Electric Motor Repair Rosenberg 1986

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ELECTRIC
MOTOR REPAIR
THIRD EDITION
Robert Rosenberg • August Hand
With contributions by
Milton Rosenstein, Ph.D.
New York Institute of Technology
Fort Worth Chicago San Francisco Philadelphia

Tokyo Montreal Toronto London Sydney
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Rosenberg, Robert, 1904-

Electric motor repair.
Includes index.
1. Electric motors—Maintenance and repair.
I. Hand, August. II. Title.
TK4057.R6 1986 621.46'2 85-24776
ISBN 0-03-05^564-3
Copyright ©1987, 1970 by Saunders College Publishing, a division of Holt, Rinehart
and Winston.
Copyright 1946, 1951, 1960 by Robert Rosenberg.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording
or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publisher.
Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed
to: Permissions, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., Orlando, Florida 32887.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published simultaneously in Canada

9 000 987654
Saunders College Publishing

Holt, Rinehart and Winston
The Dryden Press
CONTENTS
1 CAPACITOR MOTORS 1
Main Parts of Capacitor Motors Operation of Split-Phase

and Capacitor-Start Motors Procedure for Analyzing Motor
Troubles Rewinding the Capacitor-Start Motor Terminal
Markings for Single-Phase Motors Schematic Diagrams of
Capacitor-Start Motors How to Recognize a Connection
Insulation Temperature Forming Slot Liners
Rewinding Making Connections Motor Overload
Protective Devices Schematic Diagrams of Capacitor-Start
Motors Connections of Capacitor-Start Motors Rewinding
the Two-Voltage Capacitor-Start Motor Permanent-Split
Capacitor Motors Two-Value Capacitor-Start Motor
Start-Winding Connections Calculations for Rewinding and
Reconnecting Capacitor Failure The Right-sized
Capacitor Formulas for Finding Capacitor Values
Troubleshooting and Repair
2 REPULSION-TYPE MOTORS 71
Construction The Repulsion-Start Induction Motor The

Repulsion Motor The Repulsion-Induction Motor
Electrically Reversible Repulsion Motors Rewinding and
Reconnecting Repulsion Motors Troubleshooting and Repair
3 THREE-PHASE MOTORS 94
Varieties of Three-Phase Motors Rewinding Three-Phase

Motors Nameplates for Dual-Voltage, Three-Phase
Motors Recording Other Data Connecting Three-Phase,
Lap-wound Motors Three-Phase Concentric Windings
Part-Winding-Start Motors Identifying the Nine Leads of
Untagged Three-Phase, Dual-Voltage, Wye-connected
Motors Odd-Pole Grouping Rewinding and Reconnecting
Three-Phase Motors Changing Concentric Windings to Lap
Windings Troubleshooting and Repair
IV Contents
4 ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTOR
CONTROL 144
Wiring Diagrams and Line Diagrams Starters
Troubleshooting and Repair Testing Component Circuits
5 DIRECT-CURRENT ARMATURE WINDING 167

Typical Winding for a Small Armature Lap Windings
Wave Windings Rewinding Procedure Troubleshooting
and Repair
6 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 191

Construction Types of DC Motors Operation of DC
Motors Generating Factors Counter Electromotive
Force Construction of the Field Coils Connecting DC
Motors Reversing DC Motors Troubleshooting and
Repair
7 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTOR CONTROL 215
Manual Controllers Reduced-Voltage Starters

Troubleshooting and Repair
8 UNIVERSAL, SHADED-POLE, AND FAN

MOTORS 238
Universal Motors Shaded-Pole Motors Fan Motors:
Speed Control
9 DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS;
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS AND GENERATORS;
SYNCHROS; AND THREE-PHASE WOUND-
ROTOR INDUCTION MOTORS 253
Direct-Current Generators Synchronous Motors and
Generators; Synchros Synchros Three-Phase Wound
Rotor Induction Motor
Contents V
10 SOLID-STATE MOTOR CONTROL 268

Semiconductor Materials Atomic Structure Properties of
Doped Semiconductors P-N Junction (Diode) Diode
Applications Transistors The Silicon-controlled
Rectifier The Triac Triggering the SCR and the Triac
Solid-State Phase Control Phase Control of Motor Speed
Universal Series Motor Control Shunt or P-M Field Motor
Control Induction Motor Controls SCR Protection
Using Transistors in Motor-Control Circuits Solid-State
Switching Three-Phase Drives Chopper Drives
Inverters Cycloconverters Microprocessor-controlled
Motor Drives The Stepper Motor Servo Systems
APPENDIX 296
STUDY QUESTIONS 302
INDEX 335
Chapter 1
CAPACITOR MOTORS
MAIN PARTS OF CAPACITOR MOTORS
Capacitor-start motors are induction motors of 1/20 to 35 horsepower in size.
They operate all types of loads, from small fans to large compressors. These
motors have six main parts: (1) the rotating part called the rotor; (2) the station¬
ary part called the stator; (3) the end plates or brackets (sometimes called end
bells) bolted to the stator; (4) the centrifugal device located on the rotor shaft;
(5) the stationary switch usually located on the end plate or stator shell inside the
stator; and (6) one or more capacitors that can be located on top, on the side, or
inside the motor, in the junction box, or remote of the motor. The capacitor-start
motor is shown in Figure 1 -1. This motor is generally operated from a single¬
phase lighting or power source.
According to the NEMA Standards Publications of January 1968, a capacitor
motor is a single-phase induction motor with a main winding arranged for direct
connection to a source of power and an auxiliary winding connected in series
with a capacitor. There are three types of capacitor motors:
1. Capacitor-start motor, a capacitor motor in which the capacitor phase (start

winding) is energized only during the starting period. This motor has switch
contacts. Figure 1-2 shows a capacitor-start motor with the windings and com¬
ponents indicating their approximate location in the frame. Figure 1-3 is a
schematic diagram. The straight-line diagram is another method to illustrate
circuitry and will be explained later.
2. Permanent-split capacitor motor, a capacitor motor having the same value of
capacitance for both starting and running conditions. Figure 1-4 is a schematic
diagram of a permanent-split capacitor motor. This motor has no switch con¬
tacts.
3. Two-value capacitor motor, a capacitor motor using different values of effective
capacitance for the starting and running conditions. Figure 1-5 is a schematic
diagram of a two-value capacitor motor that has switch contacts.
The Rotor
The rotor, shown in Figure 1-6, has three elements. One is a core made up of
sheets of high-grade electrical sheet steel called laminations. Another is a shaft
1
2 Electric Motor Repair
on which the laminated iron core is pressed. The third element is a squirrel-cage
winding consisting of heavy cast-aluminum bars located in slots in the iron core
and connected to one another by means of heavy cast-aluminum rings located on
both ends of the core. In most capacitor-start motors, the rotor has a one-piece
cast-aluminum winding. In older capacitor motors, copper bars and copper end
rings were used. The bars must have good electrical contact with the end rings,
or the motor will lose power. This condition is called open rotor. Silver solder
should be used to restore the connections.
The Stator
The stator of a capacitor-start motor is composed of a laminated steel core with
semiclosed slots, a heavy cast-iron or steel frame into which the core is pressed,
and two windings of insulated copper wire that are wound into the slots and are
called the main or run winding and the start winding. A photograph of the stator
is shown in Figure 1 -7, and a schematic diagram of the two windings is shown in
Figure 1-8. (The start winding is connected in series with the capacitor and the
stationary switch.) Both windings are connected to the power line when the
motor is started; however, after the motor has reached a predetermined speed, the
start winding and capacitor are automatically disconnected from the power line
by means of a centrifugal device and a stationary switch.
The End Plates (End Shields or Brackets)

The end plates, illustrated in Figure 1-9, are fastened to the stator frame by
means of thru bolts and serve mainly to keep the rotor in position. The bore of the
end plates, in which the rotor shaft rests, is fitted with either ball bearings or
sleeve bearings. These sustain the weight of the rotor, keep it precisely centered
within the stator, and permit rotation without allowing the rotor to rub on the
stator.
The Centrifugal Switching System

The centrifugal switching system is usually located inside the motor. Its function
is to disconnect the start winding and the capacitor after the rotor has reached a
predetermined speed. The usual type consists of two main parts, a stationary part
(shown in Figure 1-10) and a rotating part called the centrifugal device (shown in
Figure 1-11). The stationary part is usually located on the front end plate (oppo¬
site the shaft) of the motor, as in Figure 1-12, and has two contacts. It is similar
in action to a single-pole, single-throw switch. Some motors have the stationary
switch mounted in the stator shell. The rotating part or centrifugal device is
located on the rotor, as shown in Figure 1-13.
The action of the centrifugal switching system is as follows: Figure 1-14(a)
shows that when the motor is standing still or starting, the two contacts of the
Capacitor Motors 3
stationary switch are kept closed by pressure of the rotating device’s spool. At
approximately 75 percent of full speed, the centrifugal device releases its pres¬
sure against the stationary switch contacts and causes them to open, thus auto¬
matically disconnecting the start winding and the capacitor from the circuit, as
pictured in Figure 1-14(b).
The centrifugal device should not touch any part of the stationary switch while
the motor is running, because this will cause the device to wear out. Figure 1-15
shows some other stationary switches. Many capacitor and split-phase motors
now use an electronic switching device rather than a centrifugal switching system
to disconnect the start winding at a predetermined speed. More information on
this circuit is described in Chapter 10.
The Stator Windings

The stator windings consist of (1) a winding of insulated heavy copper wire,
which is generally located at the bottom of the stator slots and is known as the run
or main winding, and (2) a winding of smaller insulated copper wire, which is
usually located on top of the run winding and is called the start or phase winding.
These two windings are connected in parallel. When the motor is started, both
the start and the run windings are connected to the line, as shown in Figure 1-
14(a). Upon reaching approximately 75 percent of full speed, the stationary
switch contacts open, as shown in Figure 1-14(b), and disconnect the start wind¬
ing and the capacitor from the circuit, thereby causing the motor to operate only
on the run winding or the main winding.
The Capacitor
A capacitor is formed when two conductors, usually aluminum, are separated by
an insulator called a dielectric. Dielectrics are made of paper, plastic, or alumi¬
num oxide. The conductors are usually strips of aluminum foil with terminal
leads fastened to them. The foil strips and the dielectric strips are rolled together
in a compact unit and placed in a sealed metal or plastic container. The container
may be cylindrical, oval, or rectangular in shape and may be mounted on, in, or
away from the motor. Terminals are provided to make connections. The name
capacitor describes the device’s operation, as it acts as a temporary storage unit
for electrical energy; that is, it has the capacity to store electricity and provide a
leading current to the motor’s start winding. All capacitors have this quality, and
all are electrically the same, differing only in mechanical construction.
The foil area and thickness of the dielectric determine the capacitor’s micro¬
farad, or Mfd, rating. The microfarad rating goes up as the plate or foil area is
increased. A thicker foil is necessary for capacitors with a high microfarad rating
because the current increases as the Mfd rating increases. The opposite is true of
the dielectric: The Mfd rating goes up when the thickness of the dielectric is
reduced. But the amount of current does not determine the dielectric’s thickness.
The Electrolytic Capacitor

The electrolytic capacitor (Figure 1-16) is made of two strips of aluminum foil
separated by layers of paper. All of this is impregnated with an electrolyte. The
foil is rolled into a cartridge and placed in a container, usually plastic. Each strip
of aluminum foil has a connection strip fastened to a terminal in the lid of the
container. The paper is used to contain the electrolyte.
The aluminum foil is made of a high-purity aluminum that is etched or rough¬
ened to increase the surface area and thereby the capacity. The aluminum foil is
subjected to a process known as electrical forming, which changes the foil sur¬
face from metallic aluminum to aluminum oxide.
This oxide is the capacitor’s dielectric and is the only insulation between the
electrode foil strips and the conductive electrolyte. The aluminum oxide con¬
ducts current in only one direction and acts as an insulator when the current flow
reverses.
When alternating current (ac) is applied to the capacitor’s terminals, first one
oxide film and then the other become conductive. While one oxide film is con¬
ducting current, the other acts as an insulator. The entire voltage stress is applied
each half-cycle across one of the oxide films. The conducting electrolyte, which
acts as a common electrode or lead wire for the two foil electrodes, is a relatively
high resistance conductor. The electrolyte consists of a solution of glycol,
borate, and water. The water is the conductor. Current flowing through the water
causes heat. Prolonged current flow (more than 3 seconds) will damage the
capacitor and can make it explode.
The Oil-filled Capacitor

The oil-filled capacitor is used mainly in permanent-split capacitor motors and in
two-value capacitor motors. These capacitors are designed to be connected con¬
tinuously in the circuit. They are capable of constant duty and are physically
much larger than are electrolytic capacitors of an equal microfarad value. They
range in size from one to 70 microfarads (abbreviated /if). Figure 1-17 illustrates
the oil-filled capacitor.
Oil-filled capacitors manufactured before 1980 have an environmentally dan¬
gerous oil containing polyclorinated biphenyl, or PCB. Federal legislation
passed in 1978 outlawed its use. Capacitors using the safe oil are marked as such.
It is advisable to avoid skin contact with the PCB oil, and it should be disposed of
properly.
The plates and dielectric of all oil-filled capacitors are sealed in a metal can
filled with oil. The plates and dielectric are constructed in different ways. One
type uses strips of very thin aluminum foil separated by a dielectric of oil-im¬
pregnated paper. Another type uses aluminum foil separated by polypropylene
film. A third type is called soggy foil, made of paper that is metallized and then
impregnated with oil.
Capacitor Motors 5
OPERATION OF SPLIT-PHASE
AND CAPACITOR-START MOTORS
The most popular single-phase motors are the split-phase and the capacitor-start
motors. Both motors use a variation of the two-phase motor’s principle of opera¬
tion. This principle involves understanding (1) the sine wave (Figure 1-18a),
(2) inductive reactance, and (3) capacitive reactance.
1. The Sine Wave. Figure l-18b shows the modified shape of the single-phase
sine wave that will be used in this book. The curved line represents the magni¬
tude and polarity of voltage. Everything above the horizontal line is positive, and
that below the horizontal line is negative. The horizontal line represents the
distance used in a circle containing two poles, as shown in Figure 1-19. Fig¬
ure 1-20 shows a four-pole machine and the difference between electrical degrees
and mechanical degrees. The horizontal line is divided into 360 electrical de¬
grees, and each pole represents 180 electrical degrees. The sine wave represents
one cycle of electricity. Both the volts and the amperes are shown in Figure 1-21.
If the power source is 60 cycles per second (hertz or Hz), one cycle will take 1/60
of a second to complete. This means that the horizontal line is a measurement of
time. When alternating current is generated, the generating conductor (Figure
1-22) will pass two poles in 1/60 of a second, cutting the magnetic lines of force
of each pole. In Figure 1-23, the conductor at position 1 is not generating any
voltage because there are no lines of force being cut at this spot. The conductor is
traveling with the lines of force. Position 2 is where the most lines of force are
being cut, because the conductor is traveling at right angles to the lines of force
and the most voltage is generated. Position 3 is back to zero voltage at 180°. The
conductor then enters the opposite pole and generates a negative voltage at maxi¬
mum in position 4. Position 5 is the completion of the cycle at zero voltage and
360°. Figure 1-24 has the two poles offset and the sine wave inserted. The
straight line, representing the time, is divided into degrees. Position 2 is at 90°
and is 1/240 of a second later than position 1 is. Position 3 is 1/120 of a second
later than is position 1 at 180°. Position 4 is 270° and 1/80 of a second later, and
at position 5, the completion of the cycle is 360°, or a time lapse of 1/60 of a
second.
2. Inductive Reactance. The effect of inductive reactance on a circuit is to

cause the current to reach its full value after the voltage has reached its full value
(Figure 1-28). The inductive reactance occurs in a coil of wire only when there is
a change in voltage. When current flows in a wire, a magnetic field surrounds the
wire. As the current increases, the magnetic field becomes stronger. When two
or more current-carrying wires are placed side by side, with the current flowing
in the same direction, the magnetic field of each will join, and a stronger mag¬
netic field will be formed, as shown in Figure 1-25.
When direct current (dc) is applied to a resistor, the current immediately

reaches its peak value. But when dc is applied to a coil of wire, there is a delay
before its peak value is reached. Figure 1-26 shows this delay, which is caused
by establishing a magnetic field around the coil of wire. This field is a form of
energy. When the voltage is shut off, the magnetic lines of force in this field
collapse. When this happens, the lines of force cut the conductors of the coil,
inducing a voltage into them. This voltage will briefly maintain the current, as
shown in Figure 1-27.
When alternating current is applied to a coil of wire, the result is shown in
Figure 1-28. Because the voltage is constantly changing with ac, the current will
always lag behind the voltage. The amount of lag will depend on the amount of
inductive reactance that the circuit contains. This amount of inductive reactance
can be varied by (1) the number of turns in the coil, (2) placing the coil in iron,
and (3) changing the frequency.
If more turns are added to a coil, the added turns will give the coil more
inductive reactance. The increase in ohmic resistance of the additional wire is
negligible; however, the added turns cause a substantial increase in the lag be¬
tween the voltage and the current. This increase in lag or inductive reactance in
the circuit will decrease the current. Inductive reactance is a form of resistance
and is measured in ohms. A decrease in current will result in a weaker magnetic
field.
When a current-carrying coil is placed in iron, the iron around the coil will
magnetize, demagnetize, and remagnetize in the opposite direction during each
cycle. This action will also cause the current to lag behind the voltage. When the
coil is placed deeper in the iron or if more of the coil is surrounded by iron, there
will be an increase in inductive reactance and a decrease in current. If the hertz is
increased, the rate of change will increase, and the inductive reactance will
increase. Direct current flowing in a coil of wire has no inductive reactance
except when turned on, shut off, or there is a change in voltage. But ac is always
changing, and if there are more cycles per second, the change will increase. The
windings of a 25 hertz motor have more turns than do the windings of a 60 hertz
motor of the same horsepower.
3. Capacitive Reactance. Capacitance has an effect on current opposite to that

of inductance. The capacitor will cause the current to lead the voltage. Figure
1-29 shows the result of capacitance in the circuit. Electrolytic capacitors are
made of two aluminum strips separated by a special material containing an elec¬
trolyte. Each plate is connected to a terminal with a strip of aluminum and is
riveted to the lid of the case.
When dc is applied to a capacitor, the electrons leave one plate and go to the
other, as shown in Figure 1-30. The electrons will continue to flow until the
voltage across the capacitor plates is equal to the applied voltage. When the line
voltage is reached, very little current will flow, and the capacitor will be
Capacitor Motors 7
charged. If the capacitor is removed from the line and a resistor is placed across
the terminals, it will discharge, and current will flow until there is the same
amount of electrons on both plates.
When ac is applied to a capacitor, there will be a continuous current reading,
caused by the changing voltage of ac. The current lead is caused by the vacuum¬
like effect or pulling of electrons onto one of the plates as the voltage increases.
When the voltage peaks and falls toward zero, the charged plate unloads its
electrons, boosting the current or pushing it ahead of the voltage. The same thing
happens to the other plate during the negative half of the cycle. This push-pull
action results in a leading current, as shown in Figure 1-29. If enough capaci¬
tance is in the circuit, the current can lead the voltage nearly 90°.
To summarize, the sine wave is used to picture the separation of voltage and
current and the effects of inductance and capacitance. Inductive reactance is a
form of resistance in ac motors that causes the current to lag behind the voltage.
It is present in a coil of wire when there is a change in voltage. Inductive
reactance can be varied by (1) the number of turns, (2) the depth in iron and the
amount of the coil that is in iron (for example, a motor that has a small diameter
and a long stator will have fewer turns per slot than will one with a large diameter
and a narrow stator), and (3) the rate of change in voltage. The more cycles per
second there are, the greater amount of inductive reactance a coil of wire will
have.
Capacitive reactance is used in motors to cause the current to lead the voltage
in the start circuit. Capacitance has the opposite effect of inductance. As the rate
of change increases (Hz), the current of the circuit increases. When more capaci¬
tance is added to the start circuit, more current will flow.
Both the split-phase and the capacitor-start motor use the two-phase principle
of operation. Like the two-phase motor, they have two windings spaced 90
electrical degrees apart. Two-phase power is like two single-phase generators
locked together with their voltage output 90° apart, as shown in Figure 1-31. For
simplicity, the illustration shows only the top half of the sine wave. The two
windings of the two-phase motor have exactly the same data. Each winding is
connected to one of the voltage sources and is energized 90°, or 1/240 of a
second, apart. Figure l-32a shows a two-phase stator with a bar magnet centered
in it. When phase 1 is energized, the magnet (which represents the rotor) aligns
itself, as shown. Phase 2 is then energized, and the magnet aligns itself, as
shown in Figure l-32b. Phase 1 is then energized with the opposite polarity, in
Figure l-32c, and the magnet will center itself as shown. Figure l-32d completes
the cycle, attracting the magnet, as shown. This process, if done fast enough, is
what happens when 60 Hz, two-phase power is applied to the motor. The 90°-
current separation creates a rotating magnetic field in the stator bore. This rotat¬
ing magnetic field transforms a voltage into the rotor windings. The resulting
current flow in the rotor windings will create poles on the rotor. These poles will
react to the stator’s poles, and the rotor will try to follow the stator’s rotating
magnetic field. It is very important that the two windings (start and run) be
placed in the stator slots exactly 90 electrical degrees apart. This spacing will
match the 90° timing of the current flow, resulting in the best possible efficiency.
The Split-Phase Motor

