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MODULE 4. APPORTIONMENT AND VOTING

Introduction:
The Mathematics of Apportionment and Voting are important elements in a
democratic form of government. These are being practiced in the selection of leaders,
passage of laws or ordinances, and coming up with the decision on certain issues. In
the Philippines, Article 6, section 5 of our constitution states that “The House of
Representatives shall be composed of not more than two hundred and fifty members…
who shall be elected from legislative districts apportioned among the provinces, cities, and
the Metropolitan Manila area in accordance with the number of their respective
inhabitants…”
Section 1. Introduction to Apportionment

Apportionment is a method of distributing a number of items proportionally into
several groups based on population sizes. For example, the apportionment method can
be used to determine the number of representatives a city should have based on its
present population.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Describe the basic notions of apportionment and voting;
2. Apply the different methods of apportionment; and
3. Apply the different voting systems.
KEY CONCEPTS
Methods of Apportionment
1. Formula for the Standard Divisor
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑

SD =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
2. Formula for the Standard Quota
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
SQ =
𝑺𝑫
a. The Alexander Hamilton’s Method

This method is based on standard divisor and standard quota of the population.
The standard divisor is defined by the formula.
𝑃
Standard Divisor (SD) =
𝐴
Where P is the total population and A is the total allocation or the number of available
seats to be assigned. On the other hand, the standard quota is given by
𝐺
Standard Quota (SQ) =
𝑆𝐷
Where G is the size of the group. The whole number portion of the standard quota is
called lower quota (LQ).
To get the lower quota of a group, round down the standard quota to a whole number.
The standard quota of group with the highest decimal part is only rounded up to a whole
number if the sum of the lower quotas is less than value of A. the process is repeated
until the value of A is reach.
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Example 1:
Consider a country with 6 states and 40 seats in the House of Representatives with
populations distributed as follows.
State Population
STATE A 58,805
STATE B 32,780
STATE C 109,111
STATE D 78,900
STATE E 67,430
STATE F 44,862
TOTAL 391,888
Determine the apportionment of 40 seats to the 6 states using the Hamilton method.
Solution: The standard divisor for the population is computed as follows:
391888
SD = = 9797.2
40
State A State B State C State D State E State F Total

P 58,805 32,780 109,111 78,900 67,430 44,862 391,888
SQ =
𝐺 6.00 3.35 11.14 8.05 6.88 4.58
𝑆𝐷
Lower quota 6 3 11 8 6 4 38
Final 6 3 11 8 7 5 40
Apportionment
A 40
SD 9,797.2
The sum of the lower quota does not meet A = 40. Thus, one additional seat is
assigned to each state starting with the state with the highest fractional standard quota,
until all seats are assigned. In this case, add one representative to sate E and another
one to sate F.
b. Jefferson’s Method
The Jefferson method of apportionment uses a modified standard divisor (MSD)
with is chosen by trial and error until the sum of the lower quotas is equal to the
required number of allocations. The lower quota is the final apportionment obtained at
the final value of the modified divisor. In this method, the modified standard divisor is
smaller than the original standard divisor.
Example 2: Solve Example 1 using the Jefferson method
Solution
P 58,805 32,780 109,111 78,900 67,430 44,862 391,888
MSQ = P/MSD 6.53 3.64 12.12 8.76 7.49 4.98
Lower Quota 6 3 12 8 7 4 40
Final 6 3 12 8 7 4 40
Apportionment
A 40
Modified Std. 9,000
Divisor (MSD)
Note that you can choose any divisor from 8,195 (from 32,780 ÷ 4) to 9,092 (from
109,111 ÷ 12) as modified standard divisor. This can be done by trial and error. The
solution is much easier using Excel.
Apply the round down function in D14 to H14 cells as shown on the previous
page to round down the SQ cells. You can now change the value of MSD to satisfy the
requirement of 40.
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The Hamilton and Jefferson methods may give different final apportionments as shown
below.
Apportionment State A State State State State State Total
Method
Final Hamilton 6 3 11 8 7 5 40
Apportionment
Final Jefferson 6 3 12 8 7 4 40
Apportionment
The Webster’s Method

The Webster’s Method of apportionment is quite similar to the Jefferson method.
Unlike the other method discussed, this method uses ordinary rounding, making it
completely unbiased. The modified standard divisor is determined using trial and error.
Example 3:
This time, choose 9,500 as the modified standard divisor. The sum of the lower quotas
will be equal to 40.
P 58,805 32,780 109,111 78,900 67,430 44,862 391,888
SQ = P/MSD 6.19 3.45 11.49 8.31 7.10 4.72
Lower Quota 6 3 11 8 7 5 40
Final 6 3 11 8 7 5 40
Apportionment
A 40
Modified Std. 9,500
Divisor (MSD)
The Huntington-Hill’s Method

The Huntington-Hill method of apportionment uses the geometric means to
round standard quotas until the sum of the modified quotas equals the exact number
of seats to be apportioned. You may need to modify the standard divisor to get the exact
total allocation. To find the geometric mean, multiply the upper and lower quotas then
get the square root. If the geometric mean is less than the standard quota, the final
apportionment is based on the lower quota. If otherwise, assign the upper quota.
Example 4: Solve Example 1 using the Huntington-Hill’s Method.
Solution: Use 9,500 as the standard divisor.
P 58,805 32,780 109,111 78,900 67,430 44,862 391,888
SQ = P/MSD 6.19 3.45 11.49 8.31 7.10 4.72
Upper Quota 7 4 12 9 8 5
Lower Quota 6 3 11 8 7 5 40
Geometric 6.48 3.46 11.49 8.49 7.48 5
Mean
Final 6 3 11 8 7 5 40
Apportionment
A 40
Modified Std. 9,500
Divisor (MSD)
Huntington – Hill Number

When there is a need to add one item to one of the several groups in population,
the additional one item is given to the group with the highest Huntington-Hill number.
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The formula is as follows:

𝐺²
H=
𝐴(𝐴+1)
Where G is the size of the group and A is the current number of items assigned to this
group.
Example 5:
The following table shows the number of computers assigned to the five
departments of a University in Manila and the number of students enrolled in each
department. To which department should a new computer be assigned using the
Huntington-Hill method?
Department Number of Students Number of Computers
1 Chemical Engineering 289 40
2 Mechanical Engineering 785 74
3 Computer Engineering 590 59
4 Civil Engineering 892 85
5 architecture 345 45
Solution:
Using the formula for the Huntington-Hill number, we obtain the following.
289² 785²
H₁ = = 50.9 , H₂ = = 111
40(40+1) 74(74+1)
590² 892²
H₃ = = 98.3 , H₄ = = 108.8 ,
59(59+1) 85(85+1)
345²
H₅ = = 57.5 ,
45(45+1)
The mechanical engineering department has the greatest Huntington-Hill number.
Thus, the additional computer should be given to the mechanical engineering
department.
Example 6: A country decides to apportion 200 representative to three states.

