History of Science and Technology in Ancient Cultures

The study of protoscience in ancient history refers to the history of science in early
cultures, which was before the development of science in the Middle Ages. In
prehistoric times, advice and knowledge were passed from generation to generation in
an oral tradition. The development of writing systems allowed various societies to store
and communicate knowledge. Currently, we are still reaping the benefits of recorded
knowledge as we are still discovering ancient evidence of scientific advances.

Writing coexisted with the development of agriculture. It allowed for a surplus of food,
which made it possible for early civilizations to develop. They were able to dedicate
more time to do tasks other than survival, such as searching for knowledge for
knowledge’s sake.

Mesopotamia

The Mesopotamian civilization developed around 3500 BC in Sumer, now known as the
country Iraq. The Mesopotamian people recorded some observations about the world
using extremely detailed numerical data. An example would be the records of
Pythagoras’ law on the Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet, which dates back to as early as
the 18th century BC.

Astronomy is a science that focuses on recording and studying observations on the

heavenly bodies. The Mesopotamian scribes left vigorous notes on the motions of the
stars, planets, and the moon in thousands of clay tablets.

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt developed their scientific knowledge in astronomy, mathematics, and

medicine. Geometry developed when there was a need to layout the beginning and end
of certain privately-owned farmland. Marking the perimeter of farmlands was also
necessary to prepare these lands for the Nile River’s annual flood. Rules of geometry
such as the 3-4-5 right triangle and other rules of thumb were developed to represent
rectangular structures, including reinforcing structural posts and openings. Egypt also
became a center of alchemical research in the ancient western world.

The phonetic writing system known as the Egyptian hieroglyphs served as the basis for
the Egyptian Phoenician alphabet. Later on, the Egyptian Phoenician alphabet evolved
into Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Cyrillic alphabets. The city of Alexandria retained
superiority with its library, which was entirely destroyed by fire when it fell under Roman
rule before 642. With it, a great amount of antique literature and knowledge was lost.

One of the first medical documents still surviving is the Edwin Smith papyrus. It is
perhaps the earliest record that attempts to describe and analyze the brain: it might be
seen as the beginning of modern neuroscience.

Persia

In the Sassanid period (226 to 652 AD), the Persians gave great attention to
mathematics and astronomy. A prominent example is the Academy of Gundishapur.
Astronomical tables, such as the Shahryar Tables, are still used to this period. On the
other hand, Muslim astronomers and astrologers of the Islamic period later imitated the
Sassanid observatory. In the mid-Sassanid era, in the form of views and traditions of
Greece, an influx of knowledge came to Persia from the West. Following the spread of
Christianity, it accompanied Syriac, the official language of Christians and the Iranian
Nestorians. The Christian schools in Iran produced great scientists such as Nersi,
Farhad, and Marabai. Paulus Persa, head of the Iranian Department of Logic and
Philosophy of Aristotle, also left a book written in Syriac and dictated to Sassanid King
Anushiravan. Persia became a stronghold of Islamic science in the Early Middle Ages.
Greco-Roman World

Scientific thought in Classical Antiquity became more practical from the 6th century BC
in pre-Socratic philosophy, headlined by Thales and Pythagoras. In 385 BC, Plato
founded the Academy, where his students participated in the “scientific revolution” of the
Hellenistic period using discourse. Scholars would discuss some practical issues by
using a conversational and reasoning process. These scholars include Eratosthenes,
Euclid, Aristarchus of Samos, Hipparchus, and Archimedes. (3rd to 2nd centuries)

In Classical Antiquity, a reliable calendar, cures for various illnesses, and abstract
thought experiments known as natural philosophy were developed. These
developments resulted from wondering how the universe works while practicing a skilled
profession (for example, physicians), generating rational thinking through discourse, or
following religious traditions (temple healers).

There are important legacies from this period. First are advances in factual knowledge,
specifically in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics, and
astronomy. Second is the awareness of the importance of some scientific issues,
especially those related to the problem of change and its causes. Finally, a recognition
of the methodological significance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and
of undertaking empirical research.

India

Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and other sites in the Indus Valley Civilization
(IVC) have uncovered evidence of the use of practical mathematics. To develop building
blocks that would make dwellings more durable, the people of the IVC manufactured
bricks whose dimensions were in proportion 4:2:1. This meant that they found a way to
compute bricks' dimensions to support a given weight by developing standard ratios.
They mass-produced weights in regular geometrical shapes, including hexahedra,
barrels, cones, and cylinders, thereby demonstrating basic knowledge of geometry.

The inhabitants of the Indus civilization also tried to standardize the measurement of
length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler — the Mohenjo-daro ruler —
whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimeters) was divided into ten
equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that
were integral multiples of this unit of length.

Alchemy (Rasaśāstra in Sanskrit) was popular in India. The Indian alchemist and
philosopher Kanada introduced the concept of ‘anu’, which he defined as matter that
cannot be subdivided. This thinking is analogous to the concept of the atom in modern
science.
China

The first recorded observations of solar eclipses and supernovae were discovered in
China. Chinese astronomers observed a supernova guest star, the remnant now known
as the Crab Nebula on July 4, 1054. There are similar records from Korean
contributions, including records of meteor showers and eclipses, particularly from 1500-
1750 in the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty. Traditional Chinese Medicine, acupuncture,
and herbal medicine were also practiced, with similar medicine practiced in Korea.

The abacus, the public toilet, and the “shadow clock” were few of the earliest inventions.
However, Joseph Needham noted the “Four Great Inventions” of China — the compass,
gunpowder, papermaking, and printing — as among the most critical technological
advances. In particular, the Chinese developed many innovations in the Tang dynasty
(AD 618 - 906). Later, up to the Qing Dynasty, an exchange of ideas occurred between
Europeans and Chinese. These inventions were adopted in Europe at the end of the
Middle Ages.

History of Science and Technology in Medieval Ages

The Middle Ages (500 to 1400) is now considered a period with limited scientific
advances in Europe. Still, modern scholars regard this period as the Golden Age of
Islam and the enlightenment of the Byzantine Empire.