The split-phase motor will be referred to occasionally in this chapter. It is manu¬
factured in sizes ranging from 1/20 to 3/4 horsepower and is used on appliances
and other applications for which a small inexpensive motor can be used. The
components of the split-phase motor are the same as those of the capacitor-start
motor except for the start winding and the fact that there is no capacitor. If one
compares the windings of a capacitor-start and a split-phase motor of the same
horsepower, the run or main windings will be identical. The start-winding wire
size of a split-phase motor is six to seven sizes smaller than that of the run
winding and has 20 to 30 percent fewer turns than does the run windings. The
start winding of the capacitor-start motor has wire of the same to four sizes
smaller than that of the run winding and has 15 to 25 percent fewer turns.
Figure 1-33 is a split-phase motor. Figure 1-34 shows the difference by means of
a diagram. Both the capacitor-start and the split-phase motors are reversed by
interchanging the start leads (T5 and 7g). If the start leads are not available, the
run leads (T\ and T4) can be interchanged to reverse the motor.
The stationary switch disconnects the start windings of both types of motors at
approximately 75 percent of full speed. Figure 1-35 shows a split-phase motor as
it would look (a) starting and (b) running at full speed.
Split-Phase Motor Operation

Like the capacitor-start motor, the split-phase motor has two windings spaced
90° electrical apart in the stator. There is a start winding and a run winding. The
start winding is made of fine wire, six to seven sizes smaller than that of the run
winding and has 20 to 30 percent fewer turns than the run winding does. The run
winding is placed in the bottom of the slots and has more turns than the start
winding does. This design gives the run winding more inductive reactance or
lagging current than the start winding has. The difference in the amount of lag
will make the two currents about 30 to 50 degrees apart. Figure 1-36 illustrates
the separation of the two currents. Both the start and the run windings are ener¬
gized to start the motor, and after 70 to 80 percent of the rated speed is reached,
the starting winding is switched off by the centrifugal switching system. The
motor then operates on only the run winding. Like the capacitor-start motor,
the start winding of the split-phase motor can be energized for only a few
seconds.
The starting efficiency of the split-phase motor (ampere per pound of torque)
is not very good, for two reasons. First, the ideal timing of 90° between the start
and run currents is not possible without a capacitor. Second, the small wire siz^
Capacitor Motors 9
of the start winding limits the amount of current flow. More current would make
a stronger magnetic field. The reason for this motor’s popularity is its low manu¬
facturing cost, but its low starting efficiency makes it impractical to be manufac¬
tured in any larger than 3/4 horsepower. Split-phase motors are used in appli¬
ances, furnaces, small pumps, or any unit that requires a small, competitively
priced motor. Very few shops rewind split-phase motors because of the low
replacement cost. For this reason and because of the similarity of structure to
capacitor-start motors, the repair and rewind procedures of this chapter will be
addressed to the capacitor-start motors.
The capacitor-start motor is basically the same as the split-phase motor, except
for the start winding. The start winding of the capacitor-start motor has 15 to
25 percent fewer turns than the run winding does. The wire size is the same size
to four sizes smaller than that of the run winding.
Like the split-phase motor, the capacitor-start motor has two windings spaced
90 electrical degrees apart in the stator. The run winding has a large amount of
inductive reactance because it has a large number of turns that are placed in the
bottom of the slot. The current of the run winding lags behind the line voltage, as
illustrated in Figure 1-37. The start winding also has a large amount of inductive
reactance; however, the capacitors are connected in series with it to make its
current lead the run-winding current by 90°. This 90° separation of the start- and
run-winding currents gives the capacitor-start motor the same type of rotating
magnetic field, while starting, as the two-phase motor has. The exact 90° separa¬
tion gives the capacitor-start motor the maximum starting efficiency.
When the rotor speed reaches 70 to 80 percent of rated speed, the start winding
is switched off by the centrifugal switch system, and the motor continues to run
on the main or run winding. The start winding and capacitors are designed to be
energized for only a few seconds. Figure 1-38 shows various-sized capacitors
and accessories.
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYZING MOTOR TROUBLES

When a motor fails to run properly, a definite procedure should be followed in
determining the repairs necessary to put it into running condition; that is, a series
of tests is made on the motor to discover the exact trouble. These tests enable the
repairperson to tell quickly whether or not the motor needs minor repairs, such as
new bearings, new switches, or new leads; or whether it needs rewinding. The
following steps in analyzing some of the motor problems are given in their
logical order:
1. Inspect the obvious problems such as cracked end plates, bent shaft,
burned leads, and scorched or discolored paint on the motor case in the area of
the stator core or laminations, and if the windings are visible, check for charred
or damaged coils.
2. Test the motor for bearing troubles. To do this, try to move the shaft up and
down in the bearing, as in Figure 1-39. Any such movement indicates a worn
bearing. Next, turn the rotor by hand to determine whether it rotates freely. A
shaft that does not rotate freely indicates bearing trouble, a bent shaft, or an
improperly assembled motor, as shown in Figures 1-40 and 1-41. In any case, a
fuse is likely to bum out should the motor be connected to the power line.
3. The next test is to determine whether the internal wires are touching the
frame, stator, or the rotor. This is called a ground test and is carried out by using
a test lamp, as shown in Figure 1-42.
4. Assuming that the previous tests show no problems, the next test is to run
the motor. Some kind of current limiting device should be used for this test. A
test panel (a test panel diagram for which directions are found later in this chapter
in Figure 1-209) works very well for this and will prevent unnecessary damage to
the motor components. Connect the motor to the test panel, and apply some
current. By reading the meter it can be determined whether the windings are
completely shorted or whether there is some resistance to the current flow. If
there is resistance, more current or full-line voltage can be applied to the wind¬
ings. Most small motors will start to turn, or attempt to turn, on ten to 15 am¬
peres. If the motor does not turn, spin the shaft to get it started. If the motor runs,
check the amperes, and compare this reading with the nameplate amperes. The
nameplate amperes are for a full load, and so the no-load amperes should be less.
It is not uncommon for split-phase motors and small capacitor-start motors to
have ampere readings higher than the loaded nameplate amperes. This is because
of the low power factor. (Power factor will be explained later in this text.)
5. If the motor has an acceptable ampere reading with the full voltage applied
to the run windings but will not start, the problem should be somewhere in the
start circuit. The stationary switch contacts are the most common trouble spots.
If a motor starts and stops many times a day, such as with a furnace or water
pump, the stationary switch contacts eventually become pitted or burned. When
they no longer make good electrical contact, the stationary switch should be
replaced.
6. The centrifugal device on the rotor may fail to close the start contacts.
Worn thrust washers could be one of the reasons for this condition. The spool of
the centrifugal device must be kept in an exact position, which will keep the start
contacts together uniformly as the shaft is turned. If the contacts do not stay
together as the shaft is turned, there will be “dead spots” where there is no
starting torque. This condition can be detected by pushing and pulling on the
shaft. There should be no more than 1/64 of an inch of movement or 4 ‘end play. ’ ’
Pull the shaft away from the end of the motor where the stationary switch is
located; apply a small amount of current from the test panel; and let the shaft turn
slowly. The shaft will turn by itself only when the contacts are closed.
Thrust washers will wear out prematurely if the V-belt load is not properly
aligned. This problem should be corrected when the motor is reinstalled. Thrust
washers keep the rotor aligned with the stator, and the laminations of each must
be in alignment. Unless the rotor or stator have shifted out of position, the
centrifugal switch system should be adjusted to work with the laminations in
Capacitor Motors 11
alignment. Improper alignment of the laminations will result in an increase in

running amperes and a loss of power.
7. Replacement of the centrifugal device may become necessary if the spool
or components become worn. Most devices press on the shaft. Before the old
device is removed, carefully measure the spool location. Press the new device
onto exactly this same spot. A thin-walled piece of pipe works well for this
purpose. Care must be taken to keep the device square with the shaft. Oil should
never be used on centrifugal devices.
8. Check all lead wires and terminal bolts for signs of charring. Charring is a
sign of a poor electrical connection and will result in an open circuit.
An open circuit may develop within a winding. The most common place for an
open to occur in a winding is in the coil-group connections. If an open cannot be
easily located, the motor should be rewound.
Detailed tests for capacitors are found on page 54 of this chapter.
REWINDING THE CAPACITOR-START MOTOR

After previous tests have shown that the motor’s windings are burned out or
severely shorted, rewinding is required in order to recondition it. Before the
motor is taken apart, the end plates and frame are marked with a chisel so that it
may be reassembled properly. One chisel mark is made on the front end plate and
the adjacent frame, and two marks are made on the back end plate and also at a
corresponding point on the frame, as shown in Figure 1-43. The motor is then
disassembled and made ready for repair.
The most common type of capacitor-start motor has two windings on the
stator, a run winding and a start winding. The run winding is always placed at the
bottom of the slots. The start winding is placed above this in the slots but is
displaced 90 electrical degrees; in other words, the start poles are placed midway
between the run-winding poles. An examination of the start winding of a capaci¬
tor-start motor will reveal that it is usually wound with wire of slightly smaller
size than that of the main winding.
Rewinding a capacitor motor having a damaged winding consists of a number
of separate operations: (1) taking data, (2) stripping the windings, (3) insulating
the slots, (4) rewinding, (5) connecting the winding, (6) testing, and (7) baking
and varnishing.
Taking Data
Taking data is one of the most important of the above operations. It consists of
noting certain specific information concerning the old winding, so that no diffi¬
culty will be encountered when the motor is rewound. The information is re¬
corded before and during the process of stripping the stator core of its windings.
The best procedure is to obtain as many data as possible before the stripping
operation. The information that should be obtained for both the run and start
windings includes (1) nameplate data, (2) the number of poles, (3) the pitch of
the coil (the number of slots that each coil spans), (4) the number of turns in each
coil, (5) the size of the wire on each winding, (6) the kind of connection (number
of circuits), (7) the position of each winding, and (8) the number of slots.
The information listed above must be recorded in such manner as to enable any
motor repairperson to rewind the motor without loss of time because of inade¬
quate data regarding the original winding. To explain the proper manner of
obtaining the desired information, it will be assumed that a 32-slot, four-pole
motor requires rewinding. The well-trained repairperson would proceed as fol¬
lows to gather the necessary data.
Record the nameplate data on a data sheet such as shown on page 13. The
information contained on the nameplate is very important, as it tells at a glance
the make of the motor, the horsepower, the voltage on which it must be operated,
and the speed at full load. And among other things, it indicates whether it is an
ac or dc motor, the current it draws at full load, the type, and its serial number.
The minimum amount of information on a nameplate of a single-phase motor
should be (1) manufacturer’s type and frame designation, (2) horsepower output,
(3) time rating, (4) temperature, (5) rpm at full load, (6) frequency, cycles per
second (hertz), (7) number of phases, (8) voltage, (9) full-load amperes,
(10) code, (11) design letter for integral-horsepower motors, (12) for motors
equipped with thermal protection the words thermally protected, and for motors
rated more than 1 hp a type number, and (13) service factor.
Figure 1-44 shows a 32-slot, four-pole stator of a capacitor-start motor as it
would look if viewed from one end. Each winding consists of four sections,
known as poles or pole groups. To determine the number of poles in the motor,
count the number of sections in the run winding. In Figure 1-44 the four sections
of the run winding indicate a four-pole motor. If there were six sections in the run
winding, it would indicate a six-pole motor. The number of poles in an induction
motor governs the speed of the motor, and it is therefore essential that the correct
number be recorded. A two-pole motor will rotate just below 3,600 rpm; a
four-pole motor about 1,750 rpm; a six-pole motor just under 1,200 rpm; and an
eight-pole motor slightly under 900 rpm. These speeds apply only when the
motor is supplied with 60-cycle alternating current; different speeds will prevail
for other frequencies.
Should the winding assembly be cut at one point and rolled flat, the winding
would appear as in Figure 1-45. Notice the location of the run winding with
respect to the start winding. The start winding overlaps two poles of the run
winding. This is always true in capacitor-start and split-phase motors, regardless
of the number of poles or the number of slots in the motor. Recording the
location of the run winding with respect to the start winding is highly important.
If they are placed in a different location in rewinding, the motor may not start
properly. Actually, the run and start windings are separated by 90 electrical
degrees. This is true no matter how many poles the motor has. However, the
number of mechanical degrees between windings will differ with the number of
poles in the motor. In the four-pole motor the windings are 45 mechanical de¬
grees apart, and in a six-pole motor they are 30 mechanical degrees apart.
The center of a pole is exactly 90 electrical degrees from the side of the coil
Capacitor Motors 13
group. This is the area between the coil sides that have their currents flowing in
opposite directions from each other. There should be at least two teeth (one
empty slot) between the two sides. Figure 1-46 shows two empty slots and three
teeth in the center. The center of the run-winding pole determines where the start
winding is to be placed. In Figure 1-46, the center is on a tooth. The start-wind¬
ing groups start to the left and to the right of this tooth. The center of the start
winding must be 90 electrical degrees from the center of the run winding.
If a pole of either the run or the start winding of the motor is examined closely,
it will be found to consist of three separate coils that have been wound one at a
time, as illustrated in Figure 1-47. Also, each coil is wound in two slots that are
separated by one or more other slots. The number of slots separating the sides of
a coil, including the slots in which the winding lies, is called the pitch or span of
a coil and is recorded as “1 and 4” or “1 and 6” or “1 and 8,” as the case may
be. This is shown in Figure 1-48. These coils protrude a certain distance from the
ends of the slots. This is called the end room. This distance should be measured
and recorded. It is important that the new coils do not extend beyond the slots
any farther than this distance; otherwise the end plates may press against the coils
and cause a ground.
The next step is to record the information thus far obtained regarding the
positions of the windings and the pitch of the coils. It may be recorded by
showing all the slots and the windings, as illustrated in Figure 1-49, which shows
a motor with 32 slots. In this method, the spans of all the coils are recorded
merely by drawing curved lines in the proper slots. This is recorded first for the
start winding because it is on top and more visible than is the run winding. The
pitch of the run-winding coils can be seen more easily if the ends of the start
winding are lifted. Each of the curved lines represents one coil of a pole. A
complete data sheet for listing the information to be taken follows:
DATA SHEET FOR CAPACITOR ST. AND SPLIT PHASE MOTORS.
Make
H.P. R.P.M Volts Amps
Cycle Type Frame S.F.
Temp. Rise Model Serial # Phase
No. of Poles Code No. of Slots Time Rating
Winding Size Wire No. of Circuits Pitch Turns
Run
Start
_
Slot NO. , 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 1
Run 1iiii iiiiiiii iii iiii iiiii iiiiiii1111

Start
1iiii iiiiiiii iii iiii iiiii iiiiiii1111
Rotation CW CCW Voltage Conn.
Bore Length Cap. Size
Coil Extention Front Back
Not all motors have 32 slots. Most capacitor-start motors have 36 slots; some
have 24. A recording for a 36-slot, four-pole motor is shown in Figure 1-50 and
one for a 24-slot, four-pole motor in Figure 1-51. Note in Figure 1-51 that the
outer coils of each pole in this motor overlap one another and are placed in the
same slot. This condition exists in many motors. Note also in Figure 1-50 that the
poles of the start winding have three and four coils in adjacent poles.
Another item of the data that should be recorded is the location of the run¬
winding poles with respect to the frame itself. In some motors the center of each
main pole is identified by a change in slot size. This is sufficient for properly
locating the pole in rewinding. However, in the absence of the odd-sized slot,
the best position for the pole is to locate it exactly between the thru-bolt
holes.
The type of connection is the next item to be recorded. This can be obtained
only if one is familiar with methods of winding and connecting the poles to one
another. Capacitor-start motors are connected in a variety of ways, such as single
voltage, dual voltage, externally reversible, and two speed. In order to be able to
record the kind of connection in the motor, the repairperson must know the
various connections to be found in this type of motor. It is best, therefore, to read
and study the sections “How to Recognize a Connection” and “Connecting
Procedure” before attempting to record the connection.
Information regarding the number of turns of wire in each coil must be ob¬
tained and recorded. This is done by counting the turns as they are unwound or
by cutting the coils on one end and counting the ends. It is important to note also
whether or not there is more than one strand per conductor. Sometimes two or
more strands of a smaller wire are used instead of one strand of a larger size.
When this is done, it is called wires in hand or wires in parallel. When two or
more wires are used in place of one larger wire, the number of strands counted in
each coil must be divided by that number to get the number of actual turns in the
coil. For example, if 27 strands are counted in a coil with one strand of wire,
there would be 27 turns. If 3 strands are used, there would be 27/3 or 9 turns. The
size of the wire, as determined by a wire gauge or micrometer and chart, must
also be recorded. These data are noted as the windings are removed from the
stator.
If the stator is to be rewound, it is very difficult and time-consuming to remove
the windings from the core without first softening or charring the varnish and
insulation. The windings are extremely hard because of the varnish, and to at¬
tempt to remove the wires before charring requires considerable time. The proce¬
dure in many shops is to place the stator in a bum-off oven for several hours at
approximately 600° to 700° F and then permit it to cool off. The bum-off oven
may be gas fired or electric. It is important that the heating be controlled to
prevent warping of the frames and damage to the lamination plating. Usually the
coils on the back side of the stator are cut off flush with an air chisel or electric
chisel before being placed in the oven (Figure 1-52). Removing the rest of the
Capacitor Motors 15
coils after charring is relatively simple because the remaining coils may be
pushed through the slots from the other side of the winding.
It is important to remember that the old windings should not ignite, that the
temperature does not increase too rapidly, and that the stator should be allowed
to cool off gradually. This applies to all types of motors. Too much heat can
destroy the coating between the laminations and will cause hot spots in the core.
Chemicals can be used to soften the windings for stripping, or they can be heated
to 350° in an oven and pulled out while they are still soft.
During the process of stripping, the number of turns in each of the coils of one
or two poles of the start and run windings must be counted. This information is
then recorded on the data sheet beside the curved lines that represent the pitch
of the coils. At this time, also, the size of the wire of both the run and the
start windings is measured, usually by means of an American Wire Gauge or mi¬
crometer after it is stripped clean of its insulation. The coating must be burned
from the wire before measuring. Scraping the wire could change its diameter. It
is then recorded on the data sheet. There is a wire-size chart in the Appendix
section.
TERMINAL MARKINGS FOR

SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS
The following standards for terminal markings have been reproduced from the
National Electrical Manufacturers Association Standards Publication.
A. Dual Voltage
Regardless of type, when a single-phase motor is reconnectible in series-parallel
for dual voltage, the terminal marking is determined as follows:
To assign terminal markings, the main winding is assumed to be divided into
two halves, and T\ and T2 should be assigned to one half and T3 and T4 to the
other half.
To assign terminal markings, the auxiliary winding (if present) is assumed to
be divided into two halves, and T5 and T6 should be assigned to one half and T7
and T$ to the other half.
Polarities shall be established so that standard direction of rotation (counter¬
clockwise facing the end opposite drive) is obtained when the main winding
terminal T4 and the auxiliary winding terminal T5 are joined or when an equiva¬
lent circuit connection is made between the main and auxiliary winding.
The terminal marking arrangement is shown diagrammatically in the following
figure:
Dual Voltage
Note 1—It has been found to be impractical to follow this standard for the terminal markings of
some definite-purpose motors.
Note 2—No general standards have been developed for terminal markings of multispeed motors
because of the great variety of methods employed to obtain multiple speeds.
B. Single Voltage
If a single-phase motor is single voltage or if either winding is intended for only
one voltage, the terminal marking is determined as follows:
Tx and T4 is assigned to the main winding and T5 and T8 to the auxiliary
winding (if present), with the polarity arrangement such that standard direction
of rotation is obtained if T4 and T5 are joined to one line and T\ and Ts to the
other.
The terminal marking arrangement is shown diagrammatically in the following
figure:
Single Voltage
Terminal Markings Identified by Color

