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Ocn Unit 2

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Signal Degradation in Fibers

The fiber is acting as a transmission medium in optical communication.


The signal passes through this transmission medium, is affected by Attenuation
and Dispersion.
Both the parameters will determine the transmission characteristics of the fiber.
Attenuation – The light intensity decreases over a distance.
Dispersion – The width of the pulse is broadening.

2.1 ATTENUATION
Transmission loss (or) Attenuation is one of the important characteristics of
a fiber.
It is a measure of decay of signal strength or loss of light power that occurs through
the length of the fiber. This characteristic is taking major role in determining the maximum
distance between the transmitter and receiver without repeaters. The basic attenuation
mechanisms are
i) Absorbtion loss

ii) Scattering loss

iii) Radiative loss


`The unit of attenuation is expressed in terms of logarithmic unit of the decibel. The
decibel is defined as the ratio of the input optical power Pi to the output optical power
Po.

When the light is travel along the fiber, its power decreases exponentially with distance.
Let us take the origin process is P(o) and the power at the distance ‘z’ is P(z) then P(z)
is expressed
p
is the fiber attenuation co-efficient, which is having the unit of km–1.
Some times attenuation can be expressed in terms of neper. If P1and P2 are two
power levels, with P2 > P1, then the power ratio in nepers is given as the natural
logarithmic unit.

Figure 2.1: Illustration of attenuation as the function of wavelength in Optical


Communication

The above figure shows the attenuation variation with respect to wavelength in optical
communication. It shows the nominal value of 0.5 db/km at 1300 nm and 0.3 db at 1550
nm for standard single mode fiber (solid line). Dashed line is showing characteristic for all wave
fiber.
Three basic attenuation mechanisms:
1. Absorption loss- It is related to the fiber material.

2. Scattering loss – It is due to fiber structure imperfections.

3. Radiative loss- It occurs due to bend of the cable.

2.2 ABSORPTION / MATERIAL ABSORPTION LOSS


It is caused by absorption of photons within the fiber. The photons move the
valence electrons to higher energy levels. Hence photons are destroyed and the radiant energy is
transferred into electric potential energy.
Absorption is caused by three mechanisms.
i) Absorption by atomic defects in the fiber materials.
ii) Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber
material.
iii) Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the fiber material.

2.2.1 Absorption by Atomic Defects


These type of absorption is caused by atomic defects (i.e. improper atomic
structure) like missing molecules, clusters of atoms, imperfection of the atomic
structure of the fiber material. This type of absorption having very small value, the
value is mostly negligible when comparing with instrinsic and extrinsic absorption.
In some places, for example nuclear reactor environment, medical absorption,
space mission that pass through the earth’s van allen belts, accelerator instrumentation,
fiber is exposed to ionizing radiation. This radiation will change the internal structure
of the fiber. The total radiation energy received by the fiber is expressed in units of rad
(si), which is a measure of radiation absorbed by a silicon.
1 rad (si) = 0.01 J/kg
When the radiation level increases, attenuation will get increase. At the time
of radiation, radiation particles will be produced. The particles or rays such as
electrons, neutrons, gamma rays are affect the structure of fiber.

2.2.2 Intrinsic Absorption

Intrinsic absorption occurs when the material is in absolutely pure state with no
impurities.

Electronic absorption – It occurs when a light particle (photon) interacts with an


electron and excites it to a higher energy level.
The intrinsic absorption having two type
i) Intrinsic absorption due to ultra violet fail.
i) Intrinsic absorption due to infrared absorption fail
The optical communication wavelength range in terms of μm is 0.8 μm to 1.7
μm. In silica fibers, intrinsic absorption will occur above 1.5 μm. The photons of light
energy are converted into random mechanical vibration infrared absorption. Maximum
IR peak value at 0.8 μm and minimum peak value at 3.2, 3.8 and 4.4 μm.
In the visible region losses at 1.5 μm are lesser than 0.5 db/km. The optical loss
is determined by calculating the presence of OH ions and the inherent infrared
absorption of the constitutent material. The inherent absorption will occur because of
the interaction between the vibrating bond and the EM field of the optical signal results
the transfer of energy between vibrating bond and field,giving rise to absorption. The
emperical expression for the infrared absorption for GeO2 – SiO2 glass isgiven by

Intrinsic absorption also depends upon the electronic absorption bands in the
ultraviolet region. Ultraviolet absorption decays exponentially with increasing
wavelength at 0.8 μm the ultra violet absorption having the value of 0.3 db/km. Thus in
the case of silica fiber, it will act as a transmission window from 1 μm to 1.6 μm.

