Module 1

Stress and Strain

Objectives
Classify the stresses into various categories and define elastic properties of materials
and compute stress and strain intensities caused by applied loads in simple and
compound sections and temperature changes, elastics constants with numerical.

Learning Structure
• Classification Of Engineering Materials
• Choice Of Selection Of Engineering Materials
• Physical Properties Of Materials
• Mechanical Properties
• Stress, Strain And Hook’s Law
• Stress – Strain Relation Or Diagram For Ductile Material
• Stress – Strain Relation Or Diagram For Brittle Material
• Elongation Of Tapering Bars Of Circular Cross Section
• Elongation Of Tapering Bars Of Rectangular Cross Section
• Problems
• Compound Or Composite Bars
• Temperature Stresses In A Single Bar
• Simple Shear Stress And Shear Strain
• Volumetric Strain
• Bulk Modulus
• Relation Between Elastic Constants
• Exercise Problems
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1.1 Classification of Engineering Materials

1.2 Choice of Selection of Engineering Materials

➢ Availability of materials.
➢ Sustainability of materials for the working conditions in service.
➢ Cost of materials.

1.3 Physical Properties of Materials

➢ Lustre
➢ Colour
➢ Size
➢ Density
➢ Shape

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1.4 Mechanical Properties

• Load (F or P)
It is defined as any external force acting on a body

• Elasticity
It is the property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load is enable to
return to its original dimension when load is removed.
If the body regains completely its original shape, it is said to be perfectly elastic.

In the above figure, the specimen is loaded upto point A, well within the elastic limit
E. When load corresponding to point A is gradually removed the curve follows the same
path AO and Strain completely disappears. Such a behaviour is known as Elastic
behaviour. Steel is more elastic than rubber.

• Plasticity
It is the converse of Elasticity. It is the property of a material which retains the
deformation produced under the load permanently.

• Ductility
It is the property of a material which exhibits large deformations in longitudinal
direction under the application of tensile force before failure.
A ductile material must be strong and plastic. The ductility is measured in terms of %
elongation or % reduction in cross-sectional area of test specimen.

Ex: Mild steel, Brass, Aluminium, Nickel, Zinc, Tin, Lead etc..,

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• Brittleness
It is the property of a material which exhibits little or no yielding before failure.
Generally brittle materials are have higher strength in compression than in tension.

Ex: Cast Iron, High carbon steel, Concrete, Stone, Glass, Ceramic materials etc..,

• Malleability
It is the property of a material which permits the material to be extended in all
directions without rupture.
A malleable material possesses a high degree of plasticity but not necessarily great
strength

Ex: Gold, Lead, Soft steel, wrought iron, Copper, Aluminium, etc..,

• Strength
It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking or
yielding.
The load required to cause fracture divided by the area of the test specimen is termed
as ultimate strength of the material.

• Toughness
It is the property of a material which enables it to absorb energy without fracture.

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This property is desirable in parts subjected to impact and shock loads. Toughness is
measured in terms of energy required per unit volume of the material to cause rupture
under the action of gradually increasing tensile load.

• Hardness
It is the ability of the material to resist indentation or surface abrasion.
It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation, machinability etc..,

• Stiffness
It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress.
The stiffness is measured by the modulus of elasticity in case of axially loaded members

• Creep
Whenever a member or part of a machine subjected to a constant stress at high
temperature for a longer period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent
deformation called creep.
• Resilience

It is the property of the material to absorb energy and to resist shock and Impact
loads.
It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit,

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1.5 Stress, Strain and Hook’s law

The most fundamental concepts in mechanics of materials are stress and strain. These
concepts can be illustrated in their most elementary form by considering a prismatic bar
subjected to axial forces. A prismatic bar is a straight structural member having the same
cross section throughout its length, and an axial force is a load directed along the axis of the
member, resulting in either tension or compression in the bar.

1.5.1 Stress
When a body is acted upon by external force F, or Load P, internal resisting force is setup in
the body such a body is said to be in state of stress, hence the resistance offered by the body
against deformation due to the application of load is called as stress.
Or
The Internal resisting force per unit area at any section of the body is known as Stress

It is denoted by σ (Sigma),

Applied Load or Force F or P N

Stress σ = =
Cross−sectional Area A mm2

In general, the stresses s acting on a plane surface may be uniform throughout the area or may
vary in intensity from one point to another.

