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A review of India’s fodder production status and opportunities

Article in Grass and Forage Science · January 2022

DOI: 10.1111/gfs.12561

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DOI: 10.1111/gfs.12561

REVIEW ARTICLE

A review of India’s fodder production status and opportunities

Deo Narayan Singh1 | Jitendra S. Bohra1 | Vishal Tyagi2 | Tejbal Singh1 |

Tej R. Banjara3 | Gaurendra Gupta4

1
Department of Agronomy, Institute of
Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu Abstract
University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
This review paper aims at an in-­depth analysis of the challenges, opportunities, and
2
Scientist Agronomy, ICAR-­Indian Institute
of Seed Science, NBIAM Campus, Mau,
status of fodder production in India. A comprehensive review of available literature
Uttar Pradesh, India and various reports by govt. as well as non govt. organizations have been done as
3
Govt. H. S. School Sarva, Bhatapara, part of the methodology for preparing the manuscript. India caters to approximately
Chhattisgarh, India
4 20% of the world's livestock population and about 17.5% of the human population
Division of Social Sciences, ICAR—­Indian
Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, on just 2.3% of the world's land area. The human population is increasing at a pace of
Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India
1.6% per annum, while the livestock population is increasing at a rate of 0.66% per
Correspondence year. Theses increasing human and animal populations are fighting tooth and nail for
Deo Narayan Singh, Research scholar,
land resources for food and fodder production, respectively. As a result, cultivated
Department of Agronomy, Institute of
Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu fodders occupy only 4% of the entire cultivable land in the country. Presently, the
University, Varanasi-­221005, India.
country faces a net shortfall of 35.6% green fodder, 10.5% dry crop leftovers, and
Email: sdeonarayan@gmail.com
44% concentrate feed ingredients. The option for increasing land area under fod-
der cultivation is very limited. Hence, it is big challenge in front of us to utilize the
available meagre land wisely with its fullest potential to produce the fodders for the
animals. Which could be achieved by adopting suitable cropping systems, incorpora-
tion of fodder crops in food and other cash crop-­based cropping systems on rotational
basis, production of fodder on degraded lands by adopting fodder-­based agro forestry
systems and exploring other options of green fodder like azolla. The cropping system
with forage crops provides a potential alternative to overcome the fodder problem as
it utilizes the resources more efficiently.

KEYWORDS
azolla, cropping system, fodder production, hydroponics, livestock

1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N 2017; Hurst et al., 2005). For millennia, livestock has been a symbol
of wealth and power across civilizations, and India is lucky to have
Agriculture and animal husbandry are culturally, religiously, and eco- the world's largest and most diverse livestock population. Around
nomically intertwined with the intricate fabric of human society, as 70% of households rely on the livestock and agriculture sector for
mixed farming and livestock rearing are a vital element of rural life their livelihood (Ghosh et al., 2016). According to the 20th Livestock
(Dagar, 2017). Draught power, rural transportation, manure, fuel, Census –­2019, India's total livestock population is 535.82 million, up
milk and meat all are provided by livestock, which is quite often the by 4.6% from the previous Census in 2012. Cattle, buffalo, mithun
only source of monetary revenue for subsistence farmers and also and yak make up the 302.82 million bovine populations. It is home
act as insurance against the crop failure. It also directly affects the to 57.3% of the world's buffalo population and 14.7% of the world's
livelihood and food security of nearly a billion people around the cattle population. In the country, there are around 74.26 million
world and affects the diet and health of many more (Downing et al., sheep and 148.8 million goats (20th Livestock Census–­2019, 2019).

Grass Forage Sci. 2022;00:1–10. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gfs© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd | 1
2 | SINGH et al.