State Population
A 940
B 9,000
C 10,000
a. Use the Hamilton method to find the apportionment for the three states.
b. If one particular state requests 201 seats, what is the final apportionment? Where
will the extra seat go?
Solution:
a. Using the Hamilton method, we obtain the following results.
State A State B State C Total
State Population 940 9,000 10,000 19,940
Standard Quota 9.43 90.27 100.30
Lower Quota 9 90 100 199
Final Apportionment 10 90 100 200
Allocation Number 200
Standard Divisor 99.7
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b. If the number representatives is changed to 201, the new apportionment will be

as follows:
Note that the addition of one representative forces State A to lose one
representative which is not fair. This apportionment paradox is known as the
Alabama paradox.
The Balinski-Young Impossibility Theorem
The balanski-Young Impossibility Theorem states that it is mathematically
impossible to develop an apportionment method that can avoid all types of
paradoxes and at the same time can satisfy the quota.
Fairness Measurement
The average constituency is used to measure the fairness of an
apportionment. It is defined as follows:
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
Average Constituency =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
A group is poorly represented if it has a greater average constituency as

compared to other groups. If a group has a greater average constituency than
another group, then the difference between their average constituencies is called
absolute unfairness of the apportionment. If the absolute unfairness is zero, then
the two groups are equally well represented.
Example 7:
An art guild is having a show and it has decided that the group of painters
with 152 members will have 8 booths and the group of sculptors with 95 members
will have 5 booths. Calculate the absolute unfairness of this assignment of
booths.
Solution :
The average constituency of the painters is
152
= 19
8
and the average constituency of the sculptors is

95
= 19.
5
The absolute unfairness is 19-19=0. Thus, the booths are equally well assigned to the
two groups.
Example 8:
A country decides to apportion 200 representatives to three states.
State Population
A 940
B 9,000
C 10,000
a. Use the Hamilton method to find the apportionment for the three states.
b. If one particular state requests 201 seats, what is the final apportionment?
Where will the extra seat go?
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Solution
a. Using the Hamilton method, we obtain the following results:
b. If the number of representatives is changed to 201, the new apportionment

will be as follow:
Note that then addition of one representative forces State A to lose one
representative which is not fair. This apportionment paradox is known as the
Alabama paradox.
The Balinski-Young Impossibility Theorem

The Balinski-Young Impossibility Theorem states that it is mathematically
impossible to develop an apportionment method that can avoid all types of
paradoxes and at the same time can satisfy the quota criterion.
Fairness Measurement
The average constituency is a used to measure the fairness of an
apportionment. It is defined as follows:
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
Average Constituency =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
A group is poorly represented if it has a greater average constituency as compared

to other groups. If a group has a greater average constituency than other group, then
the difference between their average constituencies is called absolute unfairness of the
apportionment. If the absolute unfairness is zero, then the two groups are equally well
represented.
Example 9:
An art guild is having a show and it has decided that the group of painters with
152 members will have 8 booths and the group of sculptors with 95 members will have
5 booths. Calculate the absolute unfairness of this assignment of booths.
Solution
The average constituency of the painters is
152
=19
8
And the average constituency of the sculptors is

95
=19.
5
The absolute unfairness is 19-19=0. Thus, the booths are equally well assigned to the
two groups.
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Section 2: The Voting System

Voting is a tool used by groups of people in making collective decision. It can be
presented conveniently in terms of an election system in which one can select a
particular candidate out of a set of candidates on the basis of ballots cast by voters.
Common Methods:
A.The Majority System and Plurality Method of Voting

The winner by this method is the candidate with the most votes or most first-
place votes for ranked candidates. In the plurality system, alternative choices are not
considered.
Example 1:
The table below shows the popular vote for three candidates a student council
election.
Candidate Votes
A 206
B 116
C 92
Total 414
a. Which candidate receives the majority of the votes?
b. Who wins the election?
Solution:
414
a. The majority requires at least + 1=208 votes. Hence, no one gets the
2
majority vote.
b. Based on the plurality method of voting, candidate A receives the most votes
so he should be declared as the winner of this election.
Example 2:
The results of an election with 4 candidates and 50 voters are shown in
the preference list below. Using the plurality method of voting, which candidate
wins this election?
Candidate Ranking
A 1 4 2 4 2
B 3 3 1 3 4
C 2 1 4 1 3
D 4 2 3 2 1
No. of Votes 12 8 16 10 4
Solution :
Getting all the total of first-place votes, you will obtain the following:
Candidate Ranking Total First place Votes
A 1 4 2 4 2 12
B 3 3 1 3 4 16
C 2 1 4 1 3 18
D 4 2 3 2 1 4
No. of 12 8 16 10 4 50
Votes
Candidate C has the most number of first-place votes but he wins in this election
according to the plurality method. [Candidate C did not get the majority of the
votes (at least 26 votes).]
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B. The Borda Count Method

Voters rank the candidate from most to least favourable. Each last-place
vote is awarded no point; each next-to-last-place vote is awarded two points, and
so on. The candidate who receives the most points is the winner.
Example 3:
Using the Borda count method, determine the winner in the preference list
in example 2.
Solution:
Totaling the weights over 50 ballots, the Borda counts for the following
candidates are given below.
n=4 CANDIDATE A
RANK Rank Point No. of votes Total
1 4 12 48
4 1 8 8
2 3 16 48
4 1 10 10
2 3 4 12
Borda Count = 126
n=4 CANDIDATE B
3 2 12 24
3 2 8 16
1 4 16 64
3 2 10 20
4 1 4 4
Borda Count = 128
n=4 CANDIDATE C
2 3 12 36
1 4 8 32
4 1 16 16
1 4 10 40
3 2 4 8
Borda Count = 132
n=4 CANDIDATE D
4 1 12 12
2 3 8 24
3 2 16 32
2 3 10 30
1 4 4 16
Borda Count = 114
The candidate with the highest Borda Count is candidate C. Thus, candidate C
wins election.
C. Plurality with Elimination ( The Hare Method)
Plurality with elimination is a variation of the plurality method in which the
alternative choices of the voters are taken into consideration.
The candidate with the fewest number of the-place votes is first eliminated. In
case there are two alternatives with the same lowest votes, then both are to be
eliminated. The remaining candidates are re-ranked with the assumption that voter’s
preferences do not change from round to round.
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Example 4:
Answer Example 2 using the method of plurality with elimination.
Candidate Ranking
A 1 4 2 4 2
B 3 3 1 3 4
C 2 1 4 1 3
D 4 2 3 2 1
No. of Votes 12 8 16 10 4
Solution :
For round 1, candidate D should be eliminated.
Candidate Total First-Place votes
A 12
B 16
C 18
D 4
Round 2
Candidate Ranking
A 1 3 2 3 1
B 3 2 1 2 3
C 2 1 3 1 2
No. of Votes 12 8 16 10 4
Candidate Total First-Place votes

A 12+4=16
B 16
C 8+10=18
Candidates A and B have the same lowest first-place votes, so both should be
eliminated. Thus, the winner for this method is candidate C.
D. The Top Two Runoff Method
The two candidates with the most number of first-place votes are removed from
the preference list and are then re-ranked for a new preference list. The one with the
higher first-place votes in the new preference list between these two candidates will be
declared the winner. The top two runoff method satisfies the majority.
Example 5: Apply the top two runoff method to the preference list from Example 2.
Solution:
Counting the total first-place votes for each candidate, you will obtain the
following.
Candidate Ranking Total First-Place Votes
A 1 4 2 2 2 12
B 2 3 1 3 3 16
C 3 1 4 1 4 18
D 4 2 3 2 1 4
No. of Votes 12 8 16 10 4
The top two candidates with the most number of first-place votes are candidates B and
C. Thus, remove candidates A and D from the list.
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This gives us the following preference list.

