flow rate of water through the turbines?

The necessary input power is

The stored water in the reservoir must contain the potential energy PE to deliver this power.

The power associated with this PE = m × 9:81 × 400 J/s when m is the mass flow rate in kg/s.

Therefore

Since a cubic meter of water weighs 1000 kg, the volumetric flow rate is
 Example
• Q#2: In the pumped storage scheme at Dinorwig, North Wales, the upper reservoir

is at a height of 568m above the turbine house. If losses are neglected, what is the
velocity of the water arriving at the turbine blades?

Solution:
 Example
• Q#3: In a pumped storage scheme of height 400 m, the combined efficiency of the turbine,
electric generators and storage pump motors is 70%. If a water volumetric flow of 50 m3/s
strikes each turbine blade, calculate the electrical output power and the water velocity of
impact.
Solution:
A cubic meter of water weighs 1000 kg, so that,
The gravitational potential energy,
When the mass flow rate is given in terms of mass per unit time, the power potential
is
 Cont’d

The final velocity of the water, neglecting losses, is

Exercise-1 A hydroelectricity supply system has an overall efficiency of 82%. If the effective
head of water is 500 m, calculate the volumetric flow rate needed to generate 300 MW of
electric power.