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CHAPTER GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

9 COMPRESSIBILITY & CONSOLIDATION

1. INTRODUCTION

Compressibility is the process of increase in volume due to increase in load or effective stress
on the soil. The compressibility of a soil sample may be due to following reasons.
- Expulsion of pore air
- Expulsion of pore water
- Compression of water and solid particles
- Plastic readjustment of soil particles
Water and solid particles are assumed to be incompressible in nature. When the sample
compresses due to expulsion of air, this is known as compaction of soil and when the
compression takes place due to steady static pressure of saturated soil, which results in
expulsion of pore water pressure and plastic readjustment of soil particle, known as
consolidation of soil.

2. TYPES OF CONSOLIDATION

(i) Primary Consolidation

When soil is fully saturated, this process will take place. Due to increase in loading pore
pressure increases therefore pore water is expelled out under laminar condition and volume
decrease take place due to expulsion of pore water and during the entire process of
consolidation degree of saturation remains 100%. This consolidation depends upon
permeability, loading condition and length of drainage path.
(ii) Secondary consolidation
As soon as the primary consolidation is done, if load remains constant then further settlement
may occur due to plastic readjustment of soil solids. This will give more stable structure to the
soil sample. It is a very slow process and is time dependent.
Secondary settlement is insignificant for coarse grained soil and may be neglected whereas for
highly plastic clays it may be 10 to 20% of total settlement.

3. NORMAL AND OVER CONSOLIDATED SOIL

The soil which are loaded for the first time in the history to the present applied effective stress
are known as normal consolidated soil. They are more compressible and has highly settlement
behaviour.

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Over consolidated soils are these which have been loaded in the past history in such soils the
present applied effective stress is less than the past applied effective stress.
maximum applied effective stress in the past
Over consolidation ratio (OCR) =
present applied effective stress

- For over consolidated soil OCR  1

- For normal consolidated soil OCR = 1

4. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF VARIOUS RELATIONS

Effective stress v/s void ratio (NC soil):

The nature of the curve is concave also known as virgin compression curve. Shape of this curve
is called coefficient of compressibility (a v). According to this curve, expression between void
ratio and effective stress is given as

−(e)
av =

Here,
av = coefficient of compressibility (m2/kN)
e = change in void ratio
 = change in effective stress.
Effective stress v/s void ratio on logarithmic scale:

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Nature of the curve is straight line and the curve is known as compression index or coefficient
of compression (Cc). The expression between void ratio and log effective stress can be given
as

−(e)
cc =
 
log10  1 
 0 
Here,
Cc = compression index (dimensionless)
e = change in void ratio

1 0 + 
=
0 0
 = change in effective stress
Theoretical computation of Cc can be determined for undisturbed and remoulded soil.
- for undisturbed soil→ Cc = 0.009 (wL – 10)
- for remoulded soil → Cc = 0.007 (wL – 10)
Here, wL = liquid limit
Effective stress v/s void ratio (over consolidated soil):

The nature of the curve is convex in shape.

Effective stress v/s void ratio (OCS) logarithmic scale:

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The nature of the curve is little convex in shape and the curve is called coefficient of
recompression or recompression index (Cr)
Relation between Cu and Cc is given as:

1 1 
Cu =  to C
5 10  c

Here Cc = coefficient of compression.

Example: The void ratio of a soil subjected to effective stress of 100 kN/m 2 was 0.65. If the
stress, is increased to 250 kN/m2, the void ratio decreases to 0.45. The coefficient of
compressibility and compression index of the soil is
Sol.
−∆𝑒 0.45−0.65
Coefficient of compressibility = =− = 1.33×10-3 m2/kN
∆𝜎 250−100
𝑒2 −𝑒1 0.45−0.65
Compression index = − 𝜎 =− 250 = 0.503
log 2 log
𝜎1 100

Example: Find the compression index of a remoulded soil if the liquid limit of the soil is equal
to 36%
Sol.
Compression index of remoulded soil = 0.007 (wL – 10) = 0.007 (36 -10) = 0.182

5. ONE DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION THEORY OF TERZAGHI

There are following assumptions in Terzaghi’s theory

(i) Soil mass is semi-infinite.
(ii) Soil is homogenous and isotropic.
(iii) Darcy’s law is valid.
(iv) Flow of water is only vertical volume change is due to change in depth only.
(v) The soil remains saturated during entire process of consolidation.
(vi) There is no change is soil structure.
(vii) The hydrodynamic lag is considered whereas plastic lag is ignored which means this theory
is only applicable for 1° consolidation not for 2° consolidation.
One dimensional consolidation equation of Terzaghi:
This equation is given as

u 2u
= Cv  2
t z
Here,
u
= rate of change of pore pressure
t
Cv = coefficient of consolidation
u
= rate of change of pore pressure with depth.
z
u = excess pore pressure.
The coefficient of consolidation can be calculated as