1.5.1.1 Types of Stresses

1) Normal Stress
a) Tensile Stress
b) Compressive Stress
2) Shear Stress
3) Bearing Stress

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1. Normal Stress
A normal stress is a stress that occurs when a member is loaded by an axial force. (Axial
force is the force acting along the axis of the specimen).
Normal stress can be either tensile or compressive in nature.

a) Tensile stress
When a load is acting in such a way that it tends to extend the material in the direction of
application of load is called tensile load and the corresponding stress is called tensile stress.

P or F N
Tensile stress, σ =
A mm2

b) Compressive stress

When a load is acting in such a way that it tends to shorten the material in the direction of
application of load is called compressive load and the corresponding stress is called
compressive stress.

P or F N
Compressive stress, σ =
A mm2
When a sign convention for normal stresses is required, it is customary to define tensile
stresses as positive and compressive stresses as negative.

2. Shear Stress
Shearing stress is a force that causes two contacting parts or layers to slide upon each other in
opposite directions. The stress developed at the contacting surfaces is known as shear stress.

Shearing Force P or F N
Shear Stress, τ = =
Shearing Area A mm2

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3. Bearing Stress
A Localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members of a machine
part that are relatively at rest is known as Bearing stress or crushing stress.

P P N
Bearing Stress = =
A td mm2

Where,
t = Thickness of Plate
d = Diameter of the bolt

1.5.2 Strain
When a body is subjected to some external force there is some change in dimensions of the
body.
The ratio of change in dimensions of the body to the original dimensions is known as Strain
(ε)

Change in Dimension
Strain ε =
Original Dimension

Strain is dimensionless

1.5.2.1 Types of Strain

1) Linear Strain
a) Tensile Strain
b) Compressive Strain
2) Lateral Strain
3) Shear Strain
4) Volumetric Strain

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1. Linear Strain
A straight bar will change in length when loaded axially, becoming longer when in tension and
shorter when in compression. This change in dimensions in axial direction is known as Linear
Strain.
Tensile Strain,

Change in length (Extension) dl δl

Tensile Strain ε = = =
Original length l l

Compressive Strain,

Change in Length (Reduction) dl δl

Compressive Strain ε = = =
Original Length l l

2. Lateral Strain

Lateral strain, also known as transverse strain, which takes place at right angles to the
direction of applied load is known as lateral strain.

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3. Shear Strain
Shear strain is the ratio of deformation to original dimensions. In the case of shear strain, it is
the amount of deformation perpendicular to a given line rather than parallel to it.

4. Volumetric Strain
It is the ratio of change in volume to its original volume

δv
Volumetric Strain, εv = v
1.5.3 Poison’s ratio
It is the ratio of lateral strain to linear strain

Lateral Strain
Poison’s ratio μ =
Linear Strain

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1.5.4 Hook’s Law

It states that “When a material is loaded within its elastic limit, stress is directly
proportional to the strain”

Stress α Strain

Stress
i.e = Constant
Strain
σ
i.e =E
ε
Where,
E = A constant of proportionality known as Modulus of Elasticity E
σ = Stress & ε = Strain
Hook’s law holds good for tension as well as compression.

1.5.5 Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus (E)

Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus (E) is the constant of proportionality and is defined
as the ratio of linear stress to linear strain within elastic limit.

Linear stress (Tensile or Compressive) 𝜎

Modulus of Elasticity, E = =
Linear Strain (Tensile or Compressive) 𝜀
𝜎
∴E= MPa or GPa
𝜀

1.5.6 Factor of Safety (FOS)

It is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress or yield stress to the working or allowable or design
stress

Ultimate or Yield Stress

FOS =
Working or Allowable or Design Stress

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1.6 Stress – Strain Relation or Diagram for Ductile Material (Mild Steel or Low carbon
steel)
A stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel as a specimen in tension is shown in Figure.
Strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and stresses on the vertical axis.

The load on the test specimen is increased gradually from zero in suitable increments till the
specimen fails and the corresponding graph will be computed as shown in the figure below.

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Proportional Limit (A)

From O to A the curve is straight and linear and hence proportional limit is the limiting value
of stress upto which stress is directly proportional to strain and hence Hooke’s law holds good
upto point A.
Stress α Strain

Elastic Limit (B)

The point B is slightly beyond point A and is known as Elastic limit. Upto point B, the material
will regain its original size and shape when load is removed. This indicates that the material
has elastic properties upto point B.

