Eee CH 18

C H A P T E R E I G H T E E N
BUILDING ELECTRICAL
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
mechanical energy is about 40% for a fossil-fuel plant and

18.1 POWER GENERATION about 30% for a nuclear plant. A large power station produces
AND TRANSMISSION more than 1000 megawatts (MW) of electrical power. One
megawatt equals 1 000 000 watts of power. In the United States,
Nearly all of the electrical energy consumed in the United a city with a population of 1 000 000 people needs about 3000
States and Canada is generated, transmitted, and distributed by to 4000 MW of power.
large public or privately owned utility companies. Individual A schematic of a power transmission and distribution sys-
residential and commercial consumers purchase electricity tem is shown in Figure 18.1. Electricity is conveyed through a
from these utility companies, either directly or through a coop- transmission system of overhead metal cables supported on high
erative association that purchases it from the utility. Some large towers. Public utility companies and most small power producers
manufacturers serve as small producers of electrical energy by are interconnected in a power grid. These companies buy and sell
operating a small power generating station or by generating electricity from each other and from small producers. The most
electrical energy as part of their manufacturing processes. In a economical power stations connected to the grid typically gener-
few instances, a homeowner with a bank of photoelectric solar ate power continuously, unless off line for maintenance or
cells or a wind generator serves as a small power producer, sell- repairs. During periods of heavy demand, less-economical power
ing excess electrical energy back through utility lines owned by stations are brought on-line. If one generating station is off-line
the utility company. or fails, another is brought on line to take over the load.
In most cases, electricity is produced at a utility-owned At the power station, electricity is usually generated in
power station. A power station is an industrial facility that the range of 2.4 kV to 13.2 kV. For economical transmission
houses equipment to generate electrical energy. A generator is over long power lines, a step-up transformer steps up voltage to
a mechanical device that converts mechanical energy into elec- above 39 kV, usually between 115 kV to 765 kV. Ultrahigh-
trical energy. A generator rotates an armature, a shaft with con- voltage transmission is now being explored for equipment and
ductor windings wrapped around an iron core, through a lines rated for 1100 kV. Power transmission at high voltages re-
stationary magnetic field, to produce current flow. A rotary en- quires less amperage and subsequently there are lower power
gine called a turbine is connected to the generator and drives losses in the transmission lines.
the rotation of the armature shaft. In a steam turbine, high- To avoid the danger of high-voltage power transmission
pressure steam moves through the turbine, driving rotation of through populated areas, power substations located near hous-
discs attached to the turbine shaft. Steam is produced by heating developments step down the transmission voltages. Power
ing water by burning coal, oil, or natural gas, or with heat cre- substations are small facilities in fenced yards that contain
ated by a nuclear reaction. In a hydroelectric plant, falling transformers, switches, and other electrical equipment that re-
water strikes the blades or buckets of a turbine, causing the tur- duce transmission voltages to safer distribution levels. Generally,
bine shaft to rotate. The efficiency of conversion of heat to
FIGURE 18.1 Power transmission and distribution.
595
596 CHAPTER 18
distribution line voltages are generally 4160 V, 4800 V, 6900 V

or 13 200 V, although higher voltages can be made available if 18.2 BUILDING ELECTRICAL
loads are large enough. SERVICE EQUIPMENT
Overhead, underground, and underwater distribution
lines carry electrical power from the substation to transformers Service Entrance Conductors
mounted on a pole or resting on the ground near the building Underground or overhead service entrance conductors carry
property line. Distribution line voltages are still too high for power from the transformer through a metering device to the
most typical uses, such as in homes, businesses, and small in- building’s service disconnects. Overhead wires extend from a
dustrial users, so a distribution transformer further steps down pole-mounted distribution transformer to the building’s service en-
the voltage to safer, more-useable levels for residential, com- trance and are generically referred to as the service drop. Under-
mercial, and industrial uses such as 120/240 V single phase, ground (buried) service entrance conductors are typically called
120/208 V three phase, or 480 Y/277 V three phase in the the service lateral. Overhead service entrance conductors extend-
United States and Canada. In other countries, voltage may be ing from pole-mounted transformers are shown in Photo 18.1.
stepped down to different levels; in Europe, for example, Service entrance conductors must be insulated except the
400 Y/230 V supplies both industrial and residential loads. neutral, which may be bare in overhead installations. Single-
Power utilities generally generate, transmit, and distrib- phase service drops will have either 2 or 3 wires while three
ute three-phase AC power. Single-phase AC power is obtained phase service drops will have either 3 or 4 wires. Typically,
from one phase of a set of three-phase lines. Utilities use the service entrance conductors are provided by the utility. Each
highest transmission and distribution voltages consistent with utility has standards on wire size and minimum clearances.
safe and economical use. It is very economical to carry power
at high voltage because it requires smaller conductors. How- Service Entrance
ever, high voltages introduce safety clearance hazards, so high
voltages are reserved for use in unpopulated areas or special ap- The service entrance includes the components that connect the
plications. Table 18.1 presents the relationship between gener- utility-supplied wiring (the service lateral or service drop) to
ated and transmitted voltages and the associated current for a the service disconnect, excluding the utility’s metering equip-
2000 kVA load. It shows that, for transmission of a specific ment. Service entrance equipment receives the service entrance
quantity of power, higher voltages reduce current (amperage) conductors. The service equipment includes a method of meas-
and thus smaller power lines are needed. uring power (metering equipment), a method of cutting off
power (main disconnect or switch gear), and overcurrent pro-
tection devices (circuit breakers or fuses) that protect the serv-
TABLE 18.1 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE GENERATED, ice entrance conductors. Overcurrent protection devices are
TRANSMISSION, AND DISTRIBUTION VOLTAGES discussed later in this chapter.
AND ASSOCIATED CURRENT (AMPERAGE) FOR A The electric meter is an instrument that is used by the util-
2000 KVA LOAD AND A POWER FACTOR OF 1.0.
HIGHER VOLTAGE MEANS LOWER AMPERAGE ity company to measure and record electrical energy consumed.
(AND SMALLER CONDUCTOR SIZE) FOR A In building services rated up to about 400 A, a feed-through
SPECIFIC LOAD. IT IS MORE ECONOMICAL, BUT
MORE DANGEROUS, TO TRANSMIT POWER AT
HIGH VOLTAGE.
Current
Requirement for
Common Voltages 2000 kVA Load*
Application Kilovolts (kV) Volts (V) Amperes (A)
Generated voltages 13.2 13 200 151.5

2.4 2400 833.3
Transmission voltages 765 765 000 2.6
500 500 000 4.0
230 230 000 8.7
138 138 000 14.5
115 115 000 17.4
Distribution voltages 34.5 34 500 58.0
13.2 13 200 151.5
6.9 6900 289.9
4.8 4800 415.7
4.16 4160 4808.8
PHOTO 18.1 Overhead service entrance conductors extending from
* I P/E; for example: 2 000 000 VA/13 200 V 151.5 A. pole-mounted transformers. (Used with permission of ABC)
BUILDING ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT 597
meter is used. Essentially, this meter is a small electric motor and instruments designed to divide large amounts of electrical
with a speed that is proportional to the power consumed. As cur- current into smaller amounts of current used by electrical equip-
rent flows through transformer-like coils in the meter, a disc ro- ment. It contains one or more devices that can be used to manu-
tates and pointers on dials revolve to record the amount of power ally and automatically disconnect a circuit from its power source.
used in kilowatt-hours (kWh). Services rated above about 400 A Switchboards are the highest capacity components in building
use a current-transformer (C/T) to meter use. C/T devices measure distribution and protection devices. They are typically floor
amperage through each ungrounded (hot) conductor. C/T meter- mounted, rated for current levels of 1200 to 6000 amperes (A),
ing devices are housed in an enclosure called a C/T cabinet that and voltages below 600 volts (V). Access to a switchboard is
is part of the service entrance equipment. usually through the front and rear of the switchboard cabinet. An
A service disconnect is a required part of the service example of a switchboard is shown in Photo 18.2.
entrance equipment that allows electrical service from the
utility company to be switched off so that power is discon- Panelboards
nected to the building installation. It is a set of fuses or a cir-
A panelboard is one or more metal cabinets that serve as a sin-
cuit breaker that protects the service entrance conductors.
gle unit, including buses, automatic overcurrent protection de-
Service entrances and equipment configurations are shown in
vices (fuses or circuit breakers). It is equipped with or without
Figures 18.2 through 18.4.
switches for the control of light, heat, and power circuits. By
definition, a panelboard is a cabinet or cutout enclosure placed
Switchboards in or against a wall or partition that is accessible from the front.
A switchboard is a large cabinet or assembly of metal cabinets in A panelboard may be referred to in the trade as a power panel,
which is connected disconnecting switches, overcorrect protec- load center, distribution center, or main power panel. By defi-
tion devices (fuses or circuit breakers), other protective devices, nition, a load center is a panelboard containing a preassembled
FIGURE 18.2 A typical service entrance/panelboard configuration in a simple residential building

electrical system consists of several circuits extending from the panelboard to outlets throughout a building,
much like branches extend from a tree’s trunk. The main disconnect (contained behind the door of the
panelboard) is not shown.
598 CHAPTER 18
FIGURE 18.3 A service entrance, switchboard, and distribution configuration in a

commercial building consists of several feeders extending from the switchboard to several
lighting/appliance and power distribution panelboards located throughout the building.
Circuits extend from the panelboards to the different outlets.
disconnect and the necessary circuit breakers. It is typically protection devices (e.g., circuit breakers or fuses) to protect and
used in residential applications. Examples of panelboards are feed branch circuits to outlets; and termination buses for neutral
shown in Photos 18.3 and 18.4. and grounding connections for the branch circuits.
A typical panelboard consists of a sheet metal box, called a
Building Transformers
cabinet, and a cover that encloses and conceals the panelboard in-
terior to limit access to power distribution components. The cabi- Transformers are used in transmitting and distributing power
net and cover enclose and protect the interior section containing from the power plant to a substation. The operation of a large
vertical buses, which are used to distribute power; overcurrent commercial installation depends on power distribution that, in
FIGURE 18.4 Service entrance and distribution panels serving a multifamily dwelling consists of
several feeders extending from the main distribution panels to panelboards located at each apartment
unit. A house panel serves outlets in common spaces (e.g., halls, laundry room, mechanical room, and
so on). A life safety panelboard serves emergency lighting and smoke detectors. Circuits extend from
the panelboards to the different outlets.
PHOTO 18.2 A switchboard divides PHOTO 18.3 Power distribution and PHOTO 18.4 A panelboard serving
large amounts of current into smaller lighting panelboards serving one floor of a single-family residence. The service
amounts used by individual pieces of a commercial office building. (Used with entrance conductors (dark, thick sheathed
electrical equipment (e.g., air-handling permission of ABC) conductors) and branch circuit wiring (light
units, pump motors, and so on) or colored) extending from the panel are
panelboards. (Used with permission of ABC) evident. (Used with permission of ABC)
599
600 CHAPTER 18
turn, depends on transformers used to change voltage, current, transformer, 7200 V, two-wire power is transformed and stepped
and phase of electrical power nearby and within a building. down to a 120/240 V AC, three-wire system.
Building transformers are rated in kVA. Typical sizes used in
buildings include 3, 6, 9, 15, 25, 30, 37.5, 45, 50, 75, 112.5, Three-Phase Transformers
150, 225, 300, 500, 750, 1000, 1500 kVA, and larger. Every
A three-phase transformer has three primary and three second-
transformer comes with a nameplate that typically identifies:
ary windings. In the United States and Canada, there are two
• Rated kVA main types of three phase transformers: delta and wye. The delta
• Primary and secondary voltage connected power is not commercially used in Europe. Three-
phase European equipment requires wye-connected power.
• Impedance (if 25 kVA or larger)
As shown in Figure 18.5, the delta-connected trans-
• Required clearances (if it has ventilating openings) former has its windings connected in a series in the form of a
A step-down transformer has a secondary voltage that is triangle, thus the name delta (Δ). The three independent trans-
less than its primary voltage. It steps down the voltage applied to former windings are connected head to toe. There is no single
it. A step-up transformer is one with a secondary voltage that is point common to all phases. A delta-connected transformer has
greater than its primary voltage. This kind of transformer steps only a single voltage level available: the phase-to-phase volt-
up the voltage applied to it. Step-down transformers are typi- ages. Other voltages can be obtained only by using step-up or
cally used in buildings to reduce building system voltages to step-down transformers. For example, on a 120/240 V Δ sys-
useable levels. Common commercially available primary to sec- tem, the midpoint of one phase winding is grounded to provide
ondary voltage transformer voltages are shown in Table 18.2. 120 V between Phase A and ground and Phase C and ground.
Excessive heat prematurely deteriorates a transformer. There are 240 V between the windings of each phase—that is,
Operation at only 20°F (11°C) above the transformer rating will between Phases A and B, Phases A and C, or Phases B and C.
cut transformer life by half. Heat is caused by internal losses Between Phase B and ground there is 208 V available.
from loading, high ambient air temperature, and in exterior loca- A wye-connected transformer (Y) has three independent
tions, solar radiation. Small transformers are typically air cooled transformer windings connected at a common point, called a
by ventilation. Larger transformers are liquid cooled. A venti- neutral or star point, as shown in Figure 18.6. The physical
lated dry-type transformer has its core and coils in a gaseous or arrangement of windings resembles a Y. The angular displace-
dry compound. Dry-type distribution transformers are usually ment between each winding of the Y is 120°. The center point is
found inside larger commercial/industrial facilities and are gen-
erally owned by the facility. A liquid-immersion transformer has
its core and coils immersed in an insulating liquid. In building
installations, a transformer can be single phase or three phase.
These are described in the following sections.
Single-Phase Transformers
A single-phase transformer has a single primary winding and a
single secondary winding. The 7200/240/120 V AC, single-phase,
three-wire transformer is used in most residential and small com- FIGURE 18.5 A delta-connected transformer has its windings
mercial applications where 120 V and 240 V are required. In this connected in series in the form of a triangle. The physical arrangement
of windings resembles the Greek letter Delta (Δ).
TABLE 18.2 COMMON COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE PRIMARY TO

SECONDARY VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS.
Primary Voltages Secondary Voltages Available
2400
2400/4260Y
4160
120/240
4800
240/480
4160/7200Y
277
6900/11950Y
480 FIGURE 18.6 A wye-connected transformer (Y) has three
7200/12420Y
7620/13200Y independent transformer windings that are connected at a common
8320/14400Y point, called a neutral or star point. The physical arrangement of
windings resembles a Y.
FIGURE 18.7 A delta-wye (Δ-Y) transformer combination. Additional

transformer combinations, such as wye-wye (Y-Y), delta-delta (Δ-Δ), and
wye-delta (Y-Δ) are available.
the common return point for the neutral conductor. Connecting

one terminal from three equal voltage transformer windings to-
gether to make a common terminal forms the wye-connected
system. The Y in 480 Y/277 V relates to a wye (Y) winding
configuration of the secondary windings.
A delta-wye (Δ-Y) transformer is an electrical device that
converts three-phase electric power without a neutral wire into
three-phase power with a neutral wire. A Δ-Y combination is
shown in Figure 18.7. Additional transformer combinations,
such as wye-wye (Y-Y), delta-delta (Δ-Δ), and wye-delta (Y-Δ)
are available.
Historically, standardized system voltages related to the
use of delta transformers were based on multiples of 120 V
(e.g., 120 V, 240 V, 480 V, 7200 V). Voltages that have the 1.732
as a multiplier are wye connections (e.g., 208 V, 4160 V,
12.47 kV). New distribution transformers are very efficient,
with losses of less than 0.25% in large units. Most large facility PHOTO 18.6 A 75 kW, 480 V delta to 208 Y/120 V closet transformer
distribution transformers convert at least 95% of input power during construction. It provides three-phase and single-phase power to
into useable output power. Smaller closet transformers have ef- a portion of a college building. (Used with permission of ABC)
ficiencies of 98% or above. Examples of building transformers
are shown in Photos 18.5 and 18.6.
18.3 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION: FUSES

AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
An overcurrent protection (OCP) device safeguards the build-

ing service or an individual circuit from excessive current
flows. It protects the circuit components from severe overheat-
ing when current flowing through the circuit reaches an amper-
age that will cause an excessive or dangerous temperature rise
in conductors. Fuses and circuit breakers serve as automatic
overcurrent protection devices. They are designed to open a cir-
cuit if the amount of current, in amps, that flows through the
PHOTO 18.5 A pad-mounted building transformer serving a circuit exceeds the OCP device rating. Most OCP devices re-
commercial office building. (Used with permission of ABC) spond to both short-circuit or ground-fault current values in
602 CHAPTER 18
feature that trips instantly at its rating and the 100% rated fea-
ture that limits the load to 80%, when the load is continuous for
over 3 hr.
Circuit breakers are classified by a voltage rating in volts
(V) and current-carrying capacity in amperage (A). Standard
current ratings for circuit breakers are provided in Table 18.3.
Circuit breakers are designed with specific clearances to pre-
vent arcing; a higher voltage rating requires a larger clearance.
The voltage rating is the maximum voltage the circuit breaker
can carry.
Standard circuit breaker ratings recognized by Under-
PHOTO 18.7 Various sizes of circuit breakers. (Used with permission writers Laboratories, Inc. (UL), for alternating current include
of ABC) 120 V, 120/240 V, 277 V, 277/480 V, 480 V, and 600 V. The UL
standard for direct current includes 125 V, 250 V, and 600 V.
The voltage of the electrical circuit or system being protected
addition to overload conditions. Types of overcurrent protec- by the circuit breaker must not exceed the circuit breaker volt-
tion devices are introduced in the following sections. age rating. Circuit breakers protect the ungrounded (hot) con-
ductors in a circuit. They are identified as single pole (SP) if
Circuit Breakers protecting a single ungrounded conductor; two pole (2P) when
A circuit breaker is an overcurrent protection device that serves protecting two ungrounded conductors such as on a 240 V cir-
two purposes: It acts as a switch that can be opened and closed cuit; and three pole (3P) when protecting three ungrounded
manually, and most importantly, it automatically “trips off,” conductors on a three-phase circuit.
which opens the circuit when current flowing through it ex-
ceeds the circuit rating. This action instantaneously interrupts Fuses
current flow. Once it trips, it can be reset (closed like a switch)
and will continue to allow electricity flow as long as the current A fuse is an overcurrent protection device that consists of a
flowing through it does not exceed the circuit rating. Various strip of metal with a low melting temperature. Under normal
types of circuit breakers are shown in Photo 18.7. operation, electricity flows through the metal strip. However,
The most popular circuit breaker is the thermal-magnetic when its current rating is exceeded, the metal strip heats up and
type. It consists of a bimetallic strip that bends when it is heated melts and the circuit is opened, thereby interrupting current
by power loss created when current flows through it. When cur- flow. In this case, it is said that the fuse has “blown.” A new
rent flow is excessive, the circuit breaker heats up, bends, and fuse of the same rating must replace a blown fuse, which is dis-
trips a release that opens contacts and interrupts current flow. A carded. Most fuses are rated for 250 V or 600 V although 125 V
magnetic device also can trip the release instantly if a short circuit and 300 V are available. Standard current ratings for fuses are
develops. When tested in open air, the thermal-magnetic circuit provided in Table 18.3
breaker can carry a load of about 10% above its rating. It can There are three basic types of fuses used in building
carry up to 50% above its rating for a minute and up to three electrical systems: plug, cartridge, and time delay fuses. Types
times its rating for a few seconds. The ability to handle a load of fuses are shown in Photos 18.8 and 18.9. These are dis-
substantially above its rating for a short interval avoids the an- cussed as follows:
noyance of tripping a breaker with motor startup. It is still safe Plug fuses screw into sockets much like a lamp. They are
because the heat from power loss takes some time to create rated from 5 A to 30 A. An Edison-base plug fuse has
damage. Other characteristics include the current-limiting threads similar to an ordinary incandescent lamp base.
TABLE 18.3 STANDARD UL CURRENT RATINGS CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND FUSES.
Overcurrent Protection Device Rating (Amperes)
Circuit breakers 15 A, 20 A, 30 A, 40 A, 50 A, 60 A, 70 A, 80 A, 90 A, 100 A, 110 A, 125 A, 150 A, 200 A, 225 A, 250 A,