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𝐾
𝐶𝑣 =
𝛾𝑤 ⋅ 𝑚𝑣
Here,
K = coefficient of permeability
γw = unit weight of water
mv = coefficient of volume compressibility
mv can be defined as the ratio of unit volume change to the corresponding change in effective
stress.
Mathematically,

 v 
 v 
mv = −  

OR

av
mv =
1 + e0

Example: A soil having natural void ratio 0.45 is subjected to an effective stress of 135 kN/m 2.
If the stress in increased to 245 kN/m 2, the void ratio decreases to 0.34. If the coefficient of
permeability of the soil is 3×10-4 cm/s, determine the coefficient of consolidation.
Sol.
0.45−0.34
𝑎𝑣
Coefficient of volume change = = 245−135
= 6.90 × 10−4 𝑚2 /𝑘𝑁
1+𝑒0 1+0.45

𝐾 3×10−6
Coefficient of consolidation = = = 0.00044𝑚2 /𝑠 = 1.59 𝑚2 /ℎ𝑟
𝑚𝑣 𝛾𝑤 6.90×10−4 ×9.81

6. DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION

It represents the percentage of completion of 1° consolidation at any instant of time.

Theoretically the consolidation process completes in infinite time but practically it completes in
certain amount of time.
The following methods are used in computation of degree of consolidation.
(i) If settlement is given:
Let h is the settlement of soil after time ‘t’ degree of consolidation is given as

h
%U =  100
H
Here, H is the total settlement.
h will depend on 2 way or 1 way drainage condition.
(ii) If void ratio is given:
The degree of consolidation can be determined as

e0 − e
%U =  100
e0 − e100

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here,
e0 = void ratio at the centre of soil at the beginning of consolidation.
e100 = void ratio at the centre of soil after the completion of consolidation.
e = void ratio after time ‘t’ at the centre of the soil.
(iii) If excess pore pressure is given:
Let ‘u’ be the excess pore pressure after the time ‘t’,
𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢
%𝑈 = × 100
𝑢𝑖

Where, ui = initial excess pore pressure at the beginning of test.

Example: What will be the degree of consolidation if a soil layer initially 5 m, compresses to 5
cm. The total settlement of the soil layer is assumed to be 15 cm.
Sol.
5
Degree of consolidation = × 100 = 33.33%
15

7. TIME FACTOR

Time factor depends upon following factors

- Degree of consolidation
- Length of drainage path
- Time of consolidation
- Coefficient of consolidation
It is a term which relates the degree of consolidation and the time required for that
consolidation.
Mathematically, it is given as

Cv t
Tv =
d2
Here,
Tv = time factor
𝜋
𝑇𝑣 = 𝑈 2 , when 𝑈 ≤ 0.6
4

𝑇𝑣 = 0.9332 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 1 − 𝑈) − 0.0851, when U > 0.6

U = degree of consolidation
H0
d = length of drainage path = , for two way drainage
2
= H0, for one way drainage
Cv = coefficient of consolidation
Example: Find the value of coefficient of consolidation for a clay layer which settles 45% of its
estimated settlement within 15 days. Assume the clay layer is 5 m thick and confined between
two permeable strata.

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Sol.
𝜋 𝜋
Time factor for 45% settlement (𝑇𝑣 ) = 𝑈 2 = × 0.452 = 0.159
4 4

For double drainage d = 5/2 = 2.5 m

So,
𝑇𝑣 𝑑 2 0.159×2.52
Coefficient of consolidation 𝐶𝑣 = = = 0.067 𝑚2 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑡 15

8. COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION AND IT’S DETERMINATION

The value of coefficient of consolidation changes with change in effective stress, therefore its
value is taken at the centre of the compressibility layer.
There are two methods to find Cv which are based on time fitting of curve approach.
(i) Taylor’s Method: In this method, the relationship between degree of consolidation and
square root of time factor is utilized by Taylor. The relationship is linear up to the value of U
equal to 60%. Also, it was established that at U = 90%, the value of √𝑇𝑣 is 1.15 times the
value obtained by extension of straight line portion.
Time factor for 90% consolidation is used in this method. According to this method.
Cv  t90
T90 =
d2
T90  d2 0.848  d2
 Cv = =
t90 t90

0.848d2
 Cv =
t90

here,
d = length of drainage path
t90 = time required for 90% consolidation.
(ii) Casagrande Method: In this method, the theoretical relationship between U and logT v is
utilized. The time factor for 50% consolidation is used and also known as logarithm time fitting
method. According to this method, Cv can be calculated as

T50d2
cv =
t50

0.197d2
 cv =
t50

9. SETTLEMENT OF SOIL

The total settlement consists of three settlements, they are as follows.