2.2.3 Extrinsic Absorption by Impurity Atoms


Extrinsic absorption is due to transition metal ions such as iron, chromium,
copper, maganese and nickel. This type of absorption is more pronounce in direct melt
methods because in that type of fabrication method, the dopants are added directly
to the silica. In the case of Vapour Axial Deposition (VAD) the impurity level ranges
from 1 to 5 parts per billion. The transision metal ions produce loss at μ = 0.8 μm.
Impurity absorption also results from OHions. TheseOH impurity results from the
oxyhydrogen flame used for the hydrolysis reaction of the SiCl4, GeCl4 and PoCl3.
This type of absorption is reduced by reducing the water content in the fiber below
one ppb (parts per billion).
2.3 SCATTERING LOSSES
Scattering losses arise due to following factors
1. Compositional Fluctuations
2. Structural Inhomogeneties
3. Microscopic variations in the material density
4. Structural defects occuring duringfiber fabrication

A glass is composed by randomly connected network of molecules and several


oxides. These added molecules and oxides are the major cause of compositional
structure fluctuation.
Scattering losses having two types
i) Linear scattering loss
a) Rayleigh Scattering

b). Mie Scattering


ii) Non linear scattering loss
a) Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
b) Stimulated Raman Scattering

2.3.1 Linear Scattering Losses


Linear scattering transfers linearly the optical power in one propagating mode to
a different mode. This losses will occurs as a leaky mode or as radiation mode. This
mode does not continue to propagate within the fiber core but it is radiated from
the fiber. Since there is no change in frequency of the signal, it is said to be linear
scattering. Scattering loss will be more in multimode fibers due to higher dopant
concentration and greater compositional fluctuations.

2.3.1.1 Rayleigh Scattering


This loss occurs in the Ultra violet region. Its tail extends upto infrared region.
It arises from the microscopic inhomogeneities present in the material of fiber.
Inhomogeneities may arise from the density fluctuations, reflective fluctuations and
compositional variations.
For SiO2 fiber, Rayleigh loss is given by

where, n - Refractive index ofsilica


p- Photoelastic co-efficient of silica
βc - Isothermal compressibility
TF - Fictive temperature at which solidification of glass takes place or simply
annealing temperature.
The transmission loss due to Rayleigh scattering

αTrans.scatt = exp (–αscat L).

where, L - length of fiber


At high wavelength Rayleigh scattering loss will be reduced. It is an elastic scattering
because there is no change in frequency.

2.3.1.2 Mie Scattering


Mie Scattering arises due to the imperfect structure of the wave guide,
irregularities in the core-cladding interface, core-cladding refractive index
difference along the fiber and diameter fluctuations.
When the scattering in homogeneities size is greater than λ/10, angular
dependence.
By achieving high relative refractive index difference and doing perfect
fabrication Mie scattering get reduced.
2.3.2 Non-linear Scattering Losses
Non linear scattering losses occurs at high power levels. It causes the
optical power to be transferred in either forward or backward direction to the
same, or other modes at a different frequency.
When the refractive index of the medium depends on the optical intensity of
the signal, then these non linear scattering occurs. It becomes significant above
threshold power levels. It can also be used to give optical amplification of integrated
optical techniques.
Non-linear scattering losses will occur at high power levels. When the
transferring of one mode to other mode taking place the output will be forward on
reverse direction. This is inelastic scattering due to shift in the frequency when the
refractive index of the medium depends on the optical intensity of the signal, then
these non linear scatterings are occured.