Candidate Ranking Total First-Place Votes
B 1 2 1 2 1 32
C 2 1 2 1 2 18
No. of Votes 12 8 16 10 4
Thus, candidate B wins this election. Note that in the plurality method,
candidate C wins the election.
Approval Voting System
In this type of voting, a voter may choose more than one option or candidate.
Each vote coming from one voter will be counted as one vote, and the one with the
most number of total votes will be declared the winner. For large elections, approval
voting maybe considered a better method because it measures the overall support for
a candidate.
Example 6:
The members of a scholarship council have picked their choices from the top four
applicants for a scholarship. The results are indicated in the table of preference below.
Choices Number of Votes
Harry, Liam, and Louis 5
Harry, Liam, and Niall 3
Niall and Louis 2
Harry and Niall 4
Who gets the scholarship using the approval voting system?
Solution:
Tallying the votes, you will obtain the following:
Candidate Number of Votes
Harry 5+3+4=12
Liam 5+3=8
Louis 5+2=7
Niall 3+2+4=9
Hence, Harry gets the scholarship with a total of 12 votes.
The Method of Pairwise Comparison
In the method of pairwise comparison, each candidate is compared head-to-head
with each of the candidates. The candidate with the most number of wins from these
comparisons will be declared the winner. This method satisfies the majority, Condorcet,
and monotonicity criteria of fairness in voting which will be discussed in detail in the
next section.
Example 7
The members of a mechanical engineering club consisting of 165 active members
were asked to decide in which sports event the club should participate in the coming
intercollegiate games. If the members marked their ballots as shown in the preference
table below, which event wins as the top choice using the method of pairwise
comparison?
Numbers of Voters 26 60 35 44
1st choice Volleyball Basketball Football Volleyball
2nd choice Basketball Volleyball Basketball Basketball
3rd choice Swimming Swimming Volleyball Football
4th choice football football swimming swimming
Solution:
Number of Votes 26 60 35 44 Total First-Place Votes
Volleyball (V) 1 2 3 1 70
Basketball(B) 2 1 2 2 60
Football(B) 4 4 1 3 35
Swimming(S) 3 3 4 4 0
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Measuring Fairness in Voting

In voting, what does the word fair mean? When are the results of an election or a
particular voting method considered fair? People normally think that a majority
candidate is a very strong candidate and it is not fair when the candidate loses an
election. This thinking leads to one notion of fairness which is the majority criterion. On
the other hand, a single example of an election that fails to meet the fairness criterion
would be sufficient to show that a particular method is not fair. The following are the
four basic criteria of fairness.
1. The Majority Criterion
The method of plurality is an extension of the majority system. If the candidate
is a majority candidate then clearly he should also be the plurality winner. In some
cases, the winner may not have the approval of majority; nevertheless, the plurality
method satisfies the majority fairness criterion.
2. The Condorcet Criterion
A candidate is said to be a Condorcet candidate if he wins in all of the one-to-
one comparisons with other candidates. The pairwise comparison method is the
only method that satisfies the Condorcet criterion of fairness.
3. Monotonicity Criterion
Suppose candidate x wins an election. If the supporters of other candidates
change their votes to support candidate x, then this candidate must win the new
election as well. The monotonicity fairness criterion is satisfied by plurality pairwise
comparison, and Borda count methods.
4. Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives (IIA)
Suppose candidate x wins an election. If a losing candidate withdraws from
the race, then candidate x should remain the winner of the new election.
None of the methods discussed here satisfies the IIA criterion. Observations
of the flaws from each voting method would clearly show that none of the voting
methods is a perfect system which leads to the Arrow’s impossibility theorem.
Arrow’s Impossibility Theorem
It is impossible to develop a voting method that will satisfy all of four basic criteria
of fairness.
The following table summarizes the performance of the voting methods discussed
in this chapter with respect to the four fairness criteria. The term “yes” means the
method always satisfies the criterion and “no” means it may violate the said criterion.
Fairness Criterion Plurality Borda Count Pairwise Top Two
Comparison Runoff
Majority Yes No Yes Yes
Condorcet No No Yes No
Monotonicity Yes Yes Yes No
IIA No Yes yes No
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ASSESSMENT TASKS
I. Selection Type: Use the following preference schedule to answer questions #1 – 7
Voters 8 5 6 3 9
1st A A B C D
2nd B D C B B
3rd C C D A A
4th D B A D C
1. How many candidates are in this election?

a. 5 b. 4 c. 31 d. 16 e. none of these
2. How many distinct ballots were cast?
3. How many people voted in this election?
4. Using the plurality method, who is the winner?
a. A b. b c. C d. D e. none of these
5. Using the plurality-with-the-elimination method, who is eliminated 1st?
a. A b. B c. C d. D e. none of these
6. Who among the candidates was the Majority candidate?
a. D b. A c. B d. C e. none of these
7. Who among the candidates was the Condorcet candidate?
a. A b. B c. C d. D e. none of these
For items 8-10, given the 5 states and 250 seats. The population of each state is
provided.
State A B C D E
Population 250 875 4700 3825 350
8. Under Hamilton’s Method the apportionment to each state is _______.
a. A = 6; B = 22; C = 117; D = 96; E = 9
b. A = 6; B = 22; C = 118; D = 96; E = 8
c. A = 7; B = 22; C = 117; D = 95; E = 9
d. A = 6; B = 23; C = 116; D = 96; E = 9
9. Under Jefferson’s Method the apportionment to each state is _______.
a. A = 6; B = 22; C = 117; D = 96; E = 9
b. A = 6; B = 22; C = 118; D = 96; E = 8
c. A = 7; B = 22; C = 117; D = 95; E = 9
d. A = 6; B = 23; C = 116; D = 96; E = 9
10. Under Webster’s Method the apportionment to each state is_______.
a. A = 6; B = 22; C = 117; D = 96; E = 9
b. A = 6; B = 22; C = 118; D = 96; E = 8
c. A = 7; B = 22; C = 117; D = 95; E = 9
d. A = 6; B = 23; C = 116; D = 96; E = 9
11. Given the following data:

Candidate Votes
Senator A 2,911,872
Senator B 2,910,942
Senator C 97,419
Senator D 17,472
a. What is the number of votes shown in the table?
b. What is the difference between the number of votes obtained by Senator
A and by Senator B?
c. What percent difference is that?(to three decimal places)
d. Does the difference require a recount?(Note: Recount is done when the
winning party margin in votes is less than 0.5% of the total number of
votes).
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12. The following is the preference table from a science club election where the
candidates are Arrow (A), Bennett (B), Candice (C), and Danny (D).
Number of Voters 72 20 25 18 7
1st choice A B C A D
2nd choice D A D B A
3rd choice B C B D C
4th choice C D A C B
Determine the winner of the election using the indicated method.

a. Plurality Method
b. Plurality with Elimination Method
c. Borda Count
d. Top Two Runoff
e. Pairwise Comparison
13. One hundred customers were asked to rank their choices of five most popular
fast food chains in the country. The results are shown in the preference table
below.
Numbers of Voters 72 20 25 18 7
1st choice A B C A D
2nd choice D A D B A
3rd choice B C B D C
4th choice C D A C B
Determine the most popular fast food chain using indicated method.
a. Plurality method
b. Plurality with elimination method
c. Borda count
d. Top two runoff
e. Pairwise comparison
14. Forty senior high school students from a math class were asked to pick four
varieties of food that will be served for a dinner event. The students were allowed
to vote more than one choice. The results are shown in the table below.
Choices Number of students who voted
Korean food and American food 7
American food and Filipino food 7
Chinese food and Filipino food 8
Korean food, American food, and Chinese food 14
All four kinds of food 4
Which food will be served for the dinner event using the approval voting method?
15. Shown below is the preference list for the three candidates. Determine the winner
using the Borda Count Method.
Candidate Ranking
A 3 2 1
B 1 3 3
C 2 1 2
Total Votes 83 75 5
Does this election violate the majority criterion using the Borda Count Method?
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Part II. Mathematics as a Tool