300 A, 350 A, 400 A, 450 A, 500 A, 600 A, 700 A, 800 A, 1000 A, 1200 A, 1600 A, 2000 A, 2500 A, 3000 A,
4000 A, 5000 A, and 6000 A
Fuses 1 A, 3 A, 6 A, 10 A, 15 A, 20 A, 30 A, 40 A, 50 A, 60 A, 70 A, 80 A, 90 A, 100 A, 110 A, 125 A, 150 A,
200 A, 225 A, 300 A, 350 A, 400 A, 450 A, 500 A, 600 A, 700 A, 800 A, 1000 A, 1200 A, 1600 A, 2000 A,
2500 A, 3000 A, 4000 A, 5000 A, and 6000
TABLE 18.4 COMMON PANELBOARD AND LOAD CENTER

RATINGS AND CAPACITIES.
Single-Phase, Three-Wire Panelboards and Load Centers

Frame Disconnect
Size Rating Capacity
Amperes Amperes Maximum Number of Circuit Breakers
50 50 8, 10, 12
100 100 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20
125 125 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 24
150 150 20, 24, 28, 30
PHOTO 18.8 Edison screw-type fuses (round shapes) in a circa 200 200 20, 24, 28, 30, 36, 40
1950 lighting subpanelboard with switches (light-colored rectangular
shapes). (Used with permission of ABC) Three-Phase, Four-Wire Panelboards
Frame Disconnect
Size Rating Capacity
Amperes Amperes Maximum Number of Poles
100 100 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30

125 125 20, 22, 24
225 225 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42
400 400 30, 42
an enclosure such as a switchboard, panelboard, motor control

center, or an individual enclosure. Common panelboard and
load center ratings and OCP device capacities are provided in
PHOTO 18.9 Three cartridge fuses installed to protect a
Table 18.4.
three-phase circuit. (Used with permission of ABC)
Adequate overcurrent protection is the single-most im-
portant safety feature in any electrical circuit as it safeguards
Edison plug fuses are interchangeable regardless of rat- conductors and equipment. Although an OCP device safe-
ing, allowing a 30 A fuse to improperly protect a 20 A guards against overheating and fire, it does not protect an occu-
circuit. This interchange ability makes Edison fuses un- pant from electrical shock.
safe, so they are no longer allowed in new and retrofit in-
stallations. Type S plug fuses have bases of different sizes OCP Device Ratings
that match the fuse rating to the circuit rating.
OPDs have two current ratings: overcurrent and amperes inter-
Cartridge fuses are cylindrical in shape and available in rupting current.
two types. The ferrule-contact type have round copper
contacts at their end and are rated up to 60 A. The knife- Overcurrent Rating
blade type has flat blades sticking out at each end. Type S
The overcurrent rating of an OCP device is the highest amper-
fuses and cartridge fuses are allowed in new and retrofit
age it can carry continuously without exceeding a specific tem-
installations.
perature limit (e.g., without overheating). If the current
Time delay fuses can handle an overload for fraction of a (amperage) flowing through the protection device exceeds the
second without blowing. They are desirable on circuits device setting for a significant period, the OCP device will
serving electric motors such as air conditioners and ma- open. The overcurrent rating of an OCP is listed in amperes,
chinery because motors draw much more current at such as 15 A, 20 A, or 30 A. The amperage carried by the elec-
startup than during normal operation. trical circuit or system protected by an OCP device must not
Circuit breakers can be more convenient than fuses be- exceed the maximum current rating of the circuit breaker.
cause they are easily reset rather than having to be replaced.
Interrupting Rating
However, circuit breakers deteriorate with age and tend to
lose some degree of sensitivity each time they trip. They OCP devices must have an interrupting rating sufficient for the
must be replaced periodically to ensure maximum overcur- maximum possible fault-current (short-circuit). If the OCP is not
rent protection. Overcurrent protection is typically installed in rated to interrupt at the available fault-current, it could explode
604 CHAPTER 18
while attempting to clear the fault and/or the downstream equip- appliances are situated and used at a specific location but can be
ment could suffer serious damage, causing possible hazards to moved to another outlet such as a refrigerator, clothes washer, or
occupants and property. The amperes interruption current (AIC) clothes dryer. Portable appliances are appliances that can be eas-
rating for circuit breakers is 5000 A and 10 000 A for fuses. Cir- ily carried or moved such as a hair dryer or toaster.
cuit breakers and fuses typically have an AIC rating of 10 000 A. An electrical device is a component in an electrical sys-
tem that is designed to carry but not use electricity. This in-
cludes components such as switches, receptacles, and relays.
18.4 UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT Outlets, Receptacles, and Plugs
AND DEVICES
In an electrical system, an outlet is the location in a branch circuit
Utilization equipment is a broad category of electrical or elec- where electricity is used. For example, a lighting outlet is the
tronic machine or instrument designed to perform a specific location in a branch circuit where conductors provide power to a
mechanical, chemical, heating, or lighting function through the light fixture. A receptacle is a female connecting device with
use of electrical energy. Electric motors, air conditioning, re- slotted contacts. It is installed at an outlet or on equipment,
frigeration and heating units, signs, industrial machinery, where it is intended to easily establish an electrical connection
cranes, hoists, elevators, and escalators fit in the category of with an inserted plug. A plug is a male connecting device that has
utilization equipment. two or more prongs that are inserted into a receptacle to connect
An appliance is an end-use piece of utilization equipment to an electrical circuit. A plug is typically connected to a flexible
designed to perform a specific function such as cooking, clean- cord that is attached to a portable appliance, light, or equipment.
ing, cooling, or heating. Electric ranges, refrigerators, clothes Receptacles and plugs offer a simple way to attach or detach an
washers and dryers, freezers, blenders, toasters, and hair dryers appliance or piece of equipment to/from an electrical outlet.
are appliances. Fixed appliances are permanently attached instal- Tables 18.5, 18.6, and 18.7 provide information on differ-
lations such as a built-in electric cook top or oven. Stationary ent types and configurations of receptacles and plugs. According
TABLE 18.5 CONFIGURATION FOR NONLOCKING RECEPTACLES AND PLUGS.
Number/Type of Conducting Poles Receptacle (R) and Plug (P) Ratings

and NEMA Designations
Voltage Grounded
System Rating Ungrounded (Neutral) Grounding 15 A 20 A 30 A 50 A 60 A
1-15R
125 1 1 —
Two pole, 1-15P
two wire 2-20R 2-30R
250 2 — —
2-20P 2-30P
5-15R 5-20R 5-30R 5-50R
Two pole, 125 1 1 1
5-15P 5-20P 5-30P 5-50P
three wire,
grounding 6-15R 6-20R 6-30R 6-50R
250 2 — 1
6-15P 6-20P 6-30P 6-50P
7-15R 7-20R 7-30R 7-50R
277 1 1 1
7-15P 7-20P 7-30P 7-50P
Three pole, 10-20R 10-30R 10-50R
three wire 125/250, 1Φ 2 1 —
10-20P 10-30P 10-50P
11-15R 11-20R 11-30R 11-50R
250Δ, 3Φ 3 — —
11-15P 11-20P 11-30P 11-50P
14-15R 14-20R 14-30R 14-50R 14-60R
125/250, 1Φ 2 1 1
Three pole, 14-15P 14-20P 14-30P 14-50P 14-60P
three wire,
grounding 15-15R 15-20R 15-30R 15-50R 15-60R
250Δ, 3Φ 3 — 1
15-15P 15-20P 15-30P 15-50P 15-60P
18-15R 18-20R 18-30R 18-50R 18-60R
Four pole, 208Y/120, 3Φ 3 1 0
four wire 18-15P 18-20P 18-30P 18-50P 18-60P
TABLE 18.6 RATING, APPLICATION, AND CONFIGURATIONS FOR COMMON TYPES OF RECEPTACLES AND PLUGS
USED PRINCIPALLY IN RESIDENTIAL AND LIGHT COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS.
NEMA Designation Configuration

Receptacle Plug Rating Application Receptacle Plug
1-15R 1-15P 15 A, 125 V For replacement only. Former standard,

two pole, three wire wall-mounted receptacle for residential,
commercial, and industrial applications
5-15R 5-15P 15 A, 125 V Standard, wall-mounted receptacle for

Grounding two pole, residential, commercial, and industrial
three wire applications
5-20R 5-20P 20 A, 125 V For heavy-duty appliances such as room air

Grounding two pole, conditioners and portable shop tools in
three wire residential, commercial, and industrial
applications
10-30R 10-30P 30 A, 125/250 V Typically for replacement only or nongrounding

three pole, three wire applications. Formerly for clothes dryers and
other heavy-duty equipment and appliances
14-30R 14-30P 30 A, 125/250 V Clothes dryers in residences and heavy-duty

Grounding three pole, equipment and appliances in commercial/
four wire industrial applications
10-50R 10-50P 50 A, 125/250 V Typically for replacement only or nongrounding

three pole, three wire applications. Formerly for ranges in residences
and other heavy-duty equipment and
appliances
14-50R 14-50P 50 A, 125/250 V Ranges in residences and heavy-duty

Grounding three pole, equipment and appliances in commercial/
four wire industrial applications
to National Electrical Manufacturing Association (NEMA) stan- The screw terminals on a receptacle are color coded:
dards, the different types of receptacles and plugs are identified brass-colored screws are for connection to the ungrounded con-
by a specific designation. A standard, wall-mounted, 125 V/15 A ductor, silver-colored screws are for the grounded or neutral
convenience receptacle outlet is shown in Photo 18.10. The conductor, and green-colored screws are for the equipment
NEMA designation ties the number and configuration of the grounding conductor. Receptacles marked “CO/ALR” can be
slots in the receptacle and the matching slots in a plug to the volt- connected to copper, aluminum, or copper-clad aluminum con-
age and amperage permitted. For example, the 5-15R and 5-15P ductors. Those marked “CU/AL” were formerly allowed for
designation is associated with the matching receptacle (R) and use with copper or aluminum conductors, but can only be con-
plug (P) that are rated at 15 amperes and 125 V and have nected to copper conductors. They are no longer deemed
equipment-grounding capability. These devices are the matching acceptable for use with aluminum conductors. (See Wire and
receptacles and plugs commonly associated with residential and Cable sections later in this chapter.)
commercial wall-mounted outlets. Different receptacles and plug
combinations are generally tied to a specific application. For ex-
Switches
ample, the 5-15R receptacle discussed earlier serves as a com-
mon outlet for portable lights and small appliances, while the A simple switch is a device placed between two or more electri-
14-50R and 14-50R receptacle/plug configuration is typically cal conductors in a circuit to safely and intentionally open or
used to connect a kitchen range or other heavy-duty electrical close the circuit or to redirect the path of current in a circuit.
equipment to an outlet. Contacts in a switch open (switches off) a circuit, close
606 CHAPTER 18
TABLE 18.7 RATING, APPLICATION, AND CONFIGURATIONS FOR COMMON TYPES OF RECEPTACLES AND PLUGS
USED IN SPECIAL COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS.
NEMA Designation Configuration

Receptacle Plug Rating Application Receptacle Plug
5-30R 5-30P 30 A, 250 V For office copy machines, commercial air

Grounding two pole, conditioners, and other heavy equipment in
three wire commercial and industrial applications
5-50R 5-50P 50 A, 125 V For production copy machines, commercial air


Grounding two pole, conditioners and portable shop tools in

Grounding two pole, conditioners and ovens in commercial and
three wire industrial applications
6-30R 6-30P 30 A, 250 V For heavy-duty appliances such as large air

Grounding two pole, conditioners and ovens in commercial and
three wire industrial applications
6-50R 6-50P 50 A, 250 V For production copy machines, commercial air

7-15R 7-15P 15 A, 277 V For heavy commercial and industrial lighting

Grounding two pole,
three wire
14-60R 14-60P 60 A, 125/250 V For heavy-duty commercial and industrial

Grounding three pole, applications and house trailers
four wire
18-20R 18-20P 20 A, 250 V–3Φ For three-phase motors in commercial and

four pole, four wire, industrial air conditioners and equipment
three phase
18-60R 18-60P 20 A, 250 V–3Φ For heavy-duty, three-phase motors in

four pole, four wire, commercial and industrial air conditioners and
three phase equipment
(switches on) a circuit, or divert current from one conductor There are two categories of safety switches: heavy duty and
path to another. Switches are rated by purpose, voltage, and general duty.
amperage, and are classified for AC or DC.
Safety switches are used in building electrical systems. Heavy-duty safety switches are designed for heavy indus-
They are designed to reduce the possibility of contact with bare try, commercial, and institutional applications where
electrical conductors and have current interrupting capability. safety, performance, and continuity of service are re-
Types of switches are shown in Photos 18.11 through 18.16. quired. These are enclosed and may be fused or unfused.
PHOTO 18.10 A standard, PHOTO 18.11 General duty PHOTO 18.12 Heavy-duty switch.
wall-mounted, 125V/15A receptacle wall-mounted switch. (Used with permission (Used with permission of ABC)
outlet. (Used with permission of ABC) of ABC)
PHOTO 18.13 Weatherproof switch. PHOTO 18.14 Locked lighting switch panel. PHOTO 18.15 Keyed switch. (Used
(Used with permission of ABC) (Used with permission of ABC) with permission of ABC)
They are used extensively as motor circuit switches, serv-

ice entrance switches, and feeder disconnects, as well as
for industrial furnaces, capacitors, transformers, and
welders. Ratings up to 1200 A, 600 V are available.
General duty safety switches are intended for industrial,
general commercial and residential loads where economy
is important and requirements are less stringent. They are
used on lighting, heating, appliance, and intermittent
motor loads. Ratings up to 600 V are available.
In switching terminology, the term pole refers to the
number of conductors the switch is opening and closing; the
term throw refers to the number of operations a switch can per-
form. A single-pole, single-throw (SPST) switch is a simple
on/off switch. It opens or closes a single ungrounded conductor
PHOTO 18.16 Emergency safety cut-off switch. Used to shut down in a circuit. It is the most commonly used switch found in
equipment in an emergency (e.g., personal accident, fire, and so on). buildings, where it is typically used to control a lighting instal-
(Used with permission of ABC) lation from a single location.
608 CHAPTER 18
A single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) switch diverts cur- 18.8 through 18.14. Common switching configurations are
rent from one conductor path to another. A special type of described in the following:
SPDT switch is known as a three-way switch (S3), which allows
Control from one point: One single-pole, single-throw
the control of an installation from two locations (for instance,
switch (S) is required. See
turning a light on or off from either end of a flight of stairs). A
Figures 18.8 through 18.10.
double-pole, single-throw (DPST) switch opens or closes two
Control from two points: Two three-way switches
conductors in a circuit. It is equivalent to two SPST switches
(S3) are required. See
controlled by a single mechanism. It can be used to switch off
Figures 18.11 and 18.12.
the ungrounded and grounded conductors in a single lighting
Control from three points: Two three-way switches
circuit that is serving a paint spray booth containing explosive
(S3) and a four-way switch
vapors. Double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) and three-pole,
(S4) are required. The four-
single-throw switches are also available.
way switch must be wired
between the three-way
Switching Configurations
switches. See Figure 18.13.
Switches provide control from one or more points in a circuit. Control from four or more Two three-way switches
A single-pole, single-throw switch (S) is used to provide con- points: (S3) and two or more four-
trol from one point by opening or closing the ungrounded way switches (S4) are
conductor in the circuit. See Figures 18.8 through 18.10. required. The four-way
Three-way (S3) and four-way (S4) switches are used when switches must be wired
multiple control points are needed. A schematic of circuiting between the three-way
configurations and required switches are shown in Figures switches. See Figure 18.14.
FIGURE 18.8 A single-pole, single throw switch (S) is used to provide control from one point by
opening or closing the ungrounded (hot) conductor in the circuit. In the first figure, the switch is open
and the lights in the circuit are off. In the second figure, the switch is closed, the circuit is complete,
and the lights in the circuit are on.
FIGURE 18.9 Several single-pole, single-throw switches can be used to control individual lights
in a circuit.
FIGURE 18.10 Single-pole, single-throw switches can be used to control a bank (group)
of lights in a circuit.
FIGURE 18.11 Shown are a one-line schematic drawing of electrical symbols and the related
switching configuration for switching at two locations. The dashed line at each switch shows the new
configuration of the circuit when the switch is flipped. Two three-way (S3) switches are used to control from
two points. Note that two ungrounded conductors called travelers are used between the switches. As
configured, the top traveler carries current. The bottom traveler will carry current only when the switches
are tripped. The arrow on the wiring (to the left of the first three-way switch) indicates that the circuit
originates at a panelboard.
FIGURE 18.12 Current flowing through the circuit with two three-way switches can be interrupted by
flipping a single switch. In the top figure, current flows through both switches, the circuit is complete, and the
lights are on. In the bottom figure, current flows through the first switch but is interrupted at the second (right)
switch, the circuit is open, and the lights are switched off.
609
610 CHAPTER 18
FIGURE 18.13 Shown is a one-line schematic drawing of electrical symbols and the related switching
configuration for switching at three locations. The dashed line at each switch shows the new configuration
of the circuit when the switch is flipped. Two three-way (S3) switches and a four-way switch (S4) are used
to control from three points. Not that two ungrounded conductors called travelers are used between the
switches. In this switching configuration, current flows through the switches, the circuit is complete, and
the lights are on. When any switch is flipped, current flow is interrupted and the lights go off.
Single-pole, single-throw (S), three-way (S3) and four- A dimmer switch (SD) is a device in the electrical circuit
way (S4) switches generally control operation of lighting instal- for varying power to a circuit. Dimmers are usually in-
lations. Dimmer switches (sometimes identified as SD) can cluded in a lighting installation to vary the intensity of
used to adjust brightness of a lighting installation by adjusting light emitted by the lights.
the current flowing through the circuit. Key-operated switches Time clocks can be used to control the time period that a
(SK) require a key to operate the switch. These are used where piece of equipment or a lighting installation operates.
operation of a lighting installation or other piece of equipment Traditionally, a time clock is an electrical-mechanical de-
must be further controlled by limiting operation to personnel vice that controls time of operation by pin placement on a
holding a key such as in lighting in a high school gymnasium or moving time wheel that repeats a daily cycle as the wheel
large meeting room and equipment in a manufacturing plant. rotates. Electronic timers allow greater flexibility as they
Specialty Switches can easily be set for 7-day cycles. They do require relay
switching on large loads.
In addition to the standard switches, there are many types of
Photocell controls sense light and open or close a cir-
switches that perform special functions. These are as follows:
cuit with the presence of light. They can be used to
Automatic switches deactivate a circuit after a preset time control night lighting in lieu of a time clock. Recent
period has lapsed. They are available as a twist-turn advancements in photocell technology allow them to
device where the operator determines the operating time be used effectively to control illumination levels in
interval by how far the switch is twisted or as an elec- spaces that have daylight available. As illumination
tronic device that looks like a normal on/off switch but is levels from daylighting increases, the photocell dims
designed to automatically switch off after a preset time. the lights.
FIGURE 18.14 Shown is a one-line schematic drawing of electrical symbols and the related switching
configuration for switching at four locations. The dashed line at each switch shows the new configuration of
the circuit when the switch is flipped. Two three-way (S3) switches and two four-way switches (S4) are used
to control from four points. Additional four-way switches (S4) may be added to the circuit to control from
additional points. In this switching configuration, current flows through the switches, the circuit is complete,
and the lights are on. When any switch is flipped, current flow is interrupted and the lights go off.
Occupancy sensors control a lighting or equipment and offices. Occupancy sensors are usually mounted on
installation by sensing occupants in a space. Infrared sen- the wall or ceiling.
sors respond to the motion of an infrared heat source,
such as a person or animal. The field of view of the
detector’s lens is divided into several zones. Motion is
detected when the heat source moves from one zone to 18.5 CONDUCTORS
another. The sensor must have a direct line of sight to the
infrared heat source to detect motion. Relatively small Wire
movements, such as typing on a keyboard, may not be An electrical conductor is any material that conducts electrical
sufficient to trigger the sensor. current. A wire is a common electrical conductor. Most con-
Ultrasonic sensors emit a high-frequency sound that is in ductors used in building applications are classified according to
the range of 25 to 40 kilohertz and well above the capac- a wire gauge standard and on the cross-sectional area of the
ity of normal human hearing. Objects moving in the wire in units called circular mils. A mil is equal to 1>1000 inch,
space shift the frequency of the returning signal, which in so one circular mil (cmil) is equal to the cross-sectional area of
turn is detected by the sensor. Ultrasonic sensors do not a 0.001 in diameter circle.
require a direct line of sight to the occupant. They usually Common conductor sizes are provided in Table 18.8.
can detect small movements, but extraneous signals from Small- and medium-gauge electrical conductors are catego-
wind-blown curtains or people walking by in nearby rized by the American Wire Gauge (AWG), a standardized
spaces can trigger the sensor. Both infrared and ultrasonic wire gauge system used predominantly in the United States
sensors work well in interior spaces such as classrooms since 1857 for round, solid, electrically conducting wire. The
612 CHAPTER 18
TABLE 18.8 DIMENSIONAL AND ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS. SMALL- AND MEDIUM-GAUGE
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS ARE CATEGORIZED BY THE AMERICAN WIRE GAUGE (AWG). LARGE CONDUCTORS
ARE SIZED IN UNITS OF THOUSAND CIRCULAR MILS (KCMIL, FORMERLY MCM). ONE CIRCULAR MIL (CMIL) IS
EQUAL TO THE CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF A 0.001 INCH DIAMETER CIRCLE.
DC Resistance per Conductor at 77°F (25°C)

