WOLLO UNIVERSITY

KOMBOLCHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

B.SC.ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
PROJECT OF FINAL THESIS
Project on design of solar-wind hybrid with standalone system
by
NAME OF MEMBERS ID NO

1. H/mariam G/her….……………..…………..498/03
2. H/mariam Gidafy.……..………..…………1032/03
3. Harune Mifta……………………………….512/03
4. Sisay Teshome………….…..……..……….827/03

ADVISOR NAME: INSTRUCTOR GEBRIE TOSHEME

SUBMITED DATE: 15/10/2007 E.C

i
 AKNOWLEDGMENT
First, we would like to thank GOD, Next, we would like to express our sincere gratitude from
bottom of our heart to our advisor ENGINEER GEBRIE for his expert guidance, constructive
comments, suggestions and encouragement without which this work could have not been
completed. He has been a constant source of inspiration throughout lifespan of our thesis study.

And also we would like to express our sincere gratitude to department head, ALELIGN for his
continuous encouragement and helping of us by giving constructive ideas during our thesis study
and kombolcha meteorology agency office.

And finally we would like to thank you our lovely family who have been a persistent source of
encouragement not only during the thesis work but also throughout our academic career. We
want them to know that we respect and always keep in our memory their boundless and
invaluable support, beyond a simple thank you and love you.

i
TABLE OF Contents
AKNOWLEDGMENT.................................................................................................................................i
List of figure...............................................................................................................................................iv
List of table.................................................................................................................................................iv
LIST OF ACRONOMY..........................................................................................................................vi
APPIDEX...............................................................................................................................................vi
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................................ix
CHAPTER ONE..........................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY....................................................................1
1.1 Problem statement.............................................................................................................................3
1.2 Objectives........................................................................................................................................4
1.2.1Main objective.............................................................................................................................4
1.2.2 Specific objectives......................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO.........................................................................................................................................5
LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................................5
2.1 Solar Energy......................................................................................................................................5
2.2 Solar-generated Electricity – Photovoltaic.......................................................................................6
2.3 Photovoltaic (PV)..............................................................................................................................8
2.4 Basic Components of Solar Power.....................................................................................................8
2.5 Generic Photovoltaic Cell................................................................................................................9
2.6 Solar Cells: Construction and Operation..........................................................................................12
2.6.1 Photovoltaic construction..........................................................................................................12
2.7 Photovoltaic operation.....................................................................................................................12
2.7.1 Temperature and solar radiation effects on PV performance....................................................13
2.8 Main PV Cell Types........................................................................................................................14
2.9 Wind Energy....................................................................................................................................18
2.9.1 The Earth's Wind Systems........................................................................................................19
2.9.2 Wind Power..............................................................................................................................20
2.9.3 Wind Turbines..........................................................................................................................20

ii
 2.10 Wind Power Modeling...................................................................................................................21
2.11 Hybrid System...............................................................................................................................22
2.12 Inverter..........................................................................................................................................24
2.13 Battery...........................................................................................................................................24
2.14 The Homer Model and the Hybrid Setup.......................................................................................26
CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................................................27
3. METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................................27
3.1 Site Identification............................................................................................................................27
3.2 The use of hybrid system.................................................................................................................27
3.2.1The use of data from solar energy..............................................................................................27
3.3 Wind energy....................................................................................................................................28
3.4 Primary Load Estimation.................................................................................................................29
Calculation:...........................................................................................................................................35
3.5 Design Procedures of Photovoltaic System.....................................................................................39
3.5.1 Determine Power Consumption Demand..................................................................................39
A. LOADS.........................................................................................................................................41
B. BATTERY SIZING......................................................................................................................42
C. PV ARRAY SIZING....................................................................................................................45
CHAPTER FOUR.....................................................................................................................................54
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION................................................................................................................54
4.1 Input Parameters..............................................................................................................................54
4.2 Simulation Analysis..........................................................................................................................57
CHAPTER FIVE.......................................................................................................................................58
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.........................................................................................58
5.1 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................58
5.2 Recommendations...........................................................................................................................58
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................59

iii
 List of figure
Figure 2.1 special distribution of solar irradiance........................................................................................6
Figure 2.2: schematic diagram of hybrid solar wind power source..............................................................7
Figure 2.3 photovoltaic................................................................................................................................8
Figure 2.4 generic PV cell...........................................................................................................................9
Figure 2.5 electric flows from n- type semiconductor...............................................................................10
Figure 2.6 PV cell and array......................................................................................................................15
Figure2.7 solar circuit equivalent..............................................................................................................17
Figure 2.8 energy conversions from wind to electricity.............................................................................21
Figure 2.9 general schemes of standalone hybrid power supply system....................................................26
Figure 3.1module VI characteristics..........................................................................................................47
Figure 3.2 design of PV module................................................................................................................49
Figure 3.3 tilt angle of pv module..............................................................................................................53
Figure 4.2 monthly average wind speeds...................................................................................................55
Figure 4.3 monthly average solar radiations..............................................................................................55
Figure 4.4 primary load input....................................................................................................................56
Figure 4.1schematic design.......................................................................................................................56
Figure 4.5 result.........................................................................................................................................57

iv
 List of table
Table 2.1 battery voltage selection as the load demand.............................................................................25
Table 3.1 average solar radiation...............................................................................................................28
Table 3.2 Monthly Average Wind Speed at 10 m above the surface of the earth (m/s).............................29
Table 3.3 Total load demands in kwh for house 1.....................................................................................30
Table 3.4 Total load demands in kwh for house 2.....................................................................................31
Table 3.5 Total load demands in kwh for house 3.....................................................................................32
Table 3.6 Total load demands in kwh for clinic.........................................................................................33
Table 3.7 Total load demands in kwh for school.......................................................................................34
Table 3.8 Hourly average load in kwh.......................................................................................................37
Table 3.9 Overall average primary demands.............................................................................................38
Table 3.10 Stand Alone PV System Sizing of loads.....................................................................................39
Table 3.11 rated wattage of load................................................................................................................41
Table 3.12 Exide battery specification sheet..............................................................................................44
Table 3.13 Component material................................................................................................................47

v
LIST OF ACRONOMY
AC= Alternating current
AGM= Absorbed glass mat
ARC=Anti-reflection coating
DC=Direct current
HAWTs=Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
HOMER=Hybrid optimized model energy resource
ICT=Information Communication Technology
NMA= National metrology agency
NMSA=National metrology service agency
NOCT= Normal Operating Cell Temperature
NREL= National Renewable Energy Laboratory
PV= Photo voltaic
STC=Standard Temperature Condition
TV=television
U.S= United State
WECS=Wind Energy Conversion System

APPIDEX
IL = photo current
I0 = diode saturation current
RS = series resistance
q = charge of electron
N = number of PV module
Ins = insulation data
A = area of single PV panel
Effpv = overall efficiency of the PV panels and dc/dc converters.
ISC = short circuit current
VOC = open circuit voltage.
Tamb = ambient temperature
G = solar radiation
Pout-pv= output power from the PV cell

vi
Pr-pv= rated power at reference conditions
Gref= solar radiation at reference conditions
Tc= cell temperature,
Tref= cell temperature at reference conditions
KT= temperature coefficient of the maximum power
Eph= flux of particles-photon which carry energy
h = the Planck constant,
c = the speed of light
λ = the wavelength of light
Eg = the pair energy in the semiconductor
ID = the diode current
ISh = the shunt resistance current
I = current
V = output voltage
K = Boltzmann's constant
T = working temperature
Imp = the maximum power current
Pmp = maximum power point
Vmp = maximum power voltage
Ac = the array area
Mpη = the maximum power point efficiency of the array
Eη = the efficiency of power conditioning equipment
GT = the incident solar radiation on the array
K = Kelvin
Km = kilometer
M = Meter
Kg = kilogram
Kw = kilowatt
Kwh = kilowatt hour
Kwhday-1 = Kilowatt hour per day
µm = micrometer

vii
J = Jules
W = Watt
Pmax=Maximum power
Vmpp=Maximum power point voltage
Impp=Maximum power point current
Ƞm=Module efficiency
H = Hour
P=positive electron (hole
n=negative electron (electron)
mv = mili volt
ms-1=meter per second
0
c=degree cent grade
β =Altitude angle
F0 =Degree freight

viii
 ABSTRACT
One of the primary needs for socio-economic development in any nation in the world is the
provision of reliable electricity supply systems. This work is a development of an indigenous
technology hybrid Solar-Wind Power system that harnesses the renewable energies from Sun
and Wind to generate electricity. Here, electric DC energies produced from photovoltaic and
wind turbine systems are transported to a DC disconnect energy controller. The data regarding
wind speed and solar irradiation for the site understudy are collected from the National
Metrological Agency (NMA) and analyzed using the software tool HOMER. Whereas the solar
energy potential, has been given in the form of solar radiation plots for the site.

The design of a standalone PV-wind hybrid power generating system has proceeded based on
the promising findings of these two renewable energy resource potentials, wind and solar. By
running the software the simulation results which are lists of power supply systems have been
generated.

ix
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Energy is essential to our society to ensure our quality of life and to underpin all other
elements of our economy. The escalation in cost and environmental concerns involving
conventional electrical energy. Sources have increased interest in renewable energy sources.
Many societies across the world in which we live have developed a large appetite for electrical
energy. This appetite has been stimulated by the relative ease with which electricity can be
generated, distributed, and utilized, and by the great variety of its applications. It is arguable
whether the consumption of electricity should be allowed to grow unchecked, but the fact is that
there is an ever-increasing demand for this energy form. Clearly, if this demand is to be met, then
the world’s electricity generating capacity will have to continue to grow.
Multi-source hybrid renewable energy sources to some extent overcome the intermittency,
uncertainty, and low availability of single-source renewable energy systems, which has made the
power supply more reliable. PV and wind power are complementary because sunny days
generally have very low wind while cloudy days and night times are more likely to have strong
wind. Therefore, hybrid PV-Wind systems have higher availability and reliability than systems
based on individual PV or wind sources. Therefore, this study is orientated towards small-scale
residential grid-connected PV-Wind systems.
The electric power generation system, which consists of renewable energy and fossil fuel
generators together with an energy storage system and power conditioning system, is known as a
hybrid power system. A hybrid power system has the ability to provide 24hour grid quality
electricity to the load. This system offers a better efficiency, flexibility of planning and
environmental benefits compared to the diesel generator stand-alone system. The maintenance
costs of the diesel generator can be decreased as a consequence of improving the efficiency of
operation and reducing the operational time which also means less fuel usage. The system also
gives the opportunity for expanding its capacity in order to cope with the increasing demand in
the future. This can be done by increasing either the rated power of diesel generator, renewable
generator or both of them.