INTRODUCTON:
Mathematics is integrated in the symbology of culture and arts. In arts, counting

and patterns are the needed elements to produce the design and style. They are used to
project aesthetic and logic of any craft and create the real meaning of the structure
especially of an artist. Culture utilizes mathematics to enumerate and indicate the parts
of a process of any practice and activities to show and appreciate the repetitions on
which way to start and where to end the flow. The direct and indirect presence of
parallelism, symmetry and similarity of process and structure tells us that there is
mathematics in arts and culture. The arrangement of colors, scaling, measurement and
quantity of materials required prove that mathematics exists.
In our culture, mathematics has really influenced a lot. The weaving of localized
materials employs finite designs and repeating patterns in art forms that are based on
symmetry and colored symmetrical structures. The different algebraic structures can be
used as a framework to distinguish the artwork from a particular cultural community
focusing on mathematics inherent in local designs that can promote better appreciation
for Philippine heritage and culture.
MODULE 5. GEOMETRIC DESIGNS

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this lesson, you must be able to:
1. Apply geometric concepts especially isometries in describing and creating
designs; and
2. Appreciate the contribution of geometric designs to the enrichment of the Filipino
culture and arts using concepts in geometry.
KEY CONCEPTS
Geometric Concepts
Geometry can help enhance one’s artistic prowess as well as enrich one’s own
culture. Line, shape, form, pattern, symmetry, scale, and proportion are the
building blocks of both art and math. Geometry offers the most obvious connection
between the two disciplines. Both art and math involve drawing and the use of shapes
and forms, as well as an understanding of spatial concepts, two and three dimensions,
measurements, estimation, and pattern Many of these concepts are evident in an
artwork’s composition, how the artist uses the elements of art and applies the principles
of design.
Line
lines vary in width, length, curvature, color, or direction.
Shape
Shapes/plane figures are two-dimensional figures in which all points lie in the
same plane. Shapes can be open or closed, free-form or geometric.
Form
Forms/Space or solid figures are three-dimensional (having height, width, and
length), enclose volume (or mass), and help us to understand physical space. For
example, a triangle, which is a two-dimensional, is a shape. But a pyramid, which is
three dimensional, is a form. Cubes, spheres, pyramids, cones, and cylinders are
examples of forms. They can be literally three-dimensional or they can have the illusion
of three-dimensional
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Pattern and Repetition

Repetition is the recurrence of elements of art at regular intervals. When lines,
shapes, and forms repeat in a predictable combination, they form a pattern. The pattern
of this quilt is a tessellation, a collection of shapes that are congruent, or exactly the
same in size and outline. Make a simple tessellation using a regular polygon (a geometric
shape in which all sides and angles look alike) such as a square, triangle, or rhombus
(diamond) and trace the shape repeatedly, side by side.
Balance
Balance is the arrangement of elements to create a sense of equilibrium and
harmony. There are three types of balance-symmetry, asymmetry, or radial symmetry.
Symmetry is a type of balance in which the shapes and patterns are identical on either
side of a central boundary; the two halves of a work mirror each other.
Asymmetry is an arrangement of parts in which the opposite sides, divided by a central

line, are not identical.
Radial Symmetry is a form of symmetrical balance in which the elements of a

composition radiates from a central point in a regular, repeating pattern. Radial
symmetry can be found in nature in flowers, starfish, jellyfish, crystals, and snowflakes.
Proportion
In art, proportion is the principle of design concerned with the size of
relationships of parts of a composition to each other and to the whole. I n math,
proportion is the ratio or relation of one part or another to the whole with respect to
size, quantity, and degree.
Perspective
Perspective is a system for representing three-dimensional objects, viewed in
spatial recession, on a two-dimensional surface. The simplest form of perspective
drawing in is linear perspective, a system that allows artists to trick the eye into seeing
depth on a flat surface. Linear perspective uses sets of implied lines called converging
or orthogonal lines that move closer together in the apparent distance until they merge
at an imaginary vanishing point; two-point perspective uses lines that lead to two
different vanishing points.
How to analyze geometric shapes according to the Level of Geometric Thinking
Analyzing geometric shapes (Vojkuvkoua,2012) can be done using the Van Heile
Theory of Geometric Thinking. According to Pierre Van Heile, there are five levels of
thinking or understanding in geometry:
Level 0 – Visualization. (Basic visualization or Recognition)
At this level, the pupils use visual perception and nonverbal thinking. They recognize
geometric figures by their shape as “a whole” and compare the figures with their
prototypes or everyday things (“it looks like door”), categorize them (“it is / it is not a…”).
They use simple language. They do not identify the properties of geometric figures. The
pupils describe figures on the basis of their appearance.
Example: Squares and rectangles seem to be different
Level 1 – Analysis (Description)
At this level pupils (students) start analyzing and naming properties of geometric figures.
They do not see relationship between properties. They do not see a need for proof of
facts discovered empirically. They can measure, fold and cut papers, use geometric
softwares. The students describe shapes on the basis of their properties.
Example: Rectangles have four angles
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Level 2- Abstraction (Informal Deduction or Ordering or Relational)
At this level, pupils or students perceive relationships between properties and figures.
They recognize the importance of properties and the relationships among them, which
assist students in logically ordering the properties of the shapes.
Example: Simple deductions can be followed, but proof is not understood.
Level 3 – Deduction (Formal deduction)
At this level, students are able to differentiate between necessary and sufficient
conditions. They attain logical reasoning ability and proves theorems deductively.
Example: Proofs can be written with understanding.
Level 4 – Rigor
At this level, the students understand the way mathematical systems are established.
They comprehend Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry. The students establish and
analyze theorems in different postulation systems.
Example: Non Euclidean geometry can be understood.
Properties of the Different Levels
It is inherent in the Van Heile Theory that one considers the following properties:
1. Fixed Sequence (order)

A student cannot be at level N without having gone through level (N-1). Therefore,
the student must go through the levels in order.
2. Adjacency
At each level, what was intrinsic in the preceding level becomes extrinsic in the
current level.
3. Distinction
Each level has its own linguistic symbols and its own network of relationships
connecting those symbols. What may be “correct” at one level is not necessarily
correct at another level.
4. Separation
Two persons at different levels cannot understand each other. The teacher speaks
a different “language” from the student who is at lower level. The Van Heile’s
thought that this property was one of the main reasons for failure in geometry.
5. Attainment
The learning process leading to complete understanding at the next level has five
phases – information, guided. Orientation, explanation, free orientation,
integration, which are approximately not strictly sequential.
6. Transformation
According to Jennifer Beddoe, (2003) in geometry, transformation refers to the
movement of objects in the coordinate plane.
Definitions of Transformations
Geometric transformations involve taking a pre-image and transforming it in

some way to produce an image. There are two different categories of transformations:
1. The rigid transformation, which does not change the shape or size of the
preimage.
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2. The non-rigid transformation, which will change the size but not the shape
of the preimage.
TYPES OF TRANSFORMATIONS
Within the rigid and non-rigid categories, there are four types of transformation. Three
of them fall in the rigid transformation category, and one in a non-rigid transformation.
1. Rotation is rotating an object about a fixed point without changing its shape.
Rotation
Turn!
2. Translation is moving an object in space without changing its size, shape or

orientation. A translation is performed by moving the preimage to the requested
number of spaces.
Translation slide!
3. Dilation is expanding or contracting an object without changing its shape or

orientation. This is called resizing, contraction, compression, enlargement or
even expansion. The shape becomes bigger or smaller:
Resizing
4. Reflection is flipping an object across a line without changing its size or shape.
Reflection Flip!
Geometric patterns are a collection of shapes, repeating or altered to create a cohesive

design.
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HOW TO USE GEOMETRIC PATTERNS IN DESIGNS.
Kayla Darling enumerated 40 brilliant ways on how to use geometric pattern in the
designs.
1. Use patterns to create images.