When single-phase motors use lead colors instead of letter and number markings
to identify the leads, the color assignment is determined from the following:
T,— Blue T5—Black

T2—White T*—Red
T3—Orange Px—No color assigned
T4—Yellow P2—Brown
Capacitor Motors 17
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS OF
CAPACITOR-START MOTORS
The schematic diagrams in Figures 1-121 a, b, c, d, and e are reproduced through
the courtesy of NEMA and show the terminal markings of single- and dual-volt¬
age capacitor-start motors with and without a thermal protector. These diagrams
are part of the NEMA Standards Publication. Data on terminal connections are
found in Chapter 1, page 15.
Auxiliary Devices Within Motor

The presence of an auxiliary device or devices such as a capacitor, starting
switch, thermal protector, and so on, permanently connected in series between
the motor terminal and the part of the winding to which it ultimately connects
should not affect the marking unless a terminal is provided at the junction.
When a terminal is provided at the junction, the terminal marking of this
junction is determined by the part of the winding to which it is connected. Any
other terminals connected to this auxiliary device are identified by a letter indi¬
cating the auxiliary device within the motor to which the terminal is connected.
Auxiliary Devices External to Motor

When the capacitors, resistors, inductors, transformers, or other auxiliary de¬
vices are housed separately from the motor, the terminal markings are those
established for the device.
Marking of Rigidly Mounted Terminals

On a terminal board, the identification of rigidly mounted terminals is either by
marking on the terminal board or by means of a diagram attached to the machine.
When all windings are permanently connected to the rigidly mounted terminals,
these terminals may be identified in accordance with the terminal markings spec¬
ified in this publication. When the windings are not permanently attached to
rigidly mounted terminals on a terminal board, the rigidly mounted terminals
should be identified by numbers only, and the identification need not coincide
with that of the terminal leads connected to the rigidly mounted terminals.
HOW TO RECOGNIZE A CONNECTION

The basics of connecting motors must be understood before connections can be
recognized. Usually a group of coils connected together will represent a pole and
is called a pole group. The coils may be arranged in concentric form, as in Figure
1-47, or in lap form, as in Figure 1-53. The turns in the coils and each coil of the
pole group must be wound in the same direction. Each coil of the pole group will
lie in different slots.
The diagrams used in the following illustrations are explained in Figure l-54a.
The left illustration shows the pole group as it looks in the slots of a stator; the
center illustration shows how it would look laid flat; and the right illustration is
a pole group in the form of a rectangle as it appears in diagrams. The leads or
ends of the pole group are shown coming out of the right and left sides of the
rectangle. The following connections are called straight-line diagrams. Figures
l-54b through 1-69 all are run-winding diagrams.
Figure l-54b depicts a four-pole, one-circuit connection. A one-circuit con¬
nection means there is one electrical path or circuit through all the pole groups.
One circuit is also referred to as a series connection because all the pole groups
are in series with one another.
The number of circuits in a winding can be determined by the number of pole
groups fastened to each terminal lead. Figure 1-55 is a two-circuit connection,
having two pole groups fastened to lead T\ and two pole groups fastened to lead
7V Figure 1-56 is a four-circuit connection, having four pole groups fastened to
leads Tx and T4.
The number of circuits possible in a winding will be any number that will
divide evenly into the number of single-circuit (one wire in hand) pole groups. A
four-pole winding that has four single-circuit pole groups can be connected in
one, two, and four circuits. A six-pole winding with six single-circuit pole
groups can be connected in one, two, three, and six circuits.
Pole groups are sometimes wound with two or more wires. If two wires, as
illustrated in Figure 1-57, both are fastened to one lead wire, they are considered
to be two in hand or two strands of a conductor or two wires in parallel. When
counting the turns in a coil, the number of wires counted must be divisible by the
number of strands or number of wires in hand. This is the actual turns of the coil.
For example, if 36 wires are counted in the coil and it is wound two in hand, the
actual turns will be 36 2, or 18 turns. Multiples of small wires are used in
motors because they are easier to form than is one large wire.
Figures 1-54 and 1-57 are single voltage. The terminal lead markings for
single-voltage run windings are Tx and T4. A single-voltage start winding is
numbered T5 and T8. Single-voltage start windings are usually one circuit.
When four leads are connected to the run winding, it is a two- or dual-voltage
connection. The leads are labeled Tu T2, T3, and T4. One-half of the groups are
connected between Tx and T2, and the other half between T3 and T4, as illustrated
in Figure 1-58. This winding is connected in series for high voltage and is a
one-circuit connection, as illustrated in Figure 1-59. The low-voltage connection
shown in Figure 1-60, is a two-circuit or parallel connection. The connections
illustrated in Figures 1-58 and 1-60 are called a one- and two-circuit connection.
Figure 1-61 is a two- and four-circuit diagram. As stated before, one-half the coil
groups must be between Tx and T2, and the other half between T3 and T4. There
Capacitor Motors 19
can be more than one circuit between these leads. The number of circuits possi¬
ble between leads will be any number that will divide evenly into the pole groups
between the leads.
The preceding diagrams all are short jumper. Short jumper and long jumper
are explained on pages 19 and 20.
Another connection commonly found is the layered winding. The coil groups
are wound two in hand, but the wires are separated, and the coil group then has
two circuits, as illustrated in Figure 1-62. Figure 1-63 shows this type of coil
group in a one-circuit diagram. A layered four-pole winding has eight separate
coil groups. The number of connections possible for single voltage are one, two,
four, and eight-circuits. The dual-voltage possibilities are one- and two-, two-
and four-, and four- and eight-circuit connections. Figures 1-63 through 1-66
show single-voltage connections. Figures 1-67 through 1-69 show dual-voltage
connections.
Assuming that the windings have been burned or softened with chemicals, a
connection is identified as follows:
1. Mark the location of the leads on the stator with a chisel and make a sketch
of it on the data sheet, as shown in Figure 1-70.
2. Count the number of pole groups in the run and the start windings, and
record it.
3. Lift or loosen the start-winding leads and the cross-connections to deter¬
mine how many circuits it has. Start windings are usually connected in one
circuit, for one voltage, but some are connected for two voltage, as in Figure
1-71. Another connection is predetermined rotation (in Figure 1-72) or internally
connected to the run winding (Figure 1-73).
Figures 1-74 and l-75a and b are examples of split-phase circular diagrams.
Figure 1-76 is a straight-line diagram of a split-phase motor. Notice the connec¬
tions are the same as for the capacitor-start motors except that the capacitor is
excluded. In an actual motor, the split-phase start-winding wire size is smaller
and it has fewer turns than in the start winding of a capacitor-start motor. Be¬
cause of this, adding a capacitor to a split-phase motor will not give it a starting
power comparable to the starting power of a capacitor-start motor. Figures 1-77,
1-78, and 1-79 show some of the connections that may be encountered.
4. The jumpers, or crossover connections, from pole group to pole group are
connected in two ways, long jumper and short jumper. Each pole group (except
consequent pole, which will be explained later in this chapter) is connected so
that the current will flow in the direction opposite to that of the pole groups
adjacent to it. Short jumper means adjacent groups are connected in series or in
parallel in the same circuit, as shown in Figure 1-77. This connection is also
called short throw, top to top (T to T), or bottom to bottom (B to B). Long
jumper means that the pole groups of the same polarity are connected in series or
in parallel in the same circuit. Figure 1-80 shows a one-circuit run winding, and
Figure 1-81 shows a two-circuit run winding. Both are one-voltage connections.
Figures 1-79, 1-82, and 1-83 are dual-voltage connections. Long jumper connec-
tions are sometimes called long throw or top to bottom (T to B). This should be
noted on the data sheet.
5. Count the leads going to the run winding. Two leads mean one voltage, and
four leads mean dual voltage. Note this on the data sheet.
6. Count the run pole groups fastened to each lead. If the motor has two leads,
it is single voltage, and the number of pole groups fastened to each lead is the
number of circuits the winding contains. If there are four leads, the motor is dual
voltage. Count the pole groups fastened to each lead. If there is one pole group,
the connection is in one and two circuits, and if there are two pole groups, the
connection is in two and four circuits. This information should be noted on the
data sheet.
INSULATION TEMPERATURE
The insulation temperature classes are
Old New
class class Limiting temperature
A 105 105°C
B 130 130°C
F 155 155°C
H 180 180°C
Of these, the most popular—and the majority—are Class 155 and Class 180.
Using Class F on a motor that is rated Class B upgrades the motor and will
increase its thermal life expectancy. But operating a motor at a higher tempera¬
ture than its class will shorten its life. Insulation, being a form of plastic, is
always curing and will become more brittle with time. If the temperature is
increased, the time or life will be shortened. Insulation in motors needs to be
resilient, as the copper wire heats and expands as the motor starts and runs. But
the insulation and stator laminations will expand at a different rate. The insula¬
tion must stretch and contract with the wire, and when the insulation becomes
brittle, it will develop fine cracks and expose the wire to contaminants. The
contaminants (carbon, moisture, or any conducting material) will conduct cur¬
rent, resulting in charring. This, in turn, conducts even more current, which will
lead to a complete insulation breakdown.
The temperature classification rating for a motor is based on the temperature of
the hottest area in it. This area is in the center of the slot, near the thickest part of
the iron and in the center of the pole group. Much of the heat is transferred out of
the core by the coils themselves. The internal fan forces air over the coils and
carries the heat away. The iron core carries the rest of the heat to the shell of the
motor where it dissipates into the surrounding air.
Capacitor Motors 21
When selecting the proper insulation class, the same class should be used for
all components. If Class 155 is selected, the slot liner, the slot separator, the
sleeving, the magnet wire, the lead wire, and the tie cord all should be Class 155.
Nearly all magnet wire used in the repair industry today is Class 180, and to
stock any other classes of magnet wire would make inventory cost prohibitive.
FORMING SLOT LINERS

There are two types of slot-liner formers available from electric motor parts
suppliers. One cuts and creases the paper with one stroke of the handle, as shown
in Figure 1-84. The other, in Figure 1-85, will only crease the paper. The paper
must be cut to the exact width and length before going through the former. This
type of format has no limit as to length, and the pressure of the creaser can be
varied for different thicknesses of insulation.
After selecting the proper class insulation, cut a strip that is 3/8 inch wider
than the length of the stator core. At this point a taping machine, as shown in
Figure 1-86, can be used. When the ends of the slot liners are taped, they are less
likely to tear from the pressure of the coil when there is a tight fit.
It is important that the slot liners fit exactly. If the sides of the liner are too
short, there is a good chance that the winding will ground to the stator. And if
the sides are too long, the paper will block the slot opening and make inserting
the wire very difficult. Measuring for the slot liner with a metric ruler is much
faster than using an inch ruler.
Before the slot liners are inserted, check each slot for sharp burrs or fused
copper. Anything that can puncture the slot insulation must be eliminated. All
copper must be ground or filed from the slot and the laminations cleared to
prevent hot spots from eddy currents. Sometimes it is necessary to chisel out
some of the teeth. But with larger motors, if too many teeth are removed, it will
be necessary to restack the laminations and stagger the missing teeth evenly
throughout the stator.
REWINDING
There are two types of coil forms used to rewind single-phase motors, lap and
concentric. Lap winding will be discussed in Chapter 3. The concentric form
used to rewind most single-phase motors is used by manufacturers because it can
be formed by machine, thus saving labor costs. In the repair shop, the concentric
coils are formed on a winding head (Figure 1-87) and placed in the stator by
hand. The run or main winding is placed in the bottom of the slot, and the start
winding is placed on top of the slot. Insulating between the two windings is
optional; the accepted voltage between coils without insulating is 150 volts. If
insulation is used, a strip of insulation is placed on top of the run winding in the
slots shared with the start winding. These are called separator papers and are
shown in Figure 1-88. If using the separator paper makes the wires fit too tightly,
it is better to leave it out than to tamp the wire too much. When all the wire is
in place in the slot, a fiber wedge is inserted, as shown in Figure 1-88. All
insulation used should have a temperature class that is equal to or higher than the
nameplate rating.
Setting up the winding head for the concentric coil is done in the following
order:
1. The first step is to form a single wire to fit the inner coil of the group. It
must fit snugly but not bend the slot liner. Place the pattern wire on the step of
the winding head that is nearly the same width. Open the head to fit the pattern
wire tightly, and make note of the setting number, as in Figure 1-87. Next, skip
at least one step on the head and form a pattern on it (Figure 1-89). Collapse the
head and try both pattern wires in the proper slots. There should be enough room
between the two patterns to contain all the turns of the smaller coil after the
pattern wires are squared and shaped (Figure 1-90). If these two pattern wires are
satisfactory, make the rest of the pattern wires and fit them as in Figure 1-91. If
there is not enough room between the coils to contain all the turns, the coils will
stack on top of the smaller group and make it difficult to insert the start winding
in the slots. The finished coil should take the shape shown in Figure 1-92. It
should come out of the slot, to the edge of the slot liner, bend toward the other
side, and at the same place bend down and over so the start winding can easily be
placed in the proper slots. Write the step numbers selected on the data sheet, and
also note the setting dimension. After the first step number, write the number of
turns in the smallest coil. After the second step number, write the sum of the
smallest coil and the next coil. Next add the number of turns of the third coil in
the group to this number and place it after the third step number. These numbers
show when to stop the winding machine and feed the wire over to the next step.
2. The required number of turns is wound on the steps of the winding head,
starting with the smallest step. Tie the coils with string or twist ties to keep the
turns in position (Figure 1-93), and remove the group from the winding head.
3. The coils are now laid in front of the stator with the leads toward the motor
and the ties away from the you. Pick up the inside coil (the smallest), place it in
the stator bore, and center the coil between the thru-bolt holes. Feed the wires
into the slots starting with the coil side nearest you, as shown in Figure 1-94. It
is not uncommon to have to place the wires in the slots one at a time. After each
coil side is in the slot, place a separator paper over it to keep the wires from
coming out of the slots. The separator paper should be about one-half inch longer
than the slot liner. Pick up the end of the second coil as you would the page of
a book and place it in the bore, again first inserting the turns of the side nearest
you. Determine which coils do not share the slot with the start winding and place
a fiber wedge instead of separator paper over these coils. Shape the ends of the
coils as they are inserted, and after each coil is in place, shape it with a soft clean
hammer. The job will be neater if each coil is shaped individually instead of the
Capacitor Motors 23
whole group at once. If the ends of the coils are to be insulated, cotton or glass
tape can be put in place at this time.
After all the run coils are in place, shaped, and insulated, the start winding can
be inserted, as shown in Figure 1-95. Each coil of the start winding will be held
in place by a slot fiber. These fibers should be the same length as the slot liner.
Connecting Procedure. After the windings are in place and shaped, the coil-
lead wires are separated, as in Figure 1-96. The stator is now ready to be con¬
nected. The connecting should start at the side nearest you (six o’clock) and
proceed to the right in a counterclockwise direction (Figure 1-97). This is the
same as reading a circuit diagram from left to right. Starting at the one o’clock
position and proceeding clockwise will accomplish the same thing but is difficult
when connecting a larger motor.
Regardless of the number of poles, it is essential that adjacent ones be of
opposite polarity. This is accomplished by connecting them in such manner that
the current will flow through the first pole in a clockwise direction and through
the second pole in a counterclockwise direction (Figure 1-98) and likewise in
alternate directions through the remaining poles.
It should be remembered that if the run winding is connected in one circuit or
in series, the start winding must be connected in this same manner. There are
exceptions to this, but they are not often encountered.
Series Connection for Four Poles of the Run Winding. Refer to Figure 1-98
and connect the wires as illustrated, namely, the end lead of Pole 1 to the end
lead of Pole 2. Next, connect the beginning lead of Pole 2 to the beginning lead
of Pole 3, as shown in Figure 1-99. Continue, as illustrated in Figure 1-100, by
joining the end lead of Pole 3 to the end lead of Pole 4. The power-line leads are
then connected to the beginning lead of Pole 1 and the beginning lead of Pole 4.
For the sake of simplicity, the above-noted connections may be shown by
representing each pole as a rectangular block, as in Figures 1-101, 1-102, and
1-103.
For comparison, the entire run winding of a 36-slot, four-pole motor is illus¬
trated in Figure 1-104, showing both the detailed winding and the simplified
form. Notice that each pole is wound in the same manner but that the poles are
connected so that alternate polarity is maintained in adjacent poles.
In order to determine whether the polarity of the poles is correct after the
connections have been completed, a low-voltage direct current is connected to
the winding, and a compass is moved inside the stator from one pole to the next.
If the connections are correct, the compass needle will reverse itself at each pole.
Series Connection for the Start Winding. The poles of the start winding are
connected so that they too alternate in polarity. The method of connecting them
to one another is the same as that described above for the run winding. The only
difference is that the stationary switch is placed either in series with the lead from
Pole 4, or between Pole 2 and Pole 3. Figures 1-105 and 1-106 show the proper
connections for both the run and start windings, Figure 1-105 having the station¬
ary switch at the end of the start winding and Figure 1-106 having it in the center
of the winding. Figure 1-107 represents both windings placed in circular form as
they would actually be inside the stator.
The connection drawing can be shown in simpler form by making a schematic
diagram, like that in Figure 1-108. Such a diagram does not indicate the number
of poles, but it does show how the lead wires from the windings are connected to
the power line. It is seen that two wires are brought out directly from the run,
winding, and likewise, two wires are brought out from the start winding. The
direction of rotation of the motor can easily be changed by reversing the lead
wires of either the run or the start winding. The run-winding leads are marked Tx
and Ta. The start-winding leads are marked T5 and Ts. Figure 1-109 shows the
method of connecting the leads for clockwise and counterclockwise rotation.
A six-pole motor is connected in the same manner as is a four-pole motor,
except that two more poles must be added. Figure 1-110 shows a connection
diagram of a six-pole, capacitor-start motor.
MAKING CONNECTIONS
Pole group-to-pole group and line-lead connections are made in the following
order:
1. Select sleeving that is the right temperature and size.

