Ocn Unit 2
Ocn Unit 2
Ocn Unit 2
2.1 ATTENUATION
Transmission loss (or) Attenuation is one of the important characteristics of
a fiber.
It is a measure of decay of signal strength or loss of light power that occurs through
the length of the fiber. This characteristic is taking major role in determining the maximum
distance between the transmitter and receiver without repeaters. The basic attenuation
mechanisms are
i) Absorbtion loss
When the light is travel along the fiber, its power decreases exponentially with distance.
Let us take the origin process is P(o) and the power at the distance ‘z’ is P(z) then P(z)
is expressed
p
is the fiber attenuation co-efficient, which is having the unit of km–1.
Some times attenuation can be expressed in terms of neper. If P1and P2 are two
power levels, with P2 > P1, then the power ratio in nepers is given as the natural
logarithmic unit.
The above figure shows the attenuation variation with respect to wavelength in optical
communication. It shows the nominal value of 0.5 db/km at 1300 nm and 0.3 db at 1550
nm for standard single mode fiber (solid line). Dashed line is showing characteristic for all wave
fiber.
Three basic attenuation mechanisms:
1. Absorption loss- It is related to the fiber material.
Intrinsic absorption occurs when the material is in absolutely pure state with no
impurities.
Intrinsic absorption also depends upon the electronic absorption bands in the
ultraviolet region. Ultraviolet absorption decays exponentially with increasing
wavelength at 0.8 μm the ultra violet absorption having the value of 0.3 db/km. Thus in
the case of silica fiber, it will act as a transmission window from 1 μm to 1.6 μm.
Figure 2.4
Minimization of this microbending loss is done by
1. Introducing compressible jacket over the fiber.
2. When external forces are applied, the jacket will be deformed but the fiberwill
tend to stay relatively straight.
2.5 CORE-CLADDING LOSS
The core and cladding have different refractive indices because they are having
different composition. Therefore core and cladding have different attenuation co-
efficients α1 and α2 respectively.
The total loss of the fiber can be found by summing over all modes weighted by the fractional
power in that mode
Graded-Index Fiber
The attenuation coefficients and modal power are functions of radial coordinates. The
loss at radial distance r from core axis is expressed as
Where α1 and α2 are the axial and cladding attenuation coefficients respectively. The
loss increases with increasing mode number.
2.6 DISPERSION IN FIBERS
Dispersion causes the spreading of pulse width in the fiber. This broadening or
spreading of the pulse determines how close (in time) two adjacent output pulses are.
There should be a minimum spacing required between the output pulses, then only
the receiver can able to resolve the two separate pulses.
So the amount of pulse spreading in the fiber limits the maximum rate at
which data can be sent. Otherwise we can say if the data rate is fixed, the amount of
spreading determines the maximum length of the fiber. The dispersion degrades the
input signal, at the output side overlapping between the pulses will introduce the Inter
Symbol Interference.
Narrow pulse Broadened pulse
As wavelength increases, propagation delay increases which in turn increases the pulse width.
This broadening of pulse is called dispersion.
Phase velocity Vp
Group velocity Vg d
d
Group delay g LV
g
L d
g L.
d d d
d
g L. 1
d
d d L d d
g L. L. .
d 2f 2c 2c d1 d
d
L d d
g . . 2
2c d d1
d
To find
d 1
d (1 ) d 1 1 d ( )
= 2 = λ-2
d d d 1
From eq. 2
- 2 L d
g . 3
2c d
d g d - 2 L d
.
d d 2c d
- L 2 .d 2 d
= 2
2c d 2
d
2 .d 2
Dispersion is due to the first term and the second term is neglected.
d 2
d g - L 2 .d 2
d 2c d2
d g
σg = . σλ
d
- L 2 .d 2
= . σλ
2c d2
Where, σλ is the spectral width of light source.