Simple shapes, on their own, can be appealing; using a variety of shapes to create
a whole image, however, can work even better. Using various shapes create a
vibrant landscape. Keep in mind what kind of shapes will work well for your
subject and you can create something spectacular.
2. Play with asymmetry.
Not all geometric patterns have to be symmetrical; sometimes creating something
where shapes and lines differ across the board can create a striking effect.
3. Combine patterns with photos
Geometric patterns can be a great, creative way to spice up ordinary photos.
4. Use lighting and shadows creatively
Shadows and highlights can be used to enhance shapes and sometimes create
them.
5. Connect shapes in unique ways
Shapes can create images; exploring how those shapes connect can create new
and interesting effects.
6. Make a collage
Collage is a piece of art made by sticking various different materials such as
photographs and pieces of paper or fabric onto a backing. Try making a collage
out of different shapes—something that guides viewers and makes your pattern
easier to the eyes.
7. Use diagonals
Diagonals create a clear path for the eye to follow, offering the bonus of a cohesive
design. Using diagonal patterns projects a beautiful juxtaposition of images and
colors.
8. Create isometric patterns
Isometric patterns—or patterns that appear to be three dimensional can really
make an image pop, if used correctly. Using hard colors to create the illusion that
the shapes pop off the page. Used sparingly and creatively, this can draw
attention to specific items or words.
9. Create patterns with font.
If you want to really stretch your creativity, try using the typeface itself to create
your patterns. Using a variety of triangles and hard lines produces a jagged, edgy
effect. Creating patterns this way can help with whatever tone you might like for
your site or product.
10. Play with symmetry
While asymmetry creates a more free-flowing, fun look, symmetry can be used in
geometric patterns to create something more elegant.
11. Use patterns within patterns
If you want something more complex, including geometric patterns within already
existing shapes can be the way to go.
12. Keep it simple
Conversely, not everything has to be complex - simple shapes can be just as
appealing. There is beauty in simplicity.
13. Think about different ways to use lines.
Lines are the most basic elements of any shape; using them creatively can help
create new effects and can create a nice flow between images and information.
14. Create a theme.
Patterns on their own are great; patterns used to connect images are even better,
especially when those patterns all relate to one another.
15. Use gradients
Everyone loves a good color scheme; geometric gradients can enhance that,
making a gradient background or image pop. Using simple gradients between
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shapes, in some cases makes the shapes almost blend together, and in others
making them stand out even more.
16. Create characters
Geometric patterns can create not only images but also character.
17. Combine several different images.
Shapes can be used to combine several different images together - in ways that
may both be expected and unexpected. Experiment with what images might work
well together - and how they might change the image as a whole - and use
different shapes to make it all come together.
18. Emulate an effect with shapes.
Shapes can be incredibly effective if used to resemble certain actions or
consequences. Using shapes like this can add meaning and vibrancy to images;
at the very least, it creates a startling picture.
19. Create a background
If you want something a little subtler, try sticking to a simple geometric
background. These can add a little excitement to a website or presentation,
without being too obvious and distracting.
20. Create overlapping shapes
Sometimes, all it takes is a simple trick to create complexity - Experiment with
how different shapes overlap, and see what might work for you.
21. Relate patterns to the subject
Give the pattern a purpose by relating it directly to the subject. Using a leaf
pattern to surround a lemon reflects the subject matter.
22. Use patterns in the letters
You can create patterns within the letters
23. Use a pattern to alter images.
You can use pattern to alter parts of an already existing image. Geometric
Photography, for example, uses shapes to shift around where certain pieces of
the image are. Shifting different parts of an image can create a different effect,
and can create something quite original.
24. Choose colors that work together.
Whenever using colors with geometric patterns, you’ll want to make sure you
have those that work well together - especially if they happen to be on shapes
that border each other.
25. Use shapes that enhance the experience
Find shapes that fit and flow well together, and that create a more seamless
whole, rather than something that seems thrown together.
26. Create unique effects
You can use a lot of different styles and shapes to create something completely
your own. For example, you can use shapes that create the illusion of a reflection,
such as in this case. Combining different shapes, lighting, and colors can produce
different effects and illusions, and gives you a lot of material to work with.
27. Create a border.
A border is a good way to enhance an image with shapes, without being too
distracting.
28. Add simple animation
With technology, we have the benefit of enhancing various geometric patterns for
the internet - like, for example, adding simple, alternating animation between two
geometric patterns.
29. Make it subtle.
Not everything has to be obvious; subtle shapes can be just as affective.
30. Use patterns to segment information.
Patterns are a great way to separate and categorize information, making it easier
for viewers to find.
31. Create hand-drawn patterns
Traditional art appeals to nostalgia, and allows you to create something a bit
more personal.
32. Use patterns to highlight certain elements.
Patterns and lines are quite effective at drawing the eye to certain elements.
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33. Combine several patterns.

You don’t have to stick to one pattern - using multiple makes the image more
engaging.
34. Choose uncommonly used shapes.
No one says you have to stick to the standard circles, squares, and triangles; in
fact, a design might work better using less traditional shapes.
35. Create a “web” between shapes
Lines are great at drawing the eye to elements; why not use them to create a web
between different subjects. Use it to make connections between several subjects,
make a more appealing design, or something else entirely.
36. Limit complex patterns
Complex patterns are great, but too many can be overwhelming. Know how and
where to use your pattern, and you’ll be more likely to keep your viewers’
attention.
37. Make it good in black and white
Not every pattern needs color; keeping it black and white can be just as appealing,
and can make a pattern more widely applicable.
38. Incorporate real-life elements.
If you want something that screams “personal,” try including geometric patterns
that you see in your everyday workplace.
39. Accent other material.
You don’t have to leave the pattern on certain subjects - you can branch across
various products.
40. Use patterns sparingly.
Probably the simplest tip, but one of the easiest to forget: less is more. Geometric
patterns don’t need to be plastered all over your page.
ASSESSMENT TASKS
I. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which are two-dimensional figures in which all points lie in the same plane?
A. Line C. Form
B. Shape D. Perspective
2. Which refers to the arrangement of elements to create a sense of equilibrium and
harmony?
A. Form C. Balance
B. Pattern D. Perspective
3. Which is a principle of design is concerned with the size of relationships of parts
of a composition to each other and to the whole?
A. Proportion C. Balance
B. Pattern D. Perspective
4. Which is a kind of transformation that is rotating an object about a fixed point
without changing its size or shape?
A. Dilation C. Rotation
B. Reflection D. Translation
5. Which is a transformation of moving an object in space without changing its size,
shape or orientation?
6. Which is a transformation of expanding or contracting an object without
changing its shape or orientation?
7. Which is a transformation of flipping an object across a line without changing its
size or shape?
B. Reflection D Translation
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8. In which type of balance are the shapes and patterns identical on either side of a
central boundary?
A. Asymmetry C. Radial
B. Symmetry D. Perspective
9. Which involves taking a preimage and transforming it in some way to produce an
image?
A. Transformation C. Balance
B. Proportion D. Perspective
10. Which is a collection of shapes, repeating or altered to create a cohesive design
A. Transformation C. Geometric patterns
B. Perspective D. Balance
II. Identification. Tell what level in the Van Heile Theory is illustrated in the
following. Write only the level number on the space provide before each
number.
___________0 - Visualization
___________1 - Analysis
___________2 - Abstract
___________3 - Deduction
___________4 - Rigor
_______1. Which of these can be called rectangles?
A. Q only B. Q and R only C. P and Q only D. P, Q and R
Q R
_______2. Here are the properties of a figure.
Property D: It has diagonals of equal length.
Property S: It is a square.
Property R: It is a rectangular
Which is true?
A. D implies S which implies R
B. D implies R which implies S
C. S implies R which implies D
D. R implies D which implies S
________3. Here are two statements:
Statement 1: Figure F is a rectangle.
Statement 2: Figure F is a triangle.
Which is correct?
A. If 1 is true, then 2 is true. C. 1 and 2 cannot both be true
B. If 1 is false, then 2 is true D. 1 and 2 cannot both be false.
_________4. Here is a right triangle ABC. Equilateral triangles ACE, ABF and BCD
have been constructed on the sides of ABC. From the figure, one can prove that
line segment AD, BE and CF have a point in common. What would this proof tell
you?
A. Only in this triangle drawn can we be sure that AD, BE and CF have
a point in common.
B. In some but not all triangles, AD, BE, and CF have a point in
common.
C. In any right triangle, AD, BE, and CF have a point in common.
D. In any triangle, AD, BE, and CF have appoint in common.
III. Answer the following questions properly.
1. Based on the given 40 brilliant geometric patterns. Pick out only 5 and apply
each one in coming up with your own design.
2. In what other ways can we utilize geometric and other mathematical patterns in
enriching Philippine culture and arts. Cite 5 situations to prove this.
3. How do we apply math transformations in enhancing the Philippine culture and
the arts?
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MODULE 6: MATHEMATICS OF FINANCE
“If you are born poor it’s not your mistake, but if you die poor it’s your mistake”
-Bill Gates
Introduction:
Your future is dependent on what you are doing now and how you are preparing
for it. A better future is associated with money because we believe that money affects
how we lead our life. If you have money you can do many things you want in life. But,
if you have money and do not know how to manage it, you will end up to nothing. That
is why personal finance is one of the most important aspects in your life, and being able
to manage your money is one of the most important accomplishments you can achieve.
You are responsible for your personal finance. The concepts you will learn in this
module will be a great help to your personal financial planning.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, must be able to:
1. Apply the different concepts of mathematics of finance in making wise decisions