India is the world leader in milk production, although animal produc- tree-­top fodders in times of scarcity. The area covered by perma-
tivity is low (1538 kg/year) compared to global average (2238 kg/ nent pastures and other grazing land is 10.34 M ha (Directorate of
year), which can be linked to malnutrition due to huge deficit of ani- Economics & Statistics, DAC&FW, 2020) and has been decreasing
mal feed (Vijay et al., 2018). over time, with the tendency likely to continue. The productivity of
There is no way to sustain cattle husbandry without address- pastures has also been falling due to overgrazing (Pathak & Dagar,
ing the challenges of fodder and feed resource development in the 2015). Crop residues are expected to provide 54% of total fodder,
country. The availability of fodder supplies, which was projected to while rangelands provide 18% and only 28% is met from cultivated
be over 60% in the 1990s, has now dropped to around 50% of the fodder crops (Hegde, 2010).
total requirement. Due to rising competition between other land uses There is currently a net deficiency of 35.6% green fodder, 10.95%
for cultivable land, further increase in the acreage of fodder crops is dry fodder and 44% concentrate feed materials in the country (IGFRI
not viable (Kumar, Agrawal, et al., 2012). Therefore, there is an urgent Vision, 2050). By 2050, the demand for green and dry feed will be
need to increase the productivity of cultivated fodder crops on the 1012 and 631 million tones, respectively (Figure 1). In the year 2050,
same piece of land in order to meet the fodder needs of rising number with the current rate of expansion in forage supplies, there will be
of cattle. In addition to vertical expansion from arable lands, utilization an 18.4% deficit in green fodder and a 13.2% shortfall in dry fod-
of non-­arable land area for pastures is a viable option to balance the der (Figure 2). Green forage supply must rise at a rate of 1.69% per
demand (Dahiya & Kharb, 2003; Vijay et al., 2018). annum to satisfy the deficit; however, the area under cultivated fod-
der accounts for only 4% of the total cultivated land (8.4 million ha)
in the country, and has remained unchanged over last few decades.
1.1 | Present status of fodder production in India (Dagar, 2017; Halli et al., 2018; Meena et al., 2018).
Different states are affected by the shortfall in different ways.
Fodder production in India varies greatly across the country, and While the shortage is minor in Punjab and Haryana, where fodder
its use is determined by cropping pattern, climate, socioeconomic accounts roughly 8% of total cultivable land, it is severe in arid areas
conditions, and the type of cattle. Cattle and buffaloes are often such as Bundelkhand, where fodder is grown on less than 2% of cul-
fed fodder from cultivated regions, with collected grasses and top tivable land. Despite the fact that various government agencies have
feeds supplementing it to a small extent (Shashikala et al., 2017). implemented several plans to alleviate the fodder production, there
Fodder crops are cultivated or harvested for feeding the animals in is no reputable survey or study that evaluates the situation of fodder
the form of forage (cut green and fed fresh), silage (preserved under production on ground, and central/state governments dismiss the
anaerobic conditions) and hay (dehydrated/dried green). Sorghum scarcity of fodder on the thin premise that no comprehensive data
(2.6 M ha) and Egyptian clover (1.9 M ha) account for roughly 54% on fodder production exists. Whatever researches are available in
of the total cultivated fodder area in the kharif and rabi seasons, re- the public domain are merely speculation (Jitendra, 2017).
spectively (Dagar, 2017). Farmers are growing grasses and legumes Crop residues, cultivated fodder, and fodder from community re-
including hybrid Napier, guinea grass, paragrass, velvet bean, stylo, sources like permanent pastures and grazing lands are the three main
etc. in many areas. Farmers with small ruminants, in particular, pick sources of fodder in India. There is a big gap in fodder availability and

F I G U R E 1 Year wise Demand and supply of green and dry fodder in India (source: IGFRI Vision, 2050)
SINGH et al. | 3