L 2 d 2
σg = . σλ
2c d 2
4
2 d 2
Dispersion parameter D= ps/Km/nm.
d2
D = D material + D waveguide
This dispersion is called Intra modal dispersion.
.TYPES OF DISPERSION:
DISPERSION
Material dispersion
INTRAMODAL (OR)
CHROMATIC DISPERSION
Waveguide dispersion
INTERMODAL
DISPERSION
INTRAMODAL DISPERSION:
Occurs in all types of fibers.
Optical source emits band of frequencies.
Due to this there may be propagation delay differences b/w the different spectral
components of the transmitted signal.
Cause pulse broadening of each mode leads to intramodal dispersion.
The delay differences caused by
- Properties of material → Material dispersion.
- Guidance effects in fiber structure → Waveguide dispersion
Material dispersion:
Material dispersion occurs due to variation of refractive index of the medium
depending on wavelength.
In dispersion medium, ‘n’ is a function of ‘λ’.
2n
Propagation constant , β = for dispersion medium.
2 L d
Group delay , g= . from eqn. 3
2c d
2 L d 2n
τg = τmat = .
2c d
2 L d n
= .2π
2c d
2 L d
=
c
.
d
n( ).1
L 1 dn( )
2
= . n( ).( 2 )
c d
τmat =
L
. dn( ) n( ) 5
c d
d mat d L dn( )
= n ( )
d d C d
d mat L d 2 n ( )
= .
d C d ( 2 )
d mat
τmat = . σλ
d
where σλ is the spectral width of light source.
L .d 2 n( )
΅ σmat = . σλ
C d 2
L .d 2 n( )
= . σλ ps or ns.
C d 2
Material dispersion parameter
1 .d 2 n( )
Dmat = ps. Nm-1.km-1
C d2
Minimization
Material dispersion can be reduced by using
i) Using narrow spectral width light source like LASER.
ii) Using longer wavelength operation since refractive index difference is small or
negligible.
Group delay can be expressed in terms of normalized propagation constant ‘b’ defined as
2
n 2
2
2 1
b = k2
n1 n2
2
n1 n2
For small values of index difference = , eqn. 1 can be approximated by
n1
n 2
b = k
n1 n2
= n2 + b (n1-n2)
k
β = k (n2 + b (n1-n2))
2
d d (bk )
= n2 + (n1 – n2).
dk dk
L d
τwg = .
C dk
L d (bk )
= n2 (n1 n2 ). dk
C
Ln2 n2 n1 n2 d (bk )
= .
C n2 n2 dk
Ln2 d (bk )
τwg = 1 . dk ( n2 ! n1 )
C
ka n1 n2
2 2
V =
V ! kan2 2 ( n2 ! n1 )
The approximation of V is valid for small values of and hence group delay can be
expressed in terms of V instead of k .
V !k
L d (bV )
# τwg = n2 n2 .
C dV
3
The first term is a constant and second term represents the group delay arising from
waveguide dispersion.
d wg
" wg = ." ps km1 nm 1
d
d wg
To find
d
d wg d wg dv
= . 4
d dv d
d wg d L d (bv)
= (n2 n2
dv
dv C dv
d wg Ln 2 d 2 (bv)
= . 5
dv C dv 2
dv d 2a 2 2a
n1 n2 V n1 n 2
2 2 2
=
d d
Or
d
= 2a n1 2 n2 2 .(1 ) V= k a n1 n2
2 2
d
where k =2π/λ
2a n1 n2 .(2 )
2 2
=
2a n1 n 2
2 2
dv
= 6
d 2
= . x
d C dv 2 2
Ln 2 d 2 (bv) V
= . x 2
C dv 2
d wg Ln2 V d (bv)
2
= . 7
d C dv 2
Ln 2 V d 2 (bv)
# " wg = . ."
C dV 2
L.n 2 V d 2 (bv)
" wg = ." ps or ns.
C dv 2
Waveguide dispersion parameter
1 d wg
Dwg =
L d
1 Ln 2 V d 2 (bv)
= .