Upper Yield Point (C)

If the material is stressed beyond point B, plastic deformation starts and the material does not
regain its original size and shape upon unload and this phenomenon is called as Yielding.

A point at which Maximum load or stress required to initiate the plastic deformation or
yielding of the material is called as Upper yield point “C”. At this point the dislocations or
slip in the crystalline structure starts moving.

Lower Yield Point (D)

As the dislocations or slip is taking place in the material, it offers less resistance to the
material and hence curve falls slightly.

A point at which minimum load or stress required to maintain the plastic deformation or
yielding of the material is called as Lower yield point “D” and this point depicts the end of
plastic deformation of the material.

Dislocations or slip become too much in number and they restrict each other’s movement.

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Ultimate Stress point (E)

After Lower Yield point D, Strain Hardening in the materials takes place. Strain hardening,
also known as work hardening, is the strengthening of a metal occurs because of dislocation
movements within the crystal structure of the material and hence there is a positive rise in curve
from D to E. In this region as stress increases strain also increases

At point E the specimen takes maximum load, and the corresponding stress at point E is called
the ultimate stress point “E”.

Breaking Point (F)

Beyond the ultimate stress point is reached Necking takes place and the cross sectional area
considerably decreases, the load carrying capacity of the specimen reduces and hence in the
portion E to F the strain increases with decrease in stress. At point F the specimen breaks. The
stress at this point is called breaking stress or fracture stress.

1.7 True Stress - Strain and Engineering Stress - Strain

Let P be the load, Ao be the original area of Cross-section, A be the area of cross-section at
any instant.

Engineering stress is the applied load divided by the original cross-sectional area of a
material. Also known as nominal stress.

Load P N
Engineering Stress σ = =
Original Area of Cross−section Ao mm2

True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area (the changing area
with respect to time) of the specimen at that load

Load P N
True Stress σ = =
Actual Area of Cross−section at any instant A mm2

Engineering strain is the change in length to its original length in a tensile test. Also known
as nominal strain.
δl
Engineering Strain ε =
l
δl
True strain is the sum of all the strains over the original length. True Strain ε = ∑
l

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Additional Information – Photo Gallery

Detailed information for specimen preparation

Various Specimens

UTM for testing and Computer to plot Stress-Strain curve.

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Location of plastic region Location of Dislocation upon Loading and Unloading

Necking in Tensile specimen

Specimens undergoing test Actual Stress-Strain curve

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1.7 Stress – Strain Relation or Diagram for Brittle Material

Brittle materials, which includes cast iron,

glass, and stone do not have a yield point, and
do not strain-harden. Therefore, the ultimate
strength and breaking strength are the same. A
typical stress–strain curve is shown in the
figure.

Proof Stress:

For materials which do not have clearly

defined yield point, an arbitrary yield point is
defined by drawing a line which is offset by a
certain strain value and is parallel to the
original stress-strain line (within proportional
limit). The strain by which line is offset can
be 0.1% or 0.2% and the corresponding stress
is the Proof Stress at 0.1% or 0.2% strain
respectively.

Additional formulas to remember:

Percentage Elongation in Length,

Final Length−Initial Length
% Elongation = x 100
Initial Length

Lf −Li
% Elongation = x 100
Li

Percentage Reduction in Area,

Initial Area−Final Area
% Reduction = x 100
Initial Area

Ai −Af
% Reduction = x 100
Ai

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1.9 Elongation of tapering bars of circular cross section

Consider a circular bar uniformly tapered from diameter d1 at one end and gradually increasing
to diameter d2 at the other end over an axial length L as shown in the figure below.

Since the diameter of the bar is continuously changing, the elongation is first computed over
an elementary length and then integrated over the entire length. Consider an elementary strip
of diameter d and length dx at a distance of x from end A.
Using the principle of similar triangles the following equation for d can be obtained

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1.10 Elongation of tapering bars of rectangular cross section

Consider a bar of same thickness t throughout its length, tapering uniformly from a breadth B
at one end to a breadth b at the other end over an axial length L. The flat is subjected to an
axial force P as shown in the figure below.