2. Measure and cut the sleeving to the right length.
3. Install sleeving and twist wires together.
4. Weld or solder the splice.
5. Cover the splice and tie down all connections.
The temperature rating of the sleeving should be the same as that for the rest of
the insulating system. Sleeving has a size number that coincides with the wire
size. A no. 14 wire will fit into a size 14 sleeving. A splice should take as little
space as possible, as bulky, oversized connections can become a problem when
the end room is restricted.
After choosing sleeving of the right size and temperature rating, measure the
length for a connection. Figure 1-111 shows this being done. The wire should be
covered with sleeving to the place where it is secured. This place may be a slot or
where the wire is taped to the coil. Allow extra length so that the splice can be
adjusted for the best position when being tied down. Cut the sleeving to the right
length and then cut it into two parts. It may be desirable to cut it so that one piece
is shorter than the other, so that the location of the splice will be in the best spot.
A piece of sleeving that will cover the completed splice is cut next. This sleeving
should be five to six sizes larger than the sleeving used on the wire. Cut the cover
Capacitor Motors 25
sleeving at least one inch longer than the splice. Slide the cover sleeving over one
of the wires. They now are ready to be twisted tightly together. Figures 1-112a
and b show a completed splice. The length of the splice should be from one to
two and one-half inches long, depending on the size and number of wires in the
splice. Large splices with many wires in multiple should be two and one-half to
three inches long. Figure 1-113 shows the winding being tied down after the
connections and leads are finished.
Welding Connections
Line-lead and pole group-to-pole group connections are made by means of
(1) solder, (2) silver solder, (3) phosphorus-copper, (4) melting together, and
(5) pressure sleeve. The requirements and things to consider when making a
splice are
1. A good electrical connection that includes all the strands and is equivalent in
size laterally to the circular mil area of all the coil-group wires.
2. The time it takes to complete the connection.
3. The expense of the material used in making the connection.
4. A smooth splice that will not pierce the insulation.
1. Lead-tin solder makes the most dependable connection with stranded lead
wire. Solder impregnates the splice, filling all the space between the wires.
Soldering is also the most time-consuming method, as all insulation must be
cleaned from the magnet wire before it can be soldered. There are several types
of special wire-skinning tools available from electric motor parts suppliers.
2. Silver soldering is a quick method of welding connections. It is not neces¬
sary to use flux or to clean the coating off the wires. After twisting together the
wires and trimming them off evenly, heat the ends of the wires with an acetylene
torch. When they glow a dull red, apply the silver solder to the ends. It will flow
into the splice. It is necessary to apply solder to only about one-half inch of the
splice. Make sure all the strands are included in the weld. The soldering should
be done as quickly as possible so that the heat does not char the sleeving. A large
connection should be made with a wet rag wrapped around the sleeving and the
lower end of the splice. After the splice has cooled, any sharp points or edges
should be smoothed with a file to prevent them from piercing the insulating cover
sleeve.
3. Phosphorus-copper is the preferred welding material because of its low
cost. This material is used in the same way as is silver solder. Phosphorus-copper
has a slightly higher melting point than silver solder does. It is available at most
electric motor parts supply establishments.
4. Melting the wire together requires more skill than do the other methods.
The flame of an acetylene torch is applied to the ends of the wires in the splice
until they melt. This method works better when some of the insulation is scraped
off near the ends of the wires. The melted ends of the wires will flow together.
Caution must be used not to bum the insulation beyond the splice. As with other
methods, all sharp parts should be removed before the cover sleeve is put in
place. This is the most economical method of making a splice.
5. The pressure splice is used mainly with aluminum wire. The wires are
inserted into a special sleeve and crimped with a tool designed for that purpose.
Aluminum wire should be sealed at the splice to prevent corrosion. The sleeve
will penetrate the coating on the wire and make a good electrical connection. As
with all connections, the area that is joined electrically should be equal to or
exceed the circular mil area of the wires being joined.
Testing the New Winding

After the rewinding, connecting, final shaping, and tying, make sure that the
bore and thru-bolt holes are not obstructed by any wire or insulation. Also make
sure that the end brackets, stationary switch, and cooling fan will not touch the
winding. Next the windings and connections should be tested for shorts,
grounds, open circuits, and incorrect connections. This must be done before the
varnishing and baking. Any problems that are discovered at this time may be
corrected easily. Detailed instructions for these tests will be found later in this
chapter under “Troubleshooting and Repair.”
Baking and Varnishing

When all the connections between the poles of the windings have been completed
and tested and the flexible leads to the power line attached and tied, the stator
should be placed in a baking oven at a temperature of approximately 250°F and
preheated for a short period of time, approximately one hour. This removes
moisture from the windings and will increase the penetration of the varnish. The
stator is then dipped into a container of insulation varnish. It is important to
remember that the varnish must be thin enough to penetrate the winding and thick
enough to leave an adequate film when baked. The varnish may thicken because
of evaporation of the thinning fluid. If this happens, use a thinner recommended
by the manufacturer. The purpose of varnish is to (a) secure the wires so that they
don’t vibrate and short to one another, (b) provide another coat of insulation for
the whole coil group, and (c) provide a path for heat to escape from within the
coil.
Air pockets in the slots allow movement of the wires which will eventually
wear through the insulation and cause shorting between the turns. These voids
can also thermally insulate the winding, inhibiting the heat transfer from wire to
core and shorten the life of the insulation. It is important that the winding be
allowed to soak until all bubbling has stopped. The large service centers use the
vacuum pressure impregnation (VPI) system of varnishing windings. The wind¬
ing is lowered into a special tank; the tank is sealed; and a vacuum is applied.
This removes moisture from the winding. While it is still under vacuum, the
Capacitor Motors 27
varnish is slowly allowed to rise from the bottom of the tank and cover the
winding. The air trapped in the slots is expanded from being under a vacuum,
and after the vacuum is released, it shrinks, pulling the varnish in. Then pressure
is applied to the tank, forcing the bubbles to shrink even smaller and nearly
eliminating them. The winding is then baked until cured.
Most bake-type varnishes are thermal setting; that is, the winding must be
heated to a prescribed temperature for a given length of time. If the temperature
is not reached, the varnish will not set up, no matter how long it is baked. The
temperature class of most varnishes is Class 155 or Class 180.
There are many other types of varnishes. One type is made for hermetic mo¬
tors and is not affected by the oil or refrigerant. For extra protection of the end
coils, there are air drying and the butter-on varnishes. There is a two-part flow-
type that is shown being applied in Figure 1-114 to a three-phase stator. This type
is made up of a resin and a reactor. Once the two are mixed, they chemically
react, start to heat, and harden in about 30 minutes. There are other two-part
types that need a short bake cycle to complete the cure. The temperature class
selection must be compatible with that of the motor design. It is important to
have proper ventilation when using all varnish methods, and to follow the dip
and bake procedures recommended by the manufacturer.
MOTOR OVERLOAD PROTECTIVE DEVICES

Most overload devices used on single-phase motors are thermally operated and
protect against dangerous overheating due to overload, failure to start, and high
temperatures. The protector is mounted in any convenient location inside the
motor housing or in the junction box on the side. Essentially, this device consists
of a bimetallic element connected in series with the line. This element is made of
two metals that expand at different rates when heated. These are bonded to¬
gether, so that when the entire element is heated, it will bend and open the circuit
to the motor (see Figures 1-115 and 1-116). The heat causing the element to bend
is created by the current that goes through an auxiliary heater coil placed under
the bimetallic strip and connected in series with the motor windings.
A popular type of thermal device consists of a round, dish-shaped, bimetallic
disc, with two contacts on diametrically opposite sides bearing against two sta¬
tionary contacts, marked Px and P2 and an auxiliary heater marked P3. The
heater is mounted directly underneath the bimetallic strip and in close proximity
to it. Figure 1-117 shows the closed and open position of the disc.
When an overload occurs, the current flows through the heater and will pro¬
duce sufficient heat to cause the disc to snap quickly and open the contacts and
thereby open the circuit, stopping the motor.
On some types, the contacts automatically close when the bimetallic element
cools. On other units, a reset button must be operated manually to restore the
motor to operation.
This type of thermal unit can be used for single- and dual-voltage motors. In
the single-voltage motor, terminal P2 is not used. The heating element and disc
are connected in series with the entire motor winding. This is illustrated in Figure
1-118. In a dual-voltage motor, the heating element is connected in series with
half the main winding for lower voltage and the entire winding for high voltage.
This is because the current on high voltage is half that on low voltage. An
illustration of the connections is shown in Figure 1-119.
The terminal Px is always accessible from outside the motor. Px is always
connected to a line by itself. All motor leads must be connected to P2 or P3. P3
is usually connected to the run windings. P2 is sometimes identified as a brown
wire with no label. The current going through P2 will not cause the thermal
protector to open. P2 is usually not used in single-voltage motors and is not used
in dual-voltage motors when the connection is for high voltage. F3 is usually an
internal connection going directly to either Tx or T4. In some cases, Tx or T4 is
connected to P3 internally and also brought out, as shown in Figure 1-118.
The temperature of the air around the thermal protector has a bearing on how
soon it will open when there is an overload. Because of this, a thermal protector
is rated differently if it is located inside the motor than if it is located outside, in
the junction box of the same motor.
Thermal protectors are designed to protect against overloads, as a short will
usually destroy the heating element. If terminal 2 does not light to terminal 3,
then the heater element is open, and the thermal protector must be replaced. The
heater element is always rated for the high voltage amperes in a dual-voltage
motor.
There are other types of thermal devices in use today. One of these utilizes a
bimetallic unit heated by the current flow through the unit itself. This type uses a
toggle link to open the contacts. This unit is mounted on the terminal plate,
which also serves as a connection block for the winding leads. The operation is
as follows: When a condition of excessive temperature or current occurs, the
bimetal arm is heated and deflects in a direction tending to open the contacts. The
contacts will remain closed, however, until the downward force of the bimetal
arm overcomes the opposing force of the toggle link and snaps open the contacts.
This type is shown in Figure 1-120.
Thermal protectors of special construction can be embedded in the stator wind¬
ings to protect the motor from excessive winding temperatures. These protectors
have a snap-acting disc with normally closed contacts. The disc is operated both
by the current passing through it and by heat received from the windings. When
the disc’s temperature reaches a predetermined calibration point corresponding to
the maximum safe limit of the winding, the disc snaps open to interrupt the
circuit. When the winding temperature returns to a normal safe limit, the protec¬
tor resets automatically. Thermal protectors are frequently used with hermetic
motors, and in such cases, the protectors are installed in the end windings and
located for the best possible heat transfer between the winding and thermal unit,
that does not damage the insulation on the motor winding. It is important to
Capacitor Motors 29
exercise care in assembly, as additional forming of the winding for location of

the protector may injure or weaken the insulation on the winding.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS OF CAPACITOR-START

MOTORS
The schematic diagrams in Figures 1-12la, b, c, d, and e are reproduced through

the courtesy of NEMA and show the terminal markings of single- and dual-volt¬
age capacitor-start motors with and without a thermal protector. These diagrams
are part of the NEMA Standards Publication MGI of April 1968. Data on termi¬
nal connections will be found on pages 15 and 16 of this chapter.
CONNECTIONS OF CAPACITOR-START MOTORS

Some of the many types of capacitor motors are listed below. Each has its own
characteristic connection of the windings. Some of these types are designed to
operate on one voltage, some on two voltages. Many are externally reversible,
and others are reversed internally. Each of the following motors is described, and
a diagram shows its operation:
1. Single-voltage, externally reversible.

2. Single-voltage, nonreversible.
3. Single-voltage, reversible with overload protector.
4. Two-voltage, reversible.
5. Two-voltage, reversible with overload protector.
6. Single-voltage with current relay.
7. Single-voltage with potential relay.
8. Two-voltage with potential relay.
9. Single-voltage, three-lead, reversible.
10. Single-voltage, instantly reversible.
11. Single-voltage, two-speed.
12. Single-voltage, two-speed, consequent-pole.
In the schematic diagrams of these motors, the leads with numbers will be
coming out of the motor. This is typical of larger motors. Most smaller motors
have leads connected to the terminals mounted on the stationary switch, inside
the motor. In all of the following capacitor-start motors, electrolytic capacitors
are used. In all single-voltage capacitor motors, the main or run-winding termi¬
nals are marked Tx and T4, and all start-winding terminals are marked T5 and 7V
Standard markings are described and illustrated on pages 15 and 16 of this text.
If the start-winding leads are accessible for reversing, the leads will be given the
numbers T5 and T8. If they do not have a number, they will be connected to the
run-winding leads inside the motor and will not be accessible.
1. Single-Voltage, Externally Reversible Capacitor-Start Motor. This motor

has four leads that are accessible, two from the run winding and two from the
start winding. These four wires must be separately available if external reversing
is desired. Internally, the start winding is connected in series with the stationary
switch and the capacitor. Figure 1-122 shows the motor connected for clockwise
rotation, and Figure 1-123 shows the same motor connected for counterclock¬
wise rotation. As the illustrations show, to reverse this or any other type of
capacitor motor or split-phase motor, it is necessary only to reverse the start¬
winding leads with respect to the run-winding leads, or vice versa. Just as in
other types of motors, the number of poles in this motor determines its speed: the
more poles there are, the lower its speed will be; and the fewer poles there are,
the greater its speed will be. The poles are connected in series or in parallel; care
must be taken to produce alternate polarity in connecting the poles. The four-pole
motor is the most common, and therefore diagrams of four-pole motors will be
shown. Figures 1-124 and 1-125 illustrate a four-pole capacitor-start motor with
a one-circuit start winding and a one-circuit run winding. Figure 1-126 shows a
four-pole, two-circuit capacitor-start motor with a one-circuit start winding and a
two-circuit run winding. Figure 1-127 shows a four-pole, two-circuit, capacitor-
start motor with a two-circuit start and a two-circuit run winding.
2. Single-Voltage, Nonreversible Capacitor-Start Motor. If the start-winding

leads are connected internally to the run-winding leads, the direction of rotation
of the motor cannot be reversed unless the motor is taken apart and the leads
reversed. Some motors are made in this manner because their application re¬
quires just one direction of rotation. Figure 1-128 shows the circuit of this type of
motor with two external leads. Single voltage can mean low voltage (120 volts)
or high voltage (240 volts). Some manufacturers connect the start winding to the
center connection of the run winding, as shown in Figure 1-129. This limits the
voltage applied to the start winding to one-half the line voltage. The capacitors
used with this connection are rated for use on low voltage.
3. Single-Voltage, Reversible Capacitor-Start Motor with Overload Protec¬

tor. Very often capacitor-start motors are equipped with an overload protector
device. The function of the overload device was explained earlier under “Motor
Overload Protective Devices.” The overload device is always connected in se¬
ries with one of the lines. P3, which is the heater element terminal of the device,
is always connected in series with the run winding, as shown in Figure 1-130.
Some manufacturers connect Tx to P3, and others connect T4 to P3. Single-volt¬
age motors usually do not use P2, and both the start and run winding are con¬
nected to P3. The current of the start winding flows so briefly that it is not
considered to affect the overload device. P2 sometimes has no number but is
identified by being a brown wire. When ordering a replacement overload device,
include all nameplate data and all numbers appearing on the old device.
Capacitor Motors 31
4. Two-Voltage, Reversible Capacitor-Start Motor. A two-voltage or dual¬

voltage capacitor-start motor can be operated on either of two voltages, usually
120 or 240 volts. This type of motor generally has a main or run winding of two
sections and a start winding of one section. In some larger motors, a two-section
or dual-voltage start winding is used. The one-section start-winding will be dis¬
cussed first.
To change from one voltage to another, it is necessary to bring out four leads
from the run winding, two from each section. These sections are marked T\, T2,
and T3, 7V If the motor is to operate on 120 volts, the two sections of the run
winding are connected in parallel, and the start winding is connected in parallel
also, as shown in Figure 1-131. If operation on 240 volts is desired, the two
sections of the run winding are connected in series. The start winding is con¬
nected across one section of the run winding, thereby receiving 120 volts, or
one-half of the line voltage, shown in Figures 1-132 and 1-133. A dual-voltage
motor using this connection will always have the lower voltage potential across
the start winding, regardless of the line voltage, and will always be connected in
parallel with one or the other of the run-winding sections.
Small, dual-voltage motors sometimes have colored wires instead of numbers
to identify the leads. Figure l-134a and b shows this method of identification
connected for high voltage and low voltage.
Some two-voltage capacitor-start motors have a dual-voltage start winding.
Figure 1-135 shows this connection using one set of switch contacts and con¬
nected for low voltage. Figure 1-136 shows the high-voltage connection for this
motor. Figure 1-137 shows a second method, using two switch contacts. The
switch connection is made internally, in series with T6 and Ts. The capacitors
used in both types of dual-voltage start-winding connections are always rated as
low voltage and are connected in series with T6 and Ts. Figure 1-137 shows the
low-voltage connection, and Figure 1-138 shows the high-voltage connection.
REWINDING THE TWO-VOLTAGE CAPACITOR-START

MOTOR
The start winding of a dual-voltage capacitor-start motor is identical with that of

a single-voltage motor and is wound in exactly the same way. The run winding,
however, consists of two sections and may be wound in any of three ways. One
method consists of winding the poles in the same way as for the single-voltage
motor and connecting the poles in two sections. Each section contains one-half
the poles. Two wires are brought out for each section for changing voltage.
Figures 1-131 and 1-132 show this method. The poles may be connected short
jumper (adjacent poles in the same circuit) or long jumper (like poles in the same
circuit).
Another method is shown in Figure 1-139. With this method, one-half of all
the poles are connected in one section, and the other half is connected in the
other. Each section can be insulated from the other. This method may also be
connected long or short jumper.
The most popular method is to wind both sections, as described above, at the
same time and to insert them in the stator without insulation between them. This
method takes much less time. But without an insulation barrier between sections,
extra care must be taken not to scratch the insulation of the wire or they may
short together. The accepted allowable voltage between wires with only the
coating on the wire as insulation is 150 volts. Extra insulation is recommended
for over 150 volts.
5. Two-Voltage, Reversible Capacitor-Start Motor with Overload Protection.

The two-voltage capacitor-start motor described in Figure 1-131 is shown in
Figure 1-140 with an overload protector and connected for low voltage. Some
manufacturers solder either Tx or T4 onto P3 internally. In this case, Tx is sol¬
dered to P3 and is not accessible. Px is considered to be the same as Tx. When the
low-voltage connection is used, P2, which is the brown wire in some motors, is
connected to the start winding and the remaining section of the run winding. The
current of the remaining run-winding section should not go through the heater
element. Figure 1-141 is a schematic showing the current flow for this circuitry.
Figure 1-142 shows this motor connected for high voltage and shows the current
flow. The brown wire, or P2, is either insulated and not used or can be connected
to a start-winding wire. The nameplate amperes for the high-voltage connection
are always one-half the amperes for the low-voltage connection.
6. Single-Voltage, Capacitor-Start Motor with Current Relay. Motor-starting

relays are used instead of centrifugal switch systems for many split-phase and
capacitor-start motors. These relays are standard equipment for hermetically
sealed motors in refrigeration units, pumps, table saws, and many other definite-
purpose machines. It is impractical to use a centrifugal switch system on hermeti¬
cally sealed motors, because servicing or replacing the switch components is
nearly impossible. For this reason, an external magnetic relay is used. The relay
may be located on, near, or outside the motor. It is used to disconnect the start
winding from the circuit when the motor reaches approximately 75 percent of full
speed. Figure 1-143 shows this connection. The current relay operates on the
principle that the initial inrush of current in the run winding at the start is much
greater than at full speed. The relay mechanism consists of a magnetic coil and
two normally open (at rest) contacts. The coil is connected in series with the run
winding. The coil is wound with wire that is as large or larger than the run¬
winding wire because the run-winding current continuously flows through it. The
contacts of the relay are connected in series with the start winding and the
capacitor. When line voltage is applied, the coil becomes sufficiently energized,
because of the high current of the run winding, to cause the contacts to close.
Consequently, when the motor is thrown across the line, both the start and run
windings are energized, and the motor will start. At approximately 75 percent of
full speed, the current of the run winding will decrease, and the amount of
Capacitor Motors 33
current flowing through the coil will not be enough to keep the contacts closed.
When the contacts open, the start winding is disconnected from the circuit,
allowing the motor to operate on the run winding only.
Positioning the current relay properly is important. If the contact mechanism is
not spring loaded, the contacts will depend on gravity to open them, and the relay
will be marked “this side up.” Even a few degrees of tilt can keep the contacts
from falling open. These motors are not usually connected for reversing, as to
reverse them, it is necessary to bring four leads out of the motor.
A disadvantage of this type of relay is the possibility that short-pulse types of
overloads may cause the magnetic coil to operate and connect the start winding
across the line during each pulse. This will overheat the start winding, and it may
become shorted.
A relay coil must be designed for the amount of run current of the motor with
which it is used. If the relay coil is designed for a lower current than the motor
requires, the contacts will not open. But if the relay coil is designed for a higher
current than the motor requires, the contacts will not close. Figure 1-144 shows
this motor connected to a two-terminal overload protector. Figure 1-145 shows a
two-voltage connection using the current relay. Like the heater element of a
thermal protector, the amperes through the coil of the current relay must be the
same with either high or low voltage. The wire of the coil must be as large as the
motor winding wires that are in series with it.
7. Single-Voltage, Capacitor-Start Motor with Potential Relay. The function

of the potential relay, as with the current relay, is to disconnect the start winding
from the line when the motor reaches a predetermined speed. Figure 1-146 is a
schematic of the circuitry.
The relay consists of a magnetic coil that is connected in parallel with the start
winding, and a set of normally closed contacts that are connected in series with
the start winding. When line voltage is applied to the motor, both windings will
receive line voltage, and the motor will start. As the rotor speed increases, the
voltage across the start winding will increase above line voltage. At approxi¬
mately 75 percent of full-load speed, the voltage across the start winding will
become high enough to make the relay function. The relay opens the normally
closed contacts that are in series with the start winding, disconnecting the start
winding. The normally closed contacts remain open during normal operation
because of the high voltage that is induced into the start winding. This induced
voltage comes from the magnetic lines of force of the rotor’s cutting the wires of
the start winding. The relay is designed to function at 140 percent of line voltage.
Figure 1-147 shows the current flow after the contacts open.
It is important that the circuit containing the potential relay and the start wind¬
ing not include the capacitor. If a capacitor is in this circuit, the relay will
function before the motor reaches the right speed. The motor will not be able to
pull its rated load and will cycle at a low speed until it bums out or the circuit
protector opens.
When a capacitor-start motor with a potential relay has a flywheel-type load,