2.3.2.1 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering


Stimulated Brillouin scattering is a loss mechanism due to thermal molecular
vibrations within the fiber. This type of scattered light contains upper side band and
lower side band along with the incident light frequency.
The incident photon in the scattering process produces a photon of acoustic
frequency as well as a scattered photon.
The frequency shift varies with the scattering angle.
The frequency shift is shift is maximum in the backward direction and
reducing to zero in the forward direction.
The Brillouin scattering is only significant above threshold power density.
PSBS = 4.4 x 10-3 d2 λ2αB B Watts.
The threshold opticalpowerform Brillouin Scatteringis proportionalto d2λ2αB
where d - Fiber core diameter
λ - Operating wavelength
αB - Brillouin scatteringloss co-efficient
B- Source Bandwidth.
In stimulated Brillouin scattering an incident light will produce scattered
photon as well as a photon of acoustic frequency.
2.3.2.2 Stimulated Raman Scattering
The scattered light consist of a scattered photon and a high frequency
optical photon. In contrast to Brillouim scattering, Raman scattering is having three
orders of high magnitude. The threshold optical power for Raman Scattering is
given by.
PSRS = 5.9 x 10-2 d2 λαB Watts.

where d - Core diameter


λ - Operatingwave length
αR - Raman scattering loss co-efficient

2.4 RADIATIVE LOSSES (OR) BENDING LOSSES


Whenever the bends and curves will be in the path of optical ray radiative losses will
occur.
There are two types of bending losses,
a) Macroscopic bending losses

b) Microscopic bending losses

2.4.1 Macroscopic Bending Losses (or) Large Radius Losses


These occur when the radius of curvature of bend is greater than the fiber
diameter. When the radius of curvature of bend decreases (or) curvature of fiber
increases, the loss increases exponentially upto a critical radius of curvature.
To maintain a wave front perpendicular to the direction of propagation, the
part of the mode which is on the cladding may be required to travel faster than that on
the inside. This is not possible, so the energy associated with this part of the mode is lost
through radiation.
The higher order modes are bound less tightly to the fibre core than lower
order modes, the higher order modes will radiate out of the fiber first.
The total number of modes that can be supported by a curved fiber is less than in a straight fiber.

Minimization of this type of losses is done by


i) Fibers with large relative refractive index difference.
ii) Operating at the shortest wavelength possible

2.4.2 Microbending (Mode Coupling Losses)


Microbending introduces from the fiber when it is incorporated into cables.
This type of bending introduces slight surface imperfections which can cause mode
coupling between adjacent modes or coupling of energy between the guided modes
and the leaky modes (non guided modes) in the fiber which inturn creates a radiative
loss. The losses due to non uniform pressure during cabling is referred as cabling or
packaging losses. The loss is depends on the fiber deformation, length of fiber and
the optical power distribution. Microbending losses proportional to the number of
modes propagating through the fiber and inversely proportionalto wavelength.
Microbends

Power loss due to microbends

Figure 2.4
Minimization of this microbending loss is done by
1. Introducing compressible jacket over the fiber.
2. When external forces are applied, the jacket will be deformed but the fiberwill
tend to stay relatively straight.
2.5 CORE-CLADDING LOSS
The core and cladding have different refractive indices because they are having
different composition. Therefore core and cladding have different attenuation co-
efficients α1 and α2 respectively.
The total loss of the fiber can be found by summing over all modes weighted by the fractional
power in that mode
Graded-Index Fiber
The attenuation coefficients and modal power are functions of radial coordinates. The
loss at radial distance r from core axis is expressed as

Where α1 and α2 are the axial and cladding attenuation coefficients respectively. The
loss increases with increasing mode number.
2.6 DISPERSION IN FIBERS
Dispersion causes the spreading of pulse width in the fiber. This broadening or
spreading of the pulse determines how close (in time) two adjacent output pulses are.
There should be a minimum spacing required between the output pulses, then only
the receiver can able to resolve the two separate pulses.
So the amount of pulse spreading in the fiber limits the maximum rate at
which data can be sent. Otherwise we can say if the data rate is fixed, the amount of
spreading determines the maximum length of the fiber. The dispersion degrades the
input signal, at the output side overlapping between the pulses will introduce the Inter
Symbol Interference.
Narrow pulse Broadened pulse

As wavelength increases, propagation delay increases which in turn increases the pulse width.
This broadening of pulse is called dispersion.