Nominal Cross-Sectional Area Nominal Diameter
(Bare Conductor) (Bare Conductor) Ohms/1000 ft Ohms/1000 m
Conductor
2 2
(Wire) Size cmil in mm in mm Copper Aluminum Copper Aluminum
AWG
14 4110 0.00323 2.08 0.073 1.85 2.5700 4.2200 8.4219 13.8289
12 6530 0.00513 3.31 0.092 2.34 1.6200 2.6600 5.3087 8.7168
10 10 380 0.00815 5.26 0.116 2.95 1.0200 1.6700 3.3425 5.4726
8 16 510 0.01296 8.36 0.146 3.71 0.6410 1.0500 2.1006 3.4409
6 26 240 0.02060 13.29 0.184 4.67 0.4030 0.6610 1.3206 2.1661
4 41 740 0.03277 21.14 0.232 5.89 0.2530 0.4150 0.8291 1.3600
3 52 620 0.04131 26.65 0.260 6.60 0.2010 0.3300 0.6587 1.0814
2 66 360 0.05209 33.61 0.292 7.42 0.1590 0.2610 0.5210 0.8553
1 83 690 0.06570 42.38 0.332 8.43 0.1260 0.2070 0.4129 0.6783
0 or 1/0 105 600 0.08290 53.48 0.373 9.47 0.1000 0.1640 0.3277 0.5374
00 or 2/0 133 100 0.10448 67.41 0.419 10.64 0.0795 0.1300 0.2605 0.4260
000 or 3/0 167 800 0.13172 84.98 0.470 11.94 0.0630 0.1030 0.2065 0.3375
0000 or 4/0 211 600 0.16611 107.16 0.528 13.41 0.0500 0.0820 0.1639 0.2687
kcmil
250 250 000 0.19625 126.61 0.575 14.61 0.0431 0.0708 0.1412 0.2320
300 300 000 0.23550 151.94 0.630 15.00 0.0360 0.0590 0.1180 0.1933
350 350 000 0.27475 177.26 0.681 17.30 0.0308 0.0505 0.1009 0.1655
400 400 000 0.31400 202.58 0.728 18.49 0.0270 0.0442 0.0885 0.1448
500 500 000 0.39250 253.23 0.813 20.65 0.0216 0.0354 0.0708 0.1160
600 600 000 0.47100 303.87 0.893 22.68 0.0180 0.0295 0.0590 0.0967
700 700 000 0.54950 354.52 0.964 24.49 0.0144 0.0236 0.0472 0.0773
750 750 000 0.58875 379.84 0.998 25.35 0.0108 0.0177 0.0354 0.0580
800 800 000 0.62800 405.16 1.030 26.16 0.0104 0.0170 0.0340 0.0557
900 900 000 0.70650 455.81 1.090 27.69 0.0095 0.0156 0.0311 0.0511
1000 1 000 000 0.78500 506.45 1.150 29.21 0.0086 0.0142 0.0283 0.0465
1500 1 500 000 1.17750 759.68 1.410 35.81 0.0072 0.0118 0.0236 0.0387
2000 2 000 000 1.57000 1012.90 1.630 41.40 0.0054 0.0089 0.0177 0.0290
AWG gauge number is inversely proportional to the cross- Electrical conductors are either solid or stranded. Solid
section diameter of the wire—that is, a smaller number iden- conductors are a single solid length of conductor called a wire.
tifies a thicker wire. AWG gauges range from No. 36 AWG Stranded conductors consist of smaller wire strands. The choice
through No. 0000 AWG. A No. 10 AWG is thicker than a No. between solid and stranded depends on the need for flexibility in
12; a No. 12 AWG is thicker than a No. 14 AWG; and so on. handling and working with the conductor. Stranded conductors
Large AWG wire sizes are expressed as a zero or multiple conduct current more efficiently because electrons flow more
zeros from No. 0 AWG through No. 0000 AWG (known as easily near the surface of a conductor, in contrast to the center;
“ought” through “four-ought”). As a rough rule of thumb, if this is known as the skin effect. The AWG No. and kcmil gauge
the diameter of a wire is doubled, the AWG will decrease by of a stranded wire is determined by the total cross-sectional area
about 6 (e.g., No. 1 AWG wire is about twice the diameter of of the conductor strands. Because there are small gaps between
No. 6 AWG wire). strands, a stranded wire will always have a slightly larger overall
Large conductors are sized in units of thousand circular diameter than a solid wire of the same gauge.
mils (kcmil, formerly MCM). A circular mil is a unit of circu- In building electrical systems, conductor sizes No. 14
lar cross-sectional area, equal to the area of a circle with a di- AWG through about No. 8 AWG are typically solid conductors.
ameter of one mil. A mil is one thousandth of an inch. Wire On occasion, stranded conductors are used in these sizes be-
sizes in the kcmil system increase as the numbers get larger, cause stranded wiring is easier to snake through a conduit.
which is exactly opposite from the AWG system. A 250 kcmil Larger conductors are typically stranded. The number of
conductor contains one-half the cross-sectional area of a strands of wire is standardized; sizes No. 18 AWG through No.
500 kcmil conductor. Large conductors range from 250 kcmil 2 AWG are 7-strand cables; AWG No. 1 AWG through No. 4/0
to the 2000 kcmil size. AWG are 19-strand cables; and so on.
Buses generally makes hollow or flat shapes prevalent in higher cur-

rent applications. Table 18.9 provides specifications on selected
A bus, sometimes called a bus bar, is an electrical conductor commercially available bus bars.
(usually copper or aluminum) that serves as a common connec-
tion for two or more electrical circuits. Buses are typically solid
bars used for power distribution. They are commonly found in
Conductor Material
panelboards, switchboards, and other power distribution equip- Scientifically, silver is the best electrical conductor material
ment. Busbars are either flat strips or hollow tubes as these (other than a superconductor material) because it has the least
shapes allow heat to dissipate more efficiently because of their resistance of common materials. It works so well as a conductor
high surface area to cross-sectional area ratio. The skin effect that several hundred pounds of silver wiring was used in the first
TABLE 18.9 PROPERTIES AND APPROXIMATE AMPACITIES OF SELECTED COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE BUS BAR
CROSS-SECTIONS. COMPILED FROM INDUSTRY SOURCES.
Temperature Rise
Copper Aluminum
Cross-Section Area
86°F Rise 122°F Rise 149°F Rise 86°F Rise 122°F Rise 149°F Rise
Dimensions Circular mils
2
(in) in (kcmil) 30°C Rise 50°C Rise 65°C Rise 30°C Rise 50°C Rise 65°C Rise
1
⁄8 1⁄2 0.0625 79.6 153 205 235 92 123 141
1
⁄8 3⁄4 0.0938 119 215 285 325 129 171 195
1
⁄8 1 0.125 159 270 360 415 162 216 249
1
⁄8 11⁄2 0.188 239 385 510 590 231 306 354
1
⁄8 2 0.250 318 495 660 760 297 396 456
1
⁄8 21⁄2 0.312 397 600 800 920 360 480 552
1
⁄8 3 0.375 477 710 940 1100 426 564 660
1
⁄8 31⁄2 0.438 558 810 1100 1250 486 660 750
1
⁄8 4 0.500 636 910 1200 1400 546 720 840
1
⁄4 1⁄2 0.125 159 240 315 360 144 189 216
1
⁄4 3⁄4 0.188 239 320 425 490 192 255 294
1
⁄4 1 0.250 318 400 530 620 240 318 372
1
⁄4 11⁄2 0.375 477 560 740 860 336 444 516
1
⁄4 2 0.500 637 710 940 1100 426 564 660
1
⁄4 21⁄2 0.625 796 850 1150 1300 510 690 780
1
⁄4 3 0.750 955 990 1300 1550 594 780 930
1
⁄4 31⁄2 0.875 1110 1150 1500 1750 690 900 1050
1
⁄4 4 1.00 1270 1250 1700 1950 750 1020 1170
1
⁄4 5 1.25 1590 1500 2000 2350 900 1200 1410
1
⁄4 6 1.50 1910 1750 2350 2700 1050 1410 1620
1
⁄4 8 2.00 2550 2250 3000 3450 1350 1800 2070
1
⁄4 10 2.50 3180 2700 3600 4200 1620 2160 2520
1
⁄4 12 3.00 3820 3150 4200 4900 1890 2520 2940
1
⁄2 1 0.500 637 620 820 940 372 492 564
1
⁄2 11⁄2 0.750 955 830 1100 1250 498 660 750
1
⁄2 2 1.00 1270 1000 1350 1550 600 810 930
1
⁄2 21⁄2 1.25 1590 1200 1600 1850 720 960 1110
1
⁄2 3 1.50 1910 1400 1850 2150 840 1110 1290
1
⁄2 31⁄2 1.75 2230 1550 2100 2400 930 1260 1440
1
⁄2 4 2.00 2550 1700 2300 2650 1020 1380 1590
1
⁄2 5 2.50 3180 2050 2750 3150 1230 1650 1890
1
⁄2 6 3.00 3820 2400 3150 3650 1440 1890 2190
1
⁄2 8 4.00 5090 3000 4000 4600 1800 2400 2760
1
⁄2 10 5.00 6360 3600 4800 5500 2160 2880 3300
1
⁄2 12 6.00 7640 4200 5600 6400 2520 3360 3840
3
⁄4 4 3.00 3820 2050 2750 3150 1230 1650 1890
3
⁄4 5 3.75 4770 2400 3250 3750 1440 1950 2250
3
⁄4 6 4.50 5730 2800 3750 4300 1680 2250 2580
3
⁄4 8 6.00 7640 3500 4700 5400 2100 2820 3240
3
⁄4 10 7.50 9550 4200 5600 6500 2520 3360 3900
3
⁄4 12 9.00 11 500 4900 6500 7500 2940 3900 4500
614 CHAPTER 18
mainframe computer. Gold is also an excellent conductor. Both deterioration. Common temperature ratings include 140°F
materials, however, are too costly for building installations. (60°C), 167°F (75°C), and 194°F (90°C).
Traditionally, copper and aluminum conductors are used Insulation is also rated for dry, damp, or wet locations. A
in building conductor (wiring) installations as a compromise dry location typically applies to conductors that are enclosed in
between good conductivity and economy. Copper clad alu- a building and remain dry except during initial construction.
minum wire was introduced as an alternative to bare aluminum. A damp location includes wiring in above-ground, protected
The wire core is aluminum with a thin coating of copper that is outdoor locations such as in covered open decks and canopies.
metallurgically bonded to the core. It looks like copper but A wet location is when the conductor is exposed to weather (i.e.,
functions like aluminum. buried conductors and conductors encased in concrete in contact
As a conductor material, aluminum has significant weight with the ground) or exposed to severe moisture conditions such
and cost advantages over copper. Copper does, however, con- as where the conductor is subjected to applications involving
duct electricity better than aluminum, so an aluminum wiring water (i.e., cleaning or washing processes such as a car wash).
installation requires a thicker gauge. Also, extra care in splicing There are various letter designations and classifications
and terminating aluminum wire is important. for different types of insulation on electrical wires. These letter
An increased fire-hazard potential exists with old- designations indicate the type of material the insulation is made
technology aluminum wiring that was manufactured and used of and in what type of environment it can safely be used in with-
before about 1972. Concerns typically are tied to the use of out deteriorating. Table 18.10 provides a description of common
solid, small-gauge aluminum conductors (No. 10 AWG and conductor insulation designations used in building systems.
No. 12 AWG) that are commonly used on the 15 A and 20 A Tables 18.11 through 18.13 contain technical information
circuits serving receptacle outlets, light fixtures, and small on common types of conductors used in building electrical sys-
appliances. As a result of these concerns, the industry typically tems. Figure 18.15 shows types of conductors.
reserves use of aluminum conductors for large gauge (No. 6
AWG and above) installations such as branch circuits feeding Cable
large appliances (e.g., kitchen ranges).
A cable contains more than one conductor bundled together in
a factory assembly of wires. An outer sheathing encases and
Conductor Insulation protects the conductors, simplifying installation of multiple
wiring. Common designations of sheathed cables used in build-
Conductors are covered with insulation that provides electrical
ing systems are provided in Table 18.14.
isolation and some physical protection of the conductor mate-
Tables 18.15 through 18.21 contain technical information
rial. It prevents loss of power and the danger of short circuits
on common types of cable used in building electrical systems.
and ground faults. The type of insulation protecting a conductor
Figure 18.15 illustrates types of cable. Types of sheathed cables
determines the environment in which it can be used safely.
include the following.
Wires used indoors are subjected to less exposure to the ele-
ments than those designed for outdoor use. Outdoor wiring is Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cable
exposed to water and ultraviolet light, so the insulation is de-
signed to withstand these elements. Insulation on wires buried Nonmetallic-sheathed cable is classified as type NM or NMC
in the ground must also be able to withstand the damp, corrosive and is commonly called by its trade name, Romex. See Photo
environment of the soil. For special applications, a jacket is ap- 18.17. NM consists of two or more insulated conductors en-
plied over the insulation. A jacket provides the necessary chem- closed within a moisture-resistant, flame-retardant outer
ical, physical, or thermal protection required by the application. sheathing or jacket that is very flexible. NMC has conductors
Most electrical conductors available for use in buildings encased in the sheathing. NM is reserved for use in dry, indoor
can be operated at voltages up to 600 V, although some power applications. NMC can be used in dry and damp applications
cord and fixture wire are rated at 300 V maximum. At voltages but not wet and exposed conditions. Type NM and Type NMC
above 600 V, conductors must be better insulated and shielded cables can typically be used only in one- and two-family
to eliminate electromagnetic interferences, which makes build- dwellings, and in multifamily dwellings permitted to be of
ing system voltages above 600 V expensive. Type III, IV, and V construction.
Most of the electrical wires used in buildings today have
Underground Feeder Cable
insulation coverings made of plastic, which offers a long-last-
ing life. Many older wires used cloth or rubber insulation, but Underground feeder (UF) cables are flame retardant and mois-
these materials are not used much any more because they dete- ture, fungus, and corrosion resistant. UF cable is available in
riorate over time. There are variations in the capabilities of No. 14 AWG copper and No. 12 aluminum AWG through No.
different insulations to withstand heat generated, so type of insu- 4/0 AWG. It looks much like NM or NMC except that the
lation material will have an effect on the maximum temperature sheathing fully encases the insulation-covered conductors. UF
that a specific conductor can withstand without premature cable is used in direct-burial applications as a feeder or branch
TABLE 18.10 CONDUCTOR INSULATION AND MATERIAL DESIGNATIONS AND MARKINGS. COMPILED FROM INDUSTRY SOURCES.
Insulation Designations
Designation Description
A Glass fiber or similar insulation material (formerly asbestos, which is obsolete)

FEP Fluorinated ethylene propylene insulation
L Lead sheathed
N Nylon jacketed
PF Perfluoroalkooxy insulation
R Thermoset insulation (e.g., rubber or synthetic rubber)
S Silicone (thermoset) insulation
T Thermoplastic insulation
X Cross-linked synthetic polymer (plastic) insulation
Z Modified tetrafluoroethylene insulation
2 194°F (90°C) and wet or dry
Ha Heat resistant: temperature rated at 167°F (75°C)
HH Extra heat resistant: temperature rated at 194°F (90°C)
Wb Moisture resistant
Common Insulation Material Markingsc
Marking Description
RHH Thermoset (e.g., rubber or synthetic rubber). 194°F (90°C) temperature rating. Extra heat resistant. Not moisture resistant (not
suitable for conduits exposed to weather). Not sunlight resistant.
RHW Thermoset (e.g., rubber or synthetic rubber). 167°F (75°C) temperature rating. Moisture and heat resistant. Not sunlight resistant.
RHW-2 Thermoset (e.g., rubber or synthetic rubber). 194°F (90°C) temperature rating. Extra heat resistant. Not sunlight resistant.
THHN Thermoplastic. 194°F (90°C) temperature rating. Extra heat resistant. Not moisture resistant (not suitable for conduits exposed
to weather). Nylon jacket over insulation (slides through conduit easier). Not sunlight resistant.
THW Thermoplastic. 167°F (75°C) temperature rating. Extra heat resistant. Wet and dry rating. Not sunlight resistant.
THW-2 Thermoplastic. 194°F (90°C) temperature rating. Extra heat resistant. Wet and dry rating. Not sunlight resistant.
TWHN Thermoplastic. 167°F (75°C) temperature rating. Moisture and heat resistant. Nylon jacket over insulation (slides through
conduit easier). Not sunlight resistant.
TWHN-2 Thermoplastic. 194°F (90°C) temperature rating. Moisture and extra heat resistant. Nylon jacket over insulation (slides through
conduit easier). Not sunlight resistant.
XHHW-2 Thermoset (e.g., cross-linked synthetic polymer). 194°F (90°C) temperature rating. Extra heat resistant. Wet and dry rating.
Conductor Material and Temperature Rating
Conductor Temperature Rating

Material of Conductor Insulation Designation
140°F 60°C TW, UF

Copper (CU) 167°F 75°C FEPW, RH, RHW, THHW, THW, XHHW, USE, ZW
194°F 90°C TA. TBS, SA, SIS, FEP, FEPB, MI, RHH, RHW-2, THHN, THHW, THW-2, THWN-2, USE-2, XHH,
XHHW, XHHW-2, ZW-2
140°F 60°C TW, UF