Since the breadth of the bar is continuously changing, the elongation is first computed over an
elementary length and then integrated over the entire length. Consider an elementary strip of
breadth bx and length dx at a distance of x from left end.
Using the principle of similar triangles the following equation for bx can be obtained

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Problem 1: A rod 150cm long and of diameter 2.0cm is subjected to an axial pull of 20 kN. If the
modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod is 2 x 105 N/mm2, determine:
(i) the stress
(ii) the strain, and
(iii) the elongation of the rods.

Sol. Given: Length the rod, L = 150 cm,

Diameter of rod, D = 2.0 cm = 20mm
π
 Area, A = (20)2 100π mm2
4
Axial pull, P = 20 kN = 20,000N

Modulus of elasticity, E = 2.0 x 105 N/mm2

(i) The stress () is given equation (1.1) as

P 2000

= A100  - 63.662 N/mm2, Ans.
(ii) Using equation (1.5) the strain is obtained

as E e
 63.662
Strain, e = E E = 2 x105 = 0.000318. Ans
(iii) Elongation is obtained by using equation (1.2) as
dL
e L
 Elongation, dL = e x L
= 0.000318 x 150 = 0.0477cm. Ans

Problem 2: Find the minimum diameter of a steel wire, which is used to raise load of 4000 N if the
stress in the rod is not to exceed 95MN/m2.

Sol. Given : Load, P = 4000N

Stress,  = 95MN/m2 = 95 x 106 N/m2 ( M=Mega=106)
= 95N/mm2 ( 106 N/m2 = 1N/mm2)
Let D = Diameter of wire in mm
 Area, A=  D2
4
Now Stress = Load  P
Area A
4000 4000 x 4 4000 x 4
95 = π  D2 or D2
= π x 95 = 53.61
4 D2
D = 7.32mm Ans.

Problem 3: A tensile test was conducted on a mild steel bar. The following data was obtained from
the test:
(i) Diameter of the steel bar = 3cm
(ii) Gauge length of the bar = 20cm
(iii) Load at elastic limit = 250 kN
(iv) Extension at a load of 150 kN = 0.21mm
 (v) Maximum load = 380 kN
(vi) Total extension = 60mm
(vii) Diameter of the rod at the failure = 2.25cm
Determine: (a) the Young's Modulus, (b) the stress elastic limit
(c) the percentage elongation, and (d) the percentage decrease in area.
π 2 π 2 2
Sol. Area of rod, A = 4D  4 (3) cm

(a) To find Young's modulus, first calculate the value of stress and strain within elastic limit. The load
at elastic limit it given but the extension corresponding to the load of elastic limit is not given. But a
load 150 kN (which is within elastic limit) and corresponding extension of 0.21mm are given. Hence
these values are used for stress and strain within elastic limit
Load 150 x 1000 N/m2
Stress 
Area 7.0685 x 10 - 4 ( 1 kN = 1000 N)
= 21220.9 x 104 N/m2
and Strain Increasein length (or Extension)
Original Length (or Guage length)

0.21mm
 0.00105
20 x 10mm

E
Stress
x
21220.9x10 4
 20209523 x 104 N/m2
Strain 0.00105
= 202.095 x 109 N/m2 ( 109 = Giga = G)
= 202.095 x GN/m2 Ans.

(b) The stress at the elastic limit is given by

Stress Load at elastic limit  250x1000

Area 7.0685x10  4
= 35368 x 104 N/m2
= 353.68 x 106 N/m2 ( 106 = Mega = M)
= 353.68 MN/m2. Ans.
(c) The percentage decrease is obtained as,
percentage elongation
Total Increase in length
 Original length (or guage length) x 100

60mm
 x 100 30% Ans. 20 x
10mm

(d) The percentage decrease in area is obtained as
percentage decrease in area.

 (Original area - Area at the failure) x 100

Original area
π 2
 π 2 
 x3 x 2.25 

=
4 4  x 100
π
x 32
4
  32 2.25  2 (9 - 5.0625)
=   x 100  x 100  43.75% Ans.
 2 

 3  9

ANALYSISZS OF BARS OF VARYING SECTIONS

A bar of different lengths and of different diameters (and hence of different cross-sectional
areas) is shown in Fig.1.4 (). Let this bar is subjected to an axial load P.

Though each section is subjected to the same axial load P, yet the stresses, strains and change in
length will be different. The total change in length will be obtained by adding the changes in length of
individual section
Let P = Axial load acting on the bar,
L1 = Length of section 1,
A1 = Cross-Sectional area of section 1,
L2, A2 = Length and cross-sectional areas of section 2,
L3, A3 = Length and cross-sectional areas of section 3, and
E = Young's modulus for the bar.