To find Dispersion parameter


1. Find the relationship between group delay and group velocity.

Phase velocity Vp  

Group velocity Vg  d
d
Group delay  g  LV
g

L d
g   L.
d d d

d
 g  L. 1
d

Where, L- length of fiber

2. Substitute   2f in eqn.1 and simplify

d d L d  d
 g  L.  L.  .
d 2f   2c 2c d1 d
d


L d d
g  . . 2
2c d d1

d
To find
d 1

d (1 ) d 1 1 d ( )
=  2 =  λ-2
d d   d 1

From eq. 2
- 2 L d
g  . 3
2c d

3. Calculate delay difference per unit wavelength

d g d  - 2 L d 
  .
d d  2c d 

- L  2 .d 2  d 
=   2 
2c  d 2
d 
2 .d 2 
Dispersion is due to the first term and the second term is neglected.
d 2

d g - L  2 .d 2  
 
d 2c  d2 

4. Find rms pulse width broadening parameter

d g
σg = . σλ
d

- L  2 .d 2  
=   . σλ
2c  d2 
Where, σλ is the spectral width of light source.

L 2 d 2 
σg = . σλ
2c d 2
4

2 d 2 
Dispersion parameter D= ps/Km/nm.
d2
D = D material + D waveguide
This dispersion is called Intra modal dispersion.

.TYPES OF DISPERSION:

DISPERSION
Material dispersion
INTRAMODAL (OR)
CHROMATIC DISPERSION
Waveguide dispersion

INTERMODAL
DISPERSION

INTRAMODAL DISPERSION:
™ Occurs in all types of fibers.
™ Optical source emits band of frequencies.
™ Due to this there may be propagation delay differences b/w the different spectral
components of the transmitted signal.
™ Cause pulse broadening of each mode leads to intramodal dispersion.
™ The delay differences caused by
- Properties of material → Material dispersion.
- Guidance effects in fiber structure → Waveguide dispersion

1. Expressions for Material Dispersion:

Material dispersion:
Material dispersion occurs due to variation of refractive index of the medium
depending on wavelength.
In dispersion medium, ‘n’ is a function of ‘λ’.

2n 
Propagation constant , β = for dispersion medium.

 2 L d
Group delay , g= . from eqn. 3
2c d

Group delay due to material dispersion is

 2 L d  2n 
τg = τmat = .
2c d   

 2 L d  n 
= .2π
2c d    

 2 L d
=
c
.
d

n( ).1 
  L 1 dn( )
 
2
=  .  n( ).(   2 )
c d 
τmat =
L
. dn( )  n( ) 5
c d 

Material dispersion delay per unit wavelength

d mat d   L  dn( ) 
=    n (  ) 
d d  C  d  

 L  d 2 n( ) dn( ) dn( ) 


=  .   
C  d ( 2 ) d d 

d mat  L  d 2 n ( ) 
=  . 
d C  d ( 2 ) 

The rms pulse width broadening is given by

d mat
τmat = . σλ
d
where σλ is the spectral width of light source.

 L   .d 2 n( )
΅ σmat = . σλ
C d 2

L  .d 2 n( )
= . σλ ps or ns.
C d 2
Material dispersion parameter

1  .d 2 n( )
Dmat = ps. Nm-1.km-1
C d2

Minimization
Material dispersion can be reduced by using
i) Using narrow spectral width light source like LASER.
ii) Using longer wavelength operation since refractive index difference is small or
negligible.

2. Expressions for waveguide dispersion:

Waveguide dispersion is a type of intramodal dispersion which occurs due to variation of


group velocity as a function of wavelength for a particular mode.It is wavelength
independent.