1
 The disadvantage of standalone power systems using renewable energy is that the availability
of renewable energy sources has daily and seasonal patterns which results in difficulties of
regulating the output power to cope with the load demand. Also, a very high initial capital
investment cost is required.
Over the present year’s hybrid technology has been developed and upgraded its role in
renewable energy sources while the benefits it produces for power production can't be ignored
and have to be considered. Nowadays many applications in rural and urban areas use hybrid
systems. Many isolated loads try to adopt this kind of technology because of the benefits which
can be received in comparison with a single renewable system.
Due to the continual oil price increment, growing concerns of global warming, the contradiction
between depletion of oil/gas reserves and the fast growth of global energy demand; renewable
energy such as solar, wind, bio energy and hydropower might become a new trend in which we
produce energy to secure sustainable provision of electrical power. Energy resources exemplify
these issues. Reliable energy supply is essential in all economies for lighting, heating,
communications, computers, industrial equipment, transport, etc. Purchases of energy account
for 5–10% of gross national product in developed economies. However, in some developing
countries, energy imports may have cost over half the value of total exports; such economies are
unsustainable and an economic challenge for sustainable development.
Photovoltaic (PV) and wind energy systems are the most promising candidates of the future
energy technologies among the many listed above and it has been widely noticed that stand alone
and grid connected PV and wind energy markets have grown rapidly. Energy generation system
reliability has been considered as one of the most important issues in any system design process.
However, natural energy resources are unpredictable, intermittent, and seasonally unbalanced.
Therefore, a combination of two or more renewable energy resources may satisfy bigger share of
electricity demand and offer reliable and consistent energy supply. The Hybrid solar PV and
Wind Electricity System is well suited to conditions where sun light and wind have seasonal as
well as diurnal pattern. For example, in summer time; the sun light is abundant but less windy
while in winter, wind resource increases that can complement the solar resource. The reliability
of the stand-alone hybrid PV-wind system in producing energy has been proven by many earlier
studies. In the last two decades, solar and wind energy has become an alternative to the
traditional energy sources. These alternative energy sources are pollution free (environmental

2
friendly), free and abundant in their availability, and the best alternative for remote and rural
electrification where national grid extension is economically infeasible but the high capital cost,
especially for photovoltaic (PV) system, made its growth a slow one. Electricity from wind is
close to cost competitive with electricity produced from natural gas depending on natural gas
prices, the availability of production tax credits, renewable resource availability, technological
advancement in wind turbines and other variables.
The best way to attempt to decrease the cost of these systems even below the theoretical limit
is by careful design of the standalone system in a way that can efficiently utilizes the resources
available through highly efficient generating components and also supplying as large power as
produced to the loads available (load matching). Finite energy is most easily produced centrally
and is expensive to distribute. Renewable energy is most easily produced in dispersed locations
and is expensive to concentrate. With an electrical grid, the renewable generators are said to be
„embedded‟ within the (dispersed) system.

1.1 Problem statement

The world is facing problems regarding the development of generating methods based on
conventional fuels. Electric generation usually utilizes coal, oil, gas, water or nuclear material as
fuel sources. Hydro-power generation is restricted to geographically suitable areas, and reserves
of coal, although presently plentiful, are not renewable. The possible hazards of nuclear power
have been much publicized, particularly those concerning the storage and military use of nuclear
waste material. These only mean that sources of electricity that the world is using today are
depleting, harmful and restricted according to geographical location. To help manage these
problems, it is vital for the world to use nonconventional methods of generation. Wind-solar
power generations are visible options for future power generation. Besides being free, they are
free of recurring costs. They also offer power supply solutions for remote areas, not accessible
by grid power supply. This project, in one way or another, helps in the solution of these
problems. The application is specific to a small location, but if other places have similar system
like what we are designing, then it is going to make a difference.

3
1.2 Objectives

1.2.1Main objective
The main objective of this study is to design a PV-Wind hybrid generation system using
HOMER.

1.2.2 Specific objectives

 To gather the following data from National Metrological Service Agency (NMSA):
 Estimation of solar radiation for Kombolcha
 Estimation of wind speed of Kombolcha

 To design a model of the PV-Wind hybrid generation system in Homer.

 To perform simulation of the system using HOMER.
 Reduce disposal, degradation, uncontrolled release of green house gases in to
atmosphere on the area.
 To increase job opportunity.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Solar Energy

The sun radiates energy radials, from an effective surface temperature of about 5760 K, as
electromagnetic radiation known as `solar energy' or sunshine. The earth is situated at about 150
million km from the sun with a total surface area of about 510 million km 2, of which only about
21% is land. The sun, the source of solar radiation, is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter
with a diameter of about 1.39 x10 9m, a total mass of 1.99 x10 30kg, and on the average 1.50 x
1011m away from the earth. Nuclear fusion reactions in the active core of the Sun produce inner
temperatures of about 107 K and an inner radiation flux of uneven spectral distribution. The
inner radiation produced is absorbed in the outer passive layers which are heated to about 6000 K
and so become a source of radiation with a relatively continuous spectral distribution. The
radiant flux (W/m2) from the Sun at the Earth‟s distance varies through the year by ±4% because
of the slightly non-circular path of the Earth around the Sun. Figure 2.1 shows a spectral
distribution of extraterrestrial solar irradiance. The area beneath the curve is the solar constant
G*oλ=1367Wm-2. This is the incident on a plane directly facing the Sun and outside the
atmosphere at a distance of 1.496×108km from the Sun (i.e. at the Earth‟s mean distance from
the Sun). Solar radiation reaches the Earth‟s surface at a maximum flux density of about
1.0kWm-2 in a wavelength band between 0.3 and 2.5μm. This is called short wave radiation and
includes the visible spectrum. For inhabited areas, this flux varies from about 3 to 30MJm -2 day-1
depending on place, time and weather. The spectral distribution is determined by the 6000K
surface temperature of the Sun. A substantial portion of the solar radiation, on its way to
reaching the earth‟ surface, is attenuated due to atmospheric interventions. Additionally, because
of the sun-earth angle concept, the solar radiation received at the earth's surface varies on hourly,
daily, or monthly basis. Hourly variation is due to the motion of the sun from east to west, and
also due to the presence of clouds, where as daily variation and monthly (seasonal) variation is
due to the position of the sun. Longitude and latitude give the location of a place on the earth's
surface
The Sun comes overhead twice a year in the tropical belt. Ethiopia is in the equatorial region
which is probably the most favorable region for solar energy.

5
 The sun is the largest energy source of life while at the same time it is the ultimate source of
most of renewable energy sources. Solar energy can be used to generate electricity in a direct
way with the use of photovoltaic modules. Solar radiation in the form of radio magnetic wave
emanates from this surface and propagates spherically in space. Some part of the radiation
reaches the earth surface after atmospheric effect (reflection, refraction, absorption, scattering
etc.). Such radiation is called diffused radiation.
There is also some part of radiation that reaches the earth’s surface without such atmospheric
effect which is called direct radiation. The received solar radiation on Earth’s surface can be used
directly (in the form of solar PV and solar thermal) or indirectly (in the form of wind, hydro,
biomass etc.

Figure 2.1 special distribution of solar irradiance

G*oλ=1367Wm
There are two types of solar systems: those that convert solar energy to D.C power, and those
that convert solar energy to heat. [9] http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar

2.2 Solar-generated Electricity – Photovoltaic

The Solar-generated electricity is called Photovoltaic (or PV). Photovoltaic are solar cells that
convert sunlight to D.C electricity. These solar cells in PV module are made from semiconductor
materials. When light energy strikes the cell, electrons are emitted. The electrical conductor
attached to the positive and negative scales of the material allow the electrons to be captured in
the form of a D.C current. The generated electricity can be used to power a load or can be
stored in a batter. Photovoltaic system is classified into two major types: the off-grid
(standalone) systems and inter-tied system. The off-grid (standalone) systems are mostly used

6
where there is no utility grid service. It is very economical in providing electricity at remote
locations especially rural banking, hospital and ICT in rural environments.
PV systems generally can be much cheaper than installing power lines and step down
transformers especially to remote areas. Solar modules produce electricity devoid of pollution,
without odor, combustion, noise and vibration. Hence, unwanted nuisance is completely
eliminated. Also, unlike the other power supply systems which require professional training for
installation expertise, there are no moving parts or special repairs that require such expertise.

Figure 2.2: schematic diagram of hybrid solar wind power source

7
2.3 Photovoltaic (PV)
Photovoltaic is a material or device that is capable of converting the energy contained in photons
of light into an electrical voltage and current. Electrons absorb energy to jump bands. Top-band
where electrons contribute to electric current electron gets energy from photons.
Absorption of photon promotes electron to jump to higher energy level (excited state), which
should be separated from the ground state by an energy gap (e.g. band gap in semiconductors).
Charges are separated, collected and extracted to external circuit and to do electrical work. It
extracts solar energy only from photons with energy sufficient to bridge the band gap.

2.4 Basic Components of Solar Power

The major components include P.V modules, battery and inverter. The most efficient way to
determine the capacities of these components is to estimate the load to be supplied. The size of
the battery bank required will depend on the storage required, the maximum discharge rate, and
the minimum temperature at which the batteries will be used. When designing a solar power
system, all of these factors are to be taken into consideration when battery size is to be chosen.
Lead -acid batteries are the most common in P.V systems because their initial cost is lower and
also they are readily available nearly everywhere in the world. Deep cycle batteries are designed
to be repeatedly discharged as much as 80 percent of their capacity and so they are a good choice
for power systems. Figure is a schematic diagram of a typical Photovoltaic system.

Figure 2.3 photovoltaic

The main components of standalone PV systems are solar cell, module and array; rechargeable
battery; controller; and appliances load. [4] K. Sopian, A. Zaharim, Y. Ali, Z. Nopiah

8
2.5 Generic Photovoltaic Cell
Let us consider what happens in the vicinity of a p–n junction when it is exposed to sunlight. As
photons are absorbed, hole-electron pairs may be formed. If these mobile charge carriers reach
the vicinity of the junction, the electric field in the depletion region will push the holes into the
p-side and push the electrons into the n-side as shown in fig below. The p-side accumulates holes
and the n-side accumulates electrons, which creates a voltage that can be used to deliver current
to a load. Figure 2.4 when photons create hole-electron pairs near the junction, the electric field
in the depletion region sweeps hole in to the p-side and sweeps electrons in to the n-side of the
cell

Figure 2.4 generic PV cell

If electrical contacts are attached to the top and bottom of the cell, electrons will flow out of the
n-side into the connecting wire, through the load and back to the p-side. Since wire cannot
conduct holes, it is only the electrons that actually move around the circuit. When they reach the
p side, they recombine with holes completing the circuit. By convention, positive current flows
in the direction opposite to electron flow, so the current arrow in the figure

9
Figure 2.5 electric flows from n- type semiconductor

The physical of PV cell is very similar to that of the classical diode with a PN junction formed
by semiconductor material. When the junction absorbs light, the energy of absorbed photon is
transferred to the electron-proton system of the material, creating charge carriers that are
separated at the junction. The charge carriers in the junction region create a potential gradient,
get accelerated under the electric field, and circulate as current through an external circuit. The
solar cell is the basic building of the PV power system it produces about 1 W of power. To
obtain high power, numerous such cell are connected in series and parallel circuits on a panel
(module), the solar array or panel is a group of a several modules electrically connected in series
parallel combination to generate the required current and voltage. The electrical characteristics of
the PV module are generally represented by the current vs. voltage (I-V) and the current vs.
power (P-V) curves.
The I–V characteristic of the PV module is:
I = IL – I0 (e q (V +IRS)/nkT-1)................................................................................. (1)
Where IL = photo current
I0 = diode saturation current
RS = series resistance
q = charge of electron
k = constant
T = temperature
N = number of PV module