related to personal finance; and
2. Support the use of mathematics in financial aspects and endeavors in life.
KEY CONCEPTS
Interest
Interest is the cost for the use of money. When a person borrows money from a
lending company or a bank, it will earn interest but when you borrow money from the
bank, you will pay interest.
The amount deposited in a bank or borrowed from a bank is called the principal or
present value, the percent used to determine the amount of interest is called the
interest rate, and the duration of deposit or loan is called the time.
SIMPLE INTEREST
Simple interest is when the money earned is computed as a percentage of the
principal per year.
Simple Interest Formula:

I = P rt
where;
I = interest,
P = principal,
r = rate, and
t = time in years.
Example 1:
Calculate the interest for a deposit of $850 into an account paying 3.5% annual
simple interest if the money is in the account for 7 months.
Solution:
We are given P = 850 and
r = 0.035, since there are 12 months in a year and the money will be in the
account for 7 months, t = 7/12.
So the interest will be:

I = P rt
I = 850(0.035) 7 /12 ≈ $7.35.
We round our answer to two decimal places since this is money.
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At the end of the time, the total amount, principal and interest, is called the future
value or maturity value.
There are two ways to compute this value.
Future Value for Simple Interest Formula:
F V = P + I or F V = P(1 + rt)
where;
I is the interest,
P is the principal,
r is the rate, and
t is the time in years.
Example 2:
What is the future value of a savings account earning 3 1/ 2% simple interest, if
the present value is $538 and the money is in the account for 7 months?
Solution:
The first method is to compute the interest and then add that to the principal.
We are given; P = 538,
r = 0.035, and
t = 7 /12 .
I = 538(0.035) (7 /12) = 10.98
F V = 538 + 10.98 = $548.98.
The second method is to compute the future value directly.
F V = P(1 + rt)
= 538(1 + 0.035 x 7 /12) = $548.98.
COMPOUND INTEREST
Interest is compounded when the interest earned for a specified time period is added
into the account and then it also earns interest.
Here is a simple example of how it works.
Example 3: Suppose you deposit Php 5,000 in a savings account earning 3% interest
compounded annually.
During the first year, the interest is computed as follows:
I = Prt
I = (Php5,000)(0.03)(1)
I = Php 150.00
After a year, the total amount in your account is:
A=P+I
A = Php 5,000 + Php 150
A = 5,150
During the second year, the interest is compounded using the total amount in your
account after a year.
I = Prt
I = (Php 5,150)(0.03)(1)
I = Php 154.50
At the end of the second year, the total amount in your account is:
A=P+I
A = Php 5,150 + Php 154.50
A = 5,304.50
To calculate the interest during the third year, we will the total amount in your account
at the end of the second year.
I = Prt
I = (Php 5,304.50)(0.03)(1)
I = Php 159.14
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You notice that the interest is increasing each year because the amount in your
account is also increasing every year.
The compounding period is the length of time that elapses before a new interest is
deposited into the account. It may not always be annually. It may be any of the following
below:
If interest is N The number of
compounded computation in a year
Annually n=1 once
Semi-annually n=2 twice
Quarterly n=4 4 times
Bi-monthly n=5 5 times
Monthly n = 12 12 times
Daily n = 360 360 times
Compound Interest Formula:

F V = P (1 + r /n) (nt)
Where;
F V is the future value,
P is the principal,
r is the rate,
t is the time in years and
n is the number of compounding periods per year.
Example 4:
When Jacob was born, his grandparents deposited $10,000 into a special
account for Jacob’s college education. The account earned 6 1/4 % interest compounded
daily.
(1) How much will be in the account when Jacob is eighteen?
(2) If, on becoming eighteen, Jacob arranges for the monthly interest to be sent
to him, how much would he receive each 30-day month?
Solution:
(1) The first part of this problem is a basic future value of a compound interest account
question. For this, we will need the future value formula for compound interest F V = P
(1 + r/n) (nt) .
For our problem P = 10000;

r = 0.0625 (obtained by calculating (6 + 1 ÷ 4) ÷ 100);
n = 365 (number of days in a year); and
t = 18 (number of years from Jacob’s birth to age 18).
We now plug these numbers into the formula to find the future value.
F V = 10000 1 + 0.0625 365 (365·18)
FV = 30799.20215
Since we are talking about an amount of money, we must have only dollars and cents
(two places to the right of the decimal). This will make the future value $30799.20.
CREDIT CARDS AND CONSUMER LOANS
Credit Card an individual who uses a credit card in purchases is actually contracting
a loan with the issuing bank. It has zero interest for your purchases if you pay in full
on or before the due date; otherwise, you will pay an individual finance charge. Also, a
late payment fee is charged to your account if you fail to pay at least the minimum
amount required on or before the payment due date. An added cost in the form of an
annual fee is charged to you as cost for the use of the credit card.
A monthly bill is issued to the credit card holders indicating the payment due
date, which is usually 20 days from the statement date, the total amount due, and the
minimum amount due.
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Example 1: Your statement date is every 23rd of the month. You made a purchase on
January 19. When is the statement date for the said purchase?
Answer: January 23
Example 2: Your statement date is March 14, you made a purchase on March 15. What
is the statement date for the said purchase?
Answer: April 14
Example 3: If your statement date is July 14, then what is the payment due date?
Answer: August 3
Janet Berry-Johnson (2019) discussed that APR (Annual Percentage Rate) is one of the
key factors you should consider when shopping for a credit card. Finding the lowest rate
available to you means comparing offers and card terms carefully.
Here’s what you should look for:
Annual Percentage Rate (APR)
The annual percentage rate (APR) is the rate paid on a loan when the rate is based
on the actual amount owed for the length of time that is owed.
Example: Supposed you had a loan of Php 20,000 from a bank with a simple interest of
8% payable in 2yrs. is;
I = Prt
I = (20,000)(0.08)(2)
I = 3,200
If we try to analyse the problem, the principal loan at the beginning is Php 20,000.
After the payment of one year, you only owe Php 10,000. This amount is supposedly the
principal in computing interest in the second year. This is an illustration of APR. To
compute for the APR, we use the formula,
2𝑁𝑟
APR =
𝑁+1
Where N = number of payments and r = interest rate.
2(2)(0.08)
APR =
2+1
APR = 0.1067
APR = 10.67%
The annual percentage rate is 10.67%
Introductory/promotional APR. Many cards offer an introductory APR, usually 0