demand due to multiplicity of forage crops grown in different seasons the total number of exotic/crossbred cattle has increased by 26.9%
and regions, non-­commercial nature of crops, and production of forage during the same period. Furthermore, the country's poultry popula-
with minimal inputs from degraded and marginal land (Ghosh et al., tion increased by 16.8% from previous census to 851.81 million at
2016). Further, since it is not cost-­effective to transport forages across present; owing primarily to 46.8% increase in backyard poultry birds
long distances, regional and seasonal deficits are more critical than (317 million). The number of buffaloes in the country has increased to
national deficiencies. Also, because the available forages are of poor 109.85 million, up from 108.70 million in 2012. The country now has
quality and lack adequate energy, protein and minerals, farmers main- a total of 109.85 million buffaloes as compared to 108.70 million in
tain huge herds of animals to compensate for low productivity, put- the 2012 census. On the other hand, the goat population, increased
ting further pressure on fodder and other natural resources (Palsaniya by 10.1% over the previous census to 148.88 million. The total sheep
et al., 2008, 2009, 2010). Feed and fodder accounts for over two-­third count in the country in 2019 was 74.26 million, an increase of 14.1%
of total animal production costs (Ginwal et al., 2019), hence, any effort over the previous enumeration (Table 1). Among the states, Uttar
to increase feed and fodder availability and economizing the feed cost Pradesh ranks first with the livestock population of 67.8 million fol-
will result in better remuneration to livestock farmers. lowed by Rajasthan (56.8 million), Madhya Pradesh (40.6 million) and
West Bengal (37.4 million). This increasing livestock population puts
further pressure on limited land resources for green fodder supply.
2 | C H A LLE N G E S Maintaining such a large herd of animals with their optimum produc-
tivity realization is a major challenge.
2.1 | Burgeoning livestock population

India's livestock population expanded from 512.06 million in 2012 2.2 | Resource constraints
to 535.82 million in 2019, representing a 4.6% increase over the
last census with an annual growth rate of 0.66%. However, the in- Land and water resources are limited in nature and India has only 2.4%
digenous cattle count has decreased by 6% since previous census, of the land and 4% of the world's fresh water resources. The quality of

F I G U R E 2 Year wise green and dry

fodder deficit (source: IGFRI Vision, 2050)

TA B L E 1 Livestock population in India

Number (in Number (in Percent Present ranking

Sl. No Species millions) 2012 millions) 2019 change in the world

01 Cattle 190.9 192.52 0.8 Second

02 Buffaloes 108.7 109.85 1.1 First
Total Bovine (including Mithun and Yak) 299.82 302.82 1.0 First
03 Sheep 65.07 74.26 14.1 Third
04 Goats 135.17 148.88 10.1 Second
05 Pigs 10.29 9.06 −12.03 —­
06 Camel 0.40 0.25 −37.05 Tenth
Total livestock 512.06 535.82 4.64 First
Total poultry 729.21 851.81 16.8 Seventh
th
Note: 20 Livestock Census, Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Govt. of India.
4 | SINGH et al.