the relay contacts may open and close several times after the motor is shut off.
This is called contact flutter and will deteriorate the contacts more quickly than
normal. The flutter can be lessened by soldering a 15,000-ohm resistor across the
capacitor’s terminals. To prevent the flutter completely, the motor may be con¬
nected to a three-pole switch, as shown in Figure 1-148. This will isolate the
capacitor when the motor is shut off, opening the start-run circuit.
The potential relay can replace a centrifugal device-stationary switch system.
The contacts of the relay have a horsepower rating that should be considered
when this is done. The coil is designed to be used on 120-volt or 240-volt start
windings and is designed to function at 140 percent of the start winding’s rated
voltage. The coil can be connected across any portion of a start winding that will
produce a voltage high enough to make the relay function.
8. Two-Voltage, Capacitor-Start Motor with Potential Relay. If a motor is

dual voltage, the potential relay must be rated for the lower voltage. Figure 1-149
is a dual-voltage motor with a low-voltage potential relay connected across the
start winding.
Figure 1-150 is a motor with a 240-volt start winding that is controlled by a
120-volt potential relay. When taking data, it is important to trace the wires of
the relay coil to the winding. This will determine the voltage of the relay coil. If
a low-voltage relay is connected across the complete start winding of Figure
1-150, it will bum out. If a potential relay has no voltage rating marked on it, its
rating can be determined by applying 240 volts to it. If it closes, it should be
rated as 120 volts. A potential relay rated as 120 volts will not close on 120 volts
but will close if 240 volts are applied. A 240-volt potential relay will not close if
240 volts is applied; thus if the relay functions on 240 volts, it will be rated as
120 volts. Figure 1-151 is a straight-line diagram and a schematic of a large
motor using two potential relays to control the start winding. This motor has a
two-circuit start winding and a two-circuit run winding. The potential relays are
rated for low voltage. The connection divides the current of the start winding
between two sets of contacts.
9. Single-Voltage, Three-Lead, Reversible Capacitor-Start Motor. Any six-

lead, dual-voltage capacitor-start motor can be a three-lead reversible motor. The
motor must be used on high voltage only. Figure 1-152 shows how this is done.
When T5 is on Lx with Tx, the current flow in the start winding will be as
illustrated in Figure l-152a. When T5 is moved to L2 with T4, the current through
the start winding will be reversed. Figure 1-153 shows a connection that is used
on many motors that are five horsepower and larger. This connection is essen¬
tially the same as that in Figure 1-152, except that it shows where the connection
is made internally and the leads T2, T3, and T% are not used. These larger motors
are designed for use on high voltage only. Leads Tu T4, and T5 are accessible in
the junction box.
Capacitor Motors 35
10. Single-Voltage, Instantly Reversible Capacitor-Start Motor. Under nor¬

mal operating conditions, a capacitor-start motor must be brought to a complete
stop before it can be started in the reverse direction, because the centrifugal
device will not function until the motor has almost stopped. Because the start
winding is out of the circuit when the switch is in the open position, the reversal
of the start-winding leads while the motor is running has no effect on the motor’s
operation.
Some capacitor-start motors have a reversing switch, which is connected as
shown in Figure 1-154. This switch has three blades, or poles, that move as one
unit to either of the two positions. In one position, clockwise rotation of the
motor is provided, as shown in the illustration; in the other position, the leads of
the start winding are reversed for counterclockwise rotation. Pushbutton manual,
magnetic reversing starters or drum starters are utilized for reversing purposes.
To reverse this type of motor, it is necessary to wait until the motor slows
down to a point at which the centrifugal device causes the stationary switch
contacts to connect the start winding to the line.
Instant Reversal. Certain types of loads require instant reversal. To permit

instant reversal while the motor is operating at full speed, a relay is placed in the
circuit to short-circuit the stationary switch contacts and connect the start wind¬
ing in the circuit in the opposite polarity.
Figure 1-155 shows such an instantly reversible capacitor-start motor with a
reversing switch. At rest, the double-contact stationary switch is in the start
position, which places the start winding and the capacitor in series across the
line. At the same time, the coil of the normally closed relay is connected across
the capacitor. With the manual switch in the forward position, the run winding
is connected across the line; the start winding and capacitor are in series across
the line; and the relay coil is connected across the capacitor.
The voltage developed across the capacitor is applied to the relay coil, causing
the normally closed relay contacts to open. As the motor starts and its speed
increases, the stationary switch is thrown into the running position. This discon¬
nects the capacitor from the circuit and leaves the start winding in series with the
relay coil. This coil has high resistance and permits only enough current to flow
through the start winding to keep the relay contacts open.
During the split-second interval while the switch is being thrown from
forward to reverse, no current flows through the relay coil; consequently, the
relay contacts close. Then, when the switch reaches the reverse position, cur¬
rent flows through the now-closed relay contacts to the start winding, but in the
opposite direction. This creates a torque in the direction opposite to rotation. As
a result, the rotor is immediately brought to a stop, and the stationary switch
returns to its starting position. This places the capacitor in series with the start
winding, and the rotor starts turning in the opposite direction. The windings
and rotor on this type of motor are designed to withstand the strain of quick
reversal.
Figure 1-156 shows another instantly reversing method. The stationary switch
has two sets of contacts, one for counterclockwise rotation and the other for
clockwise rotation. The stationary switch also has a movable, spring-loaded
lifting device for opening the contacts. The lifting device is constructed so that it
cannot lift both contacts at the same time. The lifting device is moved under the
contact that is in the direction of rotation by the spool of the centrifugal device.
When the centrifugal device functions at 75 percent of full speed, it will release
the lifting device. The lifting device will then open the contacts that are in line
with it. Both sets of contacts on the stationary switch represent Ts in this explana¬
tion.
For forward rotation, as shown in Figure 1-157, Lx is connected to Tx and T5.
L2 is connected to T4 and T8-l. When the motor starts, the spool moves the lifting
device in the direction of rotation and under contact Ts-1. At 75 percent of full
speed, the spool releases the lifting device that opens Ts-1 and the start-winding
circuit. 7V2 remains closed. In Figure 1-158 the motor will be instantly reversed
when 7V1 is disconnected, 7V2 is connected to TV and T5 is connected to T4. In
this direction, T8-l is not used but is closed and ready for instant reversal. Figure
1-159 shows this motor connected to a four-pole, two-throw, center-off toggle
switch. Magnetic controllers are usually used for this purpose.
11. Single-Voltage, Two-Speed Capacitor Motor. One way of changing the

speed on a capacitor-start motor is to change the number of poles in the winding.
To do this, two separate run windings are placed in the slots. The schematics
(Figures l-163a, b) will work with any two-run, one-start winding, pole combi¬
nation.
The stationary switch has two sets of contacts that are normally closed (in the
off or at-rest position) and one set of normally open contacts. One side of each
set of contacts has a terminal or a means of connecting a wire to it. The other side
of each of the three sets of contacts is a common connection to the movable part
of the stationary switch. Figure 1-160 shows this arrangement. Figure 1-161
shows that the start winding and the matching (both rated at the same speed) run
winding are fastened to one side of each of the normally closed contacts. The run
winding also has a lead or terminal that goes to the high-speed terminal of the
external speed-selector switch. The run winding that does not have the same
number of poles as the start winding does is always fastened to the terminal of the
normally open contacts. A lead or terminal from the common movable side of the
three contacts will be fastened to the low-speed terminal of the external speed-
selector switch. The opposite end of each winding will be fastened to a common
wire or terminal. There is no NEMA standard for identifying the leads of multi¬
speed motors.
Figures l-162a and b show the path that the current takes when the high speed
is selected. The high winding is connected directly to the line. The current goes
through both sets of normally closed contacts to the start winding. When the
motor reaches about 60 percent of the high speed, the centrifugal device func-
Capacitor Motors 37
tions and disconnects the start winding. The motor is now running at the high
speed, as shown in Figures l-162a and b.
When the low speed is selected, as illustrated in Figures l-163a and b, the
low-speed connection is energized by the external speed selector switch. The
current flows from the common movable part of the stationary switch, through
both normally closed contacts, and through the high-speed start and run wind¬
ings. When the rotor reaches about 60 percent of the high speed, the centrifugal
device functions. The high-speed start and run windings are disconnected, and
the low-speed winding is energized through the now-closed, normally open con¬
tacts. The motor will now be running at the low speed, as shown in Figure
l-163b.
It is important that the centrifugal device does not function when the rotor is
going faster than the low speed when the low speed is selected. If the normally
open contacts close at 75 percent of the high speed, there will be a very high
current for a short time that can fuse together the contacts. Centrifugal devices
for two-speed motors will have a dual rating such as 1800/1200 or 1200/900.
This indicates that they will function at less than 75 percent of the rating’s
highest speed.
In some cases, the three windings of a two-speed motor must be placed in the
slots in a definite relationship to one another, as shown in Figure l-163c. This is
a typical layout of the pitch of the coils and their location in a 36-slot stator. This
is a six-pole and an eight-pole combination, which illustrates how to take these
data, should it be necessary.
12. Single-Voltage, Two-Speed Consequent-Pole Motor. This motor has one

start winding and one run winding. When the poles are connected for the same
polarity, the magnetic effect is to produce twice as many poles as there are
wound poles. It is important that the span of the coil groups be the same as or
slightly over the span used on the lower speed. There will be empty slots between
the pole groups to accomplish this. The connection diagram is shown in Figures
1-164 and 1-165. It is possible to produce two speeds by arranging the connec¬
tions between the poles in such a manner that when a speed switch is thrown in
one direction, it will connect the poles so that they have alternate polarity and the
motor operates as a four-pole motor. When it is thrown in the opposite direction,
it will connect the poles so that they have the same polarity and the motor
operates as an eight-pole motor by means of the consequent-pole method (see
Figures 1-164 and 1-165). For the high speed, lead B is connected to one line
wire, and leads A and C are connected together to the other line wire. Note that
for this speed the run winding is connected two parallel. For the low speed, lead
A is connected to one line wire and lead C is connected to the other line wire. For
this connection, the run winding is connected in series consequent. For both
speeds, the start winding is connected in series consequent. Figure 1-166 shows
the magnetic path that is produced when the poles are of the same polarity.
Figure 1-167 is a circular diagram of a consequent-pole motor. If A and T5 are
connected to L1? B is insulated, and C and Ts are connected to L2, the polarity of
the groups will be as shown. All two-speed consequent-pole connections are long
jumper in motors with four or more poles. The high speed is always twice that of
the low speed.
Permanent-Split Capacitor Motors

Permanent-split capacitor motors are manufactured in sizes ranging from 1/20 to
35 horsepower. The smaller sizes are used on fans of all types. Because of the
low inrush amperes, this motor can tolerate the stress of starting a flywheel-type
load. The bearings, the windings, and the oil-filled capacitor are the only compo¬
nents that are subject to breakdown. This motor is comparable to the three-phase
motor for low maintenance. Most of the smaller sizes cannot be repaired because
of the way they are constructed. But the larger sizes are used in hermetically
sealed refrigeration compressors and can be repaired.
A permanent-split capacitor motor is a capacitor motor having the same value
of capacitance for both starting and running conditions. This motor is similar to
the capacitor-start motor except for the following:
1. The capacitor and start winding are connected in the circuit at all times.
2. The capacitor is the oil-impregnated type and is of low value compared with
electrolytic capacitors.
3. No centrifugal device or stationary switch is necessary.
This motor is quiet and smooth running and has a comparatively low torque.
These motors are sometimes called single-value capacitor-run motors.
Some types of permanent-split capacitor motors are
1. Single-voltage reversible and nonreversible.

2. Single-voltage, special-duty reversible.
3. Two voltage reversible.
4. Two-speed single-voltage.
5. Three-speed single-voltage.
1. Single-Voltage, Reversible and Nonreversible Permanent-Split Capacitor

Motor. This motor is similar in all respects to the capacitor-start motor, except
that it does not contain a centrifugal switching system. It has two windings, one
run, and one start. The start winding has more turns than does the start winding
of a capacitor-start motor. The start and run windings are placed 90 electrical
degrees from each other. An oil-impregnated capacitor may be mounted on or
separate from the motor. The capacity is low compared with that of the electro¬
lytic capacitors of the capacitor-start motors. A wiring diagram of a single-value
capacitor motor is shown in Figure 1-168. To reverse this motor, reverse the
start-winding leads in respect to the run-winding leads.
Figure l-169a shows a nonreversible connection used on many special-duty
applications. Some of these applications include furnace fans, window air-condi-
Capacitor Motors 39
tioner fans, and hermetically sealed refrigeration compressors. The small-sized,

permanent-split capacitor motors are constructed in such a way that repair is not
economically feasible. In some cases, they cannot be disassembled without
breaking the components.
The permanent-split capacitor motor is popular for sealed refrigeration com¬
pressors because of its low maintenance (see Figure 1-169b). Because of its low
starting torque, the compressors occasionally become stuck. They can sometimes
be loosened with a capacitor bank-starting unit, as shown in Figure 1-170. This
unit will reverse the motor’s starting torque by switching the single-pole, double¬
throw switch from one position to the other. The principle used here is explained
next in “Single-Voltage, Special-Duty Reversible, Permanent-Split Capacitor
Motors.’’ Electrolytic capacitors rated for 250 volts are used in this starting unit.
The amount of capacitance is selected in proportion to the compressor’s horse¬
power. The unit is energized several times for two to three seconds in each
direction. If this does not start the unit, it will be necessary to repair or replace it.
2. Single-Voltage, Special-Duty Reversible, Permanent-Split Capacitor

Motor. This motor has a low starting torque and is used in dishwashers and
control valves. It has two identical windings placed 90 degrees from each other.
Both these windings are capable of being run windings. One serves as the run
winding and the other as the start winding for one direction of rotation. During
the reverse rotation, the one that formerly served as the run winding becomes the
start winding, and the former start winding becomes the run winding. The wind¬
ing that has the capacitor in series with it will have a leading current and thus
become the start winding. These windings are formed in the same manner as
those in the capacitor-start motor.
The principle of the motor’s operation depends on the fact that the direction of
the rotor’s rotation is always from a start-winding pole to an adjacent run-wind¬
ing pole of the same polarity. Tracing the circuit shown in Figure 1-171 shows
that when the switch is in the forward position, the current travels through wind¬
ing (b) to line 2. The current also takes a path through the capacitor and winding
(a) to line 2. The capacitor gives winding (a) a leading current, and so it becomes
the start winding. Winding (b) has a lagging current and acts as the run winding,
causing rotation.
If the switch is in the reverse position (Figure 1-172), winding (a) becomes the
run winding, and winding (b) acts as the start winding. The motor then rotates in
the opposite direction.
3. Two-Voltage, Reversible, Permanent-Split Capacitor Motor. The connec¬

tions of the motor, illustrated in Figure 1-173, differ from the dual-voltage ca¬
pacitor-start motor only in that it has no centrifugal switch system. A two-section
run winding and a one-section start winding are used. The run-winding sections
are connected in series for high voltage. The start winding is connected in paral¬
lel with one of the run-winding sections, which limits the voltage to the start
winding to one-half the line voltage. The low-voltage connection has all the
sections in parallel. These motors are wound using the same procedures that are
used in winding the capacitor-start motors.
4. Two-Speed, Single-Voltage, Permanent-Split Capacitor Motor. Unlike the

two-speed capacitor-start motor, this single-voltage motor does not require a
change in the number of poles in order to decrease its speed. The speed of the
rotor is never as fast as the speed of the stator’s rotating magnetic field. The
difference between these two speeds is called slip. When loaded, a decrease in
the strength of the rotating magnetic field increases the slip and therefore de¬
creases the speed of the rotor. The rotating magnetic field strength is decreased
by adding turns to the run winding. This decreases the volts per turn of the run
winding, thereby reducing the amperes of the run circuit. The result is the same
as reducing the line voltage. The load remains the same so that the result is a
lower speed because of the increase in slip.
Figures l-174a and b show a two-speed winding connected for high speed and
for low speed. The run winding has two parts, a high winding and a low winding.
The high winding has a large number of turns and is designed to operate on line
voltage. The low winding has fewer turns and is designed to be connected in
series with the high winding. If the low winding is connected across the line, it
will bum immediately. These motors can be wound for alternate pole or conse¬
quent pole. The high-speed part of the winding is inserted first and usually
connected as one circuit. The second speed is inserted on top of the high speed. It
also is usually connected in one circuit. The polarity of the low-speed poles must
match the polarity of the high-speed poles with which they are wound. The wire
size of the low-speed winding can be smaller than that of the high-speed winding
because of the reduction in amperes when the low speed is used. The consequent-
pole connection is used in some very low speed ceiling fans.
The start winding is placed 90 electrical degrees from the run winding. It is
connected one circuit and is connected in series with the oil capacitor. Figure
1-175 is two schematics showing two ways that the start winding can be con¬
nected for operation. These connections can also be used on three-speed motors.
With connection (a), the start winding and the run winding always receive the
same voltage. When a lower speed is selected, the starting torque will be sub¬
stantially reduced. With connection (b), the line voltage is applied to the start
winding on all speeds, giving the motor a better starting torque than connection
(a) does. These motors are usually nonreversible. If they are reversible, the
start-winding leads will be interchanged with respect to the run-winding leads, as
with other capacitor motors.
5. Three-Speed, Single-Voltage, Permanent-Split Capacitor Motor. This

motor is similar to the two-speed motor just described. The third speed is yet
another winding inserted on top of the high- and second-speed windings. Like
the second-speed winding, it is usually one circuit and must be of the same
polarity as the poles with which it is wound. Figure 1-176 illustrates the three-
speed winding, and Figure i-177 shows another three-speed connection. The
Capacitor Motors 41
wire size of the medium and low speed can be smaller than that of the high speed.
Any single-speed permanent-split capacitor motor can be redesigned as a two-or
more-speed motor by adding turns to the run winding, as described above.
The start winding for this motor has the same characteristics as the previously
described permanent-split capacitor motors. The start winding will be connected
across the high winding or across the line. Figure 1-175 illustrates both ways.
These schematic diagrams of the three-speed motor show the current flow
when the motor is connected for the three different speeds. On high speed,
shown in Figure 1-178, the high-run winding and the start winding are across the
line. On medium speed, shown in Figure 1-179, the high-speed winding is in
series with the medium-speed winding. The start winding is in parallel with the
high-speed winding and in series with the medium-speed winding. In low speed,
shown in Figure 1-180, both the medium-speed winding and the low-speed wind¬
ing are in series with the high-speed winding. The start winding is in parallel
with the high-speed winding and in series with the medium- and the low-speed
windings. The start winding is sometimes connected so that it is always across
the line, as shown in Figure 1-176. If there is no load on this motor and either
medium or low speed is selected, the motor will run at high speed. It will run
more quietly and draw less current than if the high speed is selected. With a load
applied, there will be more slip, and the speed will be reduced.
Figure 1-181 shows a factory schematic of this motor; Figure 1-182 shows a
six-pole, three-speed permanent-split capacitor-run motor; and Figure 1-183 is
the slot layout of the motor in Figure 1-182.
TWO-VALUE CAPACITOR MOTOR
The two-value capacitor motor has an oil-filled capacitor connected in parallel

with the electrolytic capacitor and the stationary switch contacts (see Figure
1-184). At start, both capacitors are in parallel with each other, but in series,
with the start winding. This creates a high-starting torque, which is usually
required by compressors, stokers, and so on. When the stationary switch contacts
open, the electrolytic capacitor is eliminated from the start circuit. Current still
flows in the start winding, but is limited by the low Mfd value of the oil-filled
capacitor. The oil-filled capacitor will raise the power factor, reducing the mag¬
netizing current supplied by the line. The power factor is explained in Chapter 3.
Figure 1-185 is a simplified connection of a two-value capacitor motor. Both the
run and start windings remain in the circuit at all times.
START-WINDING CONNECTIONS
The connections used with capacitor-start motors and two-value capacitor motors
are sometimes hard to recognize because of the location of the capacitors. Some
motors will have capacitors located in as many as three places on and in the
motor. Regardless of the location, the following schematic diagrams illustrate
most of the start-winding connections. The schematic diagrams start with a one-
voltage start winding with one electrolytic capacitor and proceed to the more
complex combinations.
1. Single-voltage start winding with one electrolytic capacitor.