10
Power output from the PV array can be obtained by using the equation:
Ppv(t) = Ins (t) * A*Eff (pv) ……………………………………. (2)
Where Ins (t) = insulation data at time t (kw/ m2)
A = area of single PV panel (m2)
Effpv = overall efficiency of the PV panels and dc/dc converters.
The Solar Cell Characteristics:
Isc-short circuit current
Voc- open circuit voltage
Peak power
The open circuit voltage of a single solar cell is approx 0.5V.
Much higher voltage is required for practical application.
Solar cells are connected in series to increase its open circuit voltage
The integration of PV-system with other renewable energy sources likewind energy, and
conventional energy sources like diesel generator, will assist in expanding a sustainable
electricity access in remote and rural areas, especially in developing countries, where the
communities have not access to grid electricity yet. This is an acceptable alternative means for
rural electrification if:
It is far distant from the main grid
Status of electrification is too difficult (desert area, hilly area…)
Grid extension is not cost effective
Density of consumers is too small
The solar irradiation varies daily with time and seasonally. These in turn results to the reliability
problems from such sources of energy seeking energy conversion, energy storage and load
control etc. when compared with conventional sources of energy. The advantages and drawbacks
of the PV-array energy can be summarized as below. The advantages are the following:
Environmentally friendly and pollution free (emission free)
 No use of fuels and water
Requires minimum maintenance and low running cost
 Long lifetime, up to 30 years
Modular or custom made energy, can be designed for any applications from watch to a multi-
megawatt power plant

11
No restriction on harvesting as far as there is light
And the drawbacks are the following:
High initial cost
 PV can’t operate without light
PV generates DC current: energy storage, like batteries, and inverters are needed
Large area needed for large scale applications
cannot always generate stable output with ever-changing weather conditions

2.6 Solar Cells: Construction and Operation

2.6.1 Photovoltaic construction

A solar cell is considered the basic part in the photovoltaic system; it is a device that converts
light energy into electrical energy by the photovoltaic effect. Solar cells are often electrically
connected and encapsulated as a module. PV modules often have a sheet of glass on the front
(sun up) side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers from the
elements (rain, hail, etc.). Solar cells are also usually connected in series in modules, creating an
additive voltage. Connecting cells in parallel will yield a higher current. Modules are then
interconnected, in series or parallel, or both, to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage
and current. PV cells consist basically of a junction between two thin layers of semi conducting
materials, known as p (positive) type semiconductors and n (negative) type semiconductors. The
p-type semiconductor is created when some of the atoms of the crystalline silicon are replaced by
atoms with lower valence like boron which causes the material to have a deficit of free electrons.
The n-type semiconductor is created when some of their atoms of the crystalline silicon are
replaced by atoms of another material which has higher valence band like phosphorus in such a
way that the material has a surplus of free electrons. [8] Rui Huang, S. Low, U. Topcu, K.
Chandy

2.7 Photovoltaic operation

When the photovoltaic cell becomes exposed to the light beam which consists of photons, the
electrons are stimulated. The electrons start moving rapidly, jump into the conduction band and
they leave holes in the valence band. Some of the electrons are attracted from n-side to combine
with holes on the nearby p-side. Similarly, holes on the near p-side are attracted to combine with

12
the electrons on the nearby n-side. The flow of the electrons from one semiconductor to the other
creates the electric current into the photovoltaic cell.

2.7.1 Temperature and solar radiation effects on PV performance

The two most important effects that must be considered are due to the variable temperature and
solar radiation. The effect of these two parameters must be taken into account while sizing the
PV system.
Temperature effect: This has an important effect on the power output from the cell. The
temperature effect appears on the output voltage of the cell, where the voltage decreases as
temperature increases. This decrease for silicon cell is approximately 2.3 mV per 1°C increase in
the solar cell temperature.
The solar cell temperature Tc can be found by the following equation:

……………(3)
Where:
Tamb: ambient temperature in °C
G: solar radiation in W/m²
NOCT: Normal Operating Cell Temperature which is defined as the cell temperature when the
module operates under the
Following conditions at open circuit:
Solar radiation: 800 W/m²
Ambient temperature: 20 °C
Wind speed: > 1 m/s
Solar radiation effect:
The solar cell characteristics are affected by the variation of illumination. Increasing the solar
radiation increases in the same proportion the short circuit current. The following equation
illustrates the effect of variation of radiation on the short circuit current:
Isc (G) = Isc (at 1000 W/m²) * (G (in W/ m²) /1000)........................ (4)

13
The output power from the PV cell is affected by the variation of cell. Temperature and variation
of incident solar radiation The maximum power output from the PV cell can be calculated using
the following equation:
Pout-pv = Pr-pv∗ (G/Gref) * [1+ KT (Tc - Tref)].............................. (5)
Where:
Pout-pv: output power from the PV cell
Pr-pv: rated power at reference conditions
G: as defined before
Gref: solar radiation at reference conditions (Gref =1000 W/ m²)
Tc: cell temperature, calculated using equation (4.2)
Tref: cell temperature at reference conditions (Tref = 25 °C)
KT: temperature coefficient of the maximum power
(KT= - 3.7 ∗10-3 / 1°C for mono and poly crystalline Si)
The following equation can be used to calculate the cell temperature
Approximately if the NOCT is not given by the manufacturer:
TC = Tamb + 0.0256 * G……………… (6)
Where Tc, Tamb, and G are as defined before. [7] G. Vuc, I. Borlea, C. Barbulescu

2.8 Main PV Cell Types

The material that is widely used in the industry of PV cells is silicon. Silicon can be found inside
the sand in the form of silicon oxide (SiO2). Depending on the structure of the basic material
from which PV cells are made and the particular way of their preparation, PV cells can mainly be
categorized as follows:
1. Mono-crystalline: The efficiency of a single crystal silicon cell varies between 13-16% and it
is characterized by a high cost for its manufacture and has a dark blue color.
2. Poly-crystalline: Its efficiency varies between10-14% and it is characterized by lower cost
silicon which is used for its manufacture and has light blue color.
3. Amorphous (non crystalline) silicon: This type of photovoltaic cells achieves maximum
efficiency not more than 10%. Production cost is much cheaper than what is for the previous two
types. Its efficiency degrades with time.

14
Other types of PV cells use other materials or compounds rather than silicon. Other innovative
PV technologies use multi-junction, silicon spheres, or photo electrochemical in manufacturing
the PV cells.
PV ARRAY: Multiple modules, in turn, can be wired in series to increase voltage and in
parallel to increase current, the product of which is power. An important element in PV system
design is deciding how many modules should be connected in series and how many in parallel to
deliver whatever energy is needed. Such combinations of modules are referred to as an array.
Figure below shows this distinction between cells, modules, and arrays.

Figure 2.6 PV cell and array

The theoretical note under this subtopic is primarily based on the reference material
Photovoltaic (photo = light; voltaic = produces voltage) or PV systems convert light energy
directly into electricity using semiconductor technology.
The most basic power conversion unit of a photovoltaic (PV) system is the solar cell. As shown
in figure sunlight strikes a PV cell and a direct current (D.C.) is generated. An inverter inverts
the D.C to an Alternating Current (A.C.) and by connecting the electric load to the output
terminals the current can be utilized.
The intensity of light energy determines the amount of electricity generated. In other words, the
conversion of energy relies on the quantum nature of light, whereby we perceive light as a flux
of particles - photons which carry the energy, Ephas given by equation
Eph (λ) =hc/λ………………………………………….. (7)

15
Where:
h = the Planck constant,
c = the speed of light (m/s), and
λ = the wavelength of light (m)
On a clear day, approximately 4.4 x 1017 photons strike a square centimeter of the earth’s surface
every second. Those photons with energy in excess of the band gap energy of the semiconductor
material being used can be converted into electricity by the solar cell. A rough estimate of the
current that can be generated by a solar cell is given by equation (7) Ignoring losses in the cell,
and assuming each photon produces one electron charge, for an electron charge of 1.6x10 -19
coulomb, and 4.4 x1017 photons striking a square centimeter of cell area, the current density is
approximately 70mA/cm2.
IL = qNA ……………………………………………………………… (8)
Where N is the number of photons, A the area exposed to light, and q the charge in coulomb. The
maximum voltage, V, that a solar cell can generate is equal to the band gap of the semiconductor
in use and is expressed in electron volts. This means that the separation of electrons and holes at
the terminals of the solar cell can only continue until the electrostatic energy of the charges after
separation, Eg equals to the pair energy in the semiconductor. Hence, the maximum voltage is
given by equation (8). In other words, the maximum voltage that can be generated by a solar cell
is numerically equal to the band gap of the particular semiconductor in use expressed in electron
volts.
V = Eg / q………………………………………………………. (9)
A diagram of a typical solar cell is given as shown below .The current generated is extracted
via contacts on the front and rear sides of the cell. A thin layer of dielectric material, known as
an anti-reflection coating or ARC, covers the cell to minimize light reflection from the
uppermost surface. The assessment of solar cell operation or the design of solar-cell-based power
systems requires and understanding of the electrical characteristics or voltage-current
relationship of the cell under various temperature and radiation levels. A typical model or
equivalent circuit for a solar module is given in figure below. For practical operation, solar cells
are usually assembled into modules consisting of several cells or an array consisting of several
modules.

16
Figure2.7 solar circuit equivalent
The equation governing the I-V characteristics of the cell in the figure is given by equation
below

……………………….. (10)

…………………………… (11)
Where:
ID = the diode current (A)
ISh = the shunt resistance current (A)
I = the load current (A)
IL = current produced by the cell (A)
Io = reverse saturation current of the diode (A)
q = charge on an electron (C)
V = output voltage (V)
K = Boltzmann's constant
T = working temperature of the cell in (K)

17
 The current-voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics of a typical PV module
corresponding to equation (10) are shown in figure (11) with the short circuit current at radiation
level G, Isc (G), the maximum power current (Imp), maximum power point (Pmp), maximum
power voltage (Vmp), and open circuit voltage (Voc) labeled at their respective points. The
diode quality factor Pmp is the maximum power that can be obtained from the module and it
corresponds to the maximum rectangular area under the I-V curve. Voc increases
logarithmically, whereas Isc increases almost in proportion to the radiation as long as the current
axis does not intersect the curved portion of the I-V characteristic. In the figure it is worth taking
a note of the effect of temperature upon the current generated by the solar cell (module).
PV cells are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems. The power generated by a PV cell
is only enough to power small devices such as electronic calculators. Each silicon solar cell
produces about 0.5 volts. To meet higher loads the PV cells must be connected in series and/or in
parallel depending on the magnitude of the voltage and current required. Typically, 36 cells are
connected in series to form a module which is capable of producing enough voltage to charge 12
volt batteries and run pumps and/or motors. It is important to note that losses of voltage occur
due to the temperature rise of the cells in the heat of the sun and also that a 12 V battery typically
needs about 14 V in order to be charged. Modules are the basic building blocks of systems. For
more voltage or current modules are connected in series or in parallel respectively to form a
panel and then panels can be assembled into a group to form a complete PV array. The power
output of a PV system is given by equation shown below:
P = AcMpηeηGT………………………………………………….. (12)
Where: Ac = the array area
Mpη = the maximum power point efficiency of the array (≈14%)
eη= the efficiency of power conditioning equipment (≈ 90%)
GT = the incident solar radiation on the array. [7] G. Vuc, I. Borlea, C. Barbulescu

2.9 Wind Energy

All renewable energy (except tidal and geothermal power), and even the energy in fossil
fuels, ultimately comes from the sun. The sun radiates 174,423,000,000,000 kilowatt hours of
energy to the earth per hour. In other words, the earth receives 1.74 x 10 17 W of power. Wind
energy has been used for thousands of years for milling grains, pumping water and other
mechanical power applications. But the use of wind energy as an electrical supply with free

18
pollution what makes it attractive and takes more interest and used on a significant scale.
Attempts to generate electricity from wind energy have been made since the end of nineteenth
century. Small wind machines for charging batteries have been manufactured since the 1930s.
Wind now is one of the most cost-effective methods of electricity generation available in spite of
the relatively low current cost of fossil fuels. The technology is continuously being improved
both cheaper and more reliable, so it can be expected that wind energy will become even more
economically competitive over the coming decades.