Aluminum (AL) 167°F 75°C RH, RHW, THHW, THW, THWN, XHHW, USE
194°F 90°C TA, TBS, SA, SIS, RHH, RHW-2, THHN, THHW, THW-2, THWN-2, USE-2, XHH, XHHW, XHHW-2,
ZW-2
a
Lack of “H” indicates 140°F (60°C) temperature rating.
b
Lack of “W” indicates no moisture resistance.
c
Double or triple markings indicate the conductor or cable has the same properties of those markings.
615
TABLE 18.11 PROPERTIES OF COPPER AND ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS WITH THHN AND THWN-2 INSULATION THAT ARE USED
IN CONDUIT AND CABLE TRAYS FOR SERVICES, FEEDERS, AND BRANCH CIRCUITS IN COMMERCIAL OR
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. COMPILED FROM INDUSTRY SOURCES.
THHN or THWN-2 Copper Conductor
Nominal Outside Approx. Net Weight Ampacity

Diameter per 1000 ft
(mils) (lb) 60°C 75°C 90°C
Size Number
(AWG or kcmil) of Strands Solid Stranded Solid Stranded 140°F 167°F 194°F
14 1, 19 102 109 15 16 15 15 15
12 1, 19 119 128 23 24 20 20 20
10 1, 19 150 161 37 38 30 30 30
8 19 — 213 — 62 40 50 55
6 19 — 249 — 95 55 65 75
4 19 — 318 — 152 70 85 95
3 19 — 346 — 188 85 100 110
2 19 — 378 — 234 95 115 130
1 19 — 435 — 299 110 130 150
1/0 19 — 474 — 371 125 150 170
2/0 19 — 518 — 461 145 175 195
3/0 19 — 568 — 574 165 200 225
4/0 19 — 624 — 717 195 230 260
250 37 — 694 — 850 215 255 290
300 37 — 747 — 1011 240 285 320
350 37 — 797 — 1173 260 310 350
400 37 — 842 — 1333 280 335 380
500 37 — 926 — 1653 320 380 430
600 61 — 1024 — 1985 355 420 475
750 61 — 1126 — 2462 400 475 535
1000 61 — 1275 — 3254 455 545 615
THHN or THWN-2 Aluminum Conductor

(mils) (lb) 60°C 75°C 90°C
Size Number
6 7 — 239 — 38 40 50 60
4 7 — 305 — 62 55 65 75
2 7 — 360 — 90 75 90 100
1 18 — 413 — 116 85 100 115
1/0 18 — 450 — 141 100 120 135
2/0 18 — 490 — 171 115 135 150
3/0 18 — 537 — 209 130 155 175
4/0 18 — 589 — 257 150 180 205
250 35 — 656 — 310 170 205 230
300 35 — 706 — 364 190 230 255
350 35 — 752 — 417 210 250 280
400 35 — 795 — 470 225 270 305
500 35 — 872 — 575 260 310 350
600 58 — 971 — 698 285 340 385
700 58 — 1035 — 802 310 375 420
750 58 — 1066 — 855 320 385 435
1000 58 — 1218 — 1115 375 445 500
616
TABLE 18.12 PROPERTIES OF COPPER AND ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS WITH XHHW-2 INSULATION THAT ARE USED IN
CONDUIT OR OTHER RECOGNIZED RACEWAYS FOR SERVICES, FEEDERS, AND BRANCH CIRCUIT WIRING.
COMPILED FROM INDUSTRY SOURCES.
XHHW-2 Copper Conductor

(mils) (lb) 60°C 75°C 90°C
Size Number
14 7 — 130 — 18 15 15 15
12 1 — 141 — 25 20 20 20
10 7 — 171 — 40 30 30 30
8 7 — 232 — 66 40 50 55
6 7 — 267 — 99 55 65 75
4 7 — 314 — 149 70 85 95
2 7 — 370 — 230 95 115 130
1 19 — 434 — 292 110 130 150
1/0 19 — 473 — 363 125 150 170
2/0 19 — 517 — 452 145 175 195
3/0 19 — 567 — 565 165 200 225
4/0 19 — 623 — 705 195 230 260
250 37 — 691 — 835 215 255 290
300 37 — 744 — 995 240 285 320
350 37 — 794 — 1155 260 310 350
400 37 — 839 — 1314 280 335 380
500 37 — 923 — 1633 320 380 430
600 61 — 1029 — 1966 355 420 475
700 61 — 1098 — 2283 385 460 520
750 61 — 1131 — 2441 400 475 535
1000 61 — 1280 — 3230 455 545 615
XHHW-2 Aluminum Conductor

(mils) (lb) 60°C 75°C 90°C
Size Number
8 7 — 227 — 30 30 40 45
6 7 — 262 — 42 40 50 60
4 7 — 306 — 58 55 65 75
2 7 — 361 — 86 75 90 100
1 18 — 412 — 110 85 100 115
1/0 18 — 449 — 134 100 120 135
2/0 18 — 489 — 163 115 135 150
3/0 18 — 536 — 200 130 155 175
4/0 18 — 588 — 247 150 180 205
250 35 — 653 — 296 170 205 230
300 35 — 703 — 349 190 230 255
350 35 — 749 — 401 210 250 280
400 35 — 792 — 452 225 270 305
500 35 — 869 — 556 260 310 350
600 58 — 976 — 679 285 340 385
700 58 — 1040 — 782 310 375 420
750 58 — 1071 — 833 320 385 435
1000 58 — 1223 — 1090 375 445 500
617
TABLE 18.13 PROPERTIES OF COPPER AND ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS WITH RHH OR RHW-2 OR USE-2 INSULATION THAT
ARE SUITABLE FOR USE AS UNDERGROUND SERVICE ENTRANCE CABLE FOR DIRECT BURIAL. COMPILED
FROM INDUSTRY SOURCES.
RHH or RHW-2 or USE-2 Copper Conductor

(mils) (lb) 60°C 75°C 90°C
Size Number
14 7 — 160 — 21 15 15 15
12 7 — 177 — 30 20 20 20
10 7 — 201 — 44 30 30 30
8 7 — 262 — 72 40 50 55
6 7 — 297 — 106 55 65 75
4 7 — 344 — 156 70 85 95
2 7 — 400 — 238 95 115 130
1 19 — 484 — 309 110 130 150
1/0 19 — 523 — 381 125 150 170
2/0 19 — 567 — 472 145 175 195
3/0 19 — 617 — 586 165 200 225
4/0 19 — 673 — 729 195 230 260
250 37 — 751 — 867 215 255 290
300 37 — 804 — 1029 240 285 320
350 37 — 854 — 1191 260 310 350
400 37 — 899 — 1352 280 335 380
500 37 — 983 — 1674 320 380 430
600 61 — 1089 — 2012 355 420 475
700 61 — 1158 — 2332 385 460 520
750 61 — 1191 — 2492 400 475 535
800 61 — 1223 — 2652 410 490 555
900 61 — 1283 — 2970 435 520 585
1000 61 — 1340 — 3288 455 545 615
RHH or RHW-2 or USE-2 Aluminum Conductors

(mils) (lb) 60°C 75°C 90°C
Size Number
8 7 — 257 — 36 30 40 45
6 7 — 292 — 49 40 50 60
4 7 — 336 — 65 55 65 75
2 7 — 391 — 94 75 90 100
1 18 — 462 — 126 85 100 115
1/0 18 — 499 — 151 100 120 135
2/0 18 — 539 — 182 115 135 150
3/0 18 — 586 — 221 130 155 175
4/0 18 — 638 — 269 150 180 205
250 35 — 713 — 326 170 205 230
300 35 — 763 — 381 190 230 255
350 35 — 809 — 435 210 250 280
400 35 — 852 — 488 225 270 305
500 35 — 929 — 595 260 310 350
700 58 — 1100 — 829 310 375 420
750 58 — 1131 — 881 320 385 435
1000 58 — 1283 — 1145 375 445 500
618
Common Conductors
THHN or THWN-2 conductor
RHH or RHW-2 conductor
Common Cables
Nonmetallic-sheathed (NM) cable
Armored (AC) cable
Underground feeder (UF) cable
Service entrance (SE) cable
Service entrance (SER) cable
FIGURE 18.15 Common types of conductors and cable used in building electrical
systems.
TABLE 18.14 COMMON CABLE MARKINGS. COMPILED FROM NUMEROUS INDUSTRY SOURCES.
Marking Description
ACHH Armored cable with conductors having thermoset insulation. 194°F (90°C) temperature rating.
ACTH Armored cable with conductors having thermoplastic insulation. 167°F (75°C) temperature rating.
ACTHH Armored cable with conductors having thermoplastic insulation. 194°F (90°C) temperature rating.
NM Non-metallic sheathed cable. 140°F (60°C) temperature rating. Approved for use in dry, interior residential wiring if properly
installed inside framed walls, floors, and ceilings. Not sunlight resistant.
SE Service entrance.
UF Underground feeder. 140°F (60°C) temperature rating. Generally not sunlight resistant, unless marked.
USE Underground service entrance. 167°F (75°C) temperature rating, wet insulation rating, heat and moisture resistant. Sunlight
resistant.
USE-2 Underground service entrance. 194°F (90°C) temperature rating, wet insulation rating. Heat and moisture resistant. Sunlight
resistant.
619
TABLE 18.15 PROPERTIES OF COPPER CONDUCTORS IN NM-B (NONMETALLIC-SHEATHED) CABLE THAT IS USED IN RESIDENTIAL
WIRING SUCH AS BRANCH CIRCUITS FOR OUTLETS, SWITCHES, AND OTHER LOADS. NM-B CABLING CAN ONLY BE
USED FOR BOTH EXPOSED AND CONCEALED WORK IN NORMALLY DRY LOCATIONS AT TEMPERATURES NOT TO
EXCEED 90°C (WITH AMPACITY LIMITED TO THAT FOR 60°C CONDUCTORS). COMPILED FROM INDUSTRY SOURCES.
NM-B Cable with Type THHN/THWN Copper Conductors
Number of Approx. Net Weight

Conductor Size Ungrounded Grounding (Bare) Nominal Size per 1000 ft
(AWG or kcmil) and Neutral Conductor Size (mil) (lb) Ampacity
Three Conductors Plus Grounding Conductor
14 2 14 360 162 58 15
12 2 12 410 179 83 20
10 2 10 494 210 126 30
8 2 10 612 269 187 40
6 2 10 683 304 256 55
Four Conductors Plus Grounding Conductor
14 3 14 307 75 15
12 3 12 347 109 20
10 3 10 422 167 30
8 3 10 565 254 40
6 3 10 650 357 55
4 3 8 892 593 70
2 3 8 1034 856 95
TABLE 18.16 PROPERTIES OF COPPER AND ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS IN AC (ARMORED) CABLE THAT IS SUITABLE FOR USE
IN BRANCH CIRCUITS AND FEEDERS IN BOTH EXPOSED AND CONCEALED WORK IN COMMERCIAL, INDUSTRIAL,
INSTITUTIONAL, AND MULTIRESIDENTIAL APPLICATIONS WHERE IT IS NOT SUBJECT TO PHYSICAL DAMAGE.
COMPILED FROM NUMEROUS INDUSTRY SOURCES.
AC Cable with Type THHN/THWN Copper Conductors
Number of Aluminum Nominal Ampacity

Ungrounded Bonding Outside Approx. Net Weight 60°C 75°C 90°C
Conductor Size and Neutral Conductor Size Diameter per 1000 ft
(AWG or kcmil) Conductors (AWG) (mils) (lb) 140°F 167°F 194°F
14 2 16 0.464 84 15 15 15
3 16 0.485 104 15 15 15
4 16 0.517 124 15 15 15
12 2 16 0.498 105 20 20 20
3 16 0.521 133 20 20 20
4 16 0.557 162 20 20 20
10 2 16 0.560 142 30 30 30
3 16 0.588 184 30 30 30
4 16 0.632 229 30 30 30
TABLE 18.17 PROPERTIES OF COPPER CONDUCTORS IN UF (UNDERGROUND FEEDER) CABLE THAT IS GENERALLY USED
AS A FEEDER TO OUTSIDE POST LAMPS, PUMPS, AND OTHER LOADS OR APPARATUS FED FROM A
DISTRIBUTION POINT IN AN EXISTING BUILDING. COMPILED FROM NUMEROUS INDUSTRY SOURCES.
UF-B Cable with Type THHN/THWN Copper Conductors
Approx. Net Weight

Conductor Size Number of Ungrounded Grounding (Bare) Nominal Size per 1000 ft
(AWG or kcmil) and Neutral Conductors Conductor Size (mil) (lb) Ampacity
14 2 14 581 168 97 15
12 2 12 626 183 131 20
10 2 10 727 215 194 30
6 2 10 1223 361 480 55
8 2 10 1059 319 345 70
620
TABLE 18.18 PROPERTIES OF COPPER AND ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS IN SERVICE ENTRANCE (SE) CABLE IS USED TO CONVEY
POWER FROM THE SERVICE DROP TO THE METER BASE AND FROM THE METER BASE TO THE DISTRIBUTION
PANELBOARD. COMPILED FROM NUMEROUS INDUSTRY SOURCES.
SE Cable with Type XHHW-2 Copper Conductor
Stranding of Conductors Approx. Ampacity

Nominal Net Weight 60°C 75°C 90°C
Conductor Size Ungrounded Grounding Size per 1000 ft
(AWG or kcmil) and Neutral (Bare) (mil) (lb) 140°F 167°F 194°F
10-10-10 1 12 453 295 133 30 30 30

8-8-8 7 8 627 400 219 40 50 55
6-6-6 7 12 698 435 316 55 65 75
4-4-4 7 12 815 506 471 70 85 95
3-3-3 7 12 883 548 583 85 100 110
2-2-2 7 15 944 578 718 95 115 130
1-1-1 19 14 1093 664 904 110 130 150
1/0-1/0-1/0 19 18 1171 703 1122 125 150 170
2/0-2/0-2/0 19 18 1275 763 1378 145 175 195
3/0-3/0-3/0 19 14 1421 858 1711 165 200 225
4/0-4/0-4/0 19 18 1533 914 2145 195 230 260
SE Cable with Type XHHW-2 Aluminum Conductors
Stranding of Conductors Approx. Ampacity

Nominal Net Weight 60°C 75°C 90°C
Conductor Size Ungrounded Grounding Size per 1000 ft
8-8-8 1 — 556 106 30 40 45

6-6-6 7 — 650 150 40 50 60
4-4-4 7 — 745 203 55 65 75
3-3-3 7 — 799 241 65 75 85
2-2-2 7 — 864 290 75 90 100
1-1-1 18 — 974 361 85 100 115
1/0-1/0-1/0 18 — 1054 435 100 120 135
2/0-2/0-2/0 18 — 1140 527 115 135 150
3/0-3/0-3/0 18 — 1242 641 130 155 175
4/0-4/0-4/0 18 — 1354 784 150 180 205
circuit provided it is protected by an overcurrent protection two to four copper conductors between 14 AWG and 1 AWG in
device (fuse or circuit breaker) before if leaves the panelboard. size that are enclosed within a flexible spiral-shaped metallic
enclosure. Armored cable is classified as type ACT if the con-
Service Entrance Cable ductor insulation is thermoplastic and AC if the insulation is
There are several conductors that can be used specifically for rubber. AC cable contains a 16 AWG bonding strip, which is in
underground and overhead service entrances. Service entrance constant contact with the metal armor, allowing the armor-
(SE) cable is suitable for exposed above-grade conditions. bonding strip combination to act as an equipment ground.
Underground service entrance (USE) cable is used in under- Armored (AC) installed in a steel-framed partition is shown in
ground service applications. A conductor marked with only type Photo 18.18.
USE or USE-2 may not be installed in conduit inside buildings
because it does not have the necessary flame retardant. In many Metal-Clad Cable
cases, USE cable is accompanied by the RHW-type marking Metal-clad (MC) cable is similar to armored cable except it is
and USE-2 cables are dual marked with RHW-2. These dual- not limited to the number sizes (from 18 AWG to 2000 kcmil)
marked cables are suitable for use as exposed single-conductor of conductors it can carry. The conductors in MC cable may be
cables and as cables inside conduits in buildings. copper, aluminum, or copper-clad aluminum. The metal armor
may be a smooth tube, corrugated tube, or interlocked metal
Armored Cable
armor. MC cable does not contain a bonding strip like AC
Armored cable, classified as either AC or ACT, is sometimes cable, and the armor cannot be used by itself as an equip-
referred to by the trade name, BX cable. This cable consists of ment ground. However, it supplements the internal grounding
TABLE 18.19 PROPERTIES OF COPPER AND ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS IN SERVICE ENTRANCE (SER) CABLE PRIMARILY
USED AS PANEL FEEDER IN MULTIPLE-UNIT DWELLINGS. COMPILED FROM NUMEROUS INDUSTRY SOURCES.
SER Cable with Type XHHW-2 Copper Conductors

Ampacity
Stranding of Conductors
Approx. Net Weight 60°C 75°C 90°C
Conductor Size Ungrounded Grounding Nominal Size per 1000 ft
Three Conductors (No Grounding Conductor)
8-8-8 7 — 586 236 40 50 55

6-6-6 7 — 669 342 55 65 75
4-4-4 7 — 771 499 70 85 95
3-3-3 7 — 829 612 85 100 110
2-2-2 7 — 896 753 95 115 130
1-1-1 19 — 1024 948 110 130 150
1/0-1/0-1/0 19 — 1110 1169 125 150 170
2/0-2/0-2/0 19 — 1203 1445 145 175 195
3/0-3/0-3/0 19 — 1313 1793 165 200 225
4/0-4/0-4/0 19 — 1434 2228 195 230 260
Four Conductors (No Grounding Conductor)
8-8-8-8 7 7 645 291 40 50 55

6-6-6-6 7 7 738 428 55 65 75
4-4-4-6 7 7 852 586 70 85 95
3-3-3-5 7 7 917 720 85 100 110
2-2-2-4 7 7 992 889 95 115 130
1-1-1-3 19 7 1134 1119 110 130 150
1/0-1/0-1/0-2 19 7 1231 1384 125 150 170
2/0-2/0-2/0-1 19 19 1335 1715 145 175 195
3/0-3/0-3/0-1/0 19 19 1458 2131 165 200 225
4/0-4/0-4/0-2/0 19 19 1593 2653 195 230 260
SER Cable with Type XHHW-2 Aluminum Conductors

Ampacity
Stranding of Conductors
Approx. Net Weight 60°C 75°C 90°C
Conductor Size Ungrounded Grounding Nominal Size per 1000 ft
Three Conductors (No Grounding Conductor)
8-8-8 1 — 556 117 30 40 45

6-6-6 7 — 650 167 40 50 60
4-4-4 7 — 745 222 55 65 75
3-3-3 7 — 799 263 65 75 85
2-2-2 7 — 864 313 75 90 100
1-1-1 18 — 974 392 85 100 115
1/0-1/0-1/0 18 — 1054 470 100 120 135
2/0-2/0-2/0 18 — 1140 565 115 135 150
3/0-3/0-3/0 18 — 1242 684 130 155 175
4/0-4/0-4/0 18 — 1354 832 150 180 205
Four Conductors (Including Grounding Conductor)
8-8-8-8 1 1 612 136 30 40 45

6-6-6-6 7 7 717 196 40 50 60
4-4-4-6 7 7 823 252 55 65 75
3-3-3-5 7 7 883 299 65 75 85
2-2-2-4 7 7 956 359 75 90 100
1-1-1-3 18 7 1079 449 85 100 115
1/0-1/0-1/0-2 18 1 1168 540 100 120 135
2/0-2/0-2/0-1 18 1 1264 653 115 135 150
3/0-3/0-3/0-1/0 18 1 1378 793 130 155 175
4/0-4/0-4/0-2/0 18 1 1503 968 150 180 205
622
TABLE 18.20 PROPERTIES OF COPPER CONDUCTORS IN MC (METAL CLAD) CABLE SUITABLE FOR USE AS FOLLOWS: BRANCH,
FEEDER, AND SERVICE POWER DISTRIBUTION IN COMMERCIAL, INDUSTRIAL, MULTIRESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS,
THEATERS, AND PLACES OF ASSEMBLY; INSTALLATION IN CABLE TRAY AND APPROVED RACEWAYS. COMPILED
FROM NUMEROUS INDUSTRY SOURCES.
MC Cable with Type THHN/THWN Copper Conductors
Number of Overall Approx. Ampacity