When the civilization of Rome became powerless, Europe had to adjust by keeping
peace and empire-building. Europeans did not have enough time and resources to
develop scientific learning. Despite this, Charlemagne tried to establish a learning
tradition by assigning scribes to record known knowledge. The later Middle Ages saw
advancements in the philosophy of science and the development of the scientific
method.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, many historians and scientists regard Western
Europe as entirely devoid of interest in scientific discovery. Contemptuously, the
Romans caused medieval Europe to fall into the Dark Ages, a period when there was a
rise of many unhealthy and illiterate peasants and rulers. Superstition reemerged in
Western Europe, regressing from the scientific progress brought about by the Greek
and Roman ages of reason and high philosophy.

The Dark Ages

Some historians believe that Europe regressed into war and barbarism during the Dark
Ages because of the severe inequality and lack of scientific advancement in the
previous period. To keep the peace, the Christian Church became more controlling,
further stifling scientific development.

Some historians have the opposing view because the lack of written records on
scientific development from the Dark Ages does not mean that there were no scientific
advancements. The Dark Ages were only relatively slow in progress compared to the
Roman Empire’s focus on meticulous record-keeping. Developments in science can be
seen in the Middle East instead of Europe. Modern scholars now regard this period as
the Golden Age of Islam and the enlightenment of the Byzantine Empire outside of
Europe.

Early Medieval Society - The Dark Ages after the Collapse of Rome

The Early Medieval period (about AD 500 to 1000) in Europe is regarded as the real
Dark Ages. In this period, medieval society fell into barbarism and ignorance. As
records show, Norse sailors could not develop the compass as early as the Chinese
did. Still, they were master navigators and could use the stars and a few instruments to
navigate to Iceland, Greenland, and Vinland.

However, monastic study was able to keep some of the scientific processes alive, even
if records were confined to the Bible’s content. To cure the sick, the monks of Western
Europe studied medicine. To set dates for church holidays such as Easter, the monks
observed the stars and developed the discipline of astronomy. Monks and scribes
preserved the rules of mathematics and geometry when analyzing the movements of
the heavenly bodies.

The Middle Ages - Charlemagne, Science, and Learning

During the 9th Century, these small embers of preserved knowledge leaped to life. As
Western Europeans tried to systemize education, rulers and church leaders realized
that education was the key to maintaining unity and peace. This period, known as the
Carolingian Renaissance, was when Charles the Great, often known as Charlemagne,
tried to reestablish knowledge as a cornerstone of medieval society. Although he is
often depicted as the Golden Hero of the Church, he was a brutal man of war. More
importantly, he was a great believer in the power of learning. While using the Catholic
Church to transmit knowledge and education, he instigated a revival in art, culture, and
learning. He ordered the translation of many Latin texts to Middle English. Charlemagne
also promoted astronomy, a field that he loved to study, despite his inability to read. As
medieval society transitioned into the High Middle Ages, the teaching of logic,
philosophy, and theology enhanced the thinking process of some Christian thinkers in
Western Europe.

The High Middle Ages - The Rebirth of Science and Scholasticism

From 1000 until 1300, this era saw Western Europe, from Ireland to Italy and from
Denmark to Spain, begin to slowly crawl out of the endless warring as populations grew
and the shared Christian identity gave some unity of purpose. Because trading and
sharing ideas were common, ideas from Moorish Spain, the Holy Land, and
Byzantiumwere were brought back by merchants and mercenaries. Many of the Ancient
Greek texts were translated into Arabic by the Muslims. In the middle of the 11th
Century, these books were translated from Arabic to Latin by scholars from all around
Europe who flocked to Spain. This translation process provided a conduit for the
Greeks' knowledge to pass into Europe, where the schools set up by Charlemagne
were now growing into universities. Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114-1187), and many other
scholars learned Arabic so that they may complete their task.

Centers of learning, known as the Studium Generale, sprang up across Western Europe
by the 12th Century. This drew scholars away from the Ancient Greeks' knowledge and
combining Classical Antiquity’s discoveries with the great Muslim philosophers' and
scientists' findings. This period did not see the Greeks, Romans, Chinese, Persians, or
Muslims' significant technological advances. Still, the contribution of great thinkers such
as Thomas Aquinas, Grosseteste, Francis Bacon, and William of Ockham to the
creation of the Scientific Method cannot be underestimated.

Aquinas and Grosseteste are considered to be the Fathers of Scholasticism and the
Scientific Method. While they were more interested in using philosophy to prove the
existence of God, Thomas Aquinas oversaw a shift from Platonic reasoning towards
Aristotelian empiricism. Meaning, Aquinas became an expert in reasoning by citing
evidence using the senses. One of the significant contributors to the scientific method,
Robert Grosseteste, founded the Oxford Franciscan School. He also began to promote
the dualistic scientific method, which was first proposed by Aristotle.

Grosseteste’s idea of resolution and composition involved experimentation and

prediction. He firmly believed that to propose a universal law, observations should be
used. It is this universal law that should be used to predict outcomes. This idea was
very similar to the concept of ancient astronomers. They used observations to discern
trends, and then used these trends to create predictive models for astronomical events.
Roger Bacon, also known as the Shining Light of Science in Medieval Society, is one of
the great minds behind the development of the scientific method. The scientific method
was also improved through the learnings of Aristotle, Avicenna, Galileo, and Newton.
Bacon took the work of Grosseteste, Aristotle, and the Islamic alchemists to propose the
idea of induction as the cornerstone of empiricism. Empiricism is the philosophy that
conclusions should be made with evidence. Bacon described the method of
observation, prediction (hypothesis), and experimentation. He also explained that the
results should be independently verified, documenting his results in sufficient detail so
that others might repeat the experiment.

The Late Middle Ages - Scholasticism and the Scientific Method

As thinkers continued the work of scholasticism, adding to the philosophy underpinning

science, the Late Middle Ages (from 1300 until 1500) saw progress speed up. This
period made sophisticated observations and theories that were sadly superseded by
works of later scientists. Finally, the removal of divine intervention from the process of
explaining natural phenomena was sought out by many of the scholastic philosophers.
They believed that scholars should look for a more direct and natural cause rather than
stating that it must be the work of divine providence.