2.9.1 The Earth's Wind Systems

The earth's wind systems are due to the movement of atmospheric air masses as a result of
variations in atmospheric pressure, which in turn are the result of differences in the solar heating
of different parts of the earth’s surface. One square meter of the earth’s surface on or near the
equator receives more solar radiation per year than one square meter at higher latitudes. As a
result, the tropics are considerably warmer than the high latitude regions. Atmospheric pressure
is the pressure resulting from the weight of the column of the air that is above a specified surface
area. Like all gases, air expands when heated, and contracts when cooled. In the atmosphere,
warm air is lighter and less dense than cold air and will rise to high altitudes when strongly
heated by solar radiation. A low pressure belt is created at the equator due to warm humid air
rising in the atmosphere until it reaches the top of the troposphere (approximately 10 km) and
will spread to the North and the South. This air gradually cools until it reaches latitudes of about
30 degrees, where it sinks back to the surface, creating a belt of high pressure at these latitudes.
The majority of the world's deserts are found in these high pressure regions. Some of the air that
reaches the surface of these latitudes is forced back towards the low-pressure zone at the equator,
forming what is known "trade winds".
However, not all of the air that sinks at the 30 degree latitudes moves toward the equator. Some
of it moves toward the poles until it reaches the 60 degree latitudes, where it meets cold air
coming from the poles. The interaction of the two bodies of air causes the warmer air to rise and
most of this air cycles back to the 30 degree latitude regions where it sinks to the surface,
contributing to high pressure belt. The remaining of air that raises moves toward poles and sinks
to the surface at the poles as it cools. It returns to the 60 degree latitude region. As the earth is
rotating, any movement on the Northern hemisphere is diverted to the right, if we look at it from

19
our own position on the ground. (In the southern hemisphere it is bent to the left). This apparent
bending force is known as the Coriolis force.

2.9.2 Wind Power

Wind Power is energy extracted from the wind, passing through a machine known as the
windmill. Electrical energy can be generated from the wind energy. This is done by using the
energy from wind to run a windmill, which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity. The
windmill in this case is usually called a wind turbine. This turbine transforms the wind energy to
mechanical energy, which in a generator is converted to electrical power. An integration of wind
generator, wind turbine, aero generators is known as a wind energy conversion system (WECS).
Wind power systems convert the kinetic energy of the wind into other forms of energy such as
electricity. Although wind energy conversion is relatively simple in concept, turbine design can
be quite complex. Most commercially available wind turbine uses a horizontal–axis
configuration with two or three blades, a drive train including a gearbox and a generator and a
tower to support the rotor. Typical sizes for a wind turbine range from 200-750 KW, with
electricity produce within a specific range of wind speed. Cooperative research and
manufacturing companies is aimed at increasing the aerodynamics efficiency and structural
strength of wind turbine blades, developing variable speed generation and electronic power
controls and using taller tower that allow access to the stronger wind found at greater height. An
important factor in how much power your wind turbine will produce is the height of its tower.
The power available in the wind is proportional to the cube of its speed. This means that if wind
speed doubles, the power available to the wind generator increases by a factor of 8 (2 x 2 x 2 = 8)
Since wind speed increases with height increases to the tower height can mean enormous
increases in the amount of electricity generated by a wind turbine.

2.9.3 Wind Turbines

A wind turbine is a machine for converting the kinetic energy in wind into mechanical energy.
Wind turbines can be separated into two basic types based on the axis about which the turbine
rotates. Turbines that rotate around a horizontal axis are more common. Vertical-axis turbines
are less frequently used. Wind turbines can also be classified by the location in which they are
used as Onshore, Offshore, and aerial wind turbines. Wind turbines are used to generate
electricity from kinetic power of the wind i.e. the generation of wind energy primarily depends

20
on the wind speed. To enhance the energy capture, the turbine is mounted on a tall tower. Wind
is an intermittent resource; however, wind turbines are not unreliable technology. Modern wind
turbines capture more than 90% of available energy from wind, compared with fuel efficiency
between 30- 40% for a conventional coal fired station, which typically loses a significant portion
of energy through heat loss and pollution. The main components of a wind turbine are the rotor
of the turbine, which is the prime mover, and the induction generator. The rotor is connected to
the generator via a gearbox which matches and enhances the rotational speed. As the wind does
not blow all the time nor does the sun shine all the time, solar and wind power alone are poor
power sources. Hybridizing solar and wind power sources together with storage batteries to
cover the periods of time without sun or wind provides a realistic form of power generation.
Modern wind turbines come in two basic configurations based on the direction of the rotating
shaft (axis): horizontal axis and vertical axis. They range in size from very small machines that
produce a few tens or hundreds of watts to very large turbines producing as much as 5 megawatts
of power. Horizontal axis wind turbine: Most wind machines being used today are the
horizontal-axis type. Horizontal-axis wind machines have blades like airplane propellers.
Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) predominantly have 2 or 3 blades, or a large number of
blades. The later are described as high-solidity devices and include the multi blade wind turbines
used for water pumping on farms. In Contrast, the swept area of wind turbines with 2 or 3 blades
is largely void: only small fraction of this area appears to be solid. These are referred to as low-
solidity device. Rotors of modern low-solidity HAWTs generally have 2 or 3 wing-like blades.
They are almost universally employed to generate electricity. Some experimental single-bladed
HAWTs have also been produced. [4] K. Sopian, A. Zaharim, Y. Ali, Z. Nopiah

2.10 Wind Power Modeling

The block diagram below shows the conversion process of wind energy to electrical energy.

Figure 2.8 energy conversions from wind to electricity

21
The HOMER Micro power Optimization Model is a computer model developed by the U.S.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) to assist in the design of micro power systems
and to facilitate the comparison of power generation technologies across a wide range of
applications. HOMER models a power system’s physical behavior and its life-cycle cost, which
is the total cost of installing and operating the system over its life span. HOMER allows the
modeler to compare many different design options based on their technical and economic merits.
It also assists in understanding and quantifying the effects of uncertainty or changes in the
inputs .HOMER can model grid-connected and off-grid micro power systems serving electric
and thermal loads, and comprising any combination of photovoltaic (PV) modules, wind
turbines, small hydro, biomass power, reciprocating engine generators, micro turbines, fuel cells,
batteries, and hydrogen storage.

2.11 Hybrid System

A hybrid renewable energy system is a system in which two or more supplies from different
renewable energy sources (solar-thermal, solar-photovoltaic, wind, biomass, hydropower, etc.)
are integrated to supply electricity or heat, or both, to the same demand. The most frequently
used hybrid system is the hybrid which consists of Photovoltaic (PV) modules and wind turbines.
Because the supply pattern of different renewable energy sources intermittent but with different
patterns of intermittency, it is often possible to achieve a better overall supply pattern by
integrating two or more sources. Sometimes also including a form of energy storage. In this way
the energy supply can effectively be made less intermittent, or more firm. Combining renewable
hybrid system with batteries as a storage system, to increase duration of energy autonomy,
will make optimal use of the available renewable energy resource and this in turn can guarantee
high supply reliability. To deal with different weather conditions and to make the system
supplies load demand at the worst conditions, this strategy requires large storage capacity and
therefore it is very expensive. It is cheaper to supply peaks or to supply demand during periods
of cloudy weather or poor wind days with another back up supply ( usually diesel generator ),
although this lowers the proportion of renewable energy used. Selecting appropriate size of the
storage system is such that to minimize diesel running time and to maximize fuel savings.
Dump loads are recommended to be used in hybrid power systems as secondary loads to provide
a sink for excess renewable generated power to keep power balance of the system at all times,
also improve the economic return of the system by allowing excess renewable energy to meet an

22
on-site energy needs that would otherwise have to be met with other energy source. Optimum
match design is very important for PV/wind hybrid system, which can guarantee battery bank
working at the optimum conditions as possible as can be, therefore the battery bank’s lifetime
can be prolonged to the maximum and energy production cost decreased to the minimum. In last
few years, some commercial software packages for simulating wind power, PV and hybrid
generating systems have been developed. By using computer simulation, the optimum system
configuration can be found by comparing the performances and energy production costs of
different system configurations. To simulate the practical operating situations of renewable
energy systems, many factors need to be considered.
The hybrid system studied is one combining solar and wind with diesel generator(s) and a bank
of batteries, which is included for backup purposes Power conditioning units, such as converters,
are also a part of the supply system. It is conceivable that a solar/wind hybrid system has
numerous advantages. One of the Advantages are reliability; when solar and wind power
production resources are used together, reliability is improved and the system's energy service
is enhanced. What this means is that in the absence of one type of energy another would be
available to carry out the service, and, as a result the size of the battery storage can be reduced.
Other advantages are the stability and immobility of the system (fewer moving parts) and a lower
maintenance requirement, thus reducing downtime during repairs or routine maintenance. In
addition to this, as well as being indigenous and free, renewable energy resources also contribute
to the reduction of emissions and pollution. The operational concept of the hybrid system is that
renewable resources are the first choice for supplying load and any excess energy produced is
stored in the battery. The diesel generator is a secondary source of energy. Electronic controller
circuitry is used to manage energy supply and load demand. The main actors, or elements, of the
hybrid system are the wind turbine and the PV generators. Diesel generator(s), a battery system,
and an inverter module are additional parts of the system. In the following sections the basic
principles of these components will be discussed. In addition to the theoretical notes considered
as a background literature survey is also part and parcel of the foundation of this work. It is
known that researchers have been working in the area of standalone hybrid system since long
and numerous research results for a variety of applications have been published. [5] N. Razak,
M. Othman

23
2.12 Inverter
An inverter is an electrical device that converts DC power to AC power at a desired output
voltage or current. It typical application is to convert DC power from a battery or PV array into
AC power for use with conventional, utility -powered household appliances. Basically, there are
three kinds of DC-AC inverters; square wave, modified sine-wave, and pure sine wave inverters.
Of the three, the square wave type is the simplest and least expensive, but with the poorest
quality output signal. The modified sine wave type is suitable for many load types and is the
most popular low-cost inverter. Pure sine wave inverters produce the highest quality signal and
are used for sensitive devices such as medical equipment, laser printers, stereos, etc. The
working principle of most inverters is to use a low DC voltage input and to first step-up the
voltage to a level corresponding to that of the peak value of the desired AC voltage and then
generate the desired AC voltage by using a full-bridge or half bridge electronic circuit
configuration. The output voltage of the inverter is controlled by electronic circuitry. An inverter
is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input rating of the inverter should
never be lower than the total watt of appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal
voltage as your battery. For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the
total amount of Watts you will be using at one time. The inverter size should be 25 -30% bigger
than total Watts of appliances. In case of appliance type in motor or compressor then inverter
size should be minimum 3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the
inverter capacity to handle surge current during starting. For grid tie systems or grid connected
systems, the input rating of the inverter should be same as PV array rating to allow for safe and
efficient operation.