Ungrounded Grounding Outside Net Weight 60°C 75°C 90°C
Conductor Size and Neutral Conductor Size Diameter per 1000 ft
(AWG or kcmil) Conductors Stranding and Stranding (in) (lb) 140°F 167°F 194°F
14 2 Solid 14 solid 0.439 81 15 15 15

3 Solid 14 solid 0.464 99 15 15 15
4 Solid 14 solid 0.494 118 15 15 15
12 2 Solid 12 solid 0.475 109 20 20 20
3 Solid 12 solid 0.505 136 20 20 20
4 Solid 12 solid 0.539 163 20 20 20
10 2 Solid 10 solid 0.542 158 30 30 30
3 Solid 10 solid 0.580 199 30 30 30
4 Solid 10 solid 0.623 241 30 30 30
12 2 19 12/19 strand 0.494 114 20 20 20
3 19 12/19 strand 0.527 142 20 20 20
4 19 12/19 strand 0.564 170 20 20 20
10 2 19 10/19 strand 0.566 165 30 30 30
3 19 10/19 strand 0.607 208 30 30 30
4 19 10/19 strand 0.653 251 30 30 30
8 2 19 10/19 strand 0.644 232 40 50 55
3 19 10/19 strand 0.678 299 40 50 55
4 19 10/19 strand 0.732 369 40 50 55
6 2 19 8/19 strand 0.716 331 55 65 75
3 19 8/19 strand 0.756 431 55 65 75
4 19 8/19 strand 0.819 535 55 65 75
4 2 19 8/19 strand 0.905 471 70 85 95
3 19 8/19 strand 0.986 635 70 85 95
4 19 4/19 strand 1.077 800 70 85 95
3 2 19 6/19 strand 0.965 585 85 100 110
3 19 6/19 strand 1.053 786 85 100 110
4 19 6/19 strand 1.152 988 85 100 110
2 2 19 6/19 strand 1.034 685 95 115 130
3 19 6/19 strand 1.130 934 95 115 130
4 19 2/19 strand 1.239 1183 95 115 130
1 3 19 6/19 strand 1.203 1138 110 130 150
4 19 6/19 strand 1.351 1468 110 130 150
1/0 3 19 6/19 strand 1.246 1350 125 150 170
4 19 6/19 strand 1.367 1749 125 150 170
2/0 3 19 6/19 strand 1.339 1633 145 175 195
4 19 6/19 strand 1.491 2195 145 175 195
3/0 3 19 4/19 strand 1.449 2040 165 200 225
4 19 4/19 strand 1.614 2724 165 200 225
4/0 3 19 4/19 strand 1.590 2552 195 230 260
4 19 4/19 strand 1.749 3322 195 230 260
250 3 37 4/19 strand 1.737 2977 215 255 290
4 37 4/19 strand 1.913 3891 215 255 290
350 3 37 3/19 strand 1.960 4026 260 310 350
4 37 3/19 strand 2.162 5280 260 310 350
500 3 37 2/19 strand 2.238 5572 320 380 430
4 37 2/19 strand 2.477 7331 320 380 430
623
TABLE 18.21 PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS IN MC (METAL CLAD) CABLE SUITABLE FOR USE AS FOLLOWS: BRANCH,
FEEDER, AND SERVICE POWER DISTRIBUTION IN COMMERCIAL, INDUSTRIAL, MULTIRESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS,
THEATERS, AND PLACES OF ASSEMBLY; INSTALLATION IN CABLE TRAY AND APPROVED RACEWAYS. COMPILED
FROM NUMEROUS INDUSTRY SOURCES.
MC Cable with Type XHHW-2 Aluminum Conductors
Ampacity (Wet or Dry)

Approx. Net Weight 75°C 90°C
Conductor Sizes Subassembly Overall Nominal Per 1000 ft
(AWG/kcmil) (in) Diameter (in) (lb) 140°F 167°F
Three Conductors Plus Grounding Conductor
6-6-6-6 0.17 0.78 239 50 60

4-4-4-6 0.17 0.88 299 65 75
2-2-2-4 0.78 1.00 412 90 100
1-1-1-4 0.89 1.11 498 100 115
1/0-1/0-1/0-4 0.97 1.19 581 120 135
2/0-2/0-2/0-4 1.06 1.27 682 135 150
3/0-3/0-3/0-4 1.16 1.38 807 155 175
4/0-4/0-4/0-2 1.27 1.51 1048 180 205
250-250-250-2 1.41 1.65 1222 205 230
350-350-350-1 1.62 1.86 1592 250 280
500-500-500-1 1.88 2.12 2106 310 350
600-600-600-1/0 2.11 2.35 2540 340 385
750-750-750-1/0 2.31 2.55 3043 385 435
Four Conductors Plus Grounding Conductor
2-2-2-2-4 0.87 1.09 515 72 80

1-1-1-1-4 0.99 1.21 631 80 92
1/0-1/0-1/0-1/0-4 1.08 1.30 740 96 108
2/0-2/0-2/0-2/0-4 1.18 1.40 872 108 120
3/0-3/0-3/0-3/0-4 1.29 1.53 1109 124 140
4/0-4/0-4/0-4/0-2 1.42 1.66 1341 144 164
250-250-250-250-1 1.58 1.81 1584 164 184
350-350-350-350-1/0 1.81 2.05 2077 200 224
500-500-500-500-2/0 2.10 2.34 2788 248 280
600-600-600-600-2/0 2.36 2.59 3340 272 308
750-750-750-750-3/0 2.59 2.82 4054 308 348
PHOTO 18.17 Nonmetallic (NM) sheathed cabling. NM cabling can

pass through studs in residential construction. NM cabling running
parallel with framing members must be secured (stapled). (Used with PHOTO 18.18 Armored (AC) in a steel-framed partition. (Used with
permission of ABC) permission of ABC)
624
conductor. MC cable can be used in many locations not allowed wiring, permanent concealed knob-and-tube wiring is still al-
with AC cable. lowed in original installations. However, many insurance com-
panies require a certificate of inspection from a licensed
Flat Conductor Cable electrician before they will insure a building with K&T wiring.
A form of K&T wiring is still used to provide temporary
Flat conductor cable (FCC) is a wiring system composed of
lighting at the construction site, at roadside stands, and at carni-
very thin cable with three or more conductors and special con-
val tents. Some restaurants and amusement rides use it for aes-
nectors and terminals. It is designed to rest between the topside
thetic appeal. It is not allowed in commercial garages, motion
of a smooth continuous subfloor and carpet squares. It can
picture studios, theaters, and other hazardous locations.
serve general purpose and appliance circuits up to 20 A and in-
dividual circuits up to 30 A, with a system voltage between the
ungrounded conductors not exceeding 300 V. Conductor Power Loss
Heat generated by current flow through a conductor results in a
Thermostat Cable
loss of power. This lost power is referred to as power loss or
Thermostat cable is used in applications with voltages less than line loss. Power loss (Ploss) in a conductor can be computed
30 V, such as wiring to doorbells, chimes, and thermostats. It with amperage (I) or voltage (V) and resistance (R) by the fol-
generally contains No. 16 AWG or No. 18 AWG conductors lowing formula:
that are bundled in a thin plastic sheathing.
Ploss I2R V2 >R
Cords Power loss is converted directly to heat. Power loss is
equivalent to heat produced. The relationship between power
Cords are made of stranded conductors within a flexible insu-
and heat is 1 W 3.413 Btu/hr. Heat produced (q) for a known
lated sheathing material. They are designed for flexibility and
power loss (Ploss) can be computed by the following formula:
bending. Cords are generally manufactured of a lighter gauge
(e.g., No. AWG 18 or No. AWG 16) stranded conductors. They q 3.413 Ploss
are designed for use on power tools, large stationary equipment,
or detachable computer power cords. Extension cords are made
of stranded wires because they require flexibility, allowing the Example 18.1
cord to be bent and twisted without stressing the conductors. A copper conductor (wire) used in a 20 amp common household
circuit has a resistance of 1.62 Ω/1000 ft (from Chapter 17). The
Concealed Knob-and-Tube total conductor length is 80 ft.
Wiring
a. Determine the power loss in the conductors, when the cir-
Concealed knob-and-tube (K&T) wiring consists of an old style cuit is fully loaded.
wiring technique using insulated conductors strung between The resistance in the conductors is found by:
glass or porcelain knobs and tubes. In this wiring method, the
ungrounded (hot) wire is run along one side of the joist/stud R (1.62 Ω/1000 ft) 80 ft 0.130 Ω
bay and the neutral is run along the other. To secure it to the The power loss in the conductors is found by:
wood, the wire is wrapped around ceramic knobs spaced every
18 in or so. To penetrate a joist/stud and prevent abrasion, the Ploss I2R (20 A)2 0.130 Ω 52.0 W
wire is separated from the wood joist/stud by a ceramic tube. b. Determine the heat produced by the conductors.
K&T wiring is installed in walls or ceilings so it is con-
cealed from view when finish materials such as plaster is ap- The heat produced by the circuit is found by:
plied. Loose or blown-in insulation in framing cavities can q 3.413 Ploss 3.413 Btu/hr/W 52.0 W
encase the knob-and-tub conductors, causing heat build-up in 177.5 Btu/hr
walls or ceilings with insulation. Therefore, concealed knob-
and-tube wiring is not permitted in framing cavities where in-
sulation presents this problem. The I2 characteristic of the power loss equation means
K&T wiring was the general wiring method until the that heat produced increases as the square of the current in-
1930s, when it was replaced by armored cable. By 1907, the creases—that is, doubling current increases power loss and heat
NEC began to recognize the inherent problems with conceal- generation by four times, tripling current provides an increase
ment of this type of wiring. It began to require placement of the of nine times, and so on. Excessive heat from power loss causes
wires in dry areas only and a separation distance of 5 in be- premature deterioration of the conductor insulation, so by limiting
tween the wires. It was still used in homes through the 1950s. power loss to acceptable levels the safety of a wiring system
Although it is generally considered inferior to present-day is improved.
626 CHAPTER 18
From Table 18.8, a No. 12 AWG conductor has a resist-

Example 18.2
ance of 1.62 Ω/1000 ft. Voltage drop is found by:
A set of copper conductors on a branch circuit serve a tank
Edrop IR 20 A 1.62 Ω/1000 ft 250 ft 8.1 V
pump motor rated at 20 A. The pump is 50 ft from a 120 V
power source. Compare the line losses of No. 14, No. 12, and Percentage of voltage drop in this circuit is found by:
No. 10 AWG copper conductors. A No. 14 AWG conductor has
8.1 V/277 V 0.029 2.9%
a resistance of 2.57 Ω/1000 ft, a No. 12 AWG conductor has a
resistance of 1.62 Ω/1000 ft, and a No. 10 AWG conductor has Line voltage is found by:
a resistance of 1.02 Ω/1000 ft.
277 V 8.1 V 268.9 V
Conductors are 50 ft (one way), so the total conductor
length is: 50 ft · 2 100 ft.
P I2R (20 A)2 (2.57 Ω/1000 ft) 100 ft Conductor Ampacity
102.8 W—No. 14 AWG conductor Electrical current flowing through a circuit produces heat from
(20 A)2 (1.62 Ω/1000 ft) 100 ft the resistance of the conductor material to current flow. In build-
ing wiring systems, some heat is permitted as part of design. Ex-
64.8 W—No. 12 AWG conductor
cessive heating is considered undesirable and unsafe because it
(20 A)2 (1.02 Ω/1000 ft) 100 ft will prematurely degrade conductor insulation, resulting in the
40.8 W—No. 10 AWG conductor danger of short circuits and ground faults. As a result, a type of
conductor is rated based upon the highest amperage (current) it
Power consumed by the pump is:
can carry safely without overheating and damaging its insulation.
P EI 120 V 20 A 2400 W A conductor’s ampacity is the maximum current (in am-
peres) it can carry continuously without exceeding the temper-
Percentage of power loss is:
ature limitations of the insulation and sheathing material.
102.8 W/2400 W 4.28% line loss—No. 14 AWG conductor Simply, it is a conductor’s maximum current-carrying capacity.
64.8 W/24000 W 2.70% line loss—No. 12 AWG conductor Ampacity is based on the following:
40.8 W/24000 W 1.70% line loss—No. 10 AWG conductor • Wire thickness (thicker wires have larger cross-sectional
areas and can carry more electrical current without
In Example 18.2, if the upper limit of power loss is 3%, overheating)
then the No. 14 AWG copper conductor is unacceptable for • Type of conductor material (at a specific current and
use in this branch circuit because its line losses are too great. conductor size, aluminum produces more heat than
No. 12 AWG conductors are acceptable. A No. 14 AWG con- copper)
ductor is smaller in size than a No. 12 AWG conductor. The • Insulation and sheathing type (some insulation materi-
No. 14 AWG conductor has a larger resistance to current als handle heat better than others)
flow. This added resistance leads to an unacceptable amount • Number of conductors bundled in the sheathing or in
of power loss, which will result in excessive heating. Such proximity of one another (more conductors concen-
excessive heating may lead to failure of the insulation sur- trate heat in an area)
rounding the conductor and the potential for short-circuiting
and fire. • Temperature and exposure of the conductor (e.g.,
The indirect method of determining power loss that is buried, in free air, in attic, in crawl space, and so forth).
used in Example 18.2 is intended to provide a detailed Ampacity tables specified in the National Electrical
overview of the concept of voltage drop and how it relates to Code, Canadian Electrical Code, and technical literature from
power loss. Voltage drop can be easily computed by using professional organizations (e.g., Insulated Cable Engineers As-
Ohm’s Law: E IR. Percentage of voltage drop is simply the sociation) are basic approximations with a substantial safety
relationship between voltage drop and system voltage. Line margin. They are sufficient for most installations. There are in-
voltage is system voltage less the voltage drop. stances where the application of the ampacity tables including
the safety margins is insufficient, requiring engineers, in-
stallers, and inspectors to perform actual calculations.
Example 18.3
Tables 18.11 through 18.13 and 18.15 through 18.21 con-
A No. 12 AWG copper conductor with a two-way length of 250 ft tain ampacities for various conductors, conductor insulations,
is carrying a load of 20 A on a 277 V, two-wire circuit. Approx- and sheathings. Ampacities provided in these tables are values
imate the voltage drop in the conductor, the percentage of volt- based on a normal operating temperature of 86°F (30°C). Com-
age drop, and the line voltage. putation methods are beyond the scope of this text.
Voltage Drops in Conductors The slight drop in voltage will not greatly affect most
appliances, because they are usually designed to operate in the
Because of power losses, voltage is reduced in a closed circuit— range of 110 V to 130 V. However, assuming a 500 ft length
that is, voltage across two conductors is lower at the usage end (five times the original 100 ft length), power loss is approxi-
than at the power supply end of the circuit. Appliances and mately 5 · 65 W 325 W. Power and voltage available at the
equipment work inefficiently on voltages lower than the voltage end usage point of the 500 ft run is:
for which they were designed. In heating devices, the heat out-
put varies with the square of the voltage applied to the device. A 2400 W 325 W 2075 W
10% drop in the voltage results in a 19% decrease in the heat 2075 W>20 A 103.75 V
output. Under the same conditions, the input current (amperage)
Such a low voltage at an outlet is unacceptable on a 120 V
at rated mechanical load to a motor would increase about 11%
system, because it is outside the acceptable 110 V to 130 V
and the heating of the motor conductors would increase about
range. This type of voltage drop will result in an unsatisfactory
23%, a hazardous condition. Therefore, in addition to ampacity,
operation of electrical equipment. Motors and similar equip-
voltage drop is a design concern with long conductor runs.
ment operate at only a fraction of their rated capacity, leading
Voltage drop is directly proportional to power loss.
to lower output, overloading, hotter operation, and reduced life.
This is true because current flow (I) through a conductor will
Excessive voltage drop in a circuit can cause lights to flicker or
not change. And, with the power equation P EI, because
burn dimly and heaters to heat less effectively. Similarly, elec-
power is lost (wattage available is less), the voltage (E) must
tronic devices, such as video displays, televisions, and radios,
drop. Refer to Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage Laws intro-
will not operate at this low voltage (e.g., generally a TV picture
duced in Chapter 17. This is demonstrated in Figure 18.16,
gets smaller as voltage drops). Thus, with long conductor runs,
where voltage available to a 20 A load at an outlet 50 ft away
resistance to current flow causes an excessive voltage drop. The
(100 ft two way wire length) from the panelboard is 116.8 V.
conductor size must be increased to limit the voltage drop to
This voltage is acceptable because it is in the range of 110 V
acceptable levels.
to 130 V. However, for the 250 ft length (five times the
The previous analysis approach does yield somewhat inac-
length), voltage available at the end usage point is 103.8 V,
curate results because the analysis did not account for the voltage
an unacceptable voltage.
drop at the end of each 100 ft segment (or shorter segments) of
Consider the power losses in a No. 12 AWG conductor in
the 500 ft conductor. It does demonstrate the effect of a voltage
Example 18.3 (see Figure 18.16): A 100 ft length of this No. 12
drop in long lengths of conductor. All wiring sections and the en-
AWG conductor was found to have a power loss of about 65 W
tire system should be considered for voltage drop concerns.
when carrying a current of 20 A. Power available at the outlet is:
2400 W 65 W 2335 W
With the power equation (P EI) introduced in Chapter 18.6 ENCLOSURES AND RACEWAYS
17 and a current flow of 20 A, voltage available at the point of
usage is: Enclosures
E P>I 2335 W>20 A 116.8 V Enclosures are electrical boxes and cabinets made of metal
(e.g., steel, galvanized steel, aluminum, and so on) or non-
metallic (plastic) materials that provide protection for conduc-
tors, connections, controls, and other electrical equipment.
They protect the wiring, devices, and equipment from damage
and deterioration from accidental contact, wear, corrosive at-
mospheric exposure, and sunlight. In cases where the enclosed
conductors, connections, controls, and electrical equipment are
faulty, enclosures contain the arc and flaming that result,
thereby confining damage from fire.
Electrical Boxes
Electrical boxes are metal and non-metallic (plastic) enclosures
that hold devices such as switches or outlets and safely permit
FIGURE 18.16 Voltage available to a 20 A load at an outlet 50 ft wiring connections. Boxes are available in four primary shapes:
away (100 ft two-way wire length) from the panelboard is 116.8 V,
which is acceptable because it is in the range of 110 V to 130 V. square, rectangular, octagonal, or round. Boxes can be joined
Assuming a 250 ft length (five times the length), voltage available at (ganged) together or are manufactured to accommodate multiple
the end usage point is 103.8 V, an unacceptable voltage. outlets or switches. These are known as two-gang, three-gang or
628 CHAPTER 18
four gang boxes. Junction boxes (J-boxes) are a special type of