percent on balance transfer or purchases for anywhere from a few months to a year.
This can be super helpful, but make sure you read the terms and conditions and pay
off your balance before the APR jumps up to its regular rate.
Regular APR. After the introductory period, most cards offer a range of variable APRs
depending on your credit worthiness. Generally speaking, the lower end of the APR
ranged is reserved for consumers with good to excellent credit.
Cash Advance APR. Banks and issuers typically charge a higher rate for cash advances,
and interest accrues the moment you take the advance – sorry, no grace period here.
For this reason, we recommend avoiding credit card cash advances whenever possible.
Penalty APR. If you missed a payment, the credit card company may raise your rate in
addition to charging you a late fee. Talk about adding insult to injury.
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Consumer Loan means a secured or unsecured loan given to customers for personal,
family, or household purposes, or for consumable items such as a car, boat,
manufactured home, home equity loan, home equity line of credit, signature loan,
signature line of credit, and recreational vehicle. It is usually given on the basis of the
borrower’s integrity and ability to pay. It is also called consumer lending, consumer
credit, or retail lending.
Consumer loans must comply with the consumer protection regulation and they are
monitored by government regulatory agencies. Consumer loan does not include
mortgage loans used for home purchases and commercial loans.
Monthly payment
The interest rate for consumer loans such as a car loan is normally the annual
percentage rate (APR) because it is required by the Truth in Lending Act. The amount of
payment for a loan based on APR is calculated using the formula.
𝑖
PMT = A [ ]
1−(1+𝑖)−𝑛
Where PMT is the payment, A is the loan amount, i is the interest rate per payment
period, and n is the total number of payments. If the annual interest rate is 7% and the
payments are made monthly, then,
𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 0.07

i= = = 0.0058
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 12
Example: A five-year loan is paid on a monthly basis. What is the value of n in the
formula for payment?
Answer: n = 60
Loan Payoffs
Loan payoff is paying the remaining loan term.
Formula:
1−(1+𝑖)−𝑛
A = PMT( )
𝑖
Where A is the loan payoff, PMT is the payment, i is the interest per payment period,
and n is the number of remaining payments.
Example: Mike wants to pay his home loan that he has owned for 10 years. His monthly
payment is Php 7,000 on a 15-year loan at an interest at 4.5% annual percentage rate.
Find the loan payoff amount.
Solution: We will substitute the following values in the formula: PMT is Php 7,000, i =
0.045
= 0.00375, n = 60.
12
1−(1+𝑖)−𝑛
A = PMT( )
𝑖
1−(1+0.00375)−60
A = PMT( )
𝑖0.00375
A = 375,475.66 payoff amount
STOCKS, BONDS, AND MUTUAL FUNDS
Stocks
Companies may raise money either by borrowing or by selling their shares of
stocks to finance the needs of their operations and probably plan an expansion of their
company.
The company may raise money through shares of ownership, which we call
stocks. The buyers of the stocks are called stockholders. Upon buying, the
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stockholders receive stock certificates that indicate the number of shares of stock they
own. As a stockholder, you have a share in the profit or losses of the company.
A company may distribute profits to the stockholders in the form of dividends. A
dividend is usually given per share of stock. For example, If you own 15 stocks in a
certain company, and the dividend is Php90 per share, your total dividend is Php 1,350.
Example: A stock pays an annual dividend of Php 60 per share. Calculate the dividend
paid to Eva who has 120 shares of company’s stock .
Solution: (120 shares)(Php 60 per share) = Php 7,200

Eva received Php 7,200 in dividends.
Dividend Yield
Dividend yield is the amount of dividend divided by the price of the stock, and it
is expressed as percent, the same way as calling it the rate of the dividend in reference
to the stock price.
Example: A stock pays an annual dividend of Php 80 per share. If the stock is trading
at Php 1500, what is the dividend yield?
Solution: We will use the simple interest formula for P = 1,500, I = 80, and t = 1
I = Prt
80 = (1,500)(r)(1)
1,500 (1,500)
0.053 = r
r = 5.3% dividend yield
Market Value
The market value of a share of stock is the price for which the stockholder is
willing to sell a share of stock, and a buyer is willing to purchase it. Stock trades may
have brokers who also charge commissions at varying levels. These things happen in
the stock market. In the case of the Philippines, it is the Philippine Stock Exchange
(PSE).
Example: You owned 50 shares of stocks in Company A. You purchased the shares at
a price of Php 1,200 per share and sold them at Php per share. If your broker charges
3.5% of the total sale price, what is your profit or loss on the sale of stock? What is the
commission of the broker?
Solution: Profit = Selling price – Purchase price

Profit = (1,400 x 50) – (1,200 x 50)
Profit = 70,000 – 60,000
= 10,000 profit on the sale of the stock
Commission = 0.035 x 70,000
Commission = 2,400 broker’s commission
Bonds
Instead of selling stocks, the company may also issue a bond. When a bond is
issued, the company is borrowing money from the bondholder and promises to pay its
face value at a maturity date along with the given rate of interest called coupon.
When a company issues bonds, they are also considered as stocks. However, if
the company declares bankruptcy, the bondholders have the first claim to the assets of
the company before the stockholders. Changes in the prices of bonds vary according to
the demands of the market or according to the market performance.
The par value or the face value of the bond is the original amount of money
borrowed by a particular company. Most company issue a face value of Php 1,000.00
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Example: A bond with a face value of Php 1,000 has a 4% coupon and a 15-year
maturity date.
Solution: The interest is calculated using the simple interest formula, where P = 1,000,
r = 0.04, and t = 15.
I = Prt
I = (1,000)(0.04)(15)
I = 600
The stockholder will receive the face value of Php1,000 plus Php600 for the interest.
Mutual Funds
A mutual fund company is a business whose assets are stocks and bonds. The
nature of the business is not manufacturing but making investments. Mutual funds are
operated by full-time professional money managers whose job is to ensure that the
fund’s investments will produce capital gains and/or income for investors. If you are
investing in mutual funds, you do not need to choose which stocks to buy and when to
sell them.
Mutual fund units or shares can be purchased or redeemed as needed at the
funds current net assets value (NAV). The NAV is dependent on the performance of the
stocks in the fund, and it can be calculated using the formula below.
Net Asset Value of a Mutual Fund
𝐴−𝐿
NAV =
𝑁
Where A is the total fund assets, L is the total liabilities, and N is the number of shares
outstanding.
Example: A mutual fund has Php 450,000,000 worth of stock, Php 300,000,000 worth
of bonds, and Php 35,000,000 in other assets. The funds’ total liabilities amount to Php
2,100,000. There are 15,000,000 shares outstanding. You invested Php 50,000 in this
fund. Find the net asset value of the mutual fund. How many shares will you purchase?
Solution: Substitute the following values in the formula
A = 450,000,000 + 300,000,000 + 35,000,000

L = 2,100,000
N = 15,000,000
𝐴−𝐿
NAV =
𝑁
785,000,000 2,100,000
NAV =
15,000,000
NAV = 52.1933 net asset value of the fund
Now, to find the number of shares you will purchase, divide the amount you will invest
by the net asset value.
50,000
Number of shares =
52.1933
Number of shares = 957.98
With your Php 50,000 initial investment, you can purchase 957.98 shares.
When you invest in a mutual fund, you will be given a certificate indicating the
name of investment, date of your investment, and the amount invested with the
corresponding number of shares, which will also be presented once you redeem it.
Financial institutions release an account number for you to deposit your investment as
often as you like.
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Example: you invested Php 20,000 in a financial institution for a trust fund with NAV
of PHP 65 per share.
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑
Number of shares =
𝑁𝐴𝑉
20,000
=
65
Number of shares = 307.69
Home Ownership
When you do not have enough cash to purchase a home, you can apply for a
housing loan in a financial institution. Most Filipinos acquire a home through the
housing loan program of PAG-IBIG Fund. Usually the approved amount of loan from
PAG-IBIG Fund to purchase a home is less than the actual cost of the house and lot, so
the applicants need to pay an additional amount, which is called equity.
Mortgage is the amount that is borrowed to buy the property.