The Black Death - The Destroyer of Medieval Society and Scholasticism

In favor of the later thinkers that drove the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment,
the advances of many of these philosophers and scholars were forgotten and
underplayed. The first Renaissance of the Middle Ages was halted by a natural
phenomenon, the Black Death. This phenomenon killed over a third of Europeans,
especially in the growing urban areas.

It is the mass disruption to medieval society, which was caused by the plague, that set
the progress of science and discovery back. These knowledge would not reemerge until
the Renaissance.

One of the generally recognized imperatives of socioeconomic progress in the

contemporary world is the need to develop the science and technology of a country.
Especially since the post-World War II years, this has become the governments’
widespread concern. The problem of dependence on science and technology is one
important dimension of this concern among Third World countries. This is because this
is closely tied up with the integrity of their economic self-reliance and political
sovereignty. A continuing imbalance between technological and scientific development
among contemporary states exists with 98% of all development and research facilities
located in developed countries and almost concerned wholly with the latter's problems.
In United Nations-sponsored conferences, one salient issue is the autonomy or
dependence in technology and science (Caoili, 2017).
Reliable written information about the Philippine’s culture, technology, and society
before the Spaniards’ arrival in 1521 is very little. According to sources, long before the
arrival of the Spaniards, there were already numerous, scattered, thriving, relatively self-
sufficient, and autonomous communities in the country. A generally simple level of
technological development has been attained by early Filipinos as compared to the
Japanese and Chinese. However, at that period of time, this knowledge was sufficient
enough for their needs.

The early Filipinos gradually learned to make metal tools and implements of copper,
gold, bronze and, later, iron. Practically, these were the same commodities of trade
between China and the islands. When the Spanish colonial officials arrived in the
Philippines more than two centuries later, they recorded this trade.

Evidence of significant engineering techniques can also be seen in some traditional

structures in the Philippines. The caracoa, balangay, and nao boats showed advanced
engineering in shipbuilding, as well as the traditional housing structures that were
unique to different topographies.

Although no temples or worship places were found by the Spaniards, pre-colonial

Filipino were still highly superstitious. The Filipinos, using their own system, knew how
to read and write, but it was mainly used for letters and messages. They did not seem to
have developed a written literary tradition at that time. Oral literature was instead used
to pass on cultural knowledge. Still, a system of writing would have led to a more
systematic accumulation and dissemination of knowledge, a condition that is necessary
for the development of science and technology.

Throughout the Spanish regime, University of Santo Tomas remained as the highest
institution of learning. Initially, the university granted degrees in humanities, theology,
and philosophy. The faculty of jurisprudence and canonical law was then established in
the 18th century. Afterwards, the schools of pharmacy and medicine were opened in
1871. A preparatory course with subjects in general chemistry and natural history are
consisted in the study of pharmacy. 5 years of studies in subjects like pharmaceutical
operations at the school of pharmacy are also included in the study of pharmacy.

A German physician of Manila at the start of the American regime submitted a report
on UST’s medical college conditions to the authorities. UST’s lack of library facilities and
the use of outdated equipment was mentioned in the report, among others. Moreover,
the Suez Canal’s opening in 1869 brought about a consequent ease in communication
and travel. This also allowed the scientific knowledge and liberal ideas of the West to
reach the Philippines. As a result of the increase in commerce between the Philippines
and the rest of the world, prosperity enabled Filipino students to go to Europe for
professional advanced studies.

Religious orders had established several charity hospitals in the archipelago and
provided the bulk of this public service towards the end of the 16th century. During the
first 2 centuries of the Spanish rule, development in Philippine agriculture and industry
was very little. This was mostly due to the dependence of the Spanish colonizers on the
profits from the Galleon or Manila-Acapulco trade.

On the other hand, it was the Jesuits, who founded the Manila Observatory in 1865, that
promoted meteorological studies. The Observatory was then made into a central station
of the Philippine Weather Bureau in 1901. This was set up by the American colonial
authorities. It remained under the Jesuit scientists and provided not just meteorological
studies, but also astronomical and seismological studies.

When it comes to the time of the short-lived Philippine Republic (1898-1900),

development in science and technology was very little. To establish a secular
educational system, the government took steps by a decree of 19 October 1898. This
created the Universidad Liter aria de Filipinas as a secular, state-supported institution of
higher learning.

During the American regime, science and technology in the country rapidly advanced.
The simultaneous government support and encouragement for an extensive public
education system; the scholarship granting in science and engineering for higher
education; the establishment of science-based public services and the organization of
science research agencies made the rapid advancements possible.

The short-run needs for professionally trained Filipinos in the colonial government's
programs and organization were satisfied with the establishment of the University of the
Philippines. The university remained to be the only higher education institution for that is
publicly supported. However, since the increasing social demand for universities could
not be met, it was left to the enterprising Filipino’s initiative. And for a lot of Filipinos, it is
private education that has become the alternative for professional education.
Concurrent appointments were held by the staff members of the Bureau of Government
Laboratories as faculty members of the University of the Philippine’s College of
Medicine and other units, and as well as appointments at the Philippine General
Hospital. Likewise, officers of the Bureau of Health were appointed to the College of
Medicine faculty. These scientists all conducted their research work at the Bureau of
Science.

In 1935, the Philippine Commonwealth was inaugurated which was by this time
completely under Filipino management, continued to expand its public school system to
accommodate the increasing number of schoolchildren. There was a significant
increase in trained scientists and engineers in the Philippines before the Second World
War.

In 1982, NSDB was further reorganized into a National Science and Technology
Authority (NSTA) composed of four research and Development Councils; Philippine
Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development; Philippine Council
for Industry and Energy Research Development; Philippine Council for Health Research
and Development and the NRCP. The expanding number of science agencies gave rise
to a demand for high caliber scientists and engineers to undertake research and staff
universities and colleges. Hence, measures were taken towards the improvement of the
country’s science and human resources.

The Philippine Commonwealth was inaugurated and ushered into a period of transition
to political independence in 1935. The importance of promoting scientific development
for the economic development was acknowledged by the Constitution, which was by
this time, completely under Filipino management. Higher education was mainly provided
by the private sector on the whole. This led to the combined significant increase in
trained scientists and engineers in the Philippines before the Second World War.