Problem 4: An axial pull of 35000 N is acting on a bar consisting of three lengths as shown in Fig.1.6
(b). If the Young's modulus = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2, determine.
(i) Stresses in each section and
(ii) total extension of the bar

Sol. Given:
Axial pull, P = 35000 N
Length of section 1, L1 = 20cm = 220mm
Dia. of Section 1, D1 = 2cm = 20mm
π
 Area of Section 1, A1 = 4 (202 ) 100 mm2
Length of section 2, L2 = 25cm = 250mm
Dia. of Section 2, D2 = 3cm = 30mm
π
 Area of Section 2, A2 = 4 (302 ) 225 mm2
Length of section 3, L3 = 22cm = 220mm
Dia. of Section 3, D3 = 5cm = 50mm
π
 Area of Section 2, A3 = 4 (502 ) 625 mm2
Young's Modulus, E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2
(i) Stress in each section
Axial load
Stress in section 1,1 = Area of Section 1
= P  35000 = 111.408N/mm2. Ans.
A 100π
1

Stress in section 2, = P  35000 = 49.516N/mm2. Ans.

 A2 225 x π
P 35000
Stress in section 3, =  = 17.825 N/mm2. Ans.
A3 625 x π
(ii) Total extension of the
bar Using equation (1.8), we get
 L L L 
P 1 2
Total Extension =   3 
E A A A 
 1 2 3 
35000  200 250 230
=    
2.1 x 105 100π 225 x π 625 x π
=
35000 (6.366 + 3.536 + 1.120) = 0.183mm Ans.
2.1 x 105
Problem 5: A member formed by connecting a steel bar to aluminium for bar is shown in Fig.1.7.
Assuming that the bars are presented from buckling, sideways, calculate the magnitude of force P that
will causes the total length of the member to decrease 0.25mm. The values of elastic modulus for steel
and aluminium are 2.1 x 105 N/mm2 and 7 x 104 N/mm2 respectively.
Sol. Given
Length of Steel bar, L1 = 30c m = 300mm
Area of Steel bar, A1 = 5 x 5 = 25m2 = 250mm2
Elastic modulus for steel bar, E1 = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2
Length of Aluminium bar, L2 = 38cm = 380mm
Area of Aluminium bar A2 = 10 x 10 = 100cm2 = 1000mm2
Elastic modulus for aluminium bar E2 = 7 x 104 N/mm2
Total Decrease in length, dL = 0.25mm
Let P = Required force

As both the bars are made of different materials, hence total change in the lengths of the bar is given
by equation (1.9)

dL = P
L
1  L
2

E1A1 E2A2
or
 300 380 
0.25=P   
 2.1 x 10 x 2500 7 x 104 x 1000 
5

= P (5.714 x 10-7 + 5.428 x 10-7) = P x 11.142 x 10-7

0.25 0.25 x 107

P =  = 2.2437 x 105 = 224.37 kN. Ans.
11.142 x 10-7 11.142
Principle of Superposition:
When a number of Loads are acting on a body, the resulting strain, according to principle of
superposition, will be the algebraic sum of strains caused by individual loads. While, using this
principle for an elastic body which is subjected to a number of direct forces (tensile or compressive)
at different sections along the length of the body, first the free body diagram of individual section is
drawn. Then the deformation of the each section is obtained. The total deformation of the body will
be then equal to the algebraic sum of deformation of the individual sections.

Problem 6: A brass bar, having cross-sectional area of 1000 mm2 , is subjected to axial forces as
shown in Fig.

60KN

Find the total elongation of the bar, Take E = 1.05 x 105 N/mm2

Sol. Given:
Area A = 1000mm2
Value of E = 1.05 x 105 N/mm2
Let d = Total elongation of the bar

The force of 80 kN acting at B is split up into three forces of 50 kN, 20 kN and 10 kN. Then the part
AB of the bar will be subjected to a tensile load of 50 kN, part BC is subjected to a compressive load
of 20 kN and part BD is subjected to a compressive load of 10 kN as shown in Fig.