L C dv 2
n 2 V d 2 (bv)
Dwg = . ps.km-1.nm-1 8
C dv 2
Minimization :
Wavelength dispersion can be reduced by
i) Using large index difference.
ii) Using short wavelength operation.
→In multimode fibers many modes propagate along the fiber at a time.
→Different modes take different ray path and they reach at different time at the
output end of the fiber, so a time delay is experienced between modes. This is called
intermodal delay.
→Pulse broadening occurs due to intermodal delay is called intermodal dispersion.
A → Meridionel Ray → Travels maximum Time
B → Axial Ray → Travels minimum Time
The time required for meridionel Ray to travel over the fiber is
L 2
Tmax =
Dis tan ce
= Cos& = n1 .L = n1.L =
L.n1
Velocity C / n1 C.Cos& C.n2 / n1 C .n2
2
L.n1
Tmax =
C .n 2
The delay between meridionel and axial ray at the output end of the fiber is
Ln1 .
δTs =
C
Amplitude
1
P (t)
'Ts
Time (t)
'Ts 'Ts
0
2 2
'Ts 'Ts
2 2
1 2
" s2 ( P(t ).t .dt (
2
= .t .dt
'Ts Ts 'Ts
'
2 2
'Ts
1 t 3 2 1 'Ts
3
'Ts
3
=
'Ts 3 'Ts 3'Ts 2 2
2
3
1 'Ts 2.'Ts 3 'Ts 2
"s 2
= X 2.
3'Ts 2 3 X 8 X'Ts 12
'Ts 2
" s2 =
12
'Ts
The rms Pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion is " s =
2 3
Ln1 .
Substitute δTs =
C
Ln1 .
# "s =
2 3.C
1 1
The maximum Bit rate is B T (max) =
2 2'Ts
0 .2
Maximum optical Bandwith is Bopt (max) = and the bandwidth length product is Bopt x L.
"s
"T "C2 " S2
1/ 2
.
Where
σc = rms pulse broadening of intramodal dispersion
and
σs = rms pulse broadening of intermodal dispersion.
Minimization
Intermodal dispersion - Reduced when using parabolic index profile in MM
fiber.
Material dispersion - Narrow spectral width light source like laser.
- For MM laser diode, σλ and 102 nm.
- For SM laser diode, σλ and 10-2 nm.
- Longer wavelength operation, since refractive index
difference is small or negligible.
Waveguide dispersion - Index difference should be large.
- Short wavelength operation.
PMD - The distance between two polarization modes must be
Less than both beat length and coupling of
birefringence.
Polarization Mode dispersion (PMD)
Different frequency component of a pulse acquires different polarization states
(such as linear polarization and circular polarization). This results in pulse
broadening is known as polarization mode dispersion (PMD).
PMD is the limiting factor for optical communication system at high data rates.
The effects of PMD must be compensated.
Fiber Birefringence
The algebraic difference of the index of refraction of the fiber for plane
polarized light vibrating parallel to the longitudinal axis of the fiber and the
index of refraction for light vibrating perpendicular to the long axis is called
fiber birefringence.
Can occur due to internal and external stress or fiber bending.
Two orthogonal polarization modes make difference in effective refractive
indices (nx - ny) and this difference is called as birefringence.
x y
Bf =
2 /
) z x y L
→Phase coherence of two mode components is achieved when the delay between two transit
times is less than the coherence time of the source.
→The coherence time for the source is equal to the reciprocal of the un correlated source
frequency width (1/ ' f).
Fiber Beat length: It is a characteristic of optical fiber used to calculate the fiber’s ability to
maintain polarization. The beat length describes the length required for the polarization to
rotate 360 degrees. For a given wavelength, it is inversely proportional to the fiber’s
birefringence
The propagation distance for which a 2π phase difference accumulates between the two
polarization modes is known as beat length.
2
LB = LB =
Bf x y
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