the land and water resources is also deteriorating day by day due to in milk production has primarily been attributed to an increase in the
improper management and overexploitation of these resources which cattle population, as the productivity of our livestock has remained ex-
leads to lower productivity (FAO, 2011). The major constraints in fod- tremely low among major milk producing countries. While the average
der production include the attack from wild and stray animals, insects, milk yield of cattle around the world and in Europe in about 2238 and
pests and diseases; low price of fodder, and poor quality seed. The scar- 4250 kg per lactation, respectively; the average yield of Indian cattle is
city of high-­quality seed of fodder crop is a major issue in developing only about 1538 kg per lactation (IGFRI Vision, 2050; Vijay et al., 2018).
countries all over the world (Biemond et al., 2012). Apart from good-­ The main reason for our livestock's low productivity is malnutrition
quality seeds from reliable suppliers, fodder crops require fertile land, or under-­nutrition caused by a wide disparity in demand and supply of
an assured source of good-­quality irrigation water, greater doses of fer- feed and fodder in the country (Prajapati et al., 2019). Due to shortage
tilizers and regular maintenance. Moreover, regular harvesting, nearly of green fodder, particularly during the summer months, dairy farmers
on a daily basis requires large workforce, which is very expensive. Non-­ have been feeding a disproportionate amount of concentrates to their
availability of agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and irrigation on animals in order to maintain milk production. According to a study pub-
time, as well as the limited availability of cultivable land for fodder crops lished in the Archives of Animal Nutrition in 2018, ‘Feeding of concen-
are also major concerns in enhancing the fodder yield (Meena et al., trates is required during the early lactation period to meet the nutritional
2018). Also, in the absence of efficient preservation and storage tech- requirement of milch animals. The concentrate feeding indeed increases
niques, the chances of fodder wastage are likely; as a result, farmers are milk production, but it also leads to rumen acidosis and causes severe
hesitant to make heavy investment in fodder production (Dagar, 2017). health problems in dairy cows’. This practice disrupts the balance in the
gut microbiota, causing more toxins to be released and resulting in liver
damage. Therefore, careful balancing of livestock ration is necessary to
2.3 | Unavailability of quality seed of mitigate these risks. Forages are thought to be most nutritious and cost-­
improved varieties effective feed for dairy animals (Iqbal et al., 2015; Rehman & Raja, 2020).
Thus, the availability of green fodder is critical for animal health and pro-
Good quality seed/planting material is one of the major limitations to- ductivity, particularly in case of dairy enterprises where a consistent sup-
wards less area and production in forage crops (Parihar, 2010). The fod- ply of green fodder is imperative for sustainable milk production. Green
der and grass seed production has several difficulties, as most of them fodder provides vitamins and minerals along with energy, and improves
are not completely domesticated. The productivity and availability of digestion. It has been found that by upgrading the feeding system based
seed are vital because the forage crops have been bred for enhanced on green fodder, the cost of milk production may greatly be reduced (Jha
vegetative potential and as such they are shy seeders with very low & Tiwari, 2018). Forages are 5–­14 times cheaper source of important
seed productivity. As these forage grasses and legumes are mostly per- feed ingredients like digestible crude protein and total digestible nutri-
ennial in nature and have the capability for vegetative propagation, the ents than concentrates (Agrawal et al., 2008). Growing fodder crops in
seed production aspect is almost neglected in India (Vijay et al., 2018). combination with legumes has the potential to improve fodder palatabil-
The major factors associated with under-­utilization of the seed sector ity and digestibility (Kumar et al., 2016; Kumar, Kumar, et al., 2018).
potential are many and can be categorised into climatic, physiological, Although the green revolution has advanced Indian agriculture,
management and policy-­led factors. The indeterminate growth, uneven the livestock sector has been unable to expand beyond artificial
maturity, seed shattering, blank seed, seed dormancy, climatic factors insemination (AI) and veterinary services, and it continues to be a
(photoperiod, thermos-­period, humidity etc.), low density of ear-­bearing subsidiary activity. The development of forage resources is more
tillers, lodging, poor harvest index, lack of seed production technology complicated issue than that of food and commercial crops. Farmers
among physiological; weather extremes among climatic; less refined are also not very interested in fodder production due to the non-
package of practices among management factors and unavailability of commercial nature of fodder crops; most often degraded and mar-
an exclusive forage seed market are perceived as major factors limiting ginal lands are used for forage production with minimal fertilizer,
the availability of quality seeds of fodder crops (Vijay et al., 2013). water and human resources inputs. Therefore, considering the low
productivity of farm animals and huge gap in demand and supply of
green fodders, there is a great opportunity for improvement in live-
3 | O PP O RT U N ITI E S I N FO D D E R stock sector by increasing fodder production in India.
PRO D U C TI O N

At current prices, the livestock sector contributes about 28.63% of the 4 | TH E WAY FO RWA R D
total value of output in the Indian agriculture and allied sector. During
the fiscal year 2018–­19, the livestock sector contributed about 4.19% Approaches to increase supply of green fodder include: (1) increas-
of total GDP (Anonymous, 2021). Milk production has expanded dra- ing area under cultivated fodder crops, (2) increasing productivity of
matically over the previous few decades, and India has surpassed the existing cultivated fodder crops through adoption of improved and
United States to become the world's largest milk producer (187.7 million innovative cultivation technologies, and by enhancing the availabil-
tonnes in 2018–­19) (Economy Survey 2020–­21, 2021). This increase ity of quality seeds/planting material of fodders crops, (3) inclusion
SINGH et al. | 5