The Philippine economy’s continuing dependence on the United States even after
independence in 1946, as a result of the free trade relations and the virtual imposition of
the "parity" amendment to the Philippine Constitution by the US Congress, has
perpetuated the predominantly agricultural and rural character of Philippine economy
and society. This dependent development of Philippine society and economy has had
serious repercussions for the advancement of Philippine science and technology.
Increasing social demand for higher education has led to the growth of highly trained
professional human resources, particularly scientists, engineers and physicians.
However, because of the underdeveloped state of the economy, many of these science-
based professionals have been unemployed or underemployed. Consequently, many of
them have been forced to migrate to developed countries, thus creating a "brain drain"
or loss of valuable human resources for the Philippines. There is thus a need for the
government to critically re-examine the interrelations between past and present
education and science policies with those of its economic development policies in order
to be able to redirect these towards the goal of attaining a strong, self-reliant economy
and society. A well-developed national science and technology is a critical factor in the
achievement of this goal (Caoili, 2017).
Science in Transition

In the past, scientific methods and institutions tended to emphasize the study of
individual natural processes rather than systems, analysis more than synthesis, and
understanding nature more than predicting its behavior. And in many instances, science
focused on short-term, small-scale problems, often in monodisciplinary mode, rather
than on long-term, large-scale or integrated problems. While these perspectives and
approaches have built up a considerable base of knowledge and led to a vast portfolio
of useful technologies, especially in the 20th century, many of the problems now facing
humankind can be solved through a holistic approach.

The impact on individual people, communities, and the environment of technological

interventions are carefully considered. Science became more multidisciplinary and its
practitioners continued to promote cooperation and integration between the social and
natural sciences. A holistic approach demanded that science drew on the contributions
of the humanities (such as history and philosophy), local knowledge systems, aboriginal
wisdom, and the wide variety of cultural values.

The influence of science on people’s lives is growing. While in the history of the
human species, recent benefits to humanity are unparalleled, the impact has been
harmful or the long-term effects give causes for serious concerns in some instances.
Exists today is a considerable measure of fear of technology and public mistrust of
science. This partly stems from the belief by some individuals and communities that
they will be the ones to suffer the indirect negative consequences of technical
innovations which was introduced to benefit only a privileged minority. A duty on
scientists to proceed with great caution both in what they do and what they say is
placed on them due to the power of science. Scientists reflect on the social
consequences of the technological applications or dissemination of partial information of
their work and explain to the public and policy makers alike the degree of scientific
uncertainty or incompleteness in their findings. At the same time, though, they should
not hesitate to fully exploit the predictive power of science, duly qualified, to help people
cope with environmental change, especially in cases of direct threats like natural
disasters or water shortages.

The current trend toward privatization in many countries is influencing the focus
and practice of science. In some instances, increasing research capacity and
knowledge in selected areas is the net result. However, there is still major concern that
the trend may be undermining public-sector science, especially fundamental research
and efforts to solve socially important problems that pose no interest to commercial
enterprises. For example, the job of public research is more difficult because of patent
protection of private intellectual property. There is also concern over the social
implications of private ownership and control of technology, and its effect on broad
public scientific literacy, and on options for public choice.
Another major trend shaping science is globalization. The end of the Cold War,
growing technology demand from emerging economies, world recognition of the
interconnectedness of the planet’s biophysical systems and improved communications,
especially via the Internet - all these forces are boosting cross-border scientific
cooperation and information exchange between individual researchers, institutions and
governments. However, only in a handful of scientifically advanced countries are much
of the expansion occurring in. More effort is needed to ensure that all countries, rich and
poor, and a wide range of world cultures are included in technology transfer and
collaborative research for science to be truly global. This is especially important in areas
like global climate change which will affect, sooner or later, all human beings. With the
right policies in place, joint scientific work in critical areas like the Arctic, for example,
can serve as a model for other global cooperation types.

Science Policy and Ethics

In themselves, scientific advances are never a guarantee of social benefit. Technology

must not be treated as a master, rather as a servant of society. Increasing commercial
productivity, while at the same time necessary, unemployment and poverty is not a
socially acceptable solution. Science must be fully integrated with broad societal needs,
but this tenet is not yet fully accepted. One reason for public mistrust of science is that
ordinary people feel they will sometimes end up being the ones to suffer the costs of
technological innovation. It was suggested repeatedly at the North American meeting
that the time has come to introduce an international code of ethical conduct for
scientists to ensure that science is directed for the public good.

In their daily work, scientists are sometimes isolated from the mainstream society, which
makes it difficult for them to be clearly aware of public needs. Conversely, when policy
makers are in need of sometimes urgent advice on technical matters, they may be
unaware of the scientific expertise residing under their very noses. Through the
proactive involvement of scientists in policy making, society has so much to gain.

Medical biotechnology is a leading-edge area of science in which the pace of progress

is perhaps faster than society’s capacity to deal with the ethical and social implications.
Genetic research, while offering major benefits for disease diagnosis and treatment,
also poses serious questions about the nature and sanctity of human life and the
protection of human rights. The possibility that genetic technology could be
commandeered by powerful groups to pursue goals in their own interests, but which
may be socially destructive or discriminatory is not to be considered lightly. To disabled
persons, it is an issue of particular importance. Greater dialogue between scientists,
policy makers and the public, especially those groups disproportionately affected by
technological developments, is clearly needed.

One major concern is that recent advances in health sciences will lead to the
"genetification of medicine." This is a trend toward understanding and explaining
human beings and human health largely in terms of genes and their interactions. The
role of social and environmental factors increasingly receiving insufficient attention,
leading to a one-dimensional view of diseases and disabilities is a worry with this.