electrical box used to enclose conductor connections. Connec-
tions are commonly called junctions in the trade. A pull box is a
type of junction box that allows access to a raceway for snaking
conductors through the raceway. Knockouts in most boxes and
other enclosures can be easily removed to allow wiring to enter
the box. Common sizes of electrical boxes are provided in Table
18.22. Examples of electrical boxes are shown in Photos 18.19
and 18.20.
Cover plates for various single or combinations of
switches, convenience outlets, blank covers, and dimmers are
required. Plastic is the most common material used, although PHOTO 18.19 Switches in a four-gang nonmetallic electrical box.
Nonmetallic (NM) sheathed cabling is entering the box. (Used with
permission of ABC)
TABLE 18.22 COMMON SIZES OF ELECTRICAL BOXES.
COMPILED FROM INDUSTRY SOURCES.
Enclosure/Box Dimensions
Depth Length Height Number Capacity
Enclosure/Box Type in in in of Gangs in3
Round or 11⁄4 4 4 — 12.5

octagonal 11⁄2 4 4 — 15.5
(lighting) 21⁄8 4 4 — 21.5
Square 11⁄4 4 4 1 18
(devices) 11⁄2 4 4 1 21
11⁄4 411⁄16 411⁄16 1 25.5
11⁄2 411⁄16 411⁄16 1 29.5
11⁄2 411⁄16 411⁄16 — 29.5
21⁄8 411⁄16 411⁄16 1 42
21⁄8 411⁄16 411⁄16 — 44
21⁄8 411⁄16 411⁄16 — 44
21⁄8 411⁄16 411⁄16 — 44
21⁄8 411⁄16 411⁄16 — 44
Rectangular 11⁄2 2 3 1 7.5
PHOTO 18.20 A large junction box. (Used with permission of ABC)
(devices) 11⁄2 21⁄8 4 1 10.3
15⁄8 31⁄2 41⁄2 1 22.5
15⁄8 71⁄16 41⁄2 2 45
15⁄8 87⁄8 41⁄2 3 58 stainless steel, ceramic, or plain galvanized steel is also avail-
15⁄8 1011⁄16 41⁄2 4 70 able. Covers are attached with screws to the switch or recepta-
15⁄8 121⁄2 41⁄2 5 85
cles. Where lighting fixtures are attached directly to the box, no
15⁄8 145⁄16 41⁄2 6 95
15⁄8 161⁄8 41⁄2 7 105 cover plate is required, but all other boxes should be finished
15⁄8 1715⁄16 41⁄2 8 115 with a cover plate.
15⁄8 193⁄4 41⁄2 9 125
15⁄8 219⁄16 41⁄2 10 135 Conduit and Other Raceways
2 2 3 1 10
21⁄4 2 3 1 10.5 A raceway is as an enclosed channel such as a conduit, tube, or
21⁄2 2 3 1 12.5 gutter designed for holding wires, cables, or busbars. In some
23⁄4 2 3 1 14
cases, metal raceways that are fully bonded serve to provide a
21⁄2 31⁄2 41⁄2 1 35.5
21⁄2 71⁄16 41⁄2 2 71 path for the flow of fault current to ground. Examples of race-
21⁄2 87⁄8 41⁄2 3 90 way materials or systems follow:
21⁄2 1011⁄16 41⁄2 4 110
21⁄2 121⁄2 41⁄2 5 132 Rigid metal conduit is a heavy galvanized steel or alu-
21⁄2 145⁄16 41⁄2 6 150 minum tube that looks like the galvanized steel pipe used
21⁄2 161⁄8 41⁄2 7 168 for plumbing applications except it is much smoother and
21⁄2 1715⁄16 41⁄2 8 186 is labeled with a UL Listed stamp or label. It has threaded
21⁄2 193⁄4 41⁄2 9 204
connections much like pipe. It can be used in contact
21⁄2 219⁄16 41⁄2 10 222
with earth and embedded in concrete. See Photo 18.21.
The use of rigid conduit, EMC, EMT, and ENT involves

cutting, bending, and in some cases, threading of lengths. Cut-
ting is typically done with a saw. Bends in a conduit must be
made so that it will not be damaged and that the internal diame-
ter of the conduit will not be effectively reduced. Bends can be
made at the factory or in the field with a manual bender, called a
hickey, or a hot box heater for rigid nonmetallic (plastic) conduit.
A run of conduit should be as straight and direct as possi-
ble. All raceways must be installed as a complete system before
any conductors are pulled into them. Straps or hangers must
support conduit throughout the entire run. The number of sup-
PHOTO 18.21 Four electrical boxes connected to metal conduit in a ports needed and spacing of supports depends on the type of
steel-framed partition. (Used with permission of ABC) conduit being used. The number of conductors you can have in
a conduit is based on the size of the conduit, the type of con-
Intermediate metal conduit (IMC) is a galvanized steel or ductor insulation, and the size of the conductors. When several
aluminum tube that has a thinner wall than rigid metal conductors are fed into a conduit, they should be kept parallel,
conduit. It has threaded connections much like pipe or straight, and free from kinks and bends.
threadless connectors and couplings. It can be used in
contact with earth and embedded in concrete. Busways
Electrical metallic tubing (EMT) is a thin-walled galva-
A busway is of a standardized, factory-assembled enclosure
nized steel or aluminum tube in nominal diameters up to
consists of outer duct-like housing, bus bars, and insulators.
4 in. Unlike conduit, EMT cannot be threaded. EMT is
Busway systems are typically used in service equipment or as
labeled with a UL Listed stamp or label. It is joined with
feeders because these systems are designed to carry large
threadless compression couplings, couplings that are
amounts of current.
crimped into the tubing with a special indenting tool, or
Two general types of busway systems are available:
fittings that are tightened with screws.
feeder and plug-in. A feeder busway is used to deliver large
Electrical nonmetallic tubing (ENT) is a flame-retardant amounts of power with low voltage drop. It is available in sizes
corrugated plastic tube that is semiflexible such that it from 600 A to several thousand amps. A plug-in busway is used
can be bent by hand. ENT must be used behind fire-rated to provide power tap-offs at multiple points. It is available in
finish materials. It is permitted in damp locations and can 100 A to 3000 A sizes. Plug-in busways make power distribu-
be set in concrete above ground. Plastic connectors snap tion flexible. Power is available anywhere along the busway
together. It can also be solvent welded to rigid polyvinyl without necessitating a main service interruption. Thus, equip-
chloride (PVC) conduit. It can be used in any building, ment (e.g., for manufacturing and machining) can be relocated
but special precautions are required when used more than and placed in operation simply, economically, and quickly,
three floors above grade. merely by inserting a plug-in unit into the nearest busway tap-
Rigid nonmetallic conduit is a thin-walled pipe of PVC. off point. Connections may be made at any point along the
It is joined with fittings that are solvent welded. busway. Rigid and flexible conduit or flexible bus drop cable
Flexible metal conduit is similar to armored cable, but it extends from the busway to the piece of equipment.
is installed without cables or wiring in it; wiring must As a result of initial cost, busways are only used in large
be pulled. commercial and industrial installations (e.g., manufacturing
plants) where large loads are concentrated (about 600 A and
Liquid tight flexible metal conduit is similar to flexible
higher), where a large number of taps are required, or where su-
metal conduit, but it is covered with a plastic, watertight
perior fire and mechanical injury protection is desirable.
jacket that is sunlight resistant. Unlike flexible metal con-
Busways can also be salvaged and moved more easily and cost-
duit, the special connectors are watertight.
effectively than ordinary conductors.
Liquid tight flexible nonmetallic conduit is a flexible
plastic conduit used in a manner similar to flexible metal Wireways
conduit. It cannot be used over 6 ft in length.
Wire gutters or wireways are sheet metal or nonmetallic, flame-
Cellular concrete floor raceways are hollow voids in
resistant plastic troughs that serve as a housing that encloses
floors made of precast concrete slabs (core slabs) found
and protects conductors. Access to the enclosure interior is
in certain precast concrete buildings.
through a hinged door or removable cover. Wire gutters and
Sizes of common electrical conduits are provided in wireways typically carry large conductors. Photo 18.22 shows
Table 18.23. conductors in an overhead wire tray.
630 CHAPTER 18
TABLE 18.23 COMMON SIZES OF ELECTRICAL CONDUIT. COMPILED FROM NUMEROUS INDUSTRY SOURCES.
Electrical Metallic Tubing (EMT) Rigid Conduit (Metal) Intermediate Metal Conduit (IMC)
Trade Outside Inside Wall Inside Outside Inside Wall Inside Outside Inside Wall Inside
Size Diameter Diameter Thickness Area Diameter Diameter Thickness Area Diameter Diameter Thickness Area
in in in in in2 in in in in2 in in in in2
⁄2
1
0.706 0.622 0.042 0.30 0.840 0.632 0.104 0.31 0.815 0.675 0.070 0.36
⁄4
3
0.922 0.824 0.049 0.53 1.050 0.836 0.107 0.55 1.029 0.879 0.075 0.61
1 1.163 1.049 0.057 0.86 1.315 1.060 0.126 0.88 1.290 1.120 0.085 0.99
11⁄4 1.510 1.380 0.065 1.50 1.660 1.394 0.133 1.53 1.638 1.468 0.085 1.69
11⁄2 1.740 1.610 0.065 2.04 1.900 1.624 0.138 2.07 1.883 1.703 0.090 2.28
2 2.197 2.067 0.065 3.36 2.375 2.083 0.146 3.41 2.360 2.170 0.095 3.70
21⁄2 2.875 2.731 0.072 5.86 2.875 2.489 0.193 4.87 2.857 2.597 0.130 5.30
3 3.500 3.356 0.072 8.85 3.500 3.090 0.205 7.50 3.476 3.216 0.130 8.12
31⁄2 4.000 3.834 0.083 11.54 4.000 3.570 0.215 10.01 3.971 3.711 0.130 10.82
4 4.500 4.334 0.083 14.75 4.500 4.050 0.225 12.88 4.466 4.206 0.130 13.89
5 — — — — 5.563 5.073 0.245 20.21 — — — —
6 — — — — 6.625 6.093 0.266 29.16 — — — —
PVC Schedule 40 Conduit PVC Schedule 80 Conduit

Trade Outside Inside Wall Inside Outside Inside Wall Inside
Size Diameter Diameter Thickness Area Diameter Diameter Thickness Area
in in in in in2 in in in in2
1
⁄2 0.840 0.622 0.109 0.30 0.840 0.546 0.147 0.23
3
⁄4 1.050 0.824 0.113 0.53 1.050 0.742 0.154 0.43
1 1.315 1.049 0.133 0.86 1.315 0.957 0.179 0.72
11⁄4 1.660 1.380 0.140 1.50 1.660 1.278 0.191 1.28
11⁄2 1.900 1.610 0.145 2.04 1.900 1.500 0.200 1.77
2 2.375 2.067 0.154 3.36 2.375 1.939 0.218 2.95
21⁄2 2.875 2.469 0.203 4.79 2.875 2.323 0.276 4.24
3 3.500 3.068 0.216 7.39 3.500 2.900 0.300 6.61
31⁄2 4.000 3.548 0.226 9.89 4.000 3.364 0.318 8.89
4 4.500 4.026 0.237 12.73 4.500 3.826 0.337 11.50
5 5.563 5.047 0.258 20.01 5.563 4.813 0.375 18.19
6 6.625 6.065 0.280 28.89 6.625 5.761 0.432 26.07
18.7 ELECTRIC MOTORS
In homes, electric motors are found in refrigerators, freezers,