2.13 Battery
Batteries are a key component in a stand-alone renewable energy system. Basically, a battery
is a device that stores energy for later use. It is a combination of electrochemical cells that can
store chemical energy that has the potential to be converted into electric voltage or, to put it
simply; it is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. Lead-acid
battery is the type of battery commonly used in stand-alone power systems. Batteries can be
classified in two ways: by their application (the way they are used) and their construction (how
they are built).

24
The major construction types are flooded (wet), gelled, and AGM (Absorbed Glass Mat). The
construction aspect is beyond the scope of this work. With regard to their applications, the major
ones are Automotive (starting), marine, and deep-cycle. Deep-cycle batteries are used in
renewable energy applications. In terms of the automotive (starting) type, it is designed to
provide a large amount of current for a short period of time. To achieve a sufficiently large
amount of current, car batteries use thin plates in order to increase the surface area. Such
batteries are not suitable for storing the energy that PV or hybrid systems produce. On the other
hand, Deep Cycle batteries are designed to be discharged as low as 80 % and recharged over and
over again and therefore have much thicker plates. It is important to note that companies
recommend. Those hybrid system batteries should not be discharged beyond 50% of their
capacity. Deep Cycle batteries deliver a consistent voltage as the battery discharges.
The Marine type is usually hybrid and falls somewhere between the starting and deep-cycle
battery types. The plates may be composed of lead sponge, but it is coarser and heavier than that
used in starting batteries. With regard to the effect of temperature on batteries, the battery
capacity is reduced as the temperature goes down, and is increased as the temperature goes up.
The standard rating for batteries is 25 0C. Battery Ah capacity drops to 50% at approximately 27
0
C. At freezing (≈0°C), capacity is reduced by 20%. [9] http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar

Total daily load (Wh) Battery voltage (volt)

< 1000 12
1000-2000 24
2000-3000 36
3000-4000 48
>4000 60-120

Table 2.1 battery voltage selection as the load demand

25
2.14 The Homer Model and the Hybrid Setup
The Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewable (HOMER) software is used as a tool
to carry out the research. As mentioned earlier, the main objective of the research is to assess the
feasibility and economic viability of utilizing hybrid PV–Wind–diesel–battery based standalone
power supply systems to meet the load requirements of the hypothetical community specified
earlier. A schematic diagram of the standalone hybrid power supply system sought is shown in
the figure below and its representation by HOMER is shown in figure. The power conditioning
units are DC-DC and AC-DC. Converters, with the sole purpose of matching the PV and wind
Turbine generated voltages to that of the bus voltage at the DC Centre. The AC load is primary.

Figure 2.9 general schemes of standalone hybrid power supply system

HOMER requires input information in order to analyze the system and to give the feasible
setups. One such piece of information is the electrical load condition, which the hybrid system is
expected to supply. [1] A. Rohani, K. Mazlumi, H. Kord.

26
 CHAPTER THREE

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Site Identification

The site was identified for wind and solar resource assessment using Wikipedia, Google map.
The location used in this study in kombolcha (misreta) located at latitude of 11 o 5’ 12’’ north and
longitude of 390 43’ East and the elevation is 1857m. The data and literature were taken from
National Meteorological Service Agency (NMSA).

3.2 The use of hybrid system

A hybrid energy system is consists of two or more renewable energy sources used together to
provide increased system efficiency as well as greater balance in energy supply. This means if
there is no renewable system to fulfill 100% need of the load, so two or more renewable energy
system can be combined.
We used a combined system of WIND and SOLAR sources which are proposed to be located in
misreta, Kombolcha.

3.2.1The use of data from solar energy

Solar energy is power from the sun's rays that reach Earth. By using photovoltaic cells made
from silicon alloys, sunlight can be converted into other forms of energy, such as heat and
electricity. Steam generators using thermal collectors to heat a fluid, such as water, sometimes
convert even higher amounts of solar energy into electricity. The location of Misreta, Kombolcha
is given by
Latitude;12degree 05 minute 12 second north
Longitude; 39degree 43 minute east
Elevation;1857meter
Time zone GMT+ 3:00

27
Month Clearance index Average radiation
(kwh/𝑚2/𝑑𝑎𝑦)
Jan 0.654 8.2
Feb 0.581 9.0
Mar 0.600 8.4
Apr 0.564 8.3
May 0.632 8.5
Jun 0.618 7.7
Jul 0.538 6.2
Aug 0.537 6.3
Sep 0.557 7.1
Oct 0.629 8.3
Nov 0.684 8.7
Dec 0.646 8.9
Annual average clearance 0.6033
index

Table 3.1 average solar radiation

3.3 Wind energy Wind is produced by uneven solar heating of the earth’s land and sea surfaces; it is also
a form of “solar” energy. On average, the ratio of total wind power to incident solar power is on the order of
two percent, reflecting a balance between input and dissipation by turbulence and drag on the surface.
Wind is the movement of air caused by the irregular heating of the Earth's surface. It happens at all scales,
from local breezes created by heating of land surfaces that lasts some minutes, to global winds caused from
solar heating of the Earth. Wind power is the transformation of wind energy into more utilizable forms,
typically electricity using wind turbines.

28
 Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Jan 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4
Feb 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.4
Mar 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.4
Apr 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.4
May 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4
Jun 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.5
Jul 0.8 0.7 0.7 1.0 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Aug 0.8 2.9 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3
Sep 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 Xx 0.2 0.2
Oct 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.3
Nov 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.5
Dec 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.7

Table 3.2 Monthly Average Wind Speed at 10 m above the surface of the earth (m/s)

3.4 Primary Load Estimation

Electrical load assessment for the design of Hybrid Renewable Power System is the basic first
step in determining the size of system components. This load can be estimated by collecting
available data from the planed area.
From the table below our load indicates the load is maximum at the middle of the Day because
most of the societies in this area are habited to work at this time. The estimation of load within a
day are seen from the table below which are distributed over by diversity factor. The load
demands considered are from house load, clinic load and school load. The tables below show the
total estimation of all loads in 24-hrs.

29
 Total hours Lamp TV Stove Fridge(6w Mobile
in use in one 5(60 (100 1 attage) charger
day wattage) wattage)
00:00-1:00 0.5 0 1.2 0 0.18
01:00-2:00 0 0.4 1.2 0.26 0.18
02:00-3:00 0 0.4 0 0 0
03:00-4:00 0 0.4 0 0 0
04:00-5:00 0 0.4 0 0 0
05:00-6:00 0 0.4 1.4 0.26 0
06:00-7:00 0 0.4 1.4 0.26 0.18
07:00-8:00 0 0.4 0 0.26 0.18
08:00-9:00 0 0 0 0 0
09:00-10:00 0 0 0 0 0
10:00-11:00 0 0 0 0 0
11:00-12:00 0 0 1.2 0 0
12:00-13:00 0.8 0.4 1.4 0 0.18
13:00-14:00 0.8 0.4 1.4 0.26 0.18
14:00-15:00 0.8 0.4 0 0.26 0.18
15:00-16:00 0.8 0.4 0 0 0.18
16:00-17:00 0.5 0 0 0 0
17:00-18:00 0 0 0 0 0
18:00-19:00 0 0 0 0 0
19:00-20:00 0 0 0 0 0
20:00-21:00 0 0 0 0 0
21:00-22:00 0 0 0 0 0
22:00-23:00 0 0 0 0 0
23:00-00:00 0 0 0 0 0

Table 3.3 Total load demands in kwh for house 1

Total hours Lamp TV Stove Mobile charger

30
 in use in one 3(60 (100 1
day wattage) wattage)
00:00-1:00 0.2 0 1.2 0.15
01:00-2:00 0 0.4 1.2 0.15
02:00-3:00 0 0.4 0 0
03:00-4:00 0 0 0 0
04:00-5:00 0 0 0 0
05:00-6:00 0 0 1.4 0
06:00-7:00 0 0.4 1.4 0.15
07:00-8:00 0 0.4 0 0.15
08:00-9:00 0 0 0 0
09:00-10:00 0 0 0 0
10:00-11:00 0 0 0 0
11:00-12:00 0 0 0 0
12:00-13:00 0.3 0.4 1.4 0
13:00-14:00 0.3 0.4 1.4 0.15
14:00-15:00 0.3 0.4 1.4 0.15
15:00-16:00 0.3 0.4 0 0.15
16:00-17:00 0.2 0.4 0 0
17:00-18:00 0 0 0 0
18:00-19:00 0 0 0 0
19:00-20:00 0 0 0 0
20:00-21:00 0 0 0 0
21:00-22:00 0 0 0 0
22:00-23:00 0 0 0 0
23:00-00:00 0 0 0 0

Table 3.4 Total load demands in kwh for house 2

Total hours Lamp Mobile

in use in one 3(60 charger

31
 day wattage)
00:00-1:00 0.2 0.1
01:00-2:00 0 0.1
02:00-3:00 0 0
03:00-4:00 0 0
04:00-5:00 0 0
05:00-6:00 0 0
06:00-7:00 0 0.1
07:00-8:00 0 0.1
08:00-9:00 0 0
09:00-10:00 0 0
10:00-11:00 0 0
11:00-12:00 0 0
12:00-13:00 0.2 0
13:00-14:00 0.2 0
14:00-15:00 0.2 0.1
15:00-16:00 0.2 0.1
16:00-17:00 0 0
17:00-18:00 0 0
18:00-19:00 0 0
19:00-20:00 0 0
20:00-21:00 0 0
21:00-22:00 0 0
22:00-23:00 0 0
23:00-00:00 0 0

Table 3.5 Total load demands in kwh for house 3

Total hours Lamp TV Fridge Mobile

in use in one 10(36 (100 1 charger
day wattage) wattage)

32
 00:00-1:00 0.8 0.4 0.26 0.4
01:00-2:00 0.7 0.4 0.26 0.3
02:00-3:00 0.6 0.4 0.26 0.2
03:00-4:00 0.4 0.4 0.26 0.3
04:00-5:00 0.2 0.4 0.26 0.1
05:00-6:00 0.2 0.4 0.26 0.3
06:00-7:00 0.2 0.4 0.26 0.4
07:00-8:00 0.2 0.4 0.26 0.6
08:00-9:00 0.2 0.4 0.26 0.2
09:00-10:00 0.2 0.4 0.26 0.1
10:00-11:00 0.2 0.4 0.26 0.3
11:00-12:00 0.9 0.4 0.26 0.2
12:00-13:00 1.2 0.4 0 0.1
13:00-14:00 1.4 0.4 0 0.1
14:00-15:00 1.6 0.4 0 0.1
15:00-16:00 1.8 0 0 0
16:00-17:00 1.2 0 0 0
17:00-18:00 0.9 0 0 0
18:00-19:00 0.9 0 0 0
19:00-20:00 0.9 0 0 0
20:00-21:00 0.9 0 0 0
21:00-22:00 0.9 0 0 0
22:00-23:00 0.9 0 0 0
23:00-00:00 0.9 0 0 0