Part AB. This part is subjected to a tensile load of 50kN. Hence there will be increase in length of
this part.,
 Increase in the length of AB
P
= 1
x L = 500 x 1000 x 600
AE 1 1000 x 1.05 x 105
( P1=50,000 N,L1 = 600mm)
= 0.2857

Part BC. This part is subjected to a compressive load of 20kN or 20,000 N. Hence there will be
decrease in length of this part.

 Decrease in the length of BC

P2 20,000
= x L2 = x 1000 ( L2=1m = 1000mm)
AE 1000 x 1.05 x 10 5
= 0.1904

Part BD. The part is subjected to a compressive load of 10kN or 10,000 N. Hence there will be
decrease in length of this part.
 Decrease in the length of BC
P
3 10,000
= x L3 = x 2200 ( L2=1.2 + 1.22m or 2200m)
AE 1000 x 1.05 x 10 5
= 0.2095
 Total elongation of bar = 0.2857 – 0.1904 – 0.2095)
(Taking +ve sign for increase in length and –ve sign for
decrease in length
=- 0.1142mm. Ans.

Negative sign shows, that there will be decrease in length of the bar.
Problem 7: A Member ABCD is subjected to point loads P 1, P2, P and P4 as shown in Fig.

Calculate the force P2 necessary for equilibrium, if P1 = 45 kN, P3 = 450 kN and P4 = 130 kN.
Determine the total elongation of the member, assuming the modulus of elasticity to be 2.1 x 10 5
N/mm2.

Given:
Part AB: Area, A1 = 625 mm2 and
Length L1 = 120cm = 1200mm
Part BC: Area, A2 = 2500 mm2 and
Length L2 = 60cm = 600mm
Part CD: Area A3 = 12.0mm2 and
Length L3 = 90cm = 900mm
Value of E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2
Value of P2 necessary for equilibrium

Resolving the force on the rod along its (i.e., equating the forces acting towards right to those
acting towards left) we get

P1+P3=P2+P4
But, P1 = 45kN, P3 = 450 kN and P4 = 130kN
 45 + 450 = P2 = 130 or P2 = 495 – 130 = 365 kN


The force of 365 kN acting at B is split into two forces of 45 kN and 320 kN (i.e., 365 – 45 = 320 kN)
The force of 450 kN acting at C is split into two forces of 320 kN and 130 kN (i.e., 450 – 320 = 130
kN) as shown Fig.
It is clear that part AB is subjected to a tensile load of 45kN, part BC is subjected to a compressive
load of 320 kN and par CD is subjected to a tensile load 130 kN.

Hence for part AB, there will be increase in length; for part BC there will be decrease in length and
for past CD there will be increase in length.

 Increase in length of AB

= P xL= 45000 x 1200 ( P = 45 kN = 45000 N)

AE 1 625 x 2.1 x 105
1
= 0.4114 mm
 Decrease in length of BC
P 320,000
= x L2 = x 600 ( P = 320 kN = 320000 N)
A 2E 2500 x 2.1 x 10 5
= 0.3657 mm
Increase in length of CD
P 130,000
= x L3 = x 900 ( P = 130 kN = 130000 N)
A3E 1250 x 2.1 x 10 5
 Total change in the length of member

= 0.4114 – 0.3657 + 0.4457

(Taking +ve for increase in length and –ve sign for decrease in length)
= 0.4914mm (extension) Ans.
Problem 8: A rod, which tapers uniformly from 40mm diameter to 20mm diameter in a length of 400
mm is subjected to an axial load of 5000 N. If E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2, find the extension of rod.

Sol. Given
Larger diameter D1 = 40mm
Smaller diameter D2 = 20mm
Length of rod, L = 400mm
Axial load P=5000N
Young's modulus E – 2.1 x 105 N/mm2
Let dL = Total extension of the rod
Using equation (1.10),
4PL 4 x 5000 x 400
5
dL = πE D1 D2 = π x 2.1 x 10 x 40 x 20
= 0.01515mm Ans.

Problem 9: Find the modulus of elasticity for a rod, which tapers uniformly from 20mm, to 15mm
diameter in a length of 350mm. The rod is subjected to an axial load of 5.5 kN and extension of the
rod is 0.025mm.

Given:
Larger diameter D1 = 30mm
Smaller diameter D2 = 15mm
Length of rod, L = 350mm
Axial load P = 5.5 kN = 5500 N
Extension dL = 0.025mm
Using equation (1.10), We get
4PL
dL = πED D
1 2

4PL 4 x 5000 x 350

or E = π D D dL = π x 30 x 15 x 0.025
1 2
= 217865 N/mm2 or 2.17865 x 105 N/mm2. Ans.