dishwashers, kitchen sink waste disposal, portable kitchen ap-
pliances, exhaust and ventilation fans, clothes washers and dry-
ers, furnaces, air conditioners, and paddle fans. In commercial
and industrial buildings, electric motors drive exhaust/ventila-
tion fans, air-handling unit blowers, refrigeration equipment,
air and fluid compressors and pumps, heating system circula-
tors, and manufacturing equipment and machinery. The electric
PHOTO 18.22 Conductors in an overhead wire tray. (Used with motor serves us well beyond the limits of what one human
permission of ABC) being can produce.
Motors are designed to operate on voltages slightly less Continuous overloading, however, causes a decrease in efficiency
than the building system voltage, because voltage available at and overheating, which greatly reduces the life of the motor.
the motor outlet is less than the building system voltage be- An electric motor’s locked rotor amperage (LRA) is the
cause of a voltage drop on the branch circuit conductors. For highest amperage that a motor pulls. The LRA occurs the mo-
example, a motor may be designed for operation at a line volt- ment the motor is first switched on but before the motor rotor
age of 230 V rather than a building system voltage of 240 V. begins to turn. Once the motor rotor begins to move, the amper-
Most AC 60 Hz electric motors used in North America age drops until the motor reaches its operating speed and am-
are designed to operate at theoretical 1800 or 3600 revolutions perage. A motor operating at its rated speed, voltage, and
per minute (rpm). When delivering its rated horsepower, the ac- horsepower draws current at its full load amperage (FLA) or
tual speed of a motor will be somewhat less, about 1725 and running load amperage (RLA). An electric motor’s LRA is
3450 rpm, respectively. Other motors are designed to operate at usually four to six times greater than the FLA/RLA. Conduc-
lower speeds of slightly less than 900 and 1200 rpm. Motors tors serving an electric motor are generally sized to the LRA.
designed to operate at slower speeds are larger, operate quieter, Approximate full load ratings for selected motors, in amperes,
and last longer because they encounter less friction. based on horsepower, phase, and line voltage are provided in
When an appliance or piece of equipment must operate at Table 18.24.
a slower speed, this is accomplished by using a gear or pulley/ Most electric motors are designed to run at 50% to 100%
belt system to gear down or gear up to the required rpm. For of rated load, with maximum efficiency typically near 75% of
example, a clothes dryer tumbler is driven by a motor turning at rated load. For example, a 10-horsepower (hp) motor has an
1800 (actually about 1750) rpm that is geared down 25 times so acceptable load range of 5 to 10 hp; peak efficiency is at 7.5 hp.
the tumbler revolves at a rate of 72 (actually about 70) rpm. A motor’s efficiency tends to decrease dramatically below
about 50% load.
A motor is considered underloaded when it is in the
Motor Ratings
range where efficiency drops significantly with decreasing
Electric motors are rated in horsepower (hp). One horsepower load. Overloaded motors can overheat and lose efficiency.
is equivalent to 33 000 foot-pounds (ft-lb) of work per minute Frequently motors are oversized because they must accom-
(550 ft-lb/s). This is about 1⁄8 the power an adult can produce modate peak conditions (e.g., a pumping system that must
continuously. In theory, one horsepower is equivalent to 746 W. satisfy occasionally high demands). If equipment with mo-
However, because of losses from heat and friction, an electric tors operates for extended periods under a 50% load, modifi-
motor delivers less work than the theoretical equivalent; more cations should be considered. Options available to meet variable
power is consumed than is produced. For example, a 1 hp
motor draws about 1400 W, much more than the theoretical
TABLE 18.24 APPROXIMATE FULL LOAD RATING FOR SELECTED
equivalent of 746 W. MOTORS, IN AMPERES, BASED ON HORSEPOWER,
At startup, an electric motor (especially a single-phase PHASE, AND LINE VOLTAGE.
motor) consumes substantially more electrical power than
Single Phase Three Phase
when it is operating at its rated speed and load. This is known
as inrush current and is discussed later in this chapter (see the Horsepower 120 V 208 V 230 V 208 V 240 V 460 V
section titled Inrush Current Protection). A 230 V, 1 hp motor 1
⁄3 7.0 3.8 3.5 2.1 2.0 1.0
that normally draws about 1000 W (4.3 A) under full load may 1
⁄2 8.4 4.6 4.2 2.6 2.4 1.2
draw 6000 W (26.1 A) or more at startup. Once operating at its 3
⁄4 9.6 5.3 4.8 3.0 2.8 1.4
design speed, electrical power and thus amperage drawn by the 1 11.8 6.5 5.9 3.7 3.4 1.7
motor is related to the load it is delivering; that is, a 230 V 1 hp 1.5 15.6 9.1 8.3 5.0 4.8 2.4
motor delivering 1⁄2 hp will consume about 600 W (2.6 A) and 2 20.8 11.4 10.4 6.2 6.0 3.0
3 — 18.3 15.6 9.8 9.6 4.8
the same motor delivering 1 hp will consume about 1000 W
5 — 25.0 23.0 14.5 14.2 7.1
(4.3 A). As is evident when comparing power requirements for 10 — — — 29.0 28.0 14.0
half and full loading, the electric motor operates more effi- 15 — — — 42.0 40.0 20.0
ciently at its full horsepower rating. 20 — — — 52.0 50.0 25.0
Electric motors have a unique advantage over fuel-powered 25 — — — — 60.0 30.0
30 — — — — 72.0 36.0
motors in that they can deliver more horsepower than their rat-
40 — — — — 104.0 52.0
ing. It does require more power; that is, the same 230 V 1 hp 50 — — — — 120.0 60.0
motor can deliver 11⁄2 hp, but it will draw more power (about 60 — — — — 146.0 73.0
1700 W) and amperage (7.4 A). The ability to handle an over- 75 — — — — 184.0 92.0
load temporarily allows the motor to overcome an obstacle 100 — — — — 230.0 115.0
125 — — — — 290.0 145.0
much like a table saw works harder to cut through a tough knot
150 — — — — 330.0 165.0
that it encounters while cutting through a piece of wood.
632 CHAPTER 18
loads include two-speed motors, adjustable speed drives, and capacitor motor is more efficient and has a better starting
load management strategies that maintain loads within an ac- torque than the split-phase motor.
ceptable range.
A motor’s service factor indicates the percentage a motor Induction Motors
can be continuously overloaded without developing damage re-
lated to overheating. For example, a 10-hp motor with a 1.15 These motors use electromagnetic induction to cause the motor
service factor can handle an 11.5-hp load for short periods of rotor to turn. Repulsion-start induction motors are capable of
time without incurring significant damage. Although many mo- handling heavy starting loads.
tors have service factors of 1.15, running the motor continu-
ously above rated load reduces efficiency and motor life. Three-Phase Motors
Motors over 1 hp generally have service factors up to 1.20.
Large motors operate more efficiently on three-phase AC power.
Fractional motors, those rated less than 1 hp, can have service
Electric motors rated up to 71⁄2 hp can operate on a single-phase
factors approaching 1.50. Electric motors operate most effi-
AC system. However, a single-phase motor rated at 71⁄2 hp draws
ciently at their rated horsepower. A proper match between an
a large amount of instantaneous current at startup (up to 200 A
electric motor rating in horsepower and its load in horsepower
on a 240 V single-phase circuit). As a result, conductor size is
is good design practice.
large and costly. Three-phase motors also vibrate less than
Motors are designed to operate at an ambient (surround-
single-phase motors, so they are lighter and less costly.
ing air) temperature of 40°C (104°F). A motor operating in a
location above this temperature should be cooled with a blower
or fan or not used at its rated horsepower. Motors are typically Dual-Voltage Motors
rated for use at an altitude of up to 3300 ft (1000 m) above sea Motors above 1⁄4 hp are designed to operate on one of two dif-
level. The cooling effect of less-dense air found at high alti- ferent line voltages such as 115 V or 230 V. Larger motors op-
tudes is less than air at or near sea level. A motor operated at its erate more efficiently on a higher line voltage because of lower
full-rated horsepower at high altitudes will overheat, so com- I2R losses. So, if a higher line voltage is available, it is used.
pensation is necessary. The specifications of an electric motor are typically listed
on the nameplate. Information provided may include:
Types of Motors
Manufacturer’s type and frame designation
The following is a description of the types of motors.
Horsepower output
Universal Motor Power factor
Maximum ambient temperature for which motor is
The universal motor is a fractional horsepower (less than one
designed
horsepower) motor designed to operate on both AC and DC
power. Its rate of rotation varies considerably with load. It op- Insulation system designation
erates at high speeds under light load and low speeds with Revolutions per minute at rated load
heavy load. The universal motor can free idle at up to 20 000 rpm. Frequency
Universal motors are used on appliances such as blenders
Number of phases
and vacuum cleaners and power tools such as routers and
electric drills. Rated load current
Voltage
Split-Phase Motor
The split-phase motor operates on single-phase AC only. The Motor Controllers
motor windings are configured so that single-phase AC power
A motor controller is a switching device designed to start, stop,
is split into two phases that are 1⁄2 out of phase. This type of
and protect the motor. A controller might also be called on to
motor starts slowly with low torque so it is not capable of start-
provide functions such as reversing, jogging (repeated starting
ing heavy loads. The split-phase motor is available in sizes up
and stopping), plugging (rapid stopping by momentarily revers-
to 1⁄3 horsepower.
ing the polarity of the motor), operating at several speeds, or at
reduced levels of current and motor torque.
Capacitor Motor
Industrial plants and manufacturing facilities have hun-
This type of motor operates on single-phase AC only. Capaci- dreds of motors all requiring specialized control and protection.
tor-start motors have a capacitor that stores and discharges en- Rather than scatter them throughout the facility, they are
ergy to help start the motor rotor. Capacitor-run motors have grouped together into motor control centers (MCC). An MCC
one or more capacitors to help start and run the motor. The is a centrally located, sheet metal, cabinet-like enclosure that
houses starters and controls that control and protect several mo- plug-in inserts and wall plates with contact shutters are avail-
tors. The front panel of an MCC contains operator controls and able for tamper resistance, but do not meet the requirements of
gauges. The interior of the MCC contains plug-in units such as a tamper-resistant receptacle.
starters, controls, and specialized units. There are several methods to achieve tamper-resistance
A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a solid-state elec- operation, the most common being the use of a spring-loaded
tronic power conversion device used for controlling the rota- shutter mechanism. Inside the face of the receptacle is a spring-
tional speed of an AC electric motor by controlling the loaded thermoplastic safety shutter. Under normal, unused con-
frequency of the electrical power supplied to the motor. The ditions, the shutters are closed and both contact openings are
motor used in a VFD system is typically a three-phase induc- covered. Upon insertion of a grounded or ungrounded plug, the
tion motor, but some types of single-phase motors can be used. blades of the plug simultaneously compress the shutters against
Induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are gener- the spring. The simultaneous force allows the shutters to slide
ally the most economical choice. When a VFD starts a motor, it and open up access to the receptacle contacts. The plug becomes
initially applies a low frequency (typically 2 Hz or less) and fully inserted and securely fits into the receptacle. When the plug
voltage to the motor, which avoids the high current surge that is removed, the shutters instantly close, covering the contact
occurs when a motor is typically started by simply turning on a openings. When a foreign object, such as a paper clip or small
switch. The stopping sequence is just the opposite as the start- bladed screwdriver, is inserted into only one of the openings, the
ing sequence. safety shutter will not allow access to the live contact. For these
Pumps, fans, conveyors, air compressors, and chillers op- receptacles, the safety mechanism covers only the line and load
erate more efficiently when the speed and torque of their motor contacts, and not the ground. Because they accept a two-
can be varied. The savings potential for centrifugal pumps and pronged plug, these receptacles can be used with standard house-
fans is the largest because the theoretical input power varies hold and office appliances like light fixtures, clocks, and radios.
with the cube of fan/pump speed and volume. For example, a
fan operating at half speed will require only about 13% of its
full-speed power. Losses in the VFD will reduce savings some-
Ground Fault Interruption
what, but the savings are still significant. A ground fault is the unintentional flow of electrical current be-
tween a power source, such as an ungrounded (hot) wire, and a
grounded surface. A ground fault occurs when electrical cur-
18.8 OCCUPANT PROTECTION rent leaks or escapes to ground. When a hot bare conductor in-
side an appliance inadvertently touches the metal housing, the
Need for Occupant Protection housing may become charged with electricity. If a person
touches the faulty appliance and at the same time touches a
In the United States, hundreds of people are accidentally elec- grounded metal object, such as a water faucet or metal sink, the
trocuted each year. Electrocution occurs when a small amount person will receive a shock because the person’s body serves as
of electrical current flows through the heart for 1 to 3 s. The an inadvertent path to ground.
amount of 0.006 to 0.2 A (6 to 200 milliamps, or mA) of cur- A ground fault is a danger to humans because only a very
rent flowing through the heart disrupts the normal coordination low current is required to affect human heart rhythm. The com-
of heart muscles. These muscles lose their vital rhythm and monly cited threshold for inducing life-threatening ventricular
begin to fibrillate. Death soon follows. To provide an example fibrillation (abnormal irregular heart rhythm that causes cardiac
of how small an amount of current it takes to kill: a 15 W night- arrest) in an average adult male is 100 mA (0.0001 A). The 120 V
light on a 120 V circuit draws about 13 mA, enough amperage circuit typically found in building electrical systems can easily
to cause electrocution. drive this amount of current through a total resistance of 1000 Ω,
which is in the range of the resistance of a human body with
Tamper-Resistant Receptacles skin-to-conductor contact. Current levels this small are very
According to U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission data, small in comparison to current at a normal load and thus are not
approximately 2400 children suffer electrical injuries each year detected by fuses and circuit breakers. As a result, circuits where
from incidents involving electrical outlets or receptacles. ground faults are a concern that require specialized protection.
Tamper-resistant receptacles have built-in shutter systems that The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission reports
prevent foreign objects from touching electrically live compo- that, in the United States, there are over 300 accidental electro-
nents when these are inserted into the slots. The shutters protect cution deaths each year that are caused by ground faults. Addi-
against electrical burns without impairing normal plug inser- tionally, there are several thousand more individuals who suffer
tion, removal, or function. Tamper-resistant receptacles have injury or burns from severe electrical shock. The Commission
emerged because of the tendency of children to unwittingly en- advises that a majority of these injuries or fatalities could have
danger themselves by inserting keys, pins, paper clips, or other been prevented by use of an inexpensive device called a ground
items into unprotected receptacles. Products such as plastic fault circuit interrupter.
634 CHAPTER 18
A ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is an electrical breaker gives protection to the entire branch circuit. The wiring
device that detects an extremely low leak (6 mA) of electrical and each outlet that is served by the branch circuit is protected
current (called ground faults) and acts quickly to shut off by the GFCI breaker. By providing overcurrent protection as a
power. It is designed to protect the user of an electrical appli- circuit breaker and serving to provide GFCI protection, the
ance much like a circuit breaker or fuse safeguards the wiring GFCI circuit breaker serves a dual purpose: it will interrupt
in an electrical system. A GFCI continuously monitors the cur- power in the event of a ground fault and it will trip when a short
rent drawn through the ungrounded (hot) and neutral conduc- circuit or an power overload occurs.
tors of an electrical circuit. When a leakage to ground that
exceeds 6 mA is detected, the GFCI instantaneously switches Portable Type
off power to the branch circuit or appliance, thereby protecting
Where permanent GFCIs are not possible or practical, portable
a person from the dangerous effects of electrical shock. Power
GFCIs may be used. One type contains the GFCI circuitry in a
is shut off in less than a heartbeat (about 1>40th of a second),
plastic enclosure with plug blades in the back and convenience
which is hopefully before serious or fatal shock occurs.
outlet slots in the front. It can be plugged into a convenience out-
Three types of GFCIs are commonly available for use in
let so an electrical appliance plugged into the GFCI is protected.
a building.
Another type of portable GFCI is one that is part of an extension
Receptacle Outlet Type cord, such as those required on new-model hair dryers.
One- and two-pole GFCI circuit breakers are available.
This type is generally used in place of standard duplex conven- One-pole GFCI breakers can be installed on the 120 V portion
ience outlets that are commonly found throughout the house. A of a 120/240 V AC, 1Φ-3W system that is typically found in
GFCI convenience outlet fits into the standard electrical outlet residential and small commercial installations. Two-pole GFCI
box and protects the user against ground faults whenever an breakers are typically used in commercial and industrial appli-
electrical appliance is plugged into the outlet. Most conven- cations. They can be installed on a 120/240 V AC, 3Φ-4W sys-
ience outlet-type GFCIs can be installed so that they will also tem, the 120/240 V portion of a 120/240 V AC, 3Φ-4W system,
protect other electrical outlets further downstream in the branch and two ungrounded phases and the grounded phase of a
circuit. Many people are unaware of the presence of GFCI pro- 120/208 V AC, 3Φ-4W system.
tection in a home, yet they are familiar with the unique-looking
TEST and RESET buttons found on the GFCI-protected con- Arc Fault Protection
venience outlets in modern bathrooms, kitchens, and outdoor
outlets. A receptacle outlet-type ground fault circuit interrupter In the United States, there are 42 900 fires per year from elec-
is shown in Photo 18.23. trical equipment according to National Fire Protection Associa-
tion (NFPA) data. These fires cause 370 fatalities and over
Circuit Breaker Type $615 million in property damage annually. Of these fires, 15 200
A GFCI circuit breaker can be installed in the panelboard in are from fixed wiring, 7800 are from faulty cords and plugs,
buildings equipped with circuit breakers. The GFCI circuit and 8400 are from problems in lamp and light fixtures.
In a 1987 study, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Com-
mission found that fires are located in every area of residential
dwellings: bedrooms, living rooms, kitchens, closet/storage
areas, garages, bathrooms, laundries, halls, and dining rooms
(listed in decreasing order of occurrence). It has been estimated
that arcing and sparking problems in building wiring are tied to
more than 40 000 home fires each year. These fires claim over
350 lives and injure about 1400 victims annually.
An arc fault is an unintentional electrical discharge (an
electrical arc) characterized by low and erratic current. Arcing
generates high-intensity heat and expels burning particles,
which can easily ignite combustible materials. Arc faults are
caused by the breakdown of the protective insulation that sur-
rounds household wiring. These breakdowns occur naturally
as the wiring ages and can be exacerbated by dust, settling
and shifting of a home’s foundation, or by rodents. New
wiring is also at risk from drywall staples, picture-hanging
nails, or any sharp object that could nick the wire. Current
PHOTO 18.23 Receptacle outlet-type ground fault circuit interrupter. residential breakers only detect and react to power overloads,
(Used with permission of ABC) not arc faults.
Types of arc faults common in building wiring are the Circuit Breaker Type
following:
A branch/feeder AFCI breaker with protection provided to
• Parallel arcing faults result from direct contact of two branch-circuit wiring in the form of a circuit breaker.
wires of opposite polarity. Examples of this type of fault
include appliance or extension cords that are frayed or Convenience Outlet Type
ruptured; staples or other fasteners that pierce or pinch
An outlet AFCI for protecting connected cord sets and power-
insulation on construction wire and appliance or exten-
supply cords in the form of an outlet receptacle.
sion cords; and wire or cord insulation that has cracked
from age, heat, corrosion, or bending stress.
Portable Type
• Ground arcing faults are arcs between a single conduc-
tor and ground, such as in the cases of wire or cords A portable AFCI for protecting connected cord sets and power-
that touch vibrating metal; in appliances, wall plugs or supply cords that can be moved from outlet to outlet.
switches where the internal wires were not installed
properly; and where connections became loose. Cord-Mounted type
• Series arcing faults occur across the break of a single A cord-mounted AFCI for protecting the power-supply cord
conductor—for example, in the case of an electrical wire connected to it (in the form of an attachment plug on a power-
cut by a nail or screw used to mount a wall hanging. supply cord).
A safety device, called an arc fault circuit interrupter
(AFCI), provides enhanced protection from fires resulting from
Nuisance Tripping
arc faults. This device uses electronics to recognize an arc fault Because GFCIs and AFCIs are extremely sensitive, they have a
and interrupts the circuit when the fault occurs. Essentially, an tendency to trip frequently. This repeated tripping is referred to
AFCI continuously monitors the current and voltage character- as nuisance tripping, as the general public sees it only as a nui-
istics in a circuit, senses variations in these characteristics, and sance. Appliances that are beginning to fail can cause nuisance
automatically opens the circuit (trips the AFCI breaker) when tripping. They should be repaired or replaced. Lightning can
arc fault characteristics are detected. also cause nuisance tripping. For this reason, it is not a recom-
An AFCI detects low-level arc faults that traditional over- mended practice to connect essential equipment and appliances
current protective devices (fuses and circuit breakers) cannot containing perishable products (e.g., refrigerators, freezers)
detect. Traditional overcurrent protection perceives a low-level into an outlet with GFCI or AFCI protection.
arc fault as a normal load unless the current flow exceeds its
rating. As a result, fuses and circuit breakers do not respond to
early arcing and sparking conditions in building wiring. By the
Extremely Low-Frequency
time a fuse or circuit breaker opens a circuit to stop these con-
Electromagnetic Fields
ditions, a fire may already have begun. Extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields (EMF) are
The basic application of an AFCI is protection of 15 A silent, invisible magnetic fields produced any time electricity
and 20 A branch circuits in single- and multifamily residential runs through a wire, an appliance, or piece of equipment. In
occupancies. They are available as circuit breakers with built-in buildings, higher levels of EMF can cause computer monitor
AFCI features that combine traditional thermal-magnetic over- interference and raise potential health concerns. High levels of
current protection with the ability to detect and interrupt elec- EMF produce electromagnetic interference (EMI), which re-
trical arcs. There are four basic types of AFCIs. veals itself as visible screen jitter in video displays, humming
TABLE 18.25 A COMPARISON OF TYPES OF PROTECTION DEVICES.
Type of Protection Devices

Type of Protection Circuit Ground Fault Arc Fault Surge
Device Fuse Breaker Circuit Interruption Circuit Interruption Protection
Thermal protection Yes Yes Yes Yes

Overload protection Yes Yes Yes Yes
Short circuit protection Yes Yes Yes
Ground fault protection Yes Possibly*
Arc fault protection Yes
Surge protection Yes
*May become available on some devices.

636 CHAPTER 18
in telephone/audio equipment, and data errors in magnetic same circuit path (e.g., through the same cable, conduit, or
media or digital signals. In the United States, EMF is measured busway). This causes a natural canceling effect of magnetic
in units called milligauss (mG). In most of the world and the fields from electric currents in each conductor, unless circuiting
scientific community, magnetic fields are measured in units of is done improperly. In addition, mistakes in wiring can cause
microtesla (μT). The relationship between these two units is current to take an alternative (and improper) neutral path back
1 μT 10 mG. to ground. These wiring errors are known as net-current condi-
EMF measurement is performed with an instrument tions. They produce elevated EMF levels in building areas,
called an ELF (extremely-low frequency) meter. The strength through which circuit wiring is routed, which will expose large
of an EMF weakens rapidly with the distance away from the sections of the building to high EMF levels.
electrical source, so these EMFs decrease rapidly with dis- Currently, there are no Federal standards for EMF levels.
tance away from the source. Measurements must be done in Expert opinions vary on recommendations for safe human
multiple locations over a considerable period of time, because exposure limits, ranging from 2.5 to 100 mG (0.25 to 10 μT).
there are large variations in fields over distance and time. Field For equipment affected by EMF, the threshold for EMF inter-
surveys are required that provide precise data taken at numer- ference depends on many variables but has commonly been
ous points at multiple elevations (e.g., floors above and below estimated at between 5 to 10 mG (0.5 to 1.0 μT).
the suspected source).
EMF Health Studies
EMF Exposure There have been hundreds of studies that examined the rela-
tionship between human health and EMF. A study of child
Most Americans get their greatest exposure to EMFs from
leukemia deaths in Denver and a later study in Sweden of
household appliances or business equipment, not power lines.
nearly one-half million people indicate that children living near
EMF from power transmission lines varies greatly with dis-
power lines had a higher rate of leukemia than other children
tance away from the lines, voltage, and design. Below a high-
did. These results prompted further investigation. Most epi-
voltage (115 to 765 kV) power transmission line, EMF can
demiological studies show little evidence of a relationship to
approach 1.0 mG (0.01 μT); 30 ft (10 m) from a medium volt-
exposure to power lines or electrical occupations (e.g., welders,
age (12 kV) distribution line, EMF will be in the range of 2.0 to
electricians) and an increase in cancer. The International
10 mG (0.2 to 1.0 μT). Electric fields from power lines have lit-
Agency for Research on Cancer classified EMF as “possibly
tle ability to penetrate the building envelope.
carcinogenic” to humans, requiring further research. Although
Household appliances that have the highest EMF are
far from being conclusive, many studies suggest an association
those with high currents or high-speed electric motors (e.g.,
between exposure to electromagnetic fields and the develop-
vacuum cleaners, microwave ovens, electric washing machines,
ment of certain health problems (e.g., sleep rhythm disorders,
dishwashers, blenders, can openers, electric shavers). Contact-
leukemia in children) but not cancer.
ing appliances like blow dryers (1400 mG/140 μT), can open-
ers (4000 mG/400 μT), and electric shavers (1600 mG/160 μT)
EMF Mitigation
or equipment like power drills (500 mG/50 μT) expose one to
high levels of EMF. The usual background levels of exposure in Several methods are successful in reducing EMF exposure.
the typical household are 1.5 to 2.0 mG (0.15 to 0.2 μT). First, the source generating EMF or the work area or equipment
Occupants in offices, schools, and other settings can be affected by high EMF can be relocated away from the field, if
exposed to EMF levels ranging between 2 to 4 mG (0.2 to practical. If relocation is not possible or economical, shielding
0.4 μT). Power passing through electrical circuits in some of magnetic fields can be employed to reduce EMF levels.
commercial buildings can create areas with relatively high Passive shielding can be accomplished by using a con-
magnetic fields (above 100 mG/10 μT), typically near trans- ductive sheet material, similar to a window screen, in front of
former vaults, network protectors, secondary feeders, switch- the appliance or equipment. The shield must be connected to
boards, distribution busways, and electrical rooms. EMF electrical ground for maximum efficiency. With extremely high
exposure can also come from video displays, computers, net- levels, active shielding can be used to eliminate high levels.
works, electronic instruments, audio/video equipment, and Active shielding uses a system that senses the existence of a
magnetic media. The sensitivity of most computer monitors to magnetic field in the building area to be shielded and generates
magnetic field interference is commonly found in environments a current on additional conductors such that it reduces (cancels
with magnetic field strengths in the range of 5 to 7 mG (0.5 to the effect of) the magnetic field.
0.7 μT). Some models of cardiac pacemakers have been shown to Magnetic fields caused by net-current wiring problems
be susceptible to EMF interference as low as 1000 mG (100 μT). are very difficult to shield using traditional shielding materials
Wiring errors in conduits, busways, and other distribution and methods. This is mainly because of the large area that can
circuits can cause elevated levels of EMF in buildings. In a be affected. In these cases, high EMF levels are best reduced by
properly wired circuit, current goes out and returns along the correction of wiring errors.
power surge. Failure of equipment may not happen immedi-