The "commodification" of basic human needs such as food, shelter, clothing, fuel, and
health services is a further ethical issue in science. Often family-based, many of these
items have traditionally been supplied through non-monetary social support structures in
many countries. As cash economies and government welfare programs increasingly
treat these necessities of life simply as commodities to be bought and sold, there is a
serious risk that technological innovations, stimulated by scientists working within a
commercial framework, will be exploited mainly by well-to-do minorities, with little or no
benefit to the poor. More attention is needed to the potential of science to improve
human social conditions in non-material ways.
The scientific revolution was built upon the foundation of ancient Greek learning and
science in the Middle Ages, as it had been elaborated and further developed by
Roman/Byzantine science and medieval Islamic science. In the 17th century, natural
philosophers had moved away from much of the Aristotelian tradition, but it was still an
important intellectual framework at that time. Key scientific ideas that date back to
classical antiquity had changed drastically over the years, and in fact, in many cases,
had even been discredited. During the scientific revolution, the ideas that remained
transformed fundamentally.

The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons:

1. 17th century philosophers and scientists were able to collaborate with members
of the astronomical and mathematical communities to affect advances in all
fields.
2. The inadequacy of medieval experimental methods for scientists’ works were
realized by them. Thus, the need to devise new methods was felt by them (some
of which we use today).
3. A legacy of Middle Eastern, Greek, and European scientific philosophy can be
access by Academics. They could use this as a starting point (either by
disproving or building on the theorems).
4. It is the institutions (e.g. the British Royal Society) that helped validate science as
a field by providing an outlet for the publication of works of scientists.

New Ideas

In what is called as the scientific revolution, many ideas are contributed to it. Some of
them were even revolutions in their own fields. These include:

 The heliocentric model. This involved the radical displacement of the earth to an
orbit around the sun (as opposed to being seen as the center of the universe). To
 demonstrate that the center of the universe was the sun, Copernicus used his
1543 heliocentric model of the solar system. Credibility was given to the theory
due to the discoveries of Galileo and Johannes Kepler, and as well as the work
culminated in Isaac Newton’s Principia. This work formulated the laws of
motion and universal gravitation which dominated the views of scientists on the
physical universe for the next three centuries.

 Studying human anatomy based upon the dissection of human corpses. This is
as opposed to animal dissections, which was practiced for centuries. Discovering
and studying electricity and magnetism and consequently, various materials’
electric properties. Modernization of disciplines (making them more as what they
are today), including chemistry, optics, dentistry, or physiology.

 The invention of tools that helped deepen the understating of sciences, such as
the mechanical calculator, refracting and reflecting telescopes, steam digester
(the forerunner of the steam engine), mercury barometer, or vacuum pump.

The Thinker: Nicolaus Copernicus

As mentioned earlier, the man who arguably began this revolution was the Polish
astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. Born in Thorn in 1473, Copernicus studied in Krakow,
Bologna, Padua and Rome before returning to Warmia, Poland to teach and study for
the remainder of his life.

For nearly his entire life, Copernicus worked on a heliocentric model - where the sun,
and not the Earth, was the center of the solar system. Unlike previous mathematicians
and astronomers who used heliocentric models to make their mathematical calculations
of the planet's orbits more accurate, Copernicus firmly and genuinely believed that the
sun was at the center of the solar system. However, Copernicus chose to wait to publish
his calculations and theories shortly until before his death likely because of fears of
potential backlash from church authorities. Regardless of the errors and discrepancies
in his final theory, his greatest and most notable achievement was the removal of the
Earth from the center of the universe and solar system.
Charles Darwin and his Theory of Evolution

One of the most celebrated and eminent scientists of the past few centuries is Charles
Robert Darwin (February 12, 1809 – April 19, 1882. His theory of evolution by the
means of natural selection is his broadest and most notable influence. During Darwin’s
voyage on the HMS Beagle (1831–1836), he made remarkable insights and
investigations that led him to develop revolutionary ideas related to adaptation and
speciation and to theorize about concepts of evolutionary biology. Although previous
scientific thinkers had laid down some of the foundations for Darwin’s work, and others
later expanded upon and more fully developed the scientific bases for his conclusions,
Darwin set forth and formulated the controversial but coherent ideas about organic
evolution that have impacted the world at large. His groundbreaking “On the Origin of
Species” was originally published in 1859. Darwin argued later on in 1871 in “The
Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex” that just as other organisms had,
humans had evolved, which created a storm of controversy that continues up until this
day.

The core insights of Darwin regarding natural selection have proven profound and
inspirational. Often, organisms tend to produce more progeny than the environment will
allow to subsist in the process of natural selection. In the struggle for existence that
ensues, progeny with favorable variations in their traits will survive and leave more
offspring than others do; the favorable variations accumulate through subsequent
generations, and descendants with a set of adaptations to their environment eventually
diverge from their less adapted ancestors. In working from this basic foundation of
evolution through natural selection, modern investigators and scientists have been able
to formulate more specific ideas and principles relating to many topics.
Sigmund Freud: Life, Work, and Theories

Freud entered the University of Vienna medical school in 1873. Later on in 1882, he
worked as a clinical assistant at the General Hospital in Vienna and trained with
Theodor Meynert, a psychiatrist, and Hermann Nothnagel, a professor of internal
medicine. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, Freud had completed research on
the brain’s medulla and was then appointed as a lecturer in neuropathology by 1885.

Josef Breuer is Freud’s friend, a physician, and a physiologist. The course of Freud's
career was impacted largely by Breuer. Breuer told his friend about using hypnosis to
cure a patient, Bertha Pappenheim (referred to as Anna O.), of what was then called
hysteria. Breuer would hypnotize her, and she was able to talk about things that she
would not be able to remember in a conscious state. Afterwards, her symptoms were
relieved. This has become known as the "talking cure." Freud then travelled to Paris to
study further under Jean-Martin Charcot, a neurologist that is famous for using hypnosis
to treat hysteria.