Problem 10: A rectangular bar made of steel is 2.8m long and 15mm thick. The rod is subjected to an
axial tensile load of 40kN. The width of the rod varies from 75mm at one end to 30mm at the other.
Find the extension of the rod if E = 2 x 105 N/mm2.

Given

Larger L1 = 2.8 m = 2800mm

Thickness t = 15mm
Axial load P = 40 kN = 40,000 N
Width at bigger end a = 75mm
Width at smaller end b = 30mm
Value of E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Let dL = Extension of the rod
Using equation (1. ), We get
 dL = PL log, a
Et(a - b) b
4000 x 2800 75
= 5 log, 30
2 x 10 x 15(75 - 30)
= 0.8296 x 0.9163 = 0.76mm Ans.
Problem 11: The extension is a rectangular steel bar of length 400mm and thickness 10mm, is found
to be 0.21 mm. The bar tapers uniformly in width from 100mm to 50mm. If E for the bar is 2 x 10 5
N/mm2, determine the axial load on the bar.

Given

Extension dL = 0.21mm
Length L = 400mm
Thickness t = 10mm
Width at bigger end a = 100mm
Width at smaller end b = 50mm
Value of E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Let P = axial load

Using equation (1), We get

PL  a
dL = log, 
Et(a -
b)  b
10
log
P x 400 0
or 0.21 = ,
5 50
2 x 10 x 10(100 -
50)

= 0.000004 P x 0.6931

P =
0.000004 x 0.6931
 75746 N

= 75.746 kN Ans.
 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 17ME34

1.12 Compound or composite bars

A composite bar can be made of two bars of different materials rigidly fixed together so that
both bars strain together under external load. As the strains in the two bars are same, the stresses
in the two bars will be different and depend on their respective modulus of elasticity. A stiffer
bar will share major part of external load.
In a composite system the two bars of different materials may act as suspenders to a third rigid
bar subjected to loading. As the change in length of both bars is the same, different stresses are
produced in two bars.

1.10.1 Stresses in a Composite Bar

Let us consider a composite bar consisting of a solid bar, of diameter d completely encased in
a hollow tube of outer diameter D and inner diameter d, subjected to a tensile force P as shown
in the following figure.

Let the extension of composite bar of length L be δL. Let ES and EH be the modulus of elasticity
of solid bar and hollow tube respectively. Let S and H be the stresses developed in the solid
bar and hollow tube respectively.
Since change in length of solid bar is equal to the change in length of hollow tube, we can
establish the relation between the stresses in solid bar and hollow tube as shown below :

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 17ME34

ES/EH is called modular ratio. Using the above equation stress in the hollow tube can be
calculated. Next, the stress in the solid bar can be calculated using the equation
P = S AS + H AH

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, ATMECE, MYSURU 30

1. A flat bar of steel of 24mm wide and 6mm thick is placed above the
aluminium alloy plate of 24mmX9mm. the two plates are fastened together at
their ends. An axial tensile load of 20KN is applied to the composite bar. What
are the stresses developed in both materials? Take Es= 210000 N/mm2 and
Ea=70000 n/mm2

Ans: P= 20KN,
Deformation in both materials is same due to fastened together.
 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 17ME34

2. A short post is made by welding steel plates into a square section and then filling inside with
concrete. The side of square is 200 mm and the thickness t = 10 mm as shown in the figure.
The steel has an allowable stress of 140 N/mm2 and the concrete has an allowable stress of 12
N/mm2. Determine the allowable safe compressive load on the post. EC = 20 GPa, Es = 200
GPa.
Since the composite post is subjected to compressive load, both concrete and steel tube will
shorten by the same extent. Using this condition following relation between stresses in concrete
and steel can be established.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, ATMECE, MYSURU 32

 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 17ME34

1.13 Temperature stresses in a single bar

If a bar is held between two unyielding (rigid) supports and its temperature is raised, then a
compressive stress is developed in the bar as its free thermal expansion is prevented by the
rigid supports. Similarly, if its temperature is reduced, then a tensile stress is developed in the
bar as its free thermal contraction is prevented by the rigid supports. Let us consider a bar of
diameter d and length L rigidly held between two supports as shown in the following figure.
Let α be the coefficient of linear expansion of the bar and its temperature is raised by ΔT (°C)

• Free thermal expansion in the bar = α ΔT L.