Table 3.6 Total load demands in kwh for clinic

33
Total hours Lamp TV Mobile
in use in one 17(36 (100 charger
day wattage) wattage)
00:00-1:00 0.4 0.4 0.2
01:00-2:00 0.4 0.4 0.2
02:00-3:00 0.2 0.4 0.2
03:00-4:00 0 0.4 0.1
04:00-5:00 0 0.4 0.1
05:00-6:00 0 0.4 0
06:00-7:00 0 0.4 0
07:00-8:00 0 0.4 0
08:00-9:00 0 0.4 0.2
09:00-10:00 0 0.4 0.1
10:00-11:00 0 0 0
11:00-12:00 0 0 0
12:00-13:00 0.6 0 0
13:00-14:00 0.6 0.4 0.1
14:00-15:00 0.4 0.4 0.1
15:00-16:00 0.2 0.4 0
16:00-17:00 0.2 0 0
17:00-18:00 0.2 0 0
18:00-19:00 0.2 0 0
19:00-20:00 0.2 0 0
20:00-21:00 0.2 0 0
21:00-22:00 0.2 0 0
22:00-23:00 0.2 0 0
23:00-00:00 0.2 0 0

34
Table 3.7 Total load demands in kwh for school

Calculation:
House 1:
For lamps: There are 5 lamps in the 5 different classes with wattage of 60watt. The total power
consumed by the lamps can be found us follows:
· In the 5 class they consume 0.5kw per hour for 2 hours and 0.8kw per hours for 4 hours in a
day. The total watts in a day: 2*0.5 +0.8*4kwh=4.2kwh/day.
For TV: they consume 0.4kw per hours for 11 hours in a day.
The total watts in a day’s 11*0.4=4.4kwh/day.
For stove: the total watts in a day’s 3*1.2+4*1.4=9.2kwh/day
For charger: the total watts in a day’s 8*0.18=1.44kwh/days
For fridge: the total watts in a day’s 6*0.26=1.56kwh/days
Power consumed in this house is Pt= 20.8kwh/day
There are four houses that are included in this power consumed:-
Total power consumed for the four houses Pt=4*20.8=83.2kwh/d
House 2
For lamps: 1.6*3=4.8kwh/day
For charger 0.15*7=1.05kwh/day0
For TV 0.4*9=3.6kwh/day
For stove 1.2*2 + 1.4*5=9.4kwh/day
Power consumed in this house Pt=18.85kwh/day
There are ten houses that are included in this power consumed
Pt=10*18.85=188.5kwh/day
House 3

35
For lamp 0.2*5=1kwh/day
For charger 6*0.1=0.6kwh/day
The total power consumed in this house Pt=1.6kwh/day
There are forty-six houses that are included in this power consumed
Pt=46*1.6=73.6kwh/day

FOR MISRETA PRIMARY SCHOOL

For lamp: There are 17 lamps in the school with wattage of 36watt. The total power consumed
by the lamps can be found us follows
For lamp=0.4*3 + 0.2*10 + 0.6*2=4.4kwh/day
For TV=0.4*13=5.2kwh/day
For charger=0.2*4+0.1*5=1.3kwh/day
The total power consumed by this school is
Pt=4.4+5.2+1.3=10.9kwh/day
FOR MISRETA CLINIC
There are 10 lamps in the clinic with wattage of 36watt. The total power consumed by the lamps
can be found us follows
For lamp=18.3kwh/day
For TV=6kwh/day
For fridge=3.12kwh/day
For charger=3.7kwh/day
For computer=0.235kwh/day
The total power consumed by the clinic is
Pt=18.3+6+3.12+3.7+0.235=31.355kwh/day
Then the total primary load for 24 hour is calculated:
Pt=83.2+188.5+73.6+10.9+31.355=387.555kwh/day

36
hours Hourly average load in kwh
1:00 6.59
2:00 6.37
3:00 3.06
4:00 2.26
5:00 1.86
6:00 4.96
7:00 5.95
8:00 3.35
9:00 1.66
10:00 1.46
11:00 1.16
12:00 2.96
13:00 7.38
14:00 8.49
15:00 7.19
16:00 4.93

37
17:00 2.5
18:00 1.1
19:00 1.1
20:00 1.1
21:00 1.1
22:00 1.1
23:00 1.1
00:00 1.1

Table 3.8 Hourly average load in kwh

average hourly load in kwh

Hour October- July Aug Sep
June
1:00 6.59 3.295 4.9425 1.6475
2:00 6.37 3.185 4.7775 1.5925
3:00 3.06 1.53 2.295 0.765
4:00 2.26 1.13 1.695 0.565
5:00 1.86 0.93 1.395 0.465
6:00 4.96 2.48 3.72 1.24
7:00 5.95 2.975 4.4625 1.4875
8:00 3.35 1.675 2.5125 0.8375
9:00 1.66 0.83 1.245 0.415
10:00 1.46 0.73 1.095 0.365

38
 11:00 1.16 0.58 0.87 0.29
12:00 2.96 1.48 2.22 0.74
13:00 7.38 3.69 5.535 1.845
14:00 8.49 4.245 6.3675 2.1225
15:00 7.19 3.595 5.3925 1.7975
16:00 4.93 2.465 3.6975 1.2325
17:00 2.5 1.25 1.875 0.625
18:00 1.1 0.55 0.825 0.275
19:00 1.1 0.55 0.825 0.275
20:00 1.1 0.55 0.825 0.275
21:00 1.1 0.55 0.825 0.275
22:00 1.1 0.55 0.825 0.275
23:00 1.1 0.55 0.825 0.275
00:00 1.1 0.55 0.825 0.275

Table 3.9 Overall average primary demands

The load consumption reduces in the three months (July, August, and September), because the
number of summer students are less than the regular students and peak sun hours is less in the
summer season. We estimated that the August month is loaded among the three months. That is
why it uses 75% of the regular months. We also estimated that the load consumption in July is
50% of the regular month, and load consumption of September is 25% of the regular months.

3.5 Design Procedures of Photovoltaic System

3.5.1 Determine Power Consumption Demand

The first step in designing hybrid system is to find out the total power and energy consumption
of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV and wind turbine system as follows
A. Loads
A1 Inverter efficiency 85%
A2 Battery Bus voltage 60 volts
A3 Inverter ac voltage 220 volts
Appliance A4 A5 A6 A7 A8
rated Adjustment Adjusted Hours per Energy per
wattage factor 1.0 for wattage days used day
DC ,(A1) for A4/A5 (A6*A7)
AC

39
 38 lamps 1632w 0.85 1920 11 21120
11(60w) and 27(36w)
2 Refrigerator (2*500) 1000w 0.85 1176 9 10584

4 TV (4*100) 400w 0.85 471 12 5652

5 mobile charger 5*2 10w 0.85 12 9 108
2 stove (6000*2) 12000w 0.85 14118 7 98824
Table 3.10 Stand Alone PV System Sizing of loads

A9 Total energy demand per day (sum of A8) 136288 watt-hours

A10 Total amp-hour demand per day (A9/A2) 2271amp-hours
A11 Maximum ac power requirement (sum of A4) 15042 watts
A12 Maximum dc power requirement (sum of A6) 17697 watts

B. Battery Sizing Design temperature 25 degrees C /

77 degrees F
B1 Days of storage desired/required 3 days
B2 Allowable depth-of-discharge limit (decimal) 0.8
B3 Required battery capacity ((A10 x B1) / B2) 8516 amp-hours
B4 Amp-Hour capacity of selected battery * 942 amp-hours
B5 Number of batteries in parallel (B3 / B4) 9
B6 Number of batteries in series (A2 / selected battery voltage) 5
B7 Total Number of Batteries (B5xB6) 45
B8 Total battery amp-hour capacity (B5xB4) 8478 amp-hours
B9 Total battery kilowatt-hour capacity ((B8xA2)/1000) 508 Kw-hours
B10 Average daily depth of discharge (.75xA10/B8) 0.2
C. PV Array Sizing
Design Tilt (Latitude + 15 degrees)=26.1oDesign month
C1 Total energy demand per day (A9) 136288 watt-hours
C2 Battery round trip efficiency (0.70-0.85) 0.85
C3 Required array output per day (C1 / C2) 160338 watt-hours
C4 Selected PV module max power voltage at STC (x.85) 33.49Volts

40
C5 Selected PV module guaranteed power output at STC 220 watts
C6 Peek sum hours at design tilt for design month 8.94 hours
C7 Energy output per module per day (C5xC6) 1967 watt-hours
C8 Module energy output at operating temperature (DFxC7)
DF = 0.80 for hot climates and critical applications.
DF = 0.90 for moderate climates and non-critical
applications. 1573 watt-hours
C9 Number of modules required to meet energy requirements
(C3 / C8) 101 modules
C10 Number of modules required per string (A2 / C4) rounded
to the next higher integer. 2 modules
C11 Number of strings in parallel (C9 / C10) rounded
to the next higher integer. 50 strings
C12 Number of modules to be purchased (C10 x C11) 101 modules
C13 Nominal rated PV module output 275watts
C14 Nominal rated array output (C13 x C12) 27775 watts

A. LOADS
(A1): Inverter efficiency (decimal). This quantity is used as a power adjustment factor when
current is changed from dc to ac. The efficiency of the inverter selected for this application is
assumed to be 0.85.
(A2): Battery bus voltage. This is nominal dc operating voltage of the system. The battery bus
voltage for this application is 60 volts. Which corresponds to the required dc input voltage for
the inverter.
(A3): Inverter ac voltage. The output voltage of the inverter selected for this application is 220
volts.
(A4): The rated wattage is listed for each appliance in column (A4). Note that the rated wattage
for some appliances may vary from the actual power consumed due to the load variation or
cycling (i.e. refrigeration, lamps, etc.)

41
 Appliance A4
rated
wattage

38 lamps 1632w
11(60w) and 27(36w)
2 Refrigerator (2*500) 1000w

4 TV (4*100) 400w
5 mobile charger 5*2 10w
2 stove (6000*2) 12000w

Table 3.11 rated wattage of load

(A5): Adjustment factor. The adjustment factor is related to the efficiency of the inverter and
reflects the actual power consumed from the battery bank to operate ac loads from the inverter.
For ac loads, the value (A1) is inserted in column (A5).
For this application the adjustment factor is 0.85. For dc loads operating from the battery bank an
adjustment factor of 1.0 is used.
(A6): Adjusted wattage. Dividing the rated wattage A4) by the adjustment factor (A5) adjusts the
wattage to compensate for the inverter inefficiency and gives the actual wattage consumed from
the battery bank (A4 / A5).
(A7): Hours per day used. The number of hours each appliance is used per day is listed in
column (A7). The duty cycle, or actual time of load operation, must be considered here. For
example, a refrigerator may be functional 24 hours a day, but the compressor may only operate 5
hours per day.
(A8): Energy per day. The amount of energy each appliance requires per day is determined by
multiplying each appliance’s adjusted wattage (A6) by the number of hours used per day (A7).
(A6) x (A7)
(A9): Total energy demand per day. The Sum of the Quantities in column (A8) determines the
total energy demand required by the appliances per day. For this application the total energy per
day for the load is 136288 watt-hours.
(A10): Total amp-hour demand per day. The battery storage subsystem is sized independently of
the photovoltaic array. In order to size the battery bank the total electrical load is converted from

42
watt-hours to amp-hours. Amp-hours are determined by dividing the total energy demand per
day (A9) by the battery bus voltage (A2). (A9) / (A2).
136288 watt-hours / 60volts = 2271 amp-hours.
(A11): maximum ac power requirement. The sum of the rated wattages (A4) for all appliances is
equal to 14042watts. Note that this is the maximum continuous power required and does not
include surge requirements. This value (A11) is the maximum continuous ac power output
required of the inverter if all loads were to operate simultaneously. The Peak, or surge
requirement (due to refrigerator starting, etc.) must also be considered when selecting an
inverter.
(A12): maximum dc power requirement. The sum of the adjusted wattages (A6), or dc power, for
all appliances is equal to 17697 watts. This value (A12) is the maximum dc input power required
by the inverter and is necessary to determine wire sizes fusing and disconnect requirement. If
load management techniques are employed to eliminate the possibility of loads operating
simultaneously, the inverter maximum output requirements may be reduced accordingly.