18.9 EQUIPMENT PROTECTION ately, but may take months to happen.
A surge protection device (SPD) is an electrical device
Ground Fault Protection that prevents power surges from reaching electric and elec-
of Equipment tronic equipment or other device. SPDs work by instanta-
Most relatively new commercial buildings in the United States neously limiting the transient voltage from a power surge to a
are served with 480/277 V electrical service (e.g., versus level that is safe for the equipment they protect by diverting the
240/120 V and 208/120 V; the electrical services commonly large surge current safely to ground. The SPD diverts the surge
used in the past). Although the higher voltage provides in- by allowing the current to flow past rather than through the pro-
creased capacity, it can result in an undesirable side effect tied to tected equipment.
a combination of the higher voltage and the characteristic spac- Ordinary surge protectors simply divert harmful surge
ing between energized parts and grounded metal in electrical current from the hot line to the neutral and ground wires, but this
distribution equipment. Problems can be attributed to arcing to will increase the likelihood of damage to audio, video, and com-
ground at current levels well below standard load current so that puter data lines, because these lines use the power line ground
if it happens it does not blow a fuse or trip a circuit breaker. Sim- wire circuit for their reference voltage. More sophisticated surge
ply put, the small spacing between electrical components and protection technology is designed so that unwanted voltages
high-voltage power creates a condition in which arcing faults are not passed through to protected equipment via power, tele-
can develop and persist fairly easily, resulting in melting of phone, telemetry, or other cables. They prevent excessive energy
metal components, burning of insulation, and explosive arcing. from reaching sensitive parts of equipment or systems by dis-
Ground fault protection (GFP) is designed to detect and connecting signal lines and diverting surges to earth. Once the
rapidly interrupt low-level equipment ground faults. A GFP op- surge current has subsided, the advanced SPD automatically
erates on the same principle as GFCI protection, by monitoring restores normal operation and resets to a state ready to receive
the current drawn through the conductors of an electrical circuit the next surge. Types of SPD include the following.
and quickly shutting off power when current is not equal. A
special type of sensing transformer, called a current trans- Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV)
former (CT), encircles the conductors in the switchboard or A semiconductor device used mainly on AC power applications
panelboard and produces a low-current output signal if all cur- that has surge ratings ranging from a few hundred to many
rent flowing to the load does not return to the source through thousands of amps.
the phase or neutral conductors. The low-current output is
sensed by a ground fault relay, which has adjustable sensitivity Gas Discharge Tubes (GDT)
and time delay settings. When a signal above the sensitivity set-
ting persists beyond the time delay setting, the relay operates to A primary surge protection component with a surge rating of sev-
open the switch or circuit breaker. eral thousand amps that is comprised of a sealed tube containing
Typical ground fault relays have pickup settings that are a special gas that breaks down at a given voltage rise time.
adjustable from 100 to 1200 A and time delays that are ad-
justable from instantaneous tripping to 0.5 s. Ground fault pro- Zener Diode
tection is generally required on low-voltage systems with A secondary surge protection component used for accurate clamp-
solidly grounded neutrals rated 1000 A or more when the volt- ing of surge voltages. It has a quicker response time than the GDTs
age from any phase to ground is over 150 V. In most buildings, and provides a more accurate clamping voltage than MOVs.
GFP is applied only at the main service disconnect because it is
the only circuit rated over 1000 A. Hybrid Circuit
A circuit comprising different types of surge protection compo-
Surge Protection nent, taking advantage of each component’s strengths. For
A power surge is a sudden increase in electrical current or volt- example, a hybrid may combine the high surge capability of a
age that is very short in duration. This increase may be caused GDT with the accurate voltage clamping of a surge diode.
by a lightning strike or from a sudden power spike caused by a An ideal SPD operates rapidly and is capable of carrying
problem in the utility transmission and generating system. The large currents (amperage) for short periods while limiting the
switching of fluorescent light fixtures or other heavy equip- voltage across or the current through protected equipment to
ment can also cause a power surge. A power surge can damage levels below which damage can take place. Maintenance-free
sensitive electronic equipment such as computers, fax ma- and self-resetting devices are normally preferred where inter-
chines, televisions, stereos, VCRs, and electronic phone sys- ruptions to service should be avoided. The surge rating is a
tems. Even where no obvious damage has occurred, the life of measure of the level of surge that an SPD can withstand. Man-
electronic equipment can be significantly reduced following a ufacturers specify the surge ratings of their SPDs.
638 CHAPTER 18
Inrush Current Protection than 10 microseconds (10 millionths of a second). As a result,

lightning causes more damage, injuries, and deaths each year
Inrush current or input surge current refers to the peak instan- than tornadoes, hurricanes, or floods. In the United States,
taneous current, measured in amperes (A), drawn by an electri- about 250 people are killed annually by direct lightning strikes
cal appliance or piece of equipment (e.g., power supplies, AC and another 500 will die in lightning-caused fires. Additionally, at
motors, lamps, and lighting ballasts) when it is first turned on. least 1500 persons are injured by lightning each year. Many of
Current can be as high as 100 times the normal steady state the deaths and injuries would not have occurred if proper light-
current. On a normal 60 hertz cycle, this momentary surge of ning protection equipment was installed. Yet, the Lightning
current usually lasts from less than 1⁄2 cycle to a few cycles Protection Institute reports that 95% of today’s homes are not
depending upon the piece of equipment being powered. For protected against lightning surges.
example, AC electric motors can draw several times their nor- The idea of protecting buildings and other structures
mal full-load current when first energized; incandescent lamps from the effects of direct lightning strikes by the use of protective
have high inrush currents until their filaments warm up and conductors was first suggested by Benjamin Franklin. The the-
their resistance increases; and transformers can have an inrush ory presented has not changed. Simply put, lightning protection
current up to 50 times larger than normal rated current flow must provide a direct path for the lightning bolt to follow to
when first energized. Usually, an inrush current is not danger- ground and it must prevent destruction, injury, or death as the
ous but can be a nuisance because the high surge of current can current travels that path.
blow fuses and trip circuit breakers, thereby shutting the down Vertical lightning rods, sometimes called air terminals,
the circuit. are placed at the top of the protected structure. These lightning
Selection of overcurrent protection devices such as fuses rods are equally spaced a maximum of 20 ft apart along the
and circuit breakers is more complex when high inrush currents high points on the structure. Rods are also placed within 2 ft of
are anticipated. Ideally, overcurrent protection must react the building ends and on the top of cupolas, chimneys, antenna
quickly to an overload or short-circuit, but must not interrupt mast, and towers. A network of conductive copper or aluminum
the circuit when the momentary inrush current flows. Typically, tape (thick, flat cable) bonds the rods to grounding electrodes
time delay fuses or circuit breakers can be used to avoid nui- that are driven into the earth. Metal roof vents in proximity
sance tripping from inrush current. Because inrush current is of the lightning rods are also bonded to the conductive tape.
short in duration, the time delay prevents such events. The system of vertical rods, tape, and ground electrodes
Inrush current can also be reduced by an inrush current is designed to present a low impedance (resistance) path to the
limiter, which protects circuits that encounter high inrush loads lightning current that diverts current away from the structural
up to 30 times the rated current for one-half cycle at 60 Hz and parts of the building. Modern buildings of reinforced concrete
eliminate nuisance tripping. Although many techniques are used or brick-clad steel frames may use the structural steelwork as
to limit inrush current, negative temperature coefficient (NTC) part or the entire conductor network. There is also a wide vari-
thermistors are the most commonly used inrush current limiter ety of other structural metal in buildings, which may be used as
for power supplies and motors. A thermistor is a thermally sen- part of the protection network or as air terminators (e.g., win-
sitive resistor with a resistance that changes significantly and dow cleaning rails).
predictably as a result of temperature changes. When equipment A lightning strike does not have to directly contact the
is first turned on, the NTC thermistor is cool and its resistance is building to cause damage to the building’s electrical system. A
high, which limits current flow. Resistance decreases rapidly as lightning strike on nearby power lines can induce high voltages
the thermistor self-heats, which then allows near-full current to that damage the building’s wiring system and electronic equip-
flow (at 61 Ω). A disadvantage is that when the NTC thermistor ment within the building. Although proper grounding of the
is switched off, it initially retains heat, so it offers little resistance building’s electrical system can limit damage to the building’s
and cannot limit the inrush current until heat is dissipated. Cool- wiring, unprotected electronic equipment is usually damaged.
down time varies according to the particular device, its mount- A surge protection device can minimize the damaging effects
ing method, and ambient temperature. The typical cool-down of a lightning strike (see the earlier section on SPDs). Addition-
time is about 1 min. NTC resistors are rated according to their ally, power passing through electrical circuits can generate rel-
resistance at room temperature. atively high magnetic fields that damage electronic equipment.
Shielding the wiring can minimize damage (see the earlier section
Lightning Protection on EMF).
More than 100 lightning flashes occur every second in the
atmosphere, which equates to about 8.6 million per day and
Equipment for Hazardous
over 3 billion annually. About 20% of these flashes actually
Locations
strike the ground.
Lightning discharges have been measured from 2000 A In a hazardous location, such as a gasoline station, paint-
to more than 200 000 A, with rise times to peak current of less spray booth, or factory, explosion-proof or explosion-resistant
equipment and wiring must be used. A hazardous location is a enclosures, fixtures, equipment are specially designed to with-
location in which fire or explosion hazards may exist because stand an explosion that may occur within it and of preventing
of the presence of flammable gases or vapors, flammable liq- the ignition of a specified gas or vapor surrounding the enclo-
uids, combustible dust, or easily ignited fibers under normal sure. Conduit that is used in an explosion-proof location must
operation or abnormal operating conditions. Types of haz- be sealed so that gas may not move from one enclosure to an-
ardous locations are grouped by class and division or by zone. other. In contrast, explosion-resistant equipment is designed to
Buildings or building spaces that are identified as hazardous lo- prevent ignition of an explosive or flammable material. A Na-
cations must meet regulations specific to the group it falls into. tionally Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL), such as UL,
Technically, the definitions of explosion-proof and accomplishes testing of explosion-proof or explosion-resistant
explosion-resistant differ. Explosion-proof receptacles, switches, equipment and wiring components.
STUDY QUESTIONS
18-1. What are power generation, transmission, and distri- 18-17. What are types of conductor insulation materials and
bution? where are they used in building electrical systems?
18-2. What is the service entrance of a building electrical 18-18. What is a cable and where is it used in building electri-
system and what are its components? cal systems?
18-3. What are the functions and differences of switchboards 18-19. What is a cord and where is it used in building electri-
and panelboards? cal systems?
18-4. What is the difference between a wye-connected and 18-20. What is a bus (bar)?
delta-connected transformer? 18-21. What are power loss and voltage drop and how are they
18-5. What is the difference between a step-down and step- related?
up transformer?
18-22. What is ampacity?
18-6. What is a circuit breaker and where is it used in a build-
18-23. What factors is the ampacity of a conductor based on?
ing electrical system?
18-24. What are types of raceways used in building electrical
18-7. What is a fuse and where is it used in a building electri-
systems? Explain each.
cal system?
18-8. What types of fuses are used in building electrical 18-25. What is a busway and where is it used in building elec-
systems? trical systems?
18-9. What is the difference between a receptacle and plug-in 18-26. How are electric motors rated?
building electrical systems? 18-27. With regard to electric motors, what are LRA, RLA,
18-10. Distinguish between the terms appliance and device. and FLA?
Give examples of each. 18-28. What are the types of motors used in building electrical
18-11. What types of switching configuration is used to con- systems?
trol a lighting installation from two points? What types 18-29. What does a motor service factor indicate?
of switches are used and how are switches arranged in 18-30. What is a motor controller?
the circuit?
18-31. What is a variable-frequency drive (VFD) and what is
18-12. What types of switching configuration is used to con- its advantage?
trol a lighting installation from three points? What
18-32. What is a tamper-resistant receptacle?
types of switches are used and how are switches
arranged in the circuit? 18-33. What is a GFCI, how does it function, and where is it
18-13. What types of switching configuration is used to con- used?
trol a lighting installation from four points? What types 18-34. What is an AFCI, how does it function, and where is it
of switches are used and how are switches arranged in used?
the circuit? 18-35. What is a surge protection device (SPD), how does it
18-14. Describe series and parallel circuit. Which is used in function, and where is it used?
building electrical systems? 18-36. What is GFP, how does it function, and where is it
18-15. What are the types of specialty switches? used?
18-16. What are types of conductor (wire) materials and 18-37. What is lightning protection, how does it function and
where are they used in building electrical systems? where is it used?
640 CHAPTER 18
18-38. What is EMF and why is it a potential concern in 18-50. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the
buildings? NEMA designation for the following wall-mounted,
18-39. What is an inrush current limiter, and where is it used? grounding-type devices used in a residence that are
rated at 15 A, 125 V, and serve as a connection method
18-40. In a single panelboard, what is the maximum number
for a two-pole, three-wire circuit:
of overcurrent protection devices that may be used for
protecting lighting/appliance branch circuits? a. Receptacle
18-41. It is referred to in the trade by several names: power panel, b. Plug
load center, distribution center, or main power panel. 18-51. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the
Code refers to it by a single name. Identify this name. NEMA designation for the following heavy-duty
grounding-type devices that are rated at 20 A, 125 V,
Design Exercises
and serve as a connection method for a two-pole, three-
18-42. With respect to conductor insulation, interpret the fol- wire circuit:
lowing insulation designations:
a. Receptacle
a. T b. Plug
b. N 18-52. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the
c. H NEMA designation for the following grounding-type
d. HH devices used for clothes dryers:
e. W a. Receptacle
18-43. With respect to conductors, interpret the following b. Plug
designations: 18-53. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the
a. THHN NEMA designation for the following grounding-type
b. THWN devices used for a kitchen range requiring a 50 A,
125/250 V rating:
c. XHHW
a. Receptacle
d. AL
b. Plug
e. CU
18-54. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the
18-44. With respect to cable, interpret the following designa- NEMA designation for the following grounding-type
tions: devices used for copy machines and air conditioners
a. NM requiring a 50 A, 125 V rating:
b. ACTH a. Receptacle
c. UF b. Plug
d. USE 18-55. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the
18-45. With respect to conductor insulation, describe the fol- NEMA designation for the following grounding-type
lowing location ratings: devices requiring a 20 A, 250 V four-pole, four-wire,
a. Dry three-phase rating:
b. Damp a. Receptacle
c. Wet b. Plug
18-46. A single-phase, three-wire panelboard must feed 30 cir- 18-56. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the
cuits. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the NEMA designation for the following grounding-type
minimum frame size required. devices requiring a 20 A, 250 V four-pole, four-wire,
three-phase rating:
18-47. A single-phase, three-wire panelboard must feed 36 cir-
cuits. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the a. Receptacle
minimum frame size required. b. Plug
18-48. A three-phase, four-wire panelboard must feed 42 cir- 18-57. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the
cuits. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the ampacity of the following conductors:
minimum frame size required. a. No. 8 AWG copper conductor with THHN insula-
18-49. A three-phase, four-wire panelboard must feed 42 cir- tion and a temperature rating of 60°C/140°F
cuits. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the b. No. 8 AWG copper conductor with THHN insula-
frame sizes available to meet this requirement. tion and a temperature rating of 75°C/167°F
c. No. 8 AWG copper conductor with THHN insula- b. NM-B cable with three No. 12 AWG copper
tion and a temperature rating of 90°C/194°F conductors having THHN or THWN insulation
d. No. 8 AWG aluminum conductor with THHN insu- c. NM-B cable with three No. 10 AWG copper
lation and a temperature rating of 75°C/167°F conductors having THHN or THWN insulation
18-58. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the 18-61. Armored cable (AC) is commonly used in commercial,
ampacity of the following conductors: industrial, institutional, and multiresidential installa-
a. No. 4/0 AWG aluminum conductor with THHN tions. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the
insulation and a temperature rating of 60°C/140°F ampacity of the following conductors:
a. AC cable with three No. 14 AWG copper conduc-
b. No. 4/0 AWG aluminum conductor with THHN
tors having THHN or THWN insulation
insulation and a temperature rating of 75°C/167°F
b. AC cable with three No. 12 AWG copper conduc-
c. No. 4/0 AWG aluminum conductor with THHN
c. AC cable with three No. 10 AWG copper conduc-
18-59. From tables provided in this chapter, identify the
ampacity of the following conductors:
18-62. From tables provided in this chapter, approximate the
a. No. 500 kcmil aluminum conductor with XHHW-2
full load rating for a 10 hp, 208 V, three-phase electric
motor, in amperes.
b. No. 500 kcmil aluminum conductor with XHHW-2 18-63. From tables provided in this chapter, approximate the
insulation and a temperature rating of 75°C/167°F full load rating for a 11⁄2 hp, 120 V, single-phase electric
c. No. 500 kcmil aluminum conductor with XHHW-2 motor, in amperes.
insulation and a temperature rating of 90°C/194°F 18-64. From tables provided in this chapter, approximate the
18-60. Nonmetallic (NM-B) cable is commonly used in single- full load rating for a 100 hp, 460 V, three-phase electric
family residential installations. From tables provided motor, in amperes.
in this chapter, identify the ampacity of the following
conductors:
a. NM-B cable with three No. 14 AWG copper
conductors having THHN or THWN insulation

Eee CH 18

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Eee CH 18

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Eee CH 18

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

C H A P T E R E I G H T E E N

mechanical energy is about 40% for a fossil-fuel plant and

FIGURE 18.1 Power transmission and distribution.

distribution line voltages are generally 4160 V, 4800 V, 6900 V

Generated voltages 13.2 13 200 151.5

FIGURE 18.2 A typical service entrance/panelboard configuration in a simple residential building

FIGURE 18.3 A service entrance, switchboard, and distribution configuration in a

TABLE 18.2 COMMON COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE PRIMARY TO

Primary Voltages Secondary Voltages Available

FIGURE 18.7 A delta-wye (Δ-Y) transformer combination. Additional

the common return point for the neutral conductor. Connecting

18.3 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION: FUSES

An overcurrent protection (OCP) device safeguards the build-

TABLE 18.3 STANDARD UL CURRENT RATINGS CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND FUSES.

Overcurrent Protection Device Rating (Amperes)

Circuit breakers 15 A, 20 A, 30 A, 40 A, 50 A, 60 A, 70 A, 80 A, 90 A, 100 A, 110 A, 125 A, 150 A, 200 A, 225 A, 250 A,

TABLE 18.4 COMMON PANELBOARD AND LOAD CENTER

Single-Phase, Three-Wire Panelboards and Load Centers

100 100 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30

an enclosure such as a switchboard, panelboard, motor control

TABLE 18.5 CONFIGURATION FOR NONLOCKING RECEPTACLES AND PLUGS.

Number/Type of Conducting Poles Receptacle (R) and Plug (P) Ratings

NEMA Designation Configuration

1-15R 1-15P 15 A, 125 V For replacement only. Former standard,

5-15R 5-15P 15 A, 125 V Standard, wall-mounted receptacle for

5-20R 5-20P 20 A, 125 V For heavy-duty appliances such as room air

10-30R 10-30P 30 A, 125/250 V Typically for replacement only or nongrounding

14-30R 14-30P 30 A, 125/250 V Clothes dryers in residences and heavy-duty

10-50R 10-50P 50 A, 125/250 V Typically for replacement only or nongrounding

14-50R 14-50P 50 A, 125/250 V Ranges in residences and heavy-duty

NEMA Designation Configuration

5-30R 5-30P 30 A, 250 V For office copy machines, commercial air

5-50R 5-50P 50 A, 125 V For production copy machines, commercial air

6-15R 6-15P 15 A, 250 V For heavy-duty appliances such as room air

6-20R 6-20P 20 A, 250 V For heavy-duty appliances such as room air

6-30R 6-30P 30 A, 250 V For heavy-duty appliances such as large air

6-50R 6-50P 50 A, 250 V For production copy machines, commercial air

7-15R 7-15P 15 A, 277 V For heavy commercial and industrial lighting

14-60R 14-60P 60 A, 125/250 V For heavy-duty commercial and industrial

18-20R 18-20P 20 A, 250 V–3Φ For three-phase motors in commercial and

18-60R 18-60P 20 A, 250 V–3Φ For heavy-duty, three-phase motors in

They are used extensively as motor circuit switches, serv-

DC Resistance per Conductor at 77°F (25°C)

Buses generally makes hollow or flat shapes prevalent in higher cur-

A Glass fiber or similar insulation material (formerly asbestos, which is obsolete)

Common Insulation Material Markingsc

Conductor Material and Temperature Rating

Conductor Temperature Rating

140°F 60°C TW, UF

140°F 60°C TW, UF

THHN or THWN-2 Copper Conductor

Nominal Outside Approx. Net Weight Ampacity

THHN or THWN-2 Aluminum Conductor

Nominal Outside Approx. Net Weight Ampacity

XHHW-2 Copper Conductor

Nominal Outside Approx. Net Weight Ampacity

XHHW-2 Aluminum Conductor

Nominal Outside Approx. Net Weight Ampacity