of fodder crops in cropping systems on rotational basis, (4) fodder quality seeds is available in cultivated fodders and less than 10% in
production from marginal land, (5) hydroponic fodder production rangeland grasses and legumes. So, there is need to evolve superior
and (6) exploring alternative sources of fodder like azolla, and (7) varieties of forage crops with high yield and quality, and also devel-
overcoming the dry fodder shortage by efficient utilization of crop opment of new technologies for multiplication (Thomas & Thomas,
residues like rice and wheat straw. However, due to demographic 2019).
pressure for food crops, the scope for further expansion of area The fodder seed shortage can be addressed by intensifying the
under cultivated fodders appears to be quite limited. planning and strategy for uplifting the production of forage seeds. This
includes creating awareness about the importance of using high qual-
ity seed of improved varieties, increasing the seed replacement rate
4.1 | Increasing fodder productivity from the present 2%–­3% to at least 10%, establishing an appropriate
seed chain to produce sufficient quantity of certified seed for farmers,
Increasing the production of fodder crops per unit land area is one improving the seed chain network, seed production through farmer
of the potential options for meeting livestock fodder needs. Forage participatory approach, improving proper marketing facilities, con-
cultivation, being a soil-­based production system that extracts nu- ducting research to increase the ovule to seed ratio in forages, chan-
trients from the soil, requires efficient approaches for replenishing nelizing the existing demand towards entrepreneurship development,
mined nutrients in the soil for sustaining the productivity (Palsaniya improving crop management, village seed banks development, utilizing
and Ahlawat, 2009). The majority of fodder crops belongs to Poaceae forest waste lands for the seed production, and application of new
family and have high nutrient requirement, therefore, proper nutrient research innovations such as in vitro maturation, exogenous chemical
management measures should be prioritized to boost forage produc- application, high density nursery for rooted slip production, harvesting
tion and sustain the livestock production and productivity. So the nu- based on morphological indicators, hormonal spray for enhancing seed
trient management in fodder-­based cropping sequence is a key to the setting, seed pelleting in range grasses etc. (Palsaniya et al., 2010; Vijay
higher production and maintenance of soil fertility. In recent years it et al., 2018).
has been realized that integrated nutrient management (INM) is the Seed production is quite difficult in forage crops as compared to
best way of achieving higher system productivity and maintaining soil other crops. There are mainly two systems of forage seed production
health on sustainable basis (Antil & Raj, 2020; Babu et al., 2020; Yadav viz., opportunist system, an informal system in which forage particu-
et al., 2007). Under crop + livestock integrated farming system, avail- larly range species’ seed harvesting is done from existing grasslands/
ability of organic manure is not a problem for INM. Therefore, it can be rangelands and specialist system, in which seed production forage
adopted as a successful strategy to improve the fodder productivity. crop is planted for seed production. This system requires technical
guidance to grow the crop. For successful working of this system
it requires an assured market and reasonable prices for the seed
4.2 | Enhance availability of good quality seed (Malviya et al., 2013). The seed production in a specialist system re-
quires a certain package of practices (Table 2) to follow for enhanced
Non-­availability of quality seeds of forage crops is also limiting fod- seed yield. To achieve standard seed quality, proper isolation has to
der productivity in India. Only 25%–­30% of the required quantity of be followed along with regular roguing off-­t ypes/volunteer plants.

TA B L E 2 Seed production package of some important forage crops

Isolation distance (m) % off types

Seed rate (kg/
Crop ha) Row Spacing (cm) N:P:K (kg/ha) FS CS FS CS

Cenchrus ciliaris 3–­5 50 60:30:30 20 10 0.1 1

Cenchrus setigerus 3–­5 50 60:30:30 20 10 0.1 1
Brachiaria brizantha 6–­10 50 60:40:30 —­ —­ —­ —­
Pennisetum pedicellatum 5–­8 50 60:40:30 20 10 0.1 1
Clitoria ternatea 10–­15 40 30:40:40 —­ —­ —­ —­
Panicum maximum 3–­5 50 80:50:50 20 10 0.1 1
Macroptilium 10–­15 40 60:40:30 —­ —­ —­ —­
atropurpureum
Stylosanthes hamata 8–­10 40 30:40:40 50 25 0.1 1
Chrysopogon fulvus 5–­8 50 60:40:30 20 10 0.1 1
Dicanthium annulatum 5–­8 50 60:30:30 20 10 0.2 1
Setaria sphacelata 5–­8 50 60:40:30 400 200 0.1 1

Abbreviations: CS, Certified seed; FS, Foundation seed.