Formula:
Mortgage = selling price – equity
Example: Suppose you buy a Php 1,700,000 house with an equity of Php 500,000. Find
the mortgage.
Solution: Mortgage = selling price – equity
= 1,700,000 – 500,000
Mortgage = 1,200,000
When you apply for a home loan from a bank, you are required to pay a down payment,
which is at least 10% of the selling price. The mortgage is
Mortgage = selling price – down payment
Example: You plan to buy a house and lot through home loan from a bank. The selling
price is Php 2,500,000, and the bank requires a down payment of 10% of the selling
price. What is the mortgage?
Solution: To calculate the mortgage, we compute first the down payment and then
subtract it from the selling price.
Down payment = (0.10)(2,500,000)

Down payment = 250,000
The mortgage is:

Mortgage = selling price – down payment
Mortgage = 2,500,000 – 250,000
Other than down payment or equity, there are some other expenses there are
some other expenses associated with the purchase like processing fee, reservation fee,
etc.
Upon takeout of your house and lot, you will start paying the monthly mortgage.
The term of the mortgage varies. It may be 15 years, 20 years, or 25 years. If you fail to
make payments, the bank or the financial institution has the right to foreclose. Once
the property is foreclosed, the financial institution/bank takes the possession of the
property and has the right to sell it.
Example: You purchase a house-and-lot for Php 1,350,000 and obtain a 25-year fixed
rate mortgage of 6.5%. If the equity is Php 200,000, What is the mortgage, and what is
the monthly payment?
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Solution: To find the mortgage, we subtract 200,000 from 1,350,000.
Mortgage = selling price – equity

= 1,350,000 – 200,000
To calculate the monthly payment, we substitute the following values in the formula:
0.065
A = 1,150,000, n = 300 and i = = 0.0054.
12
𝑖
PMT = A ( )
1−(1+𝑖)−𝑛
0.0054
PMT = 1,150,000( )
1−(1+0.0054)−300
PMT = 7,750.52
ASSESSMENT TASKS
I. Find the missing terms

Principal Rate Time Interest
1. P5,250 12% 3.5 yrs.
2. P65,500 1¾% 2yrs.
3. P8,500 13% P4,420
4. P15,000 12% P9,000
5. P50,000 (5) 3yrs P13,500
6. P105,000 (6) 1.5yrs P17,325
7. 1¼% 1 yr. P625
8. 7% 4yrs. P24,000
9. P5,000,000 8¾% 5yrs.
10. P10,000,000 12 ½ % 3yrs.
II. Problem Solving: Solve the following problems with complete solution
1. How much interest is earned in 4 years on Php 12,000 deposited in an account

paying 4% compounded semi-annually?
2. If Php 60,000 is due at the end of 4 years at 5% compounded annually. What is
its present value?
3. Hannah purchases a cellular phone for Php 65,000. She makes a down payment
of 10% and agrees to repay the balance in 12 equal payments. If the balance is
charge with a simple interest of 2%, calculate the monthly payment.
4. A stock pays an annual dividend of Php 80 per share. If the stock is trading at
Php 1500, what is the dividend yield?
5. You purchased 50 stocks from a corporation at Php 400 per share and sold them
at Php 535 per share. Calculate your profit.
6. Your statement date is every 4th day of the month. You made a purchase on April
3. When is the statement date for the said purchase?
7. Calculate the finance charge for a credit card that has an average daily balance
of Php5600 and a monthly interest rate of 1.35%.
8. You invested Php20,000 in a financial institution for a trust fund in NAV of Php
65 per share. Have many shares have you invested?
9. You plan to buy a house-and-lot through home loan from a bank. The selling
price is Php 1,800,000, and the bank requires a down payment of 20% of the
selling price. How much is the down payment?
10. You purchase a house-and-lot for Php 1,850,000 and obtain a 25-year fixed rate
mortgage of 8.5%. If the equity is Php 300,000, what is the monthly payment?
30

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CABARROGUIS CAMPUS

Cabarroguis, 3400 Quirino

MODULE 4. APPORTIONMENT AND VOTING

Section 1. Introduction to Apportionment

1. Formula for the Standard Divisor

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑

2. Formula for the Standard Quota

a. The Alexander Hamilton’s Method

State A State B State C State D State E State F Total

The Webster’s Method

The Huntington-Hill’s Method

Huntington – Hill Number

The formula is as follows:

Example 6: A country decides to apportion 200 representative to three states.

b. If the number representatives is changed to 201, the new apportionment will be

A group is poorly represented if it has a greater average constituency as

and the average constituency of the sculptors is

b. If the number of representatives is changed to 201, the new apportionment

The Balinski-Young Impossibility Theorem

A group is poorly represented if it has a greater average constituency as compared

And the average constituency of the sculptors is

Section 2: The Voting System

A.The Majority System and Plurality Method of Voting

B. The Borda Count Method

Candidate Total First-Place votes

This gives us the following preference list.

Measuring Fairness in Voting

1. How many candidates are in this election?

11. Given the following data:

Determine the winner of the election using the indicated method.

Part II. Mathematics as a Tool

Mathematics is integrated in the symbology of culture and arts. In arts, counting

MODULE 5. GEOMETRIC DESIGNS

Pattern and Repetition

Asymmetry is an arrangement of parts in which the opposite sides, divided by a central

Radial Symmetry is a form of symmetrical balance in which the elements of a

How to analyze geometric shapes according to the Level of Geometric Thinking

Level 0 – Visualization. (Basic visualization or Recognition)

Level 1 – Analysis (Description)

Level 2- Abstraction (Informal Deduction or Ordering or Relational)

Level 3 – Deduction (Formal deduction)

Properties of the Different Levels

1. Fixed Sequence (order)

Geometric transformations involve taking a pre-image and transforming it in

2. Translation is moving an object in space without changing its size, shape or

3. Dilation is expanding or contracting an object without changing its shape or

Geometric patterns are a collection of shapes, repeating or altered to create a cohesive

HOW TO USE GEOMETRIC PATTERNS IN DESIGNS.

1. Use patterns to create images.

33. Combine several patterns.

I. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

MODULE 6: MATHEMATICS OF FINANCE

At the end of this lesson, must be able to:

1. Apply the different concepts of mathematics of finance in making wise decisions

Simple Interest Formula:

So the interest will be:

There are two ways to compute this value.

Future Value for Simple Interest Formula:

Compound Interest Formula:

For our problem P = 10000;

CREDIT CARDS AND CONSUMER LOANS

Annual Percentage Rate (APR)

The annual percentage rate is 10.67%