B. BATTERY SIZING
DESIGN TEMPERATURE: The location where batteries are stored should be designed to
minimize fluctuations in battery temperature. For this application the design temperature is
assumed to be 25 degrees C.
(B1): Days of storage desired/required (autonomy). The loss of electricity for the residence in
this application, although undesirable, would not be catastrophic. Consequently, the battery
storage system is designed to provide the necessary electrical energy for a period equivalent to 3
days without any sunshine. This time period is considered a moderate level of storage for the
southeastern U.S. for non-critical applications. Less critical applications may use 3 to 4 days of
storage, although this would increase the depth of the battery cycling and reduce battery life. For
critical applications such as those that would impact public safety, more days of storage may be
desirable.
(B2): Allowable depth-of-discharge limit (decimal). The maximum fraction of capacity that can
be withdrawn from the battery as specified by the designer. Note that the battery selected must
be capable of this limit or greater depth of discharge. For this application the allowable depth-
of-discharge is 0.8.

43
(B3): Required battery capacity. The required battery capacity is determined by first multiplying
the total amp-hours per day (A10) by the days of storage required (B1),( 2271 x 3)/0.8 = 8516,
and then dividing this number by the allowable depth of discharge limit (B2). [(A10) x ((B1) /
(B2))].
(B4): Amp-hour capacity of selected battery. Once the required number of amp-hours has been
determined (B3), batteries or battery cells can be selected using manufacturers’ information.
Exide 6E95-11 industrial grade batteries were selected for this application because of their long
cycle life and rugged construction. Table B.4 shows that Exide 6E120-15’s capacity for a 3 day
rate is 942 amp-hours. Since battery capacity may vary with the rate of discharge, the amp-hour
capacity that corresponds to the required days of storage should be used.

20 DAY(480 10 DAY (240 5 DAY 3 DAY (72 HR)

HR) HR) (120HR)
TYPE VOL NORM A.H AMPS A.H AMPS A.H AMPS A.H AMPS 32OF(0OC)
TS AL A.H A.H.
PER CAP
UNI
T
6E95-5 12 180 192 0.40 192 0.80 192 1.60 192 2.67 184
6E95-7 12 270 288 0.60 288 1.20 288 2.40 288 4.00 276
6E95-9 12 360 383 0.80 383 1.60 383 3.19 383 5.32 368
6E95-11 12 450 478 1.00 478 1.99 478 3.98 478 6.64 459
6E120-9 12 500 538 1.20 538 2.24 538 4.48 538 7.47 516
6E120-11 12 625 673 1.40 673 2.80 673 5.61 673 9.35 646
6E120-13 12 750 808 1.68 808 3.37 808 6.73 808 11.22 776
6E120-15 12 875 942 1.96 942 3.93 942 7.85 942 13.08 904

44
 3E120-17 6 1000 1077 2.24 1077 4.49 1077 8.98 1077 14.96 1034
3E120-19 6 1125 1212 2.53 1212 5.05 1212 10.10 1212 16.83 1163
3E120-21 6 1250 1346 2.80 1346 5.61 1346 11.22 1346 18.69 1292
3E120-23 6 1375 1481 3.09 1481 6.17 1481 12.34 1481 20.57 1422
3E120-25 6 1500 1616 3.37 1616 6.73 1616 13.47 1616 22.44 1551
3E120-27 6 1625 1750 3.65 1750 7.20 1750 14.58 1750 24.31 1680
3E120-29 6 1750 1885 3.93 1885 7.85 1885 15.71 1885 26.18 1809

Table 3.12 Exide battery specification sheet

(B5): Number of batteries in parallel. The number of batteries or battery cells needed to provide
the required battery capacity (B3) by the amp-hour capacity of the selected battery (B4). (B3) /
(B4).
(B6): Number of batteries in series. The number of batteries needed to provide the necessary dc
system voltage is determined by dividing the battery bus voltage (A2) by the selected battery or
battery cell voltage (taken from manufacturer’s information). (A2) / Battery voltage.
(B7): Total Number of batteries. Multiplying the number of batteries in parallel (B5) by the
number of batteries or battery cells in series (B60 determines the total number of batteries
needed. (B5) x (B6).
(B8): Total battery amp-hour capacity. The total rated capacity of selected batteries is determined
by multiplying the number of batteries in parallel (B5) by the amp-hour capacity of the selected
battery (B4). (B5) x (B4).
(B9): Total battery kilowatt-hour capacity. Based on the selected batteries, the kWh or energy
capacity is determined by first multiplying the total amp-hour capacity (B8) times the battery bus
voltage (A2), and then dividing this number by 1000.
[(B8) x (A2)] / 1000.
(B10): Average daily depth of discharge. The actual daily depth of discharge to be expected on
the average for the selected battery subsystem is determined by first multiplying 0.75 by the total
amp-hour demand per day (A10), and then dividing this number by the total battery amp-hour
capacity (B8). The 0.75 factor is used by assuming that the PV array meets the load during peak
sun hours or 0.25 of the day and the batteries supply the load for the other 0.75 of the day. For
the lighting load profile that operates only at night this factor would be 1.0, due to the load being
entirely supplied by the batteries. [0.75 x (A10)] / (B8).

45
C. PV ARRAY SIZING
The size of the photovoltaic array is determined by considering the available solar insulation, the
tilt and orientation of the array and the characteristics of the photovoltaic modules being
considered. The array is sized to meet the average daily load requirements for the month or
season of the year with the lowest ratio daily insulation to the daily load.
The available insulation striking a photovoltaic array varies throughout the year and is a function
of the tilt angle and azimuth orientation of the array. If the load is constant, the designer must
consider the time of the year with the minimum amount of sunlight (in the Northern hemisphere,
typically December or January). Knowing the insulation available (at tilt) and the power output
required, the array can be sized using module specifications supplied by manufacturers.
Using module power output and daily insulation (in peak sun hours), the energy (watt hours or
amp-hours) delivered by a photovoltaic module for an average day can be determined. Then,
knowing the requirements of the load and the output of a single module, the array can be sized.
The array is sized to meet the average daily demand for electricity during the worst insulation
month of the year, which is December in Baton Rouge. The array will face south and because the
sun is low in the sky during December will be tilted at an angle of 26.1 degrees from the
horizontal in order to maximize the insulation received during
DESIGN MONTH: December
DESIGN TILT: 26.1 degrees for maximum insulation during the design month.
(C1): Total energy demand per day (A9).136288 watt-hours.
(C2): Battery round trip efficiency. A factor between 0.70 and 0.85 is used to estimate battery
round trip efficiency. For this application 0.85 is used because the battery selected is relatively
efficient and because a significant percentage of the energy is used during daylight hours.
(C3): Required array output per day. The watt-hours required by the load are adjusted (upwards)
because batteries are less than 100% efficient. Dividing the total energy demand per day (C1) by
the battery round trip efficiency (C2) determines the required array output per day. (C1)/(C2).
136288 watt-hours/0.85 = 160338 watt-hours.
(C4): Selected PV module max power voltage at STC x 0.85. Maximum power voltage is
obtained from the manufacturer’s specifications for the selected photovoltaic module, and this
quantity is multiplied by 0.85 to establish a design operating voltage for each module (not the
array) to the left of the maximum power voltage and to ensure acceptable module output current.

46
Siemens Solar M55 modules are used in this application. According to Figure 3.1the maximum
power voltage at STC for the Siemens Solar M55 is 39.4 volts.
39.4volts x 0.85 = 33.49 volts.
SW 275 MONO
PERFORMANCE UNDER STANDARD TEST COMMON (STC)

Maximum power Pmax 275 W

Open circuit voltage Voc 39.4 V
Maximum power point voltage Vmpp 31.0 V
Short circuit current Isc 9.58 A
Maximum power point current Impp 8.94 A
Module efficiency Ƞm 16.40 %

Figure 3.1module VI characteristics

Cells per module 60

Cell type Mono crystalline
Cell dimensions 6.14 in×6.14 in(156 mm×156mm)
Front Tempered glass (EN 12150)
Frame Clear anodized aluminum

47
 Weight 39.5 lbs(17.9 kg)

Table 3.13 Component material

(C5): Selected PV module guaranteed power output at STC. This number is also obtained from
the manufacturer’s specifications for the selected module. Figure 3.1 shows the nominal power
output at 1000 watts/m and 25 degrees C is 53 watts. The guaranteed power output is 90% of this
value, or 220 watts.
(C6): Peak sun hours at optimum tilt. This figure is obtained from solar radiation data (shown in
Figure ) for the design location and array tilt for an average day during the worst month of the
year. Peak sun hours at Latitude + 15 degrees for Baton Rouge in December equal 8.94 hours.
(C7): Energy output per module per day. The amount of energy produced by the array per day
during the worst month is determined by multiplying the selected photovoltaic power output at
STC (C5) by the peak sun hours at design tilt (C6). (C5) x (C6).
(C8): Module energy output at operating temperature. A de-rating factor of 0.90 (for moderate
climates and non-critical applications) is used in this application to determine the module energy
output at operating temperature. Multiplying the de-rating factor (DF) by the energy output
module (C7) establishes an average energy output from one module. DF x (C7).
0.80 x 1967 watt-hours = 1573 watt-hours.
(C9): Number of modules required to meet energy requirements. Dividing the required output
per day (C3) by the module energy output at operating temperature (C8) determines the number
of modules required to meet energy requirements. (C3 / (C8).
160338 watt-hours / 1573 watt-hours = 101 modules
(C10): Number of modules required per string. Dividing the battery bus voltage (A2) by the
module design operating voltage (C4), and then rounding this figure to the next higher integer
determines the number of modules required per string. (A2) / (C4).
60 volts / 33.49volts = 1.79 (rounded to 2 modules).
(C11): Number of string in parallel. Dividing the number of modules required to meet energy
requirements (C9) by the number of modules required per string (C10) and then rounding this
figure to the next higher integer determines the number of string in parallel. (C9) / (C10).
101 modules / 2 modules = 50 strings (if not a whole number round to next integer)

48
(C12): Number of modules to be purchased. Multiplying the number of modules required per
string (C10) by the number of strings in parallel (C11) determines the number of modules to be
purchased. (C10) x (C11).
2 x 50 = 100 modules
(C13): Nominal rated PV module output. The rated module output in watts as stated by the
manufacturer. Photovoltaic modules are usually priced in terms of the rated module output
($/watt). The Siemens Solar M55’s rated module power is 275 watts.
(C14): Nominal rated array output. Multiplying the number of modules to be purchased (C12) by
the nominal rated module output (C13) determines the nominal rated array output. This number
will be used to determine the cost of the photovoltaic array. (C12) x (C13).
101 modules x 275 watts = 27775 watts.