Total settlement = Immediate settlement + 1° consolidation settlement + 2° consolidation
settlement
 Total settlement = Si + Sc + Ss

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9.1. Immediate Settlement
Immediate settlement usually takes place due to expulsion of pore air and elastic
deformation of solids and water in case of partially saturated soil whereas in case of
saturated soil it is due to elastic compression of solids and water and due to squeezing of
water under turbulent condition.
In both the cases, clay and sand the immediate settlement can be determined as follows.
(a) Immediate settlement in sand:

H0   +  
Si = log10  0 
Cs  0 
Here,
𝐶𝑟
𝐶𝑠 = 1.5
𝜎̄0
Cr = static cone resistance constant (kN/m2)
H0 = initial thickness of soil
 0 = Initial effective overburden pressure at centre of soil
 = decrease in effective stress at centre of compressibility.
(b) Immediate settlement in clays:
Immediate settlement is insignificant in case of saturated days but the small elastic
settlement due to deformation of molecule and squeezing of water may occur. The
immediate settlement below the corner of rectangular flexible foundation is given by
𝑞𝐵(1 − 𝜇 2 )𝐼𝑡
𝑆𝑖 =
𝐸𝑠
here,
B = width of foundation
Q
q = uniform pressure at the base of foundation =
B L
 = Poisson’s ratio of soil (0.3 to 0.5)
Es = young’s modulus of soil
It = shape factor or influence factor.
Example: What will be the immediate settlement of a rigid footing, if the footing is
subjected to a pressure of 150 kN/m2. The modulus of elasticity and Poisson ratio of the
soil is 2500 kN/m2 and 0.26 respectively. Take the value of rigidity factor to be 0.80 and
the width of the footing is 1.5m.
Sol.
𝑞𝐵(1−𝜇2 )𝐼𝑡 150×1.5(1−0.262 )×0.80
Immediate settlement = = = 0.0671 𝑚 = 6.71 𝑐𝑚
𝐸𝑠 2500

9.2. 1° Consolidation settlement

This settlement is due to expulsion of pore water. The ultimate consolidation settlement
(Sc) does not depend on one way or 2 way drainage.
It can be calculated if following information are provided.

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(a) Void ratio:

e
Sc = H = H0
1 + e0

Here,
e = change in void ratio at centre due to increase in effective stress.
e0 = initial void ratio at the centre of compressible layer
H0 = Initial thickness
(b) Modulus of volume change:

Sc = H = H0 mv ()

(c) Coefficient of compression:

CC H0   +  
Sc = H = log10  0 
1 + e0  0 

If stress is increased from 1 to 2 then total settlement = H1 + H2

CrH0   + 1  CC H0   + 2 

H = log10  0 + log10  1 
1 + e0  0  1 + e0  1 
9.3. 2° Consolidation Settlement (SS)

Cs H100  t 
SS = log10  
1 + e100  t100 

Here,
SS = 2° settlement after time ‘t’ from completion of 1° consolidation.
t100 = time required for completion of 1° consolidation.
e100 = void ratio after 1° consolidation
H100 = thickness of soil after 1° consolidation
CS = 2° compression index.
Example: A clay layer having initial thickness 4m and natural void ratio 0.64 is subjected
to an effective stress of 345 kN/m2 at its centre. If the stress is increased to 432 kN/m 2,
what will be the settlement of the clay? Assume the compression index of the soil is
0.045.
Sol.
𝐶𝐶 𝐻0 𝜎2 0.045×4 432
Consolidation settlement ∆𝐻 = log = log = 0.1105𝑚 = 11.05 𝑐𝑚
1+𝑒0 𝜎1 1+0.64 345

10. PROBLEMS

Problem 1: What will be the final settlement of a clay layer which is originally 2.5m thick and
the load is increased from 1.5 kg/cm 2 to 3.8 kg/cm2 due to which the void ratio is reduced by
15%. Assume the initial void ratio of soil is 0.72.
Ans. 15.5 cm

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Problem 2: A normally consolidated clay layer having thickness 2.6 m is subjected to effective
stress of 127 kN/m2 at the middle of clay layer. If the stress in increased by 46.5 kN/m 2, what
will be the primary consolidation settlement of clay layer? Assume the initial void ratio and
compression index of the soil is 0.80 and 0.28 respectively.
Ans. 5.49 cm
Problem 3: Determine the primary consolidation of the clay layer shown in the figure below if
a surcharge of 100 kN/m2 placed on the ground surface. The pre consolidation pressure for the
soil is 170 kN/m2 and the recompression index is 1/6th times the compression index.

Ans. 46.8 mm
Problem 4: In how many days a clay layer 5 m thick, draining at both ends will attain 50% of
its ultimate settlement, if the coefficient of consolidation is
40 ×10-4 cm2/s
Ans. 35.5 days
Problem 5: A consolidation test was performed on a 2 cm thick clay sample. After 5 minutes,
50% consolidation is reached. After how long a time would the same degree of consolidation
be achieved in the field where the clay layer is 3.70 m thick? Assume the sample and the clay
layer have the same drainage boundary conditions (double drainage).
Ans. 119 days

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