After this new line of study, in 1886 Freud returned to his hometown and opened a
practice that specialized in brain and nervous disorders. He found that hypnosis did not
work as well as he had hoped. Instead, a new way to get people to talk freely was
developed by him. He would have patients lie back on a couch to ensure that they were
comfortable and then would tell them to talk about whatever popped into their head.
Whatever the person would say would be written down by Freud and then analyzed.
This method of treatment is called free association. In a paper called Studien über
Hysterie (Studies in Hysteria), Freud published his findings alongside Breuer in 1895.
It was in 1896 when the term psychoanalysis was coined by Freud. This is the treatment
of mental disorders, with an emphasis on the unconscious mental processes. It is also
called "depth psychology." Freud also developed what he thought of as the three
agencies of the human personality: the id, ego, and superego. The id is the primitive
instincts, like aggression and sex. On the other hand, the ego is the "self" part of the
personality that interacts with the world in which the person lives in. The superego is the
part of the personality that is ethical and creates the moral standards for the ego. One of
the most influential scientists in the fields of psychiatry and psychology was Sigmund
Freud. And although it has been over 100 years since Freud published his theories, he
still manages to influence what we think about the mind and personality.

Cradles of Early Science

Mesoamerica

Along the southwestern curve of the Gulf of Mexico, near the present city of Veracruz,
the founding culture of Mesoamerica appeared. The Olmecs (the “rubber people”)
culture lasted from about 1400 BCE to 100 BCE. It produced nearly imperishable art,
notably large carved heads of volcanic rock, the largest weighing some 20 tons and
standing about 10 feet tall. Typically, an indication of a civilization with powerful leaders
is the presence of monumental tombs or sculptures. Instead of one big empire, the
Maya organized themselves into small city-states. The most sophisticated and elaborate
writing system of the several different ones used in Mesoamerica was also developed
by them. Mayan writing included both symbols and pictographs for syllables.

Maya shaman/priests worked out remarkable systems of mathematics and cosmology.

Three kinds of calendars were devised by them. A calendar of the solar year of 365
days governed the agricultural cycle and a calendar of the ritual year of 260 days
dictated daily affairs; these two calendars coincided every 52 years. A third calendar,
called the Long Count calendar, extended back to the date August 13, 3114 BCE (on
the Gregorian calendar), to record the large-scale passage of time. The Maya
calculated a solar year as 365.242 days, about 17 seconds shorter than the figures of
modern astronomers. They also introduced the concept of zero; the first evidence of
zero as a number dates from 357 BCE, but it may go back further, to Olmec times. In
Afro-Eurasia, Hindu scholars first represented zero in the 800s CE.
Asia

Early evidence for Chinese millet agriculture is dated to around 7000 BCE, with the
earliest evidence of cultivated rice found at Chengtoushan near the Yangtze River,
dated to 6500 BCE. Chengtoushan may also be the site of the first walled city in China.
This Neolithic Revolution gave rise to the Jiahu culture (7000 to 5800 BCE). There are
even some scholars that have suggested that the Jiahu symbols (6600 BCE) are the
earliest form of proto-writing in China.

Chinese civilization begins during the second phase of the Erlitou period (1900 to 1500
BCE), with Erlitou considered the first state level society of East Asia. Erlitou saw an
increase in bronze metallurgy and urbanization and was a rapidly growing regional
center with palatial complexes that provide evidence for social stratification. The earliest
traditional Chinese dynasty for which there is both archeological and written evidence is
the Shang dynasty (1600 to 1046 BCE). Shang sites have yielded the earliest known
body of Chinese writing, the oracle bone script, mostly divinations inscribed on bones.
These inscriptions provide critical insight into many topics from the politics, economy,
and religious practices to the art and medicine of this early stage of Chinese civilization.
The Sanxingdui culture is another Chinese Bronze Age society, contemporaneous to
the Shang dynasty, however they developed a different method of bronze-making from
the Shang.

Middle East

Baghdad, the capital of this empire, was established on the Tigris River. Due to its
location, it became a natural crossroads that the East and West could meet. Quickly,
Baghdad became a major cultural centre. Important Indian and Greek mathematical
books were translated and studied, leading to a new era of scientific creativity that was
to last until the 14th century.

The 9th century scholar Abu Ja'far Mohammed ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi, an astronomer
to the caliph at Baghdad, is one of the earliest and most distinguished of the Arabic
mathematicians. His full name can be translated as "Father of Ja'far, Mohammed, son
of Moses, native of the town of Al-Khwarizmi." Al-Khwarizmi wrote several enormously
influential books. One, in particular, describes how to write numbers and compute with
them using the place-value decimal system we use today, which had been developed in
India some time before 600 AD. This book would, when translated into Latin 300 years
later, prove a major source for Europeans who wanted to learn the new system. Today,
we know it as the Hindu-Arabic system. It is taught to schoolchildren worldwide.

Africa

The Lebombo Bone discovered between South Africa and Swaziland is dated back to
about 37,000 years before the present era. According to scientists, it could be a lunar
calendar, specifying the number of days in a lunar month, similar in principle to the
notches calendar used today by the San people in Namibia. This is the first visible sign
of the emergence of mathematical calculations in the history of humanity, as reflected
by the Anglo-Saxon researcher Richard Mankiewicz in his book L’histoire des
mathématiques – Paris, Seuil, 2001. The first certain trace of the existence and the
mastery of agriculture comes from Nubia (Sudan). The work of Professor Fred Wendorf
admitted today that at least 14,000 years ago, the African man was the first to master
agriculture and techniques.

When Spain had already colonized most lowland communities in the Philippines in the
1700s, the indigenous peoples in the Philippines continued to live in their isolated and
self-sufficient communities. They were able to preserve the culture and traditions of their
"ethnos" or "tribe" as reflected in their communal views on land, their cooperative work
exchanges, their communal rituals, their songs, dances, and folklore.

The knowledge of the indigenous people of native science and the environment has
been instrumental in our modern scientific advancements. Their knowledge has evolved
from prolonged interactions with nature and has provided valuable resources for
appropriate technology development and discoveries. People who practiced indigenous
science used science process skills guided by community culture and values composed
of traditional knowledge. Their scientific advancements have helped people in
understanding the natural environment and in coping with everyday life. This Indigenous
Knowledge System is defined by the cultural traditions of local communities, which are
orally passed in stories, poems, and songs.