• Since the supports are rigid, the final length of the bar does not change. The fixed ends
exert compressive force on the bar so as to cause shortening of the bar by α ΔT L.
• Hence the compressive strain in the bar = α ΔT L / L = α ΔT
• Compressive stress = α ΔT E
• Hence the thermal stresses introduced in the bar = α ΔT E
Note:
The bar can buckle due to large compressive forces generated in the bar due to temperature
increase or may fracture due to large tensile forces generated due to temperature decrease.

Problem
A rail line is laid at an ambient temperature of 30°C. The rails are 30 m long and there is a
clearance of 5 mm between the rails. If the temperature of the rail rises to 60°C, what is the
stress developed in the rails?. Assume α = 11.5 × 10−6/°C, E = 2,10,000 N/mm2
• L = 30,000 mm, α = 11.5 × 10−6/°C, Temperature rise ΔT = 60-30 = 30oC
• Free expansion of rails = α ΔT L = 11.5 × 10−6 × 30 × 30000 = 10.35mm
• Thermal expansion prevented by rails = Free expansion – clearance = 10.35 – 5 = 5.35mm
• Strain in the rails  = 5.35/30000 = 0.000178
• Compressive stress in the rails =  x E = 0.000178 x 210000 =37.45N/mm2.

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 17ME34

1.17 Volumetric strain

This refers to the slight change in the volume of the body resulting from three mutually
perpendicular and equal direct stresses as in the case of a body immersed in a liquid under
pressure. This is defined as the ratio of change in volume to the original volume of the body.
Consider a cube of side „a‟ strained so that each side becomes „a  a’.
• Hence the linear strain = a/a.
• Change in volume = (a  a)3 –a3 =  3a2a. (ignoring small higher order terms)
• Volumetric strain v =  3a2 a/a3 =  3 a/a
• The volumetric strain is three times the linear strain

1.18 Bulk Modulus

This is defined as the ratio of the normal stresses (p) to the volumetric strain (v) and denoted
by ‘K’. Hence K = p/v . This is also an elastic constant of the material in addition to E, G and
.

1.19 Relation between elastic constants

1.19.1 Relation between E,G and 

Consider a cube of material of side „a' subjected to the action of the shear and complementary
shear stresses and producing the deformed shape as shown in the figure below.

• Since, within elastic limits, the strains are small and the angle ACB may be taken as 450.
• Since angle between OA and OB is very small hence OA  OB. BC, is the change in the
length of the diagonal OA
• Strain on the diagonal OA = Change in length / original length = BC/OA

= AC cos45/ (a/sin45) = AC/ 2a = a  / 2 a =  / 2

• It is found that strain along the diagonal is numerically half the amount of shear stain.

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 17ME34

• But from definition of rigidity modulus we have, G =  /

• Hence, Strain on the diagonal OA =  / 2G
The shear stress system is equivalent or can be replaced by a system of direct stresses at 450 as
shown below. One set will be compressive, the other tensile, and both will be equal in value to
the applied shear stress.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, ATMECE, MYSURU 41

 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 17ME34

1.19.2 Relation between E,K and 

Consider a cube subjected to three equal stresses a shown in the figure below.

1.19.3 Relation between E, G and K

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, ATMECE, MYSURU 42

A bar of 20mm diameter is teasted in tension. It is observed that when a load of
37.7KN is applied, the extension measured over a guage length of 200mm is 0.12mm
and contraction in diameter is 0.0036mm. Find Poisson’s ratio and elastic constants
E, G, K.
Ans:

P= 37.7KN= 37700N
Area 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2= 100 𝜋
Gauge Length L= 200mm
Extension of bar, ∆= 0.12mm
Change of dia, ∆d= 0.0036mm
Linear strain= ∆/L= 0.0006
Lateral Strain= ∆d/d= 0.00018
Poisson’s Ratio= Linear strain/ Lateral strain= 0.3 ,
µ=0.3
Now,
∆= PL/AE
0.12= (37700x200)/(100 𝜋xE)
E= 200004.71 N/mm2
we know that, E= 2G(1+ µ)
we get, G= E/2(1+ µ)
G= 76924.89 N/mm2
Then, E= 3K(1-2 µ)
K= E/3(1-2 µ)
K= 166670.59 N/mm2