Group delay can be expressed in terms of normalized propagation constant ‘b’ defined as
2
n 2
2
2 1
b = k2
n1  n2
2

n1  n2
For small values of index difference = , eqn. 1 can be approximated by
n1


n 2
b = k
n1  n2


= n2 + b (n1-n2)
k

β = k (n2 + b (n1-n2))
2

Differentiate eqn. 2 wrt ‘k’


d
= n2 +b (n1 – n2)
dk
dk
= n2 +b (n1 – n2).
dk

d d (bk )
= n2 + (n1 – n2).
dk dk

Group delay for waveguide dispersion

L d
τwg = .
C dk
L  d (bk ) 
= n2  (n1  n2 ). dk 
C 

Ln2  n2 n1  n2 d (bk ) 
=   . 
C  n2 n2 dk 

Ln2  d (bk ) 
τwg = 1  . dk  ( n2 ! n1 )
C 

The normalized frequency V is given by

ka n1  n2
2 2
V =
V ! kan2 2 ( n2 ! n1 )
The approximation of V is valid for small values of and hence group delay can be
expressed in terms of V instead of k .
V !k
L  d (bV ) 
# τwg = n2  n2 .
C  dV 
3

The first term is a constant and second term represents the group delay arising from
waveguide dispersion.

The rms pulse broadening due to waveguide dispersion is

d wg
" wg = ."  ps km1 nm 1
d
d wg
To find
d

d wg d wg dv
= . 4
d dv d

d wg d L d (bv) 
= (n2  n2
dv 
dv  C dv 

d wg Ln 2 d 2 (bv)
= . 5
dv C dv 2

dv d  2a 2   2a
n1  n2  V  n1  n 2
2 2 2
= 
d d    
Or
d
= 2a n1 2  n2 2 .(1 ) V= k a n1  n2
2 2

d

where k =2π/λ
 2a n1  n2 .(2 )
2 2
=

 2a n1  n 2
2 2
dv
= 6
d 2

Substitute eqn. 5 and 6 in 4


d wg Ln 2 d 2 (bv)  2a n1  n2
2 2

= . x
d C dv 2 2
Ln 2 d 2 (bv)  V
= . x 2
C dv 2 
d wg  Ln2 V d (bv)
2
= . 7
d C dv 2

 Ln 2 V d 2 (bv)
# " wg = . ." 
C dV 2
 L.n 2 V d 2 (bv) 
" wg = ."  ps or ns.
 C dv 2 
Waveguide dispersion parameter

1  d wg
Dwg =
L d

1   Ln 2 V d 2 (bv)
= .
L C dv 2

 n 2 V d 2 (bv)
Dwg = . ps.km-1.nm-1 8
C dv 2

# σwg = L Dwg σλ (ps or ns)


9

Minimization :
Wavelength dispersion can be reduced by
i) Using large index difference.
ii) Using short wavelength operation.

INTERMODAL DISPERSION (OR) MODAL DELAY.

→In multimode fibers many modes propagate along the fiber at a time.
→Different modes take different ray path and they reach at different time at the
output end of the fiber, so a time delay is experienced between modes. This is called
intermodal delay.
→Pulse broadening occurs due to intermodal delay is called intermodal dispersion.
A → Meridionel Ray → Travels maximum Time
B → Axial Ray → Travels minimum Time

The time required for axial ray to travel over fiber is


Dis tan ce L n 1 .L
Tmin = = =
Velocity C / n1 C

By applying snell’s law in Δ abc, we get


n2
Sinϕc = ,
n1
From the above figure Δ abc, ϕc = 90ᵒ- θ.
n n2
# Sin (90 – θ) = 2 = Cos θ = ,
n1 n1
From Δ abc, consider a small length ab = ΔL
L
# Cos θ =
d
L L
→$; % d=
When Cos θ =
d Cos&

The time required for meridionel Ray to travel over the fiber is

L 2
Tmax =
Dis tan ce
= Cos& = n1 .L = n1.L =
L.n1
Velocity C / n1 C.Cos& C.n2 / n1 C .n2