2. Single-voltage start winding with two electrolytic capacitors in parallel.
3. Two electrolytic capacitors connected in series.
4. Two electrolytic capacitors connected in series, in parallel with two electro¬
lytic capacitors connected in series.
5. Two electrolytic capacitors connected in parallel, in series with two electro¬
lytic capacitors connected in parallel.
6. Two-voltage start winding with one set of stationary switch contacts.
7. Two-voltage start winding with internally connected line leads.
8. Two-voltage start winding with two stationary switch contacts.
9. One-voltage start winding with a separate winding for an oil-filled capacitor.
10. One-voltage start winding with a potential relay.
11. Two-voltage start winding with one potential relay.
All start-winding connections using electrolytic capacitors can also be two-

value capacitor connections. For this reason, the oil-filled capacitor connections
will be included in all the diagrams but will be drawn with broken lines.
Oil-filled capacitors are always connected in parallel to the electrolytic capaci¬
tors) and the stationary switch contacts. If more than one oil-filled capacitor is
used, they will be connected in parallel to each other. Oil-filled capacitors are
never connected in series in any capacitor motor. The lead wire used for the
oil-filled capacitor connections should be rated for at least 600 volts. The voltage
across them will be much higher than the line voltage or the voltage applied to
the start winding.
The oil-filled capacitors that are used in most two-value capacitor motors are
rated for 330 to 370 volts; 440- and 660-volt capacitors are also available. The
voltage rating of replacement capacitors should be the same as or higher than the
original. The Mfd rating should be the same, as a higher Mfd value will allow
more amperes through the start circuit and may cause the motor to overheat.
1. Single-Voltage Start Winding with One Electrolytic Capacitor. This wind¬

ing may be designed for either high voltage or low voltage. Figure 1-186 shows
the connection as it is used with a run winding designed for the same voltage.
The capacitor’s voltage rating should be the same as the voltage applied to the
start winding. Figure 1-187 shows this connection when the start winding is
designed for low voltage and is used with a run winding designed for high
voltage. With this connection, the capacitor rating is for low voltage.
2. Single-Voltage Start Winding with Two Electrolytic Capacitors iu Parallel.

This connection is sometimes used when a large amount of capacitance is
needed. It is also used if one capacitor is too large for the space available. This
Capacitor Motors 43
connection is also used when it is necessary to increase the capacitor’s cooling

ability. Two capacitors in parallel, each rated as one-half the Mfd needed, have
twice the cooling area that one large capacitor has.
The voltage rating of the capacitors used in this connection is the same as the
voltage applied to the start winding. This connection is illustrated in Figure
1-188.
3. Two Electrolytic Capacitors Connected in Series. This connection is always

used on high voltage (240 volts). The voltage rating of the capacitors used in this
connection is always low voltage (125 volts). The capacitors should be of equal
Mfd value. The voltage is divided across capacitors of unequal size in inverse
proportion to their Mfd rating. If a capacitor of low value (150 Mfd) is connected
in series with a capacitor with a larger value (270 Mfd), the voltage across the
smaller capacitor will be high and cause early failure of the smaller capacitor.
Figure 1-189 shows a series connection.
In most electrolytic capacitor connections it may be assumed that
1. All series capacitor connections are for high voltage.

2. The Mfd rating of all capacitors connected in series must be equal.
3. All capacitors connected in series are rated for low voltage.
4. No more than two electrolytic capacitors are ever connected in series.
4. Two Electrolytic Capacitors Connected in Series, in Parallel with Two Elec¬

trolytic Capacitors Connected in Series. Figure 1-190 shows this connection,
which is used on large motors. It is always used on high voltage. All capacitors
must have equal Mfd ratings and should be rated for low voltage.
5. Two Electrolytic Capacitors Connected in Parallel, in Series with Two Elec¬

trolytic Capacitors Connected in Parallel. Figure 1-191 shows this connection,
which is also used on large motors and is always used on high voltage. All
capacitors should have the same Mfd values and be rated for low voltage.
6. Two-Voltage Start Winding with One Set of Stationary Switch Contacts.

Figure 1-192 shows this connection, which uses one or more electrolytic capaci¬
tors connected in series with each half of the start winding. If more than one
capacitor is used in each half, they should be connected in parallel with each
other, never in series. The electrolytic capacitors should be rated for low voltage,
and the total capacitance for each half must be the same. Both sides of the
stationary switch are brought out of the motor and labeled T9 and T10. Oil-filled
capacitors are usually not used with this connection.
7. Two-Voltage Start Winding with Internally Connected Line Leads. Figure

1-193 shows that T9 and Txo are internally connected to leads Tx an^ T4. The
switch contacts are in series with the run-winding leads T4 and Txo. This connec-
tion uses one or more electrolytic capacitors connected in series with each half of
the winding. If more than one capacitor is used in each half, they should be
connected in parallel. The capacitors are rated for low voltage, and the same Mfd
values should be used in each half. Oil-filled capacitors are not used in this
connection.
8. Two-Voltage Start Winding with Two Stationary Switch Contacts. Figure

1-194 shows this connection, in which there are two sets of stationary switch
contacts that are internally connected in series with T6 and 78. If more than one
electrolytic capacitor is used, the same rules apply as for a two-voltage start
winding with one set of stationary switch contacts.
9. One-Voltage Start Winding with a Separate Winding for an Oil-Filled Ca¬

pacitor. This connection, as shown in Figure 1-195, has a separate winding that
is in parallel with the regular start winding. It is wound with smaller wire than is
used in the regular start winding. This winding is connected internally to T5 with
the regular start winding. It is wound with the regular start-winding pole groups
and is connected so that it has the same polarity as does the regular start-winding
poles. The other end of this winding is connected in series with the oil-filled
capacitor and 78, as shown. If possible, the connection to Ts should be made
permanent and not accessible.
10. One-Voltage Start Winding with a Potential Relay. How the potential
relay operates has already been explained. The oil-filled capacitor and the elec¬
trolytic capacitor should not be in the winding-relay circuit. The voltage rating of
the relay must be the same as the voltage that is applied to the start winding.
Figure 1-196 shows this connection with an oil-filled capacitor.
11. Two-Voltage Start Winding with One Potential Relay. The relay used for
this connection is rated for low voltage (see Figure 1-197). The relay is con¬
nected in parallel with one section of the start winding. The contacts of the relay
should have leads labeled T9 and 710. The explanation for a two-voltage start
winding with one set of contacts applies to this connection. The potential relay
can replace the centrifugal switch system of most capacitor-start motors.
CALCULATIONS FOR REWINDING

AND RECONNECTING
Before making any rewinding or reconnecting calculations, you should under¬

stand wire size and its measurements. The size of copper magnet wire is desig¬
nated by its diameter and identified by a gauge number. The diameter may be
measured in thousands of an inch by a micrometer and its gauge number by
means of an American Wire Gauge (A.W.G.).
Capacitor Motors 45
Refer to Table I in the Appendix and note that the first column of this table for
bare copper wire lists the various sizes of wire. The second column lists the
diameter of each wire in inches. For size No. 18 in the first column, the diameter
is 0.0403 in. The figure can be read as 40.3 thousands of an inch, or 40.3 mils,
just by moving the decimal point three numerals to the right. A mil, therefore, is
one thousandth (1/1000) of an inch.
As we are primarily interested in the safe ampere-carrying capacity of a wire,
all computations involving round copper wire are based on a term called circular
mil area. This area is arrived at by multiplying the diameter in mils by itself. In
other words, the diameter squared is the circular mil area. Looking at column 3
in the table alongside No. 18 wire, we find the area in circular mils to be 1,624.
This is found by multiplying 40.3 by 40.3, the diameter in mils squared.
From Table I we find that
1. The larger the gauge number, the smaller the wire; for example, No. 20 is
smaller than No. 17. This is shown in the wire table. Number 20 wire has an
area of approximately 1,000 c.m. (circular mils), whereas No. 17 has an area of
2,000 c.m.
2. By examining the wire table, it can be seen that the area in circular mils doubles
or halves every three numbers. By adding three gauge numbers, the circular mil
area is halved. By subtracting three gauge numbers, the circular mil area is
doubled. Thus, No. 17 has twice the circular mil area as No. 20, and No. 18 has
half the circular mil area of No. 15. Two No. 18 wires are the equivalent in area
to one No. 15.
3. A No. 10 wire is approximately 100 mils in diameter and has approximately an
area of 10,000 circular mils.
4. Every ten sizes the circular mil area is divided or multiplied by ten. For exam¬
ple, a No. 10 wire has a circular mil area ten times that of No. 20 wire. From
this and the previous fact, the circular mil area of nearly all wires can be
approximated.
5. Adding three wire sizes doubles the resistance. Subtracting three wire sizes
halves the resistance.
6. Adding three wire sizes halves the weight of the wire. Subtracting three wire
sizes doubles the weight of the wire.
Rewinding for a Change in Voltage

One of the simplest changes is a voltage change. The only change necessary for
this type of conversion is in the wire size, the number of turns per coil, and, in
some instances, a capacitor-value change. The coil span and connection are not
changed.
Rule 1.
new voltage
New turns =-;-x ong. turns
ong. voltage
Rule 2.
T ong. voltage
New c.m. area —---x orig. c.m. area
new voltage
Rule 3.
m , (orig. voltage)2 .
New capacitance m uf =-— x ong. uf
(new voltage)2 6 ^
The following example will illustrate the above rules. A 115-volt, one-horse-
power, 1,725-rpm, 60-cycle, capacitor-start motor having 36 slots is to be
rewound for 230 volts, at the same speed. Find the new turns per coil, the wire
size for both windings, and the capacitor /if.
Data:
Run winding, span 1-9 1-7 1-5 No. 15

turns 38 26 20
Start winding, span 1-10 1-8 1-6 No. 19
turns 14 28 15
Use Rule 1 for the new turns. Because the new voltage is twice the original
voltage, the turns per coil will be doubled.
Run winding, span 1-9 1-7 1-5

Run winding, new turns 76 52 40
Start winding, span 1-10 1-8 1-6
Start winding, new turns 28 56 30
Use Rule 2 for the new circular mil area.
ong. voltage
New c.m. area — -x orig. c.m. area
new voltage
115
- = one-half c.m. area
230
R.W.:
c.m. area of No. 15 = 3,257 c.m.

one-half of 3,257 = 1,628
1,628 c.m. = No. 18
Capacitor Motors 47
S.W.:
c.m. of No. 19 = 1,288

one-half of 1,288 = 644 c.m.
644 c.m. area = No. 22
Use Rule 3 to determine the size of the capacitor.
(orig. voltage)2
New capacitance in /if = x orig. /if
(new voltage)2
(115)2
New /if = v x 600 /if
(230)2
13,225 1
X /if 600 /if
52,900
Therefore the new capacity will be 25 percent of the original capacity. If the
115-volt motor had a 600-/if capacitor, the new capacitor needed for the 230-volt
rewind would be 150-/if. Be sure to select a 230-volt capacitor for the replace¬
ment. The start winding need not be changed in a 115- to 230-volt conversion if
the start winding is connected across half the run winding.
In this case, the run winding will also act as an autotransformer. Because the
voltage across two poles of a four-pole run winding is one-half the line voltage
and because the start winding is connected across two poles, the start winding
will receive one-half the line voltage.
Assume that the above motor is to be rewound for dual-voltage operation on
115 or 230 volts. Proceed as follows:
1. Rewind the run winding as before for 230 volts. However, bring out six
leads for a dual-voltage, externally reversible operation, as shown in Figure
1-131.
2. Use the same turns in the run winding as calculated in the previous exam¬
ple.
3. Because the start winding is connected to one section of the run winding,
no change is necessary.
4. The two sections of the run winding are connected in series for 230 volts
and in parallel for 115 volts.
Reconnecting for a Change in Voltage

The principle for all reconnections for voltage change is that the original pole
voltage remains the same despite the line-voltage change. Thus, a four-pole,
230-volt, series-connected motor may he converted to operate on 115 volts
merely by reconnecting it in two parallel or in two circuits, as shown in Figures
1-198 and 1-199. Note that in either connection, the voltage across each pole
remains the same.
Voltage changes by means of reconnections are not always possible. For ex¬
ample, a four-pole, series-connected motor cannot be reconnected for a higher-
voltage operation because if a higher voltage is impressed on the series connec¬
tion, the voltage across each pole will be greater than they were designed for, and
so they will bum out. Likewise, a two-pole, two-parallel motor cannot be recon¬
nected for a lower voltage because there can be no more than two parallels in a
two-pole motor.
Rewinding for a Change in Speed

Before devising specific rules for rewinding a capacitor-start motor for a change
in speed, it is necessary to explain and define two terms essential to the calcula¬
tions for this type of conversion. These terms are effective turns and chord
factor. Effective turns in a coil are usually different from the actual turns in a
coil. This is because the effective turns depend on the span of the coil. A full
span will make the coil 100 percent effective. A lesser span will make the coil
less effective. For example, a full-span coil having 20 actual turns will also have
20 effective turns, whereas a lesser-span coil of 20 turns may have only ten
effective turns. In Figure 1-200, note that each pole of the run winding of this
particular motor consists of four coils, each having different spans. From the
above it can readily be seen that the outer coil will be more effective than the
other coils because it has a greater span. The amount of effectiveness will depend
on the number of electrical degrees spanned. Here, each pole covers a distance of
180 electrical degrees.
To compute the effectiveness of each pole, examine the four-pole, 36-slot
motor of Figure 1-200. Each pole has nine slots, and because this is equivalent to
180 electrical degrees, it follows that there are 20 electrical degrees between the
adjacent slots. The pitch of the outer coil in each pole is 1-9. The outer coil
encompasses seven slots plus one-half slot for each of the slots it occupies. An
easier way to determine this is to count the teeth encompassed by the coil that is
being calculated. The number of teeth is used to find the angle of a coil. This
formula can be used with any stator, regardless of the number of poles or slots.
Poles x 180° / number of teeth in stator = degrees per tooth
Degrees per tooth x teeth encompassed by the coil = the angle of the coil
Sine of one-half the angle of the coil = chord factor
Eight teeth are encompassed by a coil with a 1-9 span, and so the angle of the coil
is
8 x 20° = 160°
One-half 160° = 80°
Sine of 80° = 0.984, or the chord factor of the coil
Capacitor Motors 49
To find the number of effective turns of a coil, multiply the number of actual
turns by the chord factor. Table VIII in the Appendix can be used to find the most
common chord factors. A calculator with a sine function can also be used.
For the above motor, the chord factor of the outer coil is 0.984, and the
number of effective turns is equal to the number of actual turns multiplied by
0.984. The next coil in the pole spans six slots and is equivalent to six times 20,
or 120 electrical degrees. Its chord factor is 0.87, and the number of effective
turns is equal to the number of actual turns in the coil multiplied by 0.87.
From the above, we obtain the following formula:
Effective turns = actual turns x chord factor
To calculate the number of effective turns in one pole of a motor, we shall

assume a four-pole, 36-slot motor, as in Figure 1-200. This motor has nine slots
per pole and four coils in each pole of the run winding. Use chord factor from
Table VIII in the Appendix.
Span Actual Turns Chord Factor Eff. Turns
1-9 30 0.98 = 29
1-7 30 0.87 = 26
1-5 18 0.64 —
12
1-3 20 0.34 —
7
74
The number of effective turns in the start winding can be found in exactly the
same manner.
It was mentioned at the beginning of this section that it would be necessary to
compute the number of effective turns for a conversion in speed.
As an example, assume that the four-pole, 36-slot, 1,750-rpm motor of Figure
1-200 is to be rewound for six poles, 1,150 rpm.
Step 1. Compute the total number of effective turns in the entire run winding.
For a four-pole motor, this is the number of effective turns for one pole multi¬
plied by four, or 74 x 4 = 296 effective turns.
Step 2. Rewinding for six poles:
orig. rpm . 4
New eff. turns =-x orig. eff. turns
new rpm
1,800 ^ „„„
=-x 296 = 444 turns for entire
1 ’ 200 a-
run winding •
Step 3. Determine the number of effective turns per pole:
___ total turns 444

Eff. turns per pole =-=-= 74 eff. turns
poles 6
Because this will be a six-pole motor, each pole will occupy six slots. Three
coils per pole will be used having pitches 1-7, 1-5, and 1-3, as in the six-pole
layout of Figure 1-201. Note that the outer coils of each pole overlap one an¬
other.
Step 4. It has been found in practice that the number of actual turns are approxi¬
mately 1.25 the number of effective turns. To obtain the number of actual turns
from that of the effective turns, multiply by 1.25. This will be 74 x 1.25 = 92
actual turns.
Step 5. Because the outer coils of adjacent poles overlap, use half the turns in
coil 1-7, as for 1-5 pitch. Use the same turns for pitch 1-3.
Span Turns Chord Factor Eff. Turns

1-7 23 1.0 23.0
1-5 46 0.87 40.0
1-3 23 0.50 11.5
92 74.5
The sum 74.5 checks with 74 effective turns originally computed for each pole
of this six-pole motor.
Compute the start winding in the same manner.
To determine the size wire necessary in this conversion, compute in the fol¬
lowing manner:
new speed
New c.m. area =-x c.m. of orig. wire
orig. speed
1,200 2
=-x c.m. = —c.m. of orig. wire
1,800 3 6
If the original wire were No. 17 = 2,048 c.m., then
2/3 x 2,048 = 1,365 c.m.

1,365 = No. 19
It is important to take into consideration the centrifugal device in making a

speed change. It is essential that the stationary switch open at the proper speed
(approximately 75 percent of normal speed). Therefore, in changing, for exam-
Capacitor Motors 51
pie, from a four-pole to a six-pole motor, it must be ascertained beforehand

whether or not the centrifugal device will function at approximately 900 rpm.
CAPACITOR FAILURE
Capacitor failure can be contributed to one or more of the following reasons:
1. Excessive voltage.
2. Excessive-duty cycle.
3. Excessive temperature.
4. Internal corrosion.
Excessive Voltage
Excessive voltage will cause arcing through the oxide film or dielectric, resulting
in a permanent short. One of the ways that excessive voltage can occur is when
the start-switch contacts of the motor chatter before opening. This can subject the
capacitor to voltages up to two or three times the rated voltage. This condition
will also shorten the life of the contacts if not corrected.
When the motor is disconnected from the line and the start contacts close, the
capacitor discharges into the start winding. This will result in a braking effect on
the motor but will not harm the motor or capacitor. To minimize the braking
effect and the extra stress on the start contacts, a 15,000-ohm resistor may be
soldered across the capacitor’s terminals.
Excessive-Duty Cycle
If the voltage does not exceed the capacitor rating but is applied for a longer
period than recommended, the extra heat accumulated will dry out the moisture
content of the electrolyte and char the paper, and the capacitor will cease to
function. In this case, the failure is considered “bum up,” and the capacitor may
not be found to be short-circuited. It would likely test “open,” as no electrolytic
action can take place without moisture. This condition can also be caused by too
many starts per hour. Sometimes the load requires more than the recommended
starts per hour. In this case, the heat can be dissipated more efficiently by using
two capacitors in parallel, each rated as one-half the original. This will double
the heat-radiating surface and have the same Mfd rating.
An excessive-duty cycle also includes prolonged starts. An electrolytic capaci¬
tor should be in the circuit for no longer than three seconds. Taking too long to
reach full speed can be caused by the following reasons:
1. Overload.
2. Worn bearings.
3. Wrong-sized capacitor.
4. Low voltage.
1. An overload can be corrected by reducing either the size of the pulley on

the motor or the actual load. If neither can be reduced, a larger motor must be
installed.
2. Worn bearings have the same effect as does an overload. The solution is to
replace the bearings.
3. If the capacitor is too small, the amperes of the start winding will be
reduced. The result is a reduced starting torque and a longer starting time. If the
capacitor is too large, it will cause a braking effect at about 50 to 60 percent of
full speed, preventing the start contacts from opening. The proper-sized capaci¬
tor can be determined from “The Right-sized Capacitor” in this chapter.
4. Low-line voltage will prolong the start time and can be caused by over¬
loaded branch circuits or circuit wiring that is too small. In this case, it may be
necessary to install another circuit for the motor.
Low-line voltage is also caused by loose connections. A loose connection
becomes hot and eventually will char the wire and its insulation. Discolored wire
at a connection is an indication that it is loose. The voltage drop is considered
excessive when it stays below 5 percent of the motor’s rated voltage while the
motor is running.
Excessive Temperature
Capacitors operated above the maximum recommended temperature limit of 150°
will have a shortened life expectancy. This is due to the increased evaporation
rate of their water content. The arcing or puncture point of the oxide film or
dialectric is lowered at high temperatures. The possibility of voltage failure in¬
creases as the temperature rises.
Internal Corrosion
Corrosion destroys the oxide film, causing quick failure because of a breakdown.
It also eats away at the connection tabs, causing an open circuit. Clorides are
particularly detrimental and can be traced to poor manufacturing or a broken or
defective seal, permitting moisture absorption.
One of the more elusive malfunctions of capacitors occurs when the connect¬
ing strap between the plate and the terminal is broken. Good contact is not
established, and the motor occasionally will not start. If the switch and the
governing device are not found to be faulty, pry out the retainer ring and care¬
fully lift out the round terminal board, as shown in Figure 1-202. If the strap is
not broken, the capacitor can be reassembled.
Some manufacturers place soft foam plastic on top of the capacitor terminals
to secure and protect the wires. But when wet, the foam absorbs water and causes
the terminals to arc and open at the rivets. The foam should be replaced with duct
seal. The capacitors should always be securely fastened, or the movement will
flex and break the lead wires.
Capacitor Motors 53
THE RIGHT-SIZED CAPACITOR