"Noongar herbal medicine", licensed with CC BY-SA 4.0

"Indigenous Filipinos traditionally fermented coconut into a wine called tuba

 This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

Examples of Indigenous knowledge that are taught and practiced by indigenous

Filipinos are:

 Prediction of weather. The unusual behavior of insects, such as ants,

earthworms, and dragonflies, has become a basis for predicting an
upcoming rain, typhoon, or bad weather.
 Using herbal medicine. Tamarind leaves, for example, are used as a
cure for cough and cold by boiling young leaves for 30 minutes to drink.
 Preserving foods. Salting, as also practiced until today, is one of the
indigenous practices in preserving food with dry edible salt. This
method is done so that food will not be easily spoiled.
 Classifying plants and animals into families. Philippine languages have
specific names for specific organisms.
 Selecting good seeds for planting. Indigenous Filipinos learned to
choose good seeds from the bad ones to maximize plant yield.
 Using indigenous technology (pottery, weaving, and fine metalcraft).
Examples of traditional outputs from weaving include placemats, bags,
wallets, and mats. Indigenous Filipino metalsmiths can make intricate
gold and bronze jewelry.
 Building local irrigation. Indigenous practice includes pulling up water
from a well or other such source to irrigate the land to keep plants
healthy even if there's a dry spell.
 Classifying different types of soil for planting.
 Producing wines from tropical fruits. The Kalinga Women produced fruit
wines from Guyabano and bignay.
 Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables.
The complex irrigation system developed by indigenous Filipinos, the Banaue Rice
Terraces

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

 Dried fish can be preserved by the salting method developed by indigenous Filipinos

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

Indigenous knowledge, also known as Traditional Ecological Knowledge, is handed

down through generations by Indigenous people. It helps us understand environmental
change, wildlife population monitoring, sustainable harvesting practices, behavioral
ecology, ecological relationships, and so much more. (Popp, 2018)

Science and technology in the Philippines at Present

The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) in the Philippines, with its mandate
from Executive Order No. 128, is a government agency tasked with overseeing and
managing national technology development and acquisition, undertaking technological
and scientific research, and promoting public consciousness of science and technology.

The country's performance in achieving the desired outcomes for the science,
technology, and innovation (STI) sector has been moderate. The latest available data
indicate that four out of nine targets with available data have been exceeded.

Over the decade, the Philippines have reported breakthroughs in scientific discoveries
and inventions, including

· The discovery of the ancient human species called Homo luzonensis in Callao
Cave;

· The launch of the Philippines first microsatellite Diwata-1;

· The invention of environment-friendly lamps that run on saltwater, such as the

SALt lamp and the Liter of Light Project, has helped light poor communities with no
access to electricity.
 Saltwater lamps made of recyled plastic

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

Filipino scientists and their work, the Diwata-1

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

In June 2020, the DOST reported that there is an ongoing Filipino study about the
possible benefits of herbal plants, particularly the tawa-tawa and lagundi, to reduce a
person's vulnerability from the novel coronavirus disease (Covid-19). This development
can be called folk medicine. In a separate study, Filipino researchers found that Virgin
Coconut Oil (VCO), a resource abundant in the Philippines and has been in use for
centuries, can help improve the health condition of the individuals that may be infected
with Covid-19. (Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and
Technology, 2021)

"Tropeko coconut oil", licensed with CC BY 4.0)

The Philippines faces multiple issues in health, environment, education, economics, and
others. The STI sector helps us respond to these challenges. We can observe that local
developments in STI serve as key elements in the advancement of the country. These
have a significant impact on society that help shape our future and the environment.
These developments also lead us to understand better and cope with the environment
that surrounds us.

Today, several science and technology agencies continue to conduct studies to improve
the lives of Filipinos. Here are some of the agencies:
 A PAGASA weather observatory

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

· Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI): This is the government's principal
research arm in food and nutrition. It aims to provide solutions to nutritional problems in
the country. This agency is responsible for the development and commercialization of
nutritional food products that we consume.

· Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration

(PAGASA): This agency is dedicated to providing flood and typhoon warnings, public
weather forecasts and advisories, and other specialized information and services
primarily for the protection of life and property and in support of economic, productivity,
and sustainable development. For example, their programs, like their monitoring
system, enable the communities and key officials to be prepared for the oncoming
typhoons.

· Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS). This agency's

mandate is to mitigate disasters that may arise from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
tsunamis, and other related geotectonic phenomena. Like PAGASA, this agency works
to ensure that communities are safe from geotectonic phenomena that may cause
damage.
 A safety communications material developed by PHIVOLCS

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

One of the most significant thinkers and the most accomplished individuals who has
ever lived is Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). An enormous debt is owed by every person
currently living in Western civilization to Aristotle, who is the fountainhead behind every
achievement of aesthetic (especially Romantic art), political theory, science, and
technology in the world today. Aristotle's philosophy has underpinned the achievements
of the Renaissance and all scientific advances and technological progress to this very
day.
The understandability of the good for Aristotle is based in the idea of what is good for
the specific entity under consideration. The good, therefore, for whatever has a natural
function, is thought to reside in the function. Through its natural end that the natural
function of a thing is determined. With respect to living things, there are particular ways
of being that constitute the perfection of the living thing's nature.

An end of all of the actions that we perform which we desire for its own sake is present,
according to Aristotle. This is known as happiness, flourishing, or eudaimonia, which is
desired for its own sake, with all other things being desired on its account. When
considered as a whole, eudaimonia is a property of one’s life. On the other hand, the
highest good of human endeavors and that toward which all actions aim is called
flourishing. As a human being, it is a success. One of excellent human activity is the
best life.

For Aristotle, the good is what is good for purposeful and goal-directed entities. He
defines the good proper to human beings as the activities in which the life functions
specific to human beings are most fully realized. In the eyes of Aristotle, the good of
each species is teleologically immanent to that species. Guidance and respect to how a
person should live his life is provided by the person’s nature as a human being. The
existence of individual human beings each with his own rational mind and free will is a
fundamental fact of human nature. A person's distinctive capacity and means of survival
is the use of one’s volitional consciousness.

Conducting rational research with respect to value is something that Aristotle thought
was possible. He saw practical science as an essentially moral or evaluative science.
Practical science takes into account the ethical aspects of the subject being studied,
thus, to an extent, is ethical.