2
L.n1
Tmax =
C .n 2

The delay between meridionel and axial ray at the output end of the fiber is

δTs = Tmax - Tmin


Ln1  Ln1 n2
2 2
Ln1 Ln
=  1 =
Cn2 C Cn2
Ln1  n 2   n1  n 2 
2 2
Ln1
= 1   =  
Cn2  n1  Cn2  n1 
2
Ln1 .
δTs =
C.n2
When n1 ! n2 ; then

Ln1 .
δTs =
C

RMS pulse broadening;-

Time Delay as rectangular function with unit area.

Amplitude

1
P (t)
'Ts

Time (t)
 'Ts 'Ts
0
2 2

The variance for the pulse P (t) is

'Ts 'Ts
2 2
1 2
" s2 ( P(t ).t .dt  (
2
= .t .dt
'Ts  Ts 'Ts
'
2 2

'Ts
1 t 3  2 1  'Ts
3
 'Ts
3

=     
'Ts  3  'Ts 3'Ts  2 2 
2
3
1  'Ts 2.'Ts 3 'Ts 2
"s 2
= X 2.  
3'Ts 2 3 X 8 X'Ts 12
'Ts 2
" s2 =
12

'Ts
The rms Pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion is " s =
2 3
Ln1 .
Substitute δTs =
C

Ln1 .
# "s =
2 3.C

1 1
The maximum Bit rate is B T (max) = 
2 2'Ts

0 .2
Maximum optical Bandwith is Bopt (max) = and the bandwidth length product is Bopt x L.
"s

¾ Intermodal dispersion is mimimized by using parabolic Index profile in


multimode fiber.

Overall Fiber dispersion:

The overall dispersion in multimode fiber comprises both chromatic and


intermodal terms. The total rms pulse broadening is


"T  "C2 " S2 
1/ 2
.

Where
σc = rms pulse broadening of intramodal dispersion
and
σs = rms pulse broadening of intermodal dispersion.

σc → chromatic dispersion consists of material and waveguide dispersion.


™ Waveguide dispersion is negligible compared to material dispersion.
# " c  " mat  " T  " mtc  " s 2

2 1/ 2

Minimization
™ Intermodal dispersion - Reduced when using parabolic index profile in MM
fiber.
™ Material dispersion - Narrow spectral width light source like laser.
- For MM laser diode, σλ and 102 nm.
- For SM laser diode, σλ and 10-2 nm.
- Longer wavelength operation, since refractive index
difference is small or negligible.
™ Waveguide dispersion - Index difference should be large.
- Short wavelength operation.
™ PMD - The distance between two polarization modes must be
Less than both beat length and coupling of
birefringence.
Polarization Mode dispersion (PMD)
™ Different frequency component of a pulse acquires different polarization states
(such as linear polarization and circular polarization). This results in pulse
broadening is known as polarization mode dispersion (PMD).
™ PMD is the limiting factor for optical communication system at high data rates.
The effects of PMD must be compensated.
Fiber Birefringence

™ The algebraic difference of the index of refraction of the fiber for plane
polarized light vibrating parallel to the longitudinal axis of the fiber and the
index of refraction for light vibrating perpendicular to the long axis is called
fiber birefringence.
™ Can occur due to internal and external stress or fiber bending.
™ Two orthogonal polarization modes make difference in effective refractive
indices (nx - ny) and this difference is called as birefringence.

™ The modes have different propagation constants


βx → for slow mode
βy → for fast mode
™ Modal Birefringence Bf = nx - n y
 x  y
= 
2 2
 x   y 
=
2

x  y
Bf =
2 / 

™ Linear retardation ϕ(z) occurred due to difference in phase velocities which


depends on fiber length L

) z    x   y L

→Phase coherence of two mode components is achieved when the delay between two transit
times is less than the coherence time of the source.
→The coherence time for the source is equal to the reciprocal of the un correlated source
frequency width (1/ ' f).
Fiber Beat length: It is a characteristic of optical fiber used to calculate the fiber’s ability to
maintain polarization. The beat length describes the length required for the polarization to
rotate 360 degrees. For a given wavelength, it is inversely proportional to the fiber’s
birefringence
The propagation distance for which a 2π phase difference accumulates between the two
polarization modes is known as beat length.
 2
LB = LB =
Bf x  y
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Part – A

1. What is Rayleigh scattering?(May-June 2013)(R)


2. What are bending losses? Name any two types. (Apr-May 2015) (R)
3. What are the types of fiber losses which are given per unit distance?(Nov-
Dec 2014) (R)
4. List the factors that cause intrinsic joint losses in a fiber. (N0v-Dec 2014)
(R)
5. A fiber has an attenuation of 0.5dB/Km at 1500nm. If 0.5mW of optical
power is initially launched into the fibre, what is the power level in after
25Km? (Nov—Dec 2015, Apr-May 2017) (U)
6. What do you mean by Polarization dispersion in a fiber and write the
expression for it? (Nov—Dec 2015,Apr-May 2017, Apr-May 2018) (U)
7. A continuous 12 kms-long optical fiber link has a loss of 1.5dB/km. What
is the minimum optical power that must be launched into the fiber to
maintain an optical power level of 0.3 PW at the receiving end?(Nov-Dec
2013) (AZ)
8. Define dispersion in multimode fibers. What is its effect? (Nov-Dec 2013)
(R)
9. What are the two reasons for Chromatic Dispersion? (Nov-Dec 2012) (R)
10. What are the most important non-linear effects of optical fibre
communication? (Nov-Dec 2012) (R)
11. What is chromatic dispersion?(May - June 2016) (R)
12. What are the causes of absorption? (Nov-Dec 2016) (R)
13. Define attenuation. (Nov-Dec 2017) (R)
14. A manufacturer's data sheet lists the material dispersion Dmat =
110ps/nm.km at a wavelength of 860nm. Find the rms pulse broadening
per km due to material dispersion if the optical source has a spectral
width = 40nm at an output wavelength of 860 nm. (Nov-Dec 2017) (A)
15. What is elastic and inelastic scattering? Give examples.(Apr-May 2018)
(R)

Part – B

1. Discuss about the design optimization of single mode fiber.(Nov-Dec


2016) (U)
2. What is waveguide dispersion? Derive and expression for time delay
produced due to waveguide dispersion.(Nov-Dec 2016) (A)
3. With necessary diagrams, explain the causes and types of fiber
attenuation loss. (Nov-Dec 2015) (U)
4. With diagram, derive the expression for intra modal dispersion. (Nov-
Dec 2015) (AZ)
5. What are the loss or signal attenuation mechanism in a fibre? Explain.
(Apr-May 2015, May-June 2016, Apr-May 2017) (U)
6. Discuss the pulse broadening in graded index fibers. (U)
7. Explain in detail about polarization mode dispersion and intermodal
dispersion in SM fibers. (U)
8. Distinguish between intermodal and intramodal dispersions. Explain
them with necessary equations and diagrams. (Nov-Dec 2013) (AZ)
9. Describe the linear and non-linear scattering losses in optical fibers.
(Nov-Dec 2012) (U)
10. Derive expressions for material dispersion and waveguide dispersion and
explain them. (May-June 2013 Apr-May 2018) (AZ)
11.What is meant by critical bending radius of optical fibers? Explain.
(Nov- Dec 2014) (U)
12.Explain the following in single mode fiber : Modal birefringence and beat
length. (Nov-Dec 2014) (U)
13.An LED operating at 850nm has a spectral width of 45nm. What is the
pulse spreading is ns/km due to material dispersion? What is the pulse
spreading when a laser diode having a 2nm spectral width is used?
(Nov-Dec 2012) (U)
14.Discuss the attenuation encountered in optical fiber communication due
to: 1.Bending 2. Scattering 3.Absorption. (Nov-Dec 2013, Apr-May
2018) (U)
15. In detail, explain linear scattering losses. (Nov-Dec 2017) (U)

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