One can do an acre of math trying to calculate the right-sized capacitor and still
have to use some trial and error. A much easier way to do this is to combine the
calculating and the trial and error. This method can be used to “custom fit” a
capacitor to a motor at the site where it is used. Often the voltage and other
conditions are quite different when the motor is used someplace other than at the
service center. First, make available the capacitor leads and both sides of the start
winding, as shown in Figure 1-203. Then apply power to both the start and run
winding with the rotor locked.* The voltage across the capacitor and the start
winding should be recorded. The voltage across the capacitor should be 10 per¬
cent higher than the voltage across the start winding when the right-sized capaci¬
tor is found. The voltage should be read as quickly as possible because the values
will change as the windings get hot.
FORMULAS FOR FINDING CAPACITOR VALUES

Capacitors are connected in parallel, in series, and in a combination of both
parallel and series. The formulas and connections are as follows:
c,
-11
i—)i—i M-
1-)|- 1
c2
1. Parallel. This connection can be made with any number of capacitors with
any Mfd rating. The voltage rating of each capacitor must be the same as or
higher than the voltage applied to the start-winding circuit. The total Mfd of
capacitors connected in parallel is found by adding together the Mfd value of
each of them.
C\ + C2 T C3 — Ct
c2
2. Series. This connection is usually found when the voltage applied to the
start-winding circuit is 230 volts. In this case, the capacitors are rated as 125
volts. There are never more than two capacitors in series. Each capacitor should
have the same Mfd rating. The total Mfd of equal Mfd capacitors in series is
*The rotor may be locked in a vise padded with wood.

found by dividing the Mfd value of one by the number of them (2). If the
capacitors have unequal Mfd values, the total Mfd is found by using the formula
Product -T- sum (C i x C2) ^ (C i + C2) = Ct
3. Two Capacitors in Parallel, in Series with Two Capacitors in Parallel.
C3
II—1 < I-
-II—1
C4
The total Mfd of this connection is found by first adding the Mfd values of
each parallel circuit and then using the proper series formula for the final total.
4. Two Capacitors in Series, in Parallel with Two Capacitors in Series.
Ci c2
)i—)\
The total Mfd for this circuit is found by using the proper formula to determine
the Mfd in each series circuit. The final step is to add these totals together for the
total Mfd.
TROUBLESHOOTING AND REPAIR

Defective capacitors are a frequent source of trouble in capacitor motors. They
may short-circuit, open-circuit, or deteriorate with a resulting change in capac¬
ity. If they short-circuit, the motor windings may bum out. Poor starting or
improper operation may result from an open-circuited capacitor or one that has a
changed capacity.
The purpose of the capacitor is to make the start-winding current lead the
current of the run winding by 90°. The right-sized capacitor for the motor will
give the start winding this lead. If there is not enough capacitance, the currents
will become less than 90° apart, and the rotating magnetic field will not have the
maximum effect. The smaller a capacitor’s Mfd value is, the less current will be
available for the start winding. The result of these two effects is less starting
efficiency and ability.
Capacitor Motors 55
Although both electrolytic and oil capacitors are used on capacitor motors, the
electrolytic capacitor is the one that more frequently fails. Both types can be
tested with the following methods. All motor leads must be removed for these
tests.
Charge-Discharge Test. Using line voltage with a 1,800 watt resistor in

series with one lead, touch the terminals of the capacitor briefly to charge it, as
shown in Figure 1-204. Then short-circuit the terminals with a screwdriver, as
shown in Figure 1-205. A snappy spark should be visible. If the capacitor does
not spark, charge and discharge it several times. If there is little or no sparking,
the capacitor is either open or seriously diminished in capacity. If the test leads
arc when touching the capacitor’s terminals and there is no charging, the capaci¬
tor is shorted.
Caution. If line voltage is applied to a capacitor, it can explode. This can

happen to a new capacitor as well as a defective one. Thus place a cardboard box
or a pail over the capacitor being tested to prevent injury.
Ohmmeter Test. Place the test leads of an ohmmeter on the capacitor’s termi¬
nals. If the capacitor is not faulty, the needle will peg zero and slowly return
toward infinity. Reverse the test leads and test it again, and it will do the same
thing. An infinity or near-infinity reading means that the capacitor is open. A
continuous zero reading will mean that the capacitor is shorted. Neither the
charge-discharge test nor the ohmmeter test will show the capacitor’s true value,
as it may have lost some of its capacitance because of the evaporation of the
electrolyte but still pass these tests.
As a result of these tests, the capacitor is suspected of being defective and it
should be replaced. If after replacement, the motor starts and has proper torque,
it may be concluded that the capacitor was faulty. Several manufacturers have
capacitor selectors that provide capacities ranging from 80 to 1000 /xf, merely by
changing a switching arrangement.
Capacity Test. To determine a capacitor’s strength, an ammeter, a voltmeter,

and line voltage are needed. Place an ammeter in series with the capacitor and a
voltmeter across it, as shown in Figure 1-206. Caution must be used in this test
because line voltage is applied to the capacitor. When this is done, the capacitor
can explode, and so place something over the capacitor, such as a cardboard box.
The capacitor should be in the circuit for as short a time as possible.
From the meter readings, the capacitor’s rating in microfarads can be obtained
from the following formula:
159,300 amperes
Capacity in /xf =-x---
frequency volts
If the formula is used on 60 cycles and 120 volts, it can be shortened to:
159,300
2,655
60
2,655
22
120
Amperes x 22 = /xf
For 120 volts the multiplier is 22, or amperes x 22 = Microfarads. And for 240
volts, 2,655/240 = 11, or amperes x 11 = Microfarads. If the capacity is 20 per¬
cent less than the stamped rating, replace it. For a given voltage, the Mfd needed
will increase as the horsepower increases. An increase in Mfd will mean an
increase in amperes available for the start winding.
The start circuit is more subject to problems than the run circuit is because it
is designed to be energized for only one to three seconds. If it is energized any
longer, both the winding and the capacitor will become overheated. The order in
which the start-winding components break down are as follows: (1) switch con¬
tacts, (2) capacitor, (3) centrifugal device, and (4) windings. The switch contacts
become burned and pitted after a great many starts. The capacitor will break
down sooner than normal if it is in the circuit too long or if it is not given enough
time to cool off between starts. Twenty starts per hour is considered maximum.
The centrifugal device will become worn and/or dirty, resulting in a malfunc¬
tion. Usually the device will stick in the open position. The winding can become
charred from being in the circuit too long. The heating and cooling of the wind¬
ing contribute to insulation breakdown between the start and run windings. New
motors have no insulation between the start and run windings. A layer of the
right temperature class insulation between the two windings decreases the chance
of a short. Several classes of tape are available for this purpose.
A capacitor start motor should jump up to top speed quickly when full voltage
is applied at no load. The starting torque should lift one side of the motor off the
bench on any T-frame motor. This snappy start will be noticeably reduced if the
capacitor is too small. A capacitor that is too small will cause a more noticeable
drop in torque because less Mfd will reduce the amount of current available to the
start winding. A capacitor that is too large will have a braking effect when the
motor approaches the speed at which the start winding is switched out of the
circuit. When there is low-line voltage, this braking effect becomes even more
pronounced. The result is that the motor cannot accelerate over 50 to 60 percent
of full-load speed, and the start winding cannot switch out of the circuit. A
low-voltage braking effect can be compensated for by using a smaller Mfd capac¬
itor.
The failure to pull up to speed can also be caused by the centrifugal devices
switching the start winding off too soon. Without the start winding in the circuit
Capacitor Motors 57
at less than 50 percent of full speed, the run winding alone cannot pull the load
up to speed. Weak springs on the centrifugal device will allow the contacts to
open too quickly. The load will then slow down the motor until the contacts
again close, energizing the start winding and speeding the motor up. The motor
will continue to cycle like this until it either blows a fuse or bums out the motor.
This same cycling effect will occur when a potential relay that is rated for a low
voltage is used on high voltage. In this case the contacts will open very quickly,
although the motor will start if there is no load. A current-operated starting relay
that is rated for a larger motor than it is being used on will drop the contacts open
too soon and also start to cycle underload. This premature shutdown of the start
winding can be hard to detect when the motor is being tested without load. If this
problem is suspected, the motor should be load tested before it is put back into
service.
Two-Value Capacitor Motor. The two-value capacitor motor starts in the

same way as the capacitor-start motor does, but after the start winding is discon¬
nected from the circuit, the oil capacitor, which is in parallel with the electrolytic
capacitor and the start contacts, remains in the circuit. The oil capacitor has a low
microfarad rating and can be in the circuit continuously. Its purpose is to correct
the motor’s power factor. Oil capacitors are always connected in parallel with the
electrolytic capacitors and the start contacts. If there is more than one, they are
connected in parallel with each other, never in series. Figure 1-207 is a connec¬
tion using four oil-filled capacitors in parallel. Note that if the oil capacitor
becomes shorted, the electrolytic capacitor and start switch will be bypassed, and
the start winding will receive full voltage, as shown in Figure 1-208. If the motor
were started with this condition, there would be very little starting torque because
there would be no capacitors in the start-winding circuit.
In an emergency, the motor may be mn without the oil capacitors, but it will
lose some efficiency. The oil capacitor is sometimes called the mn capacitor, but
this is misleading, because it is then associated with the mn winding. The pur¬
pose of the oil-filled capacitor is to correct the power factor. Correcting the
power factor lowers the amperes of a circuit that has a large amount of inductive
reactance. This condition is common in electric motors. When the amperes of a
circuit are lowered, the circuit’s voltage will increase. This will be explained in
Chapter 3.
Using the Test Panel

The test panel shown in Figure 1-209 can be used in many ways. Its main
function is to prevent damage to the components being tested, by limiting the
current flow. The following list shows some of its uses:
1. Testing for opens.

2. Testing for shorts.
3. Testing for grounds.
4. Comparison test for identical circuits.

5. Locating reversed coils.
6. Testing capacitors.
7. Testing thermotrons.
8. Heating and softening windings.
1. Testing for Opens. Most of the testing with this panel can be done with 120
volts. When the test clips are shorted together and no switches are closed, the
240-volt light will light at half-brightness. The bulb is rated for 240 volts because
when the test panel is used with this voltage, it will bum out a 120-volt bulb. The
bulb will light if the circuit being tested is not open. If a start winding like that
shown in Figure 1-210 indicates that it is open, it can be tested as follows’
Disassemble the motor so that all components are accessible. Fasten one test clip
to T5 and touch the other to point D. If there is no light, the winding is open. If
the coil connections are accessible, touch the test lead to points A, B, and C. If
the open is between B and C, the light will light at point B but not at point C. The
connections at points B and C should be examined, and if they are found to be
good, the coil group between them will be open and will need to be repaired or
replaced. If the connection splices are not accessible, a sharp point can be used to
pierce the coil wire. (This method cannot be used on small wire.) Starting at the
first group from T5, test each coil group until there is no light. Proceed back, coil
by coil, until the light again indicates a circuit. The open will be found between
these two spots. If the windings are not open, touch the test clip to point E, and
close the stationary switch contacts. If the contact points are dirty or badly pitted,
the centrifugal device will not press them together hard enough to close the
circuit. In this case the stationary switch contacts should be cleaned or replaced.
2. Testing for Shorts. Short together the test clips, and close the element
switches one at a time. The ammeter will show an increase in amps for each
switch. This amp reading should be noted beside each switch because it is this
reading that will indicate a short in any device being tested. If a motor is not
shorted, it will have some resistance to the flow of current. More element
switches may then be closed and the motor started. The line-voltage switch
should be closed only if the motor shows signs of being able to mn. A large
motor has much less resistance than does a small motor. If most of the motors
being tested are above three horsepower, the number of resistors should be dou¬
bled.
Assuming that a shorted, dual-voltage capacitor-start motor, as illustrated in
Figure 1-211, is being tested, the procedure is as follows: Connect the test leads
to the motor lead wires. Close the test switches one at a time. The ammeter will
indicate the same amps as when the test clips were shorted together and the
brightness of the test light did not change. The amount of amps and the bright¬
ness on the test light both indicate a short, and the full-voltage switch should not
be closed. Figure 1-211 shows three circuits in this motor. Separate the leads and
Capacitor Motors 59
test the ones that light to one another individually. The circuits that are not
shorted will have fewer amps than the shorted circuit does. Examine the short-
circuited coil group to see whether it can be repaired or must be replaced.
3. Testing for Grounds. A motor is grounded when any of its circuitry makes
electrical contact with the stator core, shell, end bells, or rotor. The motor illus¬
trated in Figure 1-212 is grounded; the procedure for locating the ground is as
follows: Separate the three circuits, fasten one test clip to the frame of the motor,
and touch the other test clip to each of the three circuits. The circuit that is
grounded will light the test light. The area of the ground can then be located.
Disassemble the motor, and test for grounds as the end bolts and end bells are
removed, as these are common places for grounds to occur when learning to
rewind. If the ground is found to be in the stator, the general area of the ground
can be located. Assuming that Tx and T2 are grounded, secure one test clip to the
frame and the other to TY. Close switches 7,2, and 3 of the test panel and record
the amp reading. Open the switches and move the test clip from Tx to T2. Close
switches 7,2, and 3 again and record the amps. The lead that records the highest
amps will be closer to the ground. There are fewer turns of wire, and so there will
be less resistance between this lead and the ground. The coils of wire between
this lead and the ground will heat, and the coils beyond the ground will remain
cool. These coils will be energized and will attract iron, such as a screwdriver.
These two methods can be used to locate the general area of the ground.
4. Comparison Test for Identical Circuits. If there are no shorts in a motor

such as that in Figure 1-213, T\ and T2 should have the same resistance as T^, and
T4 do. If there is a short in one of the circuits, the shorted circuit can be found by
applying current from several resistors to each of them and comparing the read¬
ings. The circuit with the short will have less resistance than the others and read
more amps. This test can be used on any motor with identical circuits.
5. Locating Reversed Coils. A test rotor can be made with the rotor of a small
motor. A rotor that is about one inch in diameter works very well. The rotor
should spin freely and should be secured to a handle, as pictured in Figure 1-214.
Both the start and run windings are energized for this test. Energize both wind¬
ings with a reduced current, and move the rotor around the inside of the stator
next to the slots. The rotor will spin until a reversed coil or group is found, and it
will either stop or reverse itself. Low-voltage direct current can be applied to the
windings and a small compass moved slowly around inside the stator to point out
a reversed coil. The compass should reverse itself for each coil group as it is
moved slowly around inside the stator.
6. Testing Capacitors. A capacitor can be tested safely by closing two switches

and touching the capacitor’s terminals. If the capacitor is shorted, the ammeter
will show shorted amps. Touch together the test clips, and the reading will be the
same as when the shorted capacitor is energized. If the capacitor is not shorted,
remove the test clips and short out the capacitor’s terminals with a screwdriver,
as shown in Figure 1-205. There should be a snappy spark. Full voltage can then
be applied briefly and the amperes recorded. This reading with the proper multi¬
plier can be used to find the capacitor’s microfarad rating as explained on page
55 in “Capacity Test.”
Caution. Capacitors can explode when full voltage is applied to them.
7. Testing Thermotrons. Thermotrons can be tested by applying current to Px

and P3. Apply 250 to 300 percent of the motor nameplate amp rating to the
thermotron. The circuit will open after a short time, signifying that the contacts
of the thermotron are not fused together. No circuit between P2 and P3 means
that the heater is open and so the device should be replaced.
8. Heating and Softening Windings. If a winding has to be reshaped after it

has been dipped in varnish and baked, it should be heated until it becomes soft.
Connect the run winding to the test panel, and apply enough current to heat the
windings slowly. Too much current can char the windings, and so it is important
to watch the windings closely.
Defective Windings
Windings should be tested for (1) grounds, (2) open circuits, (3) shorts, and (4)
reverses after rewinding. These are the four most common mistakes when re¬
winding. They can usually be found and repaired without doing over the rewind.
After a motor has been in service for a reasonable length of time (a year or more),
it is necessary only to determine that the winding is open, shorted, or grounded.
The procedure then is either to rewind the entire windings or to replace the
motor. Only rarely does it pay to spend any time isolating or repairing these
problems in a motor that has been in service for very long. The test panel shown
in Figure 1-209 can be useful in locating these problems.
Grounds. A winding is said to be grounded when it makes an electrical contact

with the iron of the motor. Grounds may be caused by a number of conditions,
the most common of which are the following: (1) the bolts that fasten the end
plates to the frame may make contact with the winding as a result of the coils of
the winding protruding too far from the ends of the slots; (2) the wires press
against the laminations at the comers of the slots, which is likely to occur if the
slot insulation shifts during the winding process or if the insulation tears during
winding; and (3) the stationary switch may be grounded to the end plate.
To determine whether the winding is grounded, a test lamp may be used. One
test lead to the lamp is connected to the winding and the other lead to the stator
core or motor frame, as shown in Figure 1-215. If the lamp lights, the winding is
grounded.
Capacitor Motors 61
Should the winding prove to be grounded, try first to locate the ground by
visual inspection; in other words, examine the winding closely to see whether
any wires are touching the core. Try moving the turns of the winding back and
forth while the test leads are connected to see whether the light flickers. A flicker
under these conditions indicates that the grounded point has been temporarily
removed, and usually a spark may be observed at the point of the ground.
If this test does not disclose the ground, it will be necessary to disconnect the
splices between the poles and test each pole. After the poles have been discon¬
nected, test each one individually, as described above, until the fault is found.
When the grounded pole is located, determine the point of the ground and re¬
move it by reinsulating or by rewinding. It may be necessary to remove the entire
pole and rewind it more carefully.
Open Circuits. The usual cause of an open circuit in a capacitor-start motor is