Aristotle regarded reality as ordered. He also taught that with respect to human affairs,
order is an effort or project through which people aspire to happiness through the
cultivation of virtues. The end of politics being the good for man is an idea that he
asserts. According to him, the virtue of prudence is freely pursued, personal, and
changeable according to situations. For one individual, a prudent action they do may not
be considered as a prudent action for another person or individual. Nevertheless, the
integration of freely made prudent and varying actions results in social coordination.
Aristotle believed that economic coordination can be attained when persons prudently
choose and undertake economic transactions with others. He also believed that a life
with other people is required in human flourishing.

Technology as a Way of Revealing

Martin Heidegger’s Definition of Technology

The problem of technology is approached by Heidegger with the purpose of finding its
essence. Reducing technology to its fundamental being is the method. By doing so, all
aspects and problems thereof may be understood. Heidegger gives special attention to
language. He frequently refers to the Latina and Greek origins of the vocabulary he
introduces. He successively reduces the essence of technology to simpler and more
basic concepts until its relation to humankind is apparent through this manner. Verbs is
what he is particularly fond with. The essence of modern technology becomes a type of
happening. Heidegger proceeds to identify the danger and saving power contained
therein after he has finished laying bare the nature of modern technology. As the "later
Heidegger," Heidegger believes truth to be better approachable through art and poetry,
rather than by science or logic. He also believes that the essence of the salvation of
technology is art. The article’s rhetorical form is to carefully characterize modern
technology as a seemingly insoluble problem, and then later finding the solution in the
very definition of the problem.
A series of definitions that correspond to the steps in which Heidegger strips technology
down to its essence is involved in the explication of his reduction of technology.

1. Instrumentality: an instrument to achieve human ends, specifically those of

arranging or building up, is called technology
Technology is slipping out of control and its nature as an instrument causes frustration
and excites the will to re-master it, which is a large factor in the growing discomfort with
modern technology.

2. Causality: instruments are designed for the purpose of causing an end.

When one takes deeper look into causality, it reveals that the end is actually the
beginning. This means that it is a cause that to which something is indebted and the
purpose for which an instrument is designed is the primary cause of its coming into
being. To an occasioning, the essence of causality is reduced. This occasioning is a
bringing forth into presencing of something which is not presencing, the Greek poiesis.

3. Revealing: something is brought forth only when it passes from concealment into
unconcealment; when it is revealed.
Revealing, as claimed by Heidegger, is what "truth" really means. Aletheia, the Greek
for revealing, is translated by the Romans into veritas, truth. Pertinent to the
understanding of the danger of technology is the equating of revealing with truth.

The Danger

Now, Heidegger separates modern technology from previous technology and also
specifies its peculiar type of revealing. He shows this to be a danger to humankind.
Modern physics, an exact science, is what modern technology is based on. It is different
from previous technology as it does not humble itself to natural forces such as the
windmill to wind. Rather, it is through physics that we can know the energy stored in
nature and we can set upon nature and challenge it to release this energy. We dam
rivers and mine coal, thereby we control resources, not merely harvest them. Thus,
objects become standing-reserve, ready to be ordered about by humans.

However, humans are not the masters. Revealing itself is not controlled by us. The "real
shows itself or withdraws." Beyond humans, revealing does not occur, but also not
decisively or exclusively in us. Thus we respond to "that challenging claim which
gathers man thither to order the self-revealing as standing-reserve." In this way, we
ourselves as humans are standing reserve, being challenged to set upon all things,
including ourselves, that they may be ready to be ordered about. The essence of
modern technology is this form of revealing. Heidegger refers to it as Enframing.
Revealing is not only a bringing forth, it is a destining. Here, revealing brings forth;
revealing also starts upon its way. What destines us into the process of Enframing is the
revealing to us of Enframing. And with this, the danger lies.

Danger to humankind’s freedom is this danger. For Heidegger, "freedom is the realm of
the destining that at any given time starts a revealing upon its way." Simply put, freedom
is that revealing that destines us to more revealings. It is the revealing of the veil from
under which revealing comes, as a veil. And to more simply put it, it is the revealing of
the fact that there are more revealings possible.

Enframing destines us to Enframe. A decisive role in Enframing is what appears to be

something we have, to the point that we see ourselves as the masters of the world and
the orderers of standing-reserve. In fact, we are but one standing-reserve ordering
others because we are employed merely to the purpose of creating standing-reserve.
When governing our activity is this purpose, we become so engrossed in ordering and
securing standing-reserve that it comes to a point that we do not recognize Enframing
as a revealing. We, thus, lose the awareness of our capacity for revelation. All objects
become forms of standing-reserve, and we feel that we encounter only ourselves, but in
fact, we do not encounter our essence, because this essence is revelation. Recall that
the revealing of the possibility of more revealings is freedom. We lose this also when
lose all awareness of revealing in general. Blindly challenging and ordering standing-
reserves is something we continue to do.

The Saving Power

The essence of technology, which threatens the loss of what is most essentially human,
which is our capacity for new revealings, poses extreme danger to humankind. The
essence of technology is the revealing of Enframing. Through that, the essence of
technology is a permanent enduring in the sense of Plato's Ideas (or Forms). Heidegger
returns again to language and notes that Goethe once equated to endure (währen) with
to grant (gewähren). He claims "that which endures most primally out of the earliest
beginning is what grants." Although enframing presents the extreme danger of making
impossible other destining revealings, it is also a granting. As such, it gives humankind
what we need, but cannot make: a part in the "coming-to-pass of truth." It is a type of
revealing. Enframing is also seen as it contains the saving power which is the granting
of revealing. Technology’s coming to presence, as opposed to the material products of
technology’s material products, is what we must pay attention to. By doing so, we may
see the process of revealing as opposed to the standing-reserve as which technology
causes things to reveal themselves.

Looking into the extreme danger is where the saving power lies. We must look past the
technological toward the essence of technology, the destining revealing that endangers
our freedom. The arising of the saving power in this essence is the fact that it shows us
that mankind belongs to revealing, to the coming to presence of truth. Part of the
constellation of unconcealment and concealment, wherein truth comes to presence, is
the essence of technology. However, the sight of the saving power is not the same as
being saved. In addition to looking into the danger, Heidegger suggests a more tangible
path to salvation.