Figure 3.2 design of PV module

Figure out the input power to the inverter when the loads are on to decide how many inverters
are needed. Most of the electrical appliances work on alternative current and the electricity
generated from PV system is direct current in nature. Hence inverters are used in PV system to
convert DC electricity to AC and make it suitable for AC applications. Inverters are placed
between PV arrays and the load. Inverter efficiency (decimal) is used as a power adjustment

49
factor when current is changed from dc to ac. The efficiency of the inverter selected for this
application is assumed to be 85%.
Inverter ac voltage is the output voltage of the inverter selected for this application is
220volts.
The inverter rating power is selected for this application is 10000watt (10kw).
Maximum ac power requirement is the sum of the rated wattages for all appliances is equal to
15042 watts. Note that this is the maximum continuous power required and does not include
surge requirements. This value is the maximum continuous ac power output required of the
inverter if all loads were to operate simultaneously. The Peak, or surge requirement must also be
considered when selecting an inverter.

Efficiency inverter = output power/ Input power

Input power = output power / efficiency inverter
Input power = 15042watt/0.85 =17696.47 watts
Since the input power to the inverter is 17696.47watts is greater than the inverter rating power
so, we need to calculate the amount of inverter
Number of inverter = input power/ Rating power of inverter
=17696.47/10000watts
=1.769647
Then, total number of inverter is 2 (round up integers).
 Figure out the average the charge controller provides to the inverter to decide how
many charge controllers are needed.
We know the power coming out of the charge controller to the inverter is 17696.47 watts.
We take the charge controller rating current capacity for this application is range of charge
controllers for 12/24/48 volts system, handling up to 200 amps
We take the efficiency of the charge controller for this application is 95%.
Power = voltage * current
Current = power /voltage
17696.47watts/48v =368.67 amperes

50
 Since the charge controller current is 368.67 amperes is greater than the charge controller
current capacity so, we need to calculate the number of charge controller.
Number of charge controller = charge controller current/ Charge controller current capacity
= 368.67amperes/200 amperes =1.843
Then, the total number of charge controller 2 (round up integers).
We know the total amount of energy (watts – hours per day) is 136288watt-hours per day.
Convert into kilos watts-hours per day
= 136288 watts-hours per day/1000
=136.288 KWH/day
That means the energy coming from the charge controller is determined by using.
Efficiency of inverter = output energy/Input energy
Input energy = output energy/ Efficiency of inverter
=136.288KWH/day/0.85
= 160.3KWH/day
The input of the inverter is the same as the output of the charge controller.
Then, to calculate the input of the charge controller is determine by using.
Efficiency of charge controller = output energy/Input energy
Input energy = output energy/ Efficiency of charge controller
=160.3KWH/day/0.95
=168.77KWH/day
 Determine the number of battery are required and also seen the connection of the battery.
In our design to have consider the following.
DESIGN TEMPERATURE: The location where batteries are stored should be designed to
minimize fluctuations in battery temperature. For this application the design temperature is
assumed to be 25O C (77OF).
Days of storage desired/required (autonomy). The loss of electricity for the MISRETA,
Kombolcha so, the battery storage system is designed to provide the necessary electrical energy
for a period equivalent to 3 days without any sunshine.
Allowable depth-of-discharge limit (decimal) is the maximum fraction of capacity that can be
withdrawn from the battery as specified by the designer. Note that the battery selected must be

51
capable of this limit or greater depth of discharge. For this application the allowable depth- of-
discharge is 0.8.
In our design the Battery bus voltage is nominal dc operating voltage of the system. The battery
bus voltage for this application is 60 volts. Which corresponds to the required dc input voltage
for the inverter.
The battery storage subsystem is sized independently of the photovoltaic array. In order to size
the battery bank the total electrical load is converted from watt-hours to amp-hours. Amp-hours
are determined by dividing the total energy demand per day by the battery bus voltage.
Total energy demand per day is 168770 watts-hours per day or 168.77 kilo watt-hours per day.
Total amp-hour demand per day = total energy demand per day/Battery bus voltage
=168770 watt-hours/60volts
= 2812.8 amp-hours
Maximum AC power requirement is equals to rating wattage = 15042 watts.
The maximum DC power requirement = total power/Efficiency of inverter*efficiency of charge
controller
=17697 watt/(0.85*0.95)
=21915.8 watts
This value is the maximum dc input power required by the inverter and is necessary to determine
wire sizes fusing and disconnect requirement. If load management techniques are employed to
eliminate the possibility of loads operating simultaneously, the inverter maximum output
requirements may be reduced accordingly.
Required battery capacity =( total amp-hours demand per day * days of storage required)/
Allowable depth of discharge limit
= (2812.8amp-hours * 3days)/0.8
= 10548amp-hours
Amp-hours capacity of selected battery using manufacturer’s information takes 942 amp-hours.
Numbers of batteries in parallel = required battery capacity/Selected rating battery capacity
= 10548 amp-hours/942 amp-hours
= 11.197(round up to next integer)
Then, this indicating that 12 batteries are connected in parallel.
Number of batteries in series = battery bus voltage/Selected battery voltage

52
 = 60volts/12 volts
=5
Total number of batteries = 12*5 = 60
Total battery amp-hour capacity is the total rated capacity of selected batteries is determined by
multiplying the number of batteries in parallel by the amp-hour capacity of the selected battery.
= 12*942 =11304amp-hour
Day Numbers for the First Day of Each Month
January n =1 July n = 182
February n = 32 August n = 213
March n = 60 September n = 244
April n = 91 October n = 274
May n = 121 November n = 305
June n = 152 December n = 335
Tilt Angle of a PV Module, to find the optimum tilt angle for a south-facing photovoltaic
module in Tucson (latitude 26.1o) at solar on December 1.
From Table 7.1, December 1 is the 335 day of the year so the solar declination is
δ = 23.45 sin[360/365(n-81)]= 23.45osin[360/365(335-81)o] = -22.1077o
which, makes the altitude angle of the sun equal to
βN= 90o − L + δ = 90 –26.1–22.1077= 41.7923o
The tilt angle that would make the sun’s rays perpendicular to the module would therefore be
Tilt = 90 − βN = 90 –41.7923= 48.2077o

53
Figure 3.3 tilt angle of pv module

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter the results of the design of a PV power generation system is presented. But the
wind power generation is infeasible at a height of 10 meter as Homer output indicate. Wind
power generation is infeasible because the cutoff wind speed is below the standard value. The
homer output support this idea, this means the output for the wind generation is zero. Homer
simulates the operation of the system by making simulation, for 8,760 hours in a year by

54
calculating the load in MESIRETA, KOMBOLCHA. For each hour, Homer compares the
electric demand of an hour to the energy that the system can supply in that particular hour, and
calculates the flows of energy to and from each component of the system. The results of the
investigation are presented in the following paragraphs

4.1 Input Parameters

 Monthly Average Wind Speed: The monthly average wind speed for Misreta,
kombolcha together with other related data, such as values of Weibull parameter k,
diurnal pattern, autocorrelation were fed into HOMER. The wind speed resource data,
measured at 10m height with altitude of 1857 m and annual average of 0.56 m/s, were
taken from NMSA. Homer, after inputting these values, generated the graph shown on
figure 4.2 below.

Figure 4.2 monthly average wind speeds

Average Solar Radiation: The daily solar radiation, taken from NMSA, of the MESIRETA,
KOMBOLCHA was fed into HOMER. The specific location, the time zones are also fed into
Homer. Homer immediately index displays the clearness average (clearness index ranges from
0.25 for very cloudy month to 0.9 for very sunny month), the graph of the solar radiation striking
Earth‟s surface and the annual average radiation as shown on figure 4.3 below

55
Figure 4.3 monthly average solar radiations
As observed, solar radiation varies through the year and it is impossible to get the same
magnitude of radiation continuously. In this study, the peak monthly radiation is recorded on
May and minimum radiation is recorded on December.
Primary Loads: The Average Hourly Primary Loads for each month of the year for the
MESIRETA, KOMBOLCHA is inputted into Homer. The system immediately graphs the load
and calculates parameters as shown in figures 4.4.

Figure 4.4 primary load input

56
Figure 4.1schematic design

Figure 4.5 result

4.2 Simulation Analysis

The simulation process models the system configuration. It serves two purposes. First, it
determines whether the system is feasible. HOMER considers the system to be feasible if it can
adequately serve the electric and thermal loads and satisfy any other constraints imposed by the
user.

57
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion
A hybrid power generation system comprising of PV arrays, wind turbines and battery banks has
been discussed in this study to achieve simulation of the system using HOMER, reduce disposal,
uncontrolled release of green house gases in to atmosphere on the area and to increase job
opportunity which is to supply electricity in MESIRETA. The purpose is to have a continuous
supply of electricity for clinic, school and individual houses.
Before the design of the hybrid system was started, the wind energy and solar energy
resources of the area under study were taken. By taking data from NMSA, the wind speed is
infeasible to generate energy. Then, based on these resources, a standalone PV electric power
supply system was designed. The renewable potentials of the site are obtained from the NMSA.
The renewable resource data were fed into HOMER. Simulations were simulated in the HOMER
software. The results show that the designed system configuration is enough to supply the overall
load demand of the system.

58
5.2 Recommendations
The following recommendations are derived from this study:
 Ethiopia has been experiencing power problems. One of the options to solve these
problems is to design a hybrid off-grid renewable source of energy similar to this study
and probably construct a system from this design.

 There are important parameters that need to be inputted in Homer which were not used
in the simulation, because of time constraint and limited internet access. We also
recommend that for future study, the researchers have to input variety and wider options
of parameters to have better analyses.

 We also recommend to have an actual construction of this design using all the required
equipment.

REFERENCES
[1] A. Rohani, K. Mazlumi, H. Kord, “Modeling of a Hybrid Power System for Economic
Analysis and Environmental Impact in HOMER”, IEEE transaction, ICEE 2010, May 11-13.
[2] F. Mesquita, C. Monteiro, “Design and strategy Optimization of Standalone Hybrid Energy
System”, MIEEC, Sept 2009, pp 1-11.
[3] Juhari Ab. Razak, K. Sopian, Yusoff Ali, “Optimization of renewable energy hybrid system
by minimizing excess capacity”, International journal of energy, issue 3, Vol. 1, pp. 77 – 81,
2007.
[4] K. Sopian, A. Zaharim, Y. Ali, Z. Nopiah, “Optimal operational strategy for hybrid
renewable energy system using genetic algorithms”, WSEAS transactions, issue 4, Vol. 7, pp.
130 – 140, April 2008.
[5] N. Razak, M. Othman, “Optimal sizing and operational strategy of hybrid renewable energy
system using HOMER”, IEEE transaction, pp. 495 – 501, June 2010.

59
[6] M. ShakawatHossan, M. Maruf Hossain, A. ReazulHaque, “Optimization and Modeling of a
Hybrid energy system for off-grid electrification”, IEEE transaction, 2011.
[7] G. Vuc, I. Borlea, C. Barbulescu, “Optimal energy mix for a grid connected hybrid wind –
photovoltaic generation system”, IEEE transaction, pp. 129 – 132, March 2011.
[8] Rui Huang, S. Low, U. Topcu, K. Chandy, “Optimal design of hybrid energy system with
PV/Wind Turbine/ Storage: A Case study”, IEEE transaction, pp. 511 – 516, 2011.
[9] http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar
[10] http://eosweb/arc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/sse/grid.cgi.
[11] NREL 2007, “Estimating Appliance and home electronics energy use a consumer’s guide to
energy efficiency and renewable energy [http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_ho
me/appliances/index.cfm] 64v

60
61