a loose or dirty connection or broken wire, which may be in the run winding, the
start winding, the stationary switch, or the capacitor circuit.
To determine whether the run winding is open, the leads of the test lamp are
connected to the ends of the winding, as shown in Figure 1-216. If the lamp
lights, the circuit is complete. If the lamp does not light, an open circuit is
indicated, as illustrated in Figure 1-217. The open circuit may be located by
connecting one test lead of the lamp to one end of the winding and placing the
other lead to the end of each pole separately, as indicated by points 1,2,3, and 4
in Figure 1-218. If the lamp does not light at point 7, the coil of the first pole is
open. If the lamp lights at point 7 but does not light at point 2, the second coil is
at fault. If it lights at 7 and 2 but not at 3, the third coil is at fault. Such a
condition is shown in Figure 1-218. Note that the lamp also does not light at
point 4. After repairing the open circuit of coil 3, the lamp should light at point 4.
If it does not light, coil 4 is also open and requires repair. By continuing in this
manner the open circuit can be found.
An open circuit in the start winding may be difficult to locate, as not only is
the winding itself involved but also the stationary switch and capacitor. The
stationary switch is probably the worst offender in producing open circuits. The
parts become worn, defective, and dirty; also, insufficient pressure of the rotat¬
ing device against the stationary switch will prevent the contacts from closing
and thereby produce an open circuit. Detailed tests for the capacitor can be found
on page 55.
If the start winding is connected to the stationary switch and the motor is
disassembled, the tests for an open circuit are as follows: The test leads of the
lamp are connected to the leads of the start-winding circuit. The lamp should not
light until the two contacts of the stationary switch are pressed together. If the
lamp does not light, the open may be in either the switch or the winding. By next
connecting the test lamp directly across the winding, it can be determined
whether this is at fault. If it is not, the trouble is in the switch, which should then
be examined carefully, all contacts cleaned, and the pressure of the centrifugal
device adjusted.
If the motor has been assembled and the start-winding is to be tested for an
open circuit, connect the test leads of the lamp to the start-winding circuit, as
shown in Figure 1-219. The lamp should light, but if it does not, it is possible
that the stationary switch contacts are not closed. The rotor is then pushed length¬
wise toward the front end. This may cause the contacts to close; if so, the lamp
will light. To correct this trouble, add several fiber washers to the pulley end of
the rotor shaft to keep the rotor pushed forward. It may be necessary to remove
washers from the front end to accomplish this. In all cases be certain that the
rotor core is aligned with the stator core.
If tests show that the trouble is not in the stationary switch, then the open
circuit is in the start winding. If this is true, the start winding must be tested and
repaired in the manner described for the run winding.
Shorts, Two or more turns that contact each other electrically will cause a short
circuit. This condition may develop in a new winding if the winding is tight and
much pounding is necessary to place the wires in position. In other cases, exces¬
sive heat developed from overloads will make the insulation defective and will
cause shorts. Usually a short circuit exists when the winding smokes while the
motor is running or when it draws excessive current at no load.
Several methods may be employed in general practice to find shorted coils in
a motor. Among these are the following:
1. Run the motor for a short time and then locate the hottest coil by feeling the
poles. This coil is generally the one that is shorted.
2. Use an internal growler. The growler is a coil of wire wound on a laminated iron
core and connected to a 115-volt ac outlet. After the motor is disassembled, the
growler is placed on the core of the stator and moved from slot to slot. A shorted
coil will be indicated by the rapid vibration of a metal blade, such as a hacksaw
blade, held at the other end of the coil, as illustrated in Figures l-220a and b.
3. Use the voltage-drop test. The winding is connected to a source of low dc
voltage, and a voltage reading is taken across each pole. The pole that has the
least voltage drop is the shorted coil.
4. Use the strength-of-field test. A piece of iron is held against the core of each
pole while the current from a low dc source is applied.
5. Use the ammeter. This method can be used on a two-voltage motor without
disassembling it. The test panel is used for this. Connect T\ and T2 to the test
clips, apply two resistors, read the amperes, and record them. Do the same with
T3 and 7V Compare the two readings; the higher will be the shorted one. This
comparison test can also be used on individual coils.
6. See whether there is a misalignment. When the iron of the rotor and the iron of
the stator are misaligned, the motor will draw more current than it should and
appear shorted. This can happen if the motor is not assembled properly: the core
may slip in the shell of the stator, or the rotor may have slipped on the shaft.
Reverses, Reverses result from wrong connections between poles and are best
discovered by means of a polarity test. Two methods are used, namely, the
compass method and the nail method.
Capacitor Motors 63
In using the compass method, the stator is placed in a horizontal position, and
a low dc voltage is applied to the winding. The compass is then held inside the
stator and moved slowly from one pole to another. The compass needle will
reverse itself at each pole, as shown in Figure 1-221, if the winding is correctly
connected. If the same end of the needle is attracted to two adjacent poles, a
reverse pole is indicated.
In using the nail method, the stator is placed on its side, and a low voltage of
either alternating or direct current is applied to the winding. A nail is placed on
the core so that it extends from the center of one pole to the center of the next
pole. If the adjacent polarity is correct, the nail will be attracted to both poles; but
if the polarity is incorrect, one end of the nail will be repelled from its pole.
Should it be found that one pole has the wrong polarity, this error can be
corrected by reversing the two lead connections to this pole. In the event that
more than one pole has the wrong polarity, reference should be made again to
Figure 1-100, and the poles connected as shown therein.
Repairs
We shall now consider the various troubles that develop in capacitor-start and
split-phase motors and explain how they may be repaired. These troubles and
their remedies will be grouped into four classes: (1) motor fails to start; (2) motor
runs at a slower-than-normal speed; (3) motor runs very hot; and (4) motor runs
noisily.
Motor Fails to Start. Failure of the motor to start when it is connected to a

power line of the correct voltage may be due to (1) open run winding, (2) open
start winding, (3) grounded winding, (4) burned or shorted winding, (5) open-
circuited overload device, (6) excessive overload, (7) worn or tight sleeve bear¬
ings or defective ball bearings, (8) end plates improperly mounted, or (9) bent
rotor shaft.
1. Open Run Winding. An open run winding may be discovered by testing

the winding with a test lamp. If the lamp fails to light, the winding has an open
circuit. The exact location of the open is determined by the method previously
explained under “Open Circuits” and repaired by rewinding if necessary.
2. Open Start Winding. Three practical tests show whether the start winding
has an open circuit. One method is to connect the motor to the power line. An
open circuit in the start winding will cause the motor to hum, because only the
run winding is in the circuit.
A second test is to turn the rotor manually. This may be done by winding a
cord around the rotor shaft, as in Figure 1-222, and pulling the cord so that the
rotor turns. While the rotor is thus turning, the power-line switch is turned on. If
the motor continues to run, the trouble is in the start-winding circuit. Use caution
with this method, as the string may catch and whip.
The third test for discovering an open circuit in the start winding is to use the
test lamp. If the circuit is found to be open, the trouble is in the stationary switch,
the start winding, or the capacitor.
The stationary switch should be examined first, as it is most likely to be the
cause of the trouble. Moving the rotor shaft toward the front end plate may close
the contacts of the switch, in case the trouble is at this point, and cause a test
lamp in the circuit to light. The rotor may also have too much end play, which
can be determined by moving it back and forth. There should be a maximum end
play of not more than 1/64 in. If more end play is observed, fiber washers should
be put on the shaft so that the rotor core lines up with the stator core. If too much
end play is allowed, the rotor may come to a stop in such a position that the
stationary switch contacts will remain open. If these tests have been made and
the circuit still remains open, the motor should be disassembled and a test lamp
used to check the operation of the switch. If found to be defective, the stationary
switch should be carefully cleaned and all parts adjusted.
The start winding is next tested, if the stationary switch is found to be in good
order. The flexible leads to the power line that are spliced to the wires of the coils
are examined first and replaced if they are at fault. If the start winding is defec¬
tive, the open may be located by the method described earlier in this chapter for
open circuits. Although the break in the coil may be repaired by splicing if it is
readily accessible, rewinding is necessary if the coil is burned or otherwise
severely damaged. Should it be necessary to rewind the start winding, it is
advisable to test the run winding thoroughly for any defects before replacing the
new start winding over it.
3. Grounded Winding. One ground in a motor may not be noticeable in its

running conditions, but two or more grounds in a winding are equivalent to a
short circuit. This may cause a fuse to blow, or it may cause the winding to
smoke, depending on the extent of the grounds. The ground can be located using
the test panel and a screwdriver. After the motor is disassembled, fasten one test
clip to the frame of the stator and the other to one lead of the grounded winding.
Apply a limited amount of current, and move the metal blade of the screwdriver
around the inside of the stator. The coils between the lead and the ground will be
energized and will attract the iron of the screwdriver. The coils that do not attract
the iron will be past the ground. The comparison test can be made by recording
the amperes of one lead to the ground and the other lead of the grounded circuit
to the ground. The lead with the higher amp reading will be closer to the ground.
The connections can then be opened, the coil isolated, and the ground removed.
A grounded winding may cause a shock if touched and is therefore dangerous. It
is recommended that the motor frames be grounded under certain conditions.
4. Burned or Shorted Winding. A burned or short-circuited winding usu¬

ally causes a fuse to be blown when the motor is connected to the line. If the fuse
does not blow, the winding will smoke. In either event the motor must be disas-
Capacitor Motors 65
sembled. A burned winding is easily recognized by its smell and its burned
appearance. The only remedy is to rewind the motor completely or to replace it.
Partial rewinding is recommended only for newly wound motors. If the winding
is not burned and there is only a short circuit, the short may be located and
repaired, as explained earlier in this chapter.
5. Open-circuited Overload Device. Some motors are equipped with an

overload device consisting of a bimetal element that will expand when heated
and cause the associated contacts to open. This device is connected in series with
the motor, as shown in Figure 1-223, and its contacts will open if the motor is
overloaded or if for any other reason too much current flows through the wind¬
ing. However, the contacts must close after the motor has cooled somewhat or
when the overload is withdrawn. The contacts should be examined for dirty,
defective, or burned points. If the points are in bad condition, the device should
be replaced.
6. Excessive Overload. When too much load is placed on a motor not having
an overload device, the motor will hum and stall. An overload condition may be
readily determined by connecting an ammeter in the circuit, as shown in Figure
1-224, and noticing whether the ammeter registers a higher current reading than
the ones recorded on the motor’s nameplate. A snap-around volt ammeter-
ohmmeter can be used for this reading. This instrument is shown in Chapter 3,
Figure 3-185. A shorted winding will likewise cause a large reading. It is as¬
sumed, however, that previous tests have shown that the windings are neither
shorted nor grounded.
7. Worn or Tight Sleeve Bearings. Bearing troubles frequently develop in

motors after they have been in use for a considerable time. A worn sleeve bearing
may be discovered by attempting to move the shaft up and down by hand, in the
manner illustrated in Figure 1-225. If the shaft moves, it indicates a worn bearing
or possibly a worn rotor shaft, as shown in Figure 1-226. In either event, new
bearings are required. A small amount of play in the bearings will allow the rotor
to touch the stator, as shown in Figure 1-227 and thus prevent the motor from
starting. Quite often, sludge will accumulate in the worn part of the bearing and
may prevent an up-and-down motion of the shaft. In this case the motor is
disassembled so that the rotor is resting in one end plate. If the end plate can be
wobbled back and forth, the bearing or shaft is worn.
A sleeve bearing is removed by placing a piece of round stock on the bearing
in the end-plate housing and pressing it out by means of an arbor or some other
type of press. A convenient tool for this purpose is a piece of round stock that has
been turned down in a lathe to fit different sizes of bearings, as shown in Figure
1-228. Care should be exercised to press out the old bearing through the side of
the end plate having the larger opening and to remove any screws or oil wick that
may prevent the bearing from coming out easily.
The new sleeve bearing is set in place by using the round stock as before and
pressing the bearing into the end plate. The bearing is pressed in to the proper
distance from the side of the end plate having the larger opening. The oil holes
must be lined up with those in the end plates, and the bearing must not be burred
while being replaced.
New sleeve bearings are usually made a few thousandths of an inch too small
and need to be reamed to the proper size. This is done by placing the end plates
on the stator after the new bearings have been pressed in, but before the rotor is
replaced, and using a through reamer to ream the holes. The reamer is first
passed through the bearing in one end plate and then continued through the stator
to the other end plate. In this manner, the bearings are reamed to the same size
and also properly aligned. Separate reamers of the proper sizes will need to be
used, however, when the rotor shaft requires different-sized bearings at the two
ends. In such cases, care must be exercised to align the bearings correctly.
If the shaft is worn, it may be reconditioned to its original roundness and
smoothness by turning it in a lathe. Then it must be fitted with a smaller-sized
new bearing. Or, the shaft may be built up to its original size by forcing molten
metal on it, in a process called metallizing. If this process is used, the metallized
shaft is turned in a lathe to the correct size, and a standard-sized bearing is used
to replace the old one.
When a bearing is allowed to become dry from lack of oil, the motor shaft may
heat and expand to such a degree that it welds itself to the bearing. Such a
condition is known as a frozen bearing. To repair a frozen bearing, the end plate
and bearing must be knocked loose from the shaft or loosened with a blow torch.
The shaft is then smoothed up, and a new bearing is installed. Ball bearings will
be explained in Chapter 3.
8. End Plates Improperly Mounted. When an end plate is not fastened

securely around the entire edge, as shown in Figure 1-229, the bearings are out of
alignment, and the rotor can be turned by hand only with difficulty or not at all.
The end plate should sound “solid” when tapped gently with a mallet or lead
hammer and should fit the stator perfectly at all points. If it does not fit, all
screws should be loosened and each one tightened a little at a time, thus drawing
the plate evenly and securely to the stator. In assembling a motor, do not tighten
the first screw on the end plate, then the next adjacent one, and so on. If tight¬
ened this way, the opposite side of the end plate will not contact the stator
tightly.
9. Bent Rotor Shaft. A bent shaft, shown in Figure 1-230, may be sus¬
pected if the rotor does not turn easily by hand after it has been determined that
the end plates are on properly. To determine whether the shaft is bent, the rotor is
removed from the motor and placed in a lathe. With the lathe turning slowly, it
is usually possible to see the rotor bobbing up and down if the shaft is bent. To
locate the bend, a special gauge made for this purpose is held close to the shaft
Capacitor Motors 67
while it is rotating in the lathe. If no such gauge is available, a piece of chalk can
be held near the shaft. The bend portion of the shaft will touch the chalk during
rotation and thus be marked.
A bent shaft may be repaired by securely mounting the rotor between centers
in a lathe. A pry bar or a long section of pipe is inserted under the bent portion to
obtain the necessary leverage. The pressure exerted in bending the shaft back
into position must be carefully controlled. Usually, the bending should be done a
little at a time, until the shaft is straight. This method should be employed only
for small rotors; otherwise, the lathe centers may be damaged.
Motor Runs at a Slower-Than-Normal Speed. A motor that does not attain

normal running speed is likely to have one or more of the following defects:
(1) short circuit in the run winding, (2) start winding remaining in circuit, (3) re¬
versed run winding poles, (4) other incorrect stator connections, (5) worn bear¬
ings, or (6) open rotor bars or end rings.
1. Short Circuit in the Run Winding. A short circuit in the run winding
will cause the motor to run at a lower speed than that for which it is rated and will
produce a humming or growling noise. The pole that contains the short, as shown
in Figure 1-231, will usually become excessively hot; it may also smoke if the
motor is allowed to run for many minutes.
To locate the shorted pole, an internal growler is used. Or the pole may be
located by merely feeling for the hot coil. The remedy for a short-circuited coil is
to find the short and, after it is found, to insulate it if possible. If it cannot be
insulated, rewind the coil or the entire winding.
2. Start Winding Remaining in the Circuit. The symptoms of this defect

are the same as those for a shorted run winding. To determine conclusively that
the start winding remains in the circuit, disconnect one lead of this winding and
start the motor manually, as illustrated in Figure 1-222, and connect the power
line after the rotor is turning. If the motor then runs properly, the stationary
switch does not disconnect the start winding at the proper time.
The contact points of the stationary switch may be welded or stuck together;
other faulty parts may be causing the contact points to remain closed; or the
rotating device may not release the contacts on the stationary part because fiber
washers are improperly placed on the rotor shaft. In any of these cases, the
switch is repaired, as previously explained; a new switch is installed; or fiber
washers are placed on the rotor shaft so that the switch will open and close in the
proper manner.
3. Reversed Run Winding Poles. If the poles are connected in such manner
as to produce incorrect polarity, the motor will rotate slowly, if at all, and
rotation will be accompanied by a growling noise. More definite analysis re¬
quires that the motor be disassembled and each pole tested for correct polarity by
the compass or nail tests previously described. When the pole of improper polar¬
ity is located, the lead wires of the pole are disconnected, reversed, and recon¬
nected.
4. Other Incorrect Stator Connections. Incorrect connections between

the poles of either the run or start winding may cause induced currents to flow in
the pole coils, with the result that the coils will become overheated, smoke, and
perhaps bum out. When this condition exists, the motor must be disassembled
and the connections carefully remade, as explained earlier in this chapter under
“Connecting Procedure.” The amateur repairperson often makes mistakes in
connecting the windings of this type of motor, one of the most common being
that he or she connects two of the poles in series and the remainder in a closed
circuit, in the manner shown in Figure 1-232. Extreme care should be exercised
to connect all the poles exactly as required by the data.
5. Worn Bearings. A motor with worn bearings or worn shaft is noisy in

operation and sluggish in rotation. The cause is that the rotor mbs against the
stator while running, as shown in Figure 1-227. A worn bearing or worn shaft
diagnosis may be confirmed by noting whether the shaft can be moved up and
down while the motor is still assembled. In either case, repair should be made as
explained earlier in this chapter.
6. Open Rotor Bars or End Rings. This problem occurs in larger capacitor-
start motors. When a short or ground occurs in the slot near the rotor, an arc will
form, and the heat will be directed at the rotor. This extreme heat will melt the
rotor bar and cause it to open. When one or more rotor bars are open, the motor
will lose power. This problem may not be detected until a load is applied. One
symptom of open rotor bars is a lower-than-normal ampere reading when the
motor is running with no load.
There are two methods of detecting an open rotor if the problem is not visible.
Place the rotor in a growler, as pictured in Figure 1-233. Limit the current to the
growler with a resistor, and place an ammeter in series with it. As the rotor is
turned in the growler, the amps will be much lower as the open bar passes
through the magnetic field of the growler. Another method that can pinpoint the
open bar is done with a sheet of paper, some iron filings, and the growler. Place
the rotor in the growler, and hold the paper containing the iron filings against the
rotor. Turn the rotor slowly, and the filings will be attracted to the good bars but
not the open bars. This test should be carried out before the stator is rewound.
The cost of having the rotor bars recast or replaced will likely dictate replacement
of the whole motor.
Motor Runs Hot. A motor may become excessively hot after running a short
time for one of the following reasons: (1) shorted winding, (2) grounded wind¬
ing, (3) short circuit between the run and the start windings, (4) worn bearings,
or (5) overloading.
Capacitor Motors 69
1. Shorted Winding. If either the run or the start winding has a short circuit,
the shorted pole will become excessively hot when the motor is running. In
addition, the motor operates with a growling noise. The winding will eventually
become so hot that the entire motor will be damaged if it is allowed to run in this
condition. The procedure for determining whether a short circuit exists and for
locating it was explained earlier.
Unless the short, after having been located, can be repaired and insulated, the
pole or the entire winding must be rewound.
2. Grounded Winding. A winding grounded in two or more places is equiva¬

lent to a shorted winding and will cause the motor to run very hot and will
eventually produce severe damage. The grounded points are located by methods
previously explained and are repaired by reinsulating, if possible. If reinsulating
is impossible or seems inadvisable, the motor must be rewound.
Should the motor be grounded at one point only, it is likely that a shock will be
felt if the motor is touched when running. This condition is dangerous, and
therefore immediate repair is essential.
3. Short Circuit between the Run and the Start Winding. A short
circuit between these two windings will permit a current to flow through a part of
the start winding continuously while the motor is in operation and in time will
bum out the start winding. To locate the shorted point, the windings are discon¬
nected from the terminals; one of the leads of a test lamp (connected to the line)
is connected to the run winding; and the other lead is connected to the start
winding. The lamp will light, as the current flows from the run winding through
the shorted point to the start winding. The start winding is then moved away from
the run winding at various places in the stator. If the shorted point is moved, the
lamp will flicker or go out. If the shorted point cannot be determined in this
manner, a limited-current method can be used. After applying the current to one
start lead and one run lead, the start-winding coils between the lead and the short
should heat. The start coils beyond the short will not heat. If a difference in heat
cannot be detected, compare the amperes between one of the run leads and each
of the start leads. The start lead with the higher amp reading will be closer to the
short. If the shorted point cannot be determined in this manner, it will be neces¬
sary to remove the coils of the start winding one at a time until it is located.
The short circuit can usually be repaired by inserting a strip of insulation paper
in the slot between the two windings.
4. Worn Bearings. When the bearings are worn sufficiently to permit the
rotor to touch the stator, the motor will become overheated after running for a
short time. Worn bearings may be readily detected by trying to move the rotor
shaft up and down while the motor is assembled. If such movement is possible,
the bearings are worn. If the rotor is removed from the motor and found to have
polished surfaces on it, this is an indication that the rotor is probably rubbing
against the stator. This condition is repaired by replacing the bearings.
5. Overload. An overload on the motor will cause it to draw more than the
rated current and thereby produce excessive heat. An ammeter is placed in the
circuit to test for overload. Should the meter show a larger reading than that
listed on the motor’s nameplate, the load should be reduced or the motor replaced
with a larger one. This test assumes that the motor is externally overloaded.
Motor Runs Noisily. There are several reasons that a motor may operate with
an unusual amount of noise. The most common of these are (1) shorted winding,
(2) improperly connected poles, (3) worn bearing, (4) worn stationary switch,
(5) too much end play, and (6) foreign material in the motor.
The first three conditions all will produce a magnetic hum when the motor is
running. When such a hum is noticeable, the repair person can be certain that one
of these defects exists. More positive tests for locating these troubles and the
methods of repairing them have already been explained.
Bearings that are excessively worn allow the rotor to rub against the stator
when