6 | SINGH et al.

4.3 | Seed quality control in forage crops bed, Flat bed and Raised bed are prepared for planting of grasses
seeds and cuttings. For the high-­density nursery of BN Hybrid grass,
The productivity of forage crops depends upon various factors and 7–­9 months old BN Hybrid healthy plants are selected and chopped
appropriate seed is one of them (Rahman & Cho, 2016). Quality seeds (with a slant basal cut), from one plant of 15–­20 cm length, 5–­8 bi-­
have some specific attributes which differentiate the seed from the nodal stem cuttings are prepared and planted at a distance of 4–­5 cm
grain viz., genetic purity, physical purity, germination %, vigor and in upward direction. The technology is having many advantages such
should be free from weed seeds, inert matter and other seed-­borne as quick ability to produce rooted slips, less labour requirement, low
pests and diseases (Elias, 2006). Genetic purity is the most impor- cost, easy care and maintenance, that is, weeding, irrigation, uproot-
tant seed quality attribute as it governs the yield potential of the va- ing, counting, loading and no loss to mother tussock.
riety. The physical purity is also an important aspect of seed quality Similarly, a single-­budded tray nursery is also useful which is
which is judged by the presence of weed seed, other crop seeds and mainly used for the raising of seedlings for Bajra Napier Hybrid (Vijay
inert matter contents in pure seed. Seed health is also an important et al., 2018). In this method, single-­budded chips are placed in nurs-
quality aspect, especially under tropical and subtropical conditions ery trays for the raising of nursery. Healthy 7–­9 months old Bajra
(Bradbeer, 2013). Quality seed should be free from pests and patho- Napier Hybrid plants are selected for the purpose, the buds from the
gens because infection of seed by pests and pathogens may affect selected plants are removed, using an implement called Bud Chipper.
germination and vigour and thereby reduces the yields. Seed quality These buds are placed in a flat or slightly slanting position in the
control is a system which ensures to govern the quality of the seed cones of a tray, and covered completely with a prepared soil mixture.
through checks, certification and official regulations (legislation). Under optimum conditions within 6–­7 days, white roots (primodia)
There are two aspects of quality control. First, the genetic purity of come out from the bud and shoots also appear in next 2–­3 days. The
the seed is maintained during the production and marketing opera- 20–­25 days old seedling is ideal for transplanting from the nursery
tions. Second, it should be ascertained that the seed lot itself is of to the main field.
adequate quality. It should be free from weeds, other crop seeds,
extraneous materials, disease, organisms and possess high germina-
tion capacity and optimum moisture to avoid its deterioration during 4.5 | Fodder crops in cropping systems
storage and marketing. To strengthen the fodder seed production
system, better coordination between institutions, ministry of agri- Besides continuous cultivation of rice-­
wheat causes deteriora-
culture, production agencies, seed growers, seed certification and tion of soil health, ultimately resulting in decreased production,
marketing agencies is critical. Furthermore, policies must promote the year-­round availability of green fodder is a major challenge in
the private sector to engage in production and marketing of fodder the country. Therefore, diversification of rice-­wheat systems with
seeds. Therefore, a planned strategy to overcome the constraints fodder crops on a rotational basis, as suggested by various work-
of forage seed production is needed in order to uplift the fodder ers (Banjara et al., 2021; Banjara, Bohra, Kumar, Singh, et al., 2021;
production. There is also lack of seed standards and quality concerns Singh et al., 2019), can be adopted as a strategy for ensuring year-­
for perennial grasses and legumes which in turn hinders certification round fodder availability in India. The need for diversification of
/legislation with respect to these crops. Hence, there is a need of age-­old rice-­wheat cropping systems has also been reported by
mission mode approach with a multi-­pronged strategy, policy and various workers (Bohra et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2019). The year-­
research interventions to take care of all aspects of forage seed pro- round supply of green fodder will be a boon to farmers for in-
duction technology, quality, seed standards, certification, distribu- creasing their farm production and profitability, as majority of the
tion and marketing. households (71%) undertake crop +livestock farming. Sudan grass
(Sorghum × drummondii [Steud.] Millsp. & Chase) with its tremen-
dous capacity to produce higher biomass is a good option during
4.4 | Innovative methods of developing planting summer and rainy season (Hazary et al., 2015; Yadav et al., 2007). In
material in perennial grasses the subsequent rabi season, the choice for the green fodder crops
are berseem, oats (multi-­cut) and dual purpose barley (Kaur et al.,
The planting material (rooted slips) production in perennial grasses 2018). Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.), having
viz. Bajra Napier Hybrid (BN Hybrid) (Pennisetum glaucum × P. pur- quick re-­growth after cutting, is a good option as perennial fod-
pureum) is a costly and labour-­intensive practice. Besides, trans- der crop (Negawo et al., 2017; Rusdy, 2016). Depending upon the
portation of rooted slips to distant places is also a difficult and cost area under fodder crops and the composition of crop + livestock
inefficient work. Therefore, innovation in developing the space, time integrated farming system, the choice of crops can be made to en-
and cost-­saving technologies should be done to enhance fodder pro- sure year round fodder availability. The cropping system with for-
duction from perennial grasses. In this regard, high density nursery age crops provides a potential alternative to overcome the fodder
techniques of perennial grasses are useful, where perennial grasses problem as it utilizes the resources more efficiently. It also provides
seeds are grown in a nursery before being transplanted in the field a balanced diet to the animals, due to inclusion of legume and cereal
(Vijay et al., 2018). Generally three types of nursery bed viz. Sunken fodder crops together (Kadam et al., 2017).
SINGH et al. | 7

4.6 | Fodder production from marginal lands sorghum and maize (Naik et al., 2011; Naik et al., 2012; Raghvendran
et al., 2020), and legumes such as alfalfa and cowpea (Al-­Karaki &
The limited arable land available for crop production cannot be Al-­Hashmi, 2012), can be grown successfully using hydroponics to
spared for production of fuel wood, fodder and other products. At provide high quality nutritious green fodder for dairy animals (Suma
the same time, India has around 121 million hectares of degraded et al., 2020). The hydroponics fodder looks like a thick mat of 20–­
land that must be used through agro forestry systems, to meet the 30 cm tall green plants consisting of roots and seeds. About 1.5–­
needs of these allied products. Also, wide swaths of arid and semi-­ 3.0 L of water is required to produce 1 kg of fresh hydroponic maize
arid areas remain barren due to salinity or water scarcity. Several fodder. The hydroponics fodder is more palatable, digestible and nu-
species of forest trees, shrubs and grasses have been identified and tritious than traditionally grown fodder, while imparting other health
tested for their ability to grow in these problematic areas. These can benefits to the animals. The cost of seed accounts for almost 90%
be brought under viable fodder-­producing vegetation cover with the of the entire cost of hydroponic maize fodder production. As a feed
application of proper planting techniques and stress-­tolerant spe- supplement, 5–­10 kg of fresh hydroponic fodder per cow per day is
cies (Dagar & Minhas, 2016). In erosion-­prone areas, many nitrogen-­ recommended (Kumar, Mathur, et al., 2018; Naik & Singh, 2014; Naik
fixing trees and forage species can successfully be grown, and most et al., 2015). Hydroponically grown crops grow up to 50% faster and
of the rainwater (available in a few wet spells) can be arrested into offer higher yields of better quality fodder, making it an eco-­friendly
the deeper strata of soil. In this way, the grasses and shrubs utilize way of fodder production (Kide et al., 2015). Hydroponics has been
the moisture from upper 2 m strata and trees make use of the deeply used to produce plants, mostly vegetables, for a long time, but it is
percolated water. Therefore, deep-­rooted species such as Khejri currently being utilized in many countries to take pressure off the
(Prosopis cineraria, called as life tree of desert), and shrub Ziziphus land, water scarcity, irregular rainfall and frequent draught to grow
nummularia, both excellent fodder, can be grown in arid regions. green fodder for cattle, poultry, and carp raised for agriculture.
Trees such as Acacia jacquimontii, A. tortilis, A. leucophloea, A. senegal,
Azadirachta indica, Balanites roxburghii, Prosopis cineraria, P. juliflora
and Holoptelea integrifolia in association with grasses like Cenchrus 4.8 | Alternate sources of fodder production
ciliaris, Lasiurus sindicus, Dichanthium annulatum, Panicum antidotale, (Azolla)
P. turgidum, P. coloratum and Cymbopogon jwarancusa; and legumes
like Lablab purpureus, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Stizolobium deer- Azolla is a free-­floating, fast-­growing aquatic fern in the Salviniaceae
ingianum, Atylosia scarabaeoides and Rhynchosia minima can success- family. Anabaena azollae, blue green algae, forms a symbiotic asso-
fully be grown for sand stabilization and fodder. These grasses may ciation with azolla. Its nutritional value is well recognized, indicating
produce 2.2–­3.8 tonnes dry fodder per hectare per annum with no that it is a good source of protein, practically all of the amino acids
negative impact on tree's growth (Dagar, 2017). for animals (especially lysine), as well as macronutrients like calcium,
Around 29 million hectares of land in India is classified as open magnesium, potassium, and vitamins like vitamin A and B12 (Leterme
forests with a canopy density of less than 0.4. This vast area of et al., 2010). It can be used as a unique protein supplements for variety
land may be used to grow fodder, just as an understory on partially of animals including ruminants, chicken, pigs and fish (Hossiny et al.,
shaded terrain, without damaging existing trees. Bunds, pond, em- 2008). Azolla holds the promise of providing a sustainable feed for
bankments, basins of plantation and horticultural crops, hedges with livestock. Due to its high protein and low lignin content, Azolla has
fodder crops and other non-­cropped regions of agricultural land that been reported as one of the most economic and efficient feed sub-
are not farmed should be given special attention to enhance the stitutes for livestock (Jain et al., 2019). Azolla on dry weight basis is
year-­round fodder availability (Parmar & Misra, 2020). constituted of 25.35% protein content, 10.15% amino acids, bio active
substances and bio polymers. Carbohydrate and oil content are very
low in Azolla (Cherryl et al., 2014; Kathirvelan et al., 2015). Azolla can
4.7 | Hydroponic fodder production be easily digestible by the livestock, owing to its high protein and low
lignin content. Azolla increases milk yield increases by 15–­20% (Katole
Hydroponics nowadays is emerging as an alternative method of et al., 2017). Azolla can be used to replace 15%–­20% of commercial
growing fodder for farm animals due various constraints and chal- feed. Feeding Azolla to poultry birds improves the weight of the broiler
lenges encountered in the traditional fodder cultivation (Bekuma, chicken and increases the egg production of layers. Azolla can be fed
2019; Girma & Gebremariam, 2018; Jan et al., 2020). Hydroponic to sheep, goat, pig and rabbits as feed substitute (Kololgi et al., 2009;
fodder production involves growing of plants in a greenhouse or Mahadevappa et al., 2012; Satish & Usturge, 2009).
polyhouse without soil but in a water-­or nutrient-­rich solution for
a short period of time (approx. 7 days). The only inputs required to
grow green fodder using hydroponics are seeds, water, sunlight and 4.9 | Overcoming the dry fodder shortage
supplementary nutrients, as these green fodders are fed to animals
roughly at the age of 6–­8 days of plant growth. In India, cereals Roughages such as hay and straw from various crops are used as dry
such as barley (Reddy et al., 1988), oat, wheat (Snow et al., 2008) feed. These are bulky meals that contain a lot of less digestible stuff
8 | SINGH et al.

like cellulose but also have more than 18% crude fibre (Patil & Patil, Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying (2019). Govt. of India.] at
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roughages is easily digested by the ruminants. In India, the major por-
tion of the dry fodder demand is met from crop residues, especially ORCID
those of rice and wheat, as the scope of making hay—­the dried and Deo Narayan Singh https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7870-6722
stored green grasses/legumes at 10%–­15% moisture, is limited due Tejbal Singh https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2039-1905
to variable weather conditions and limited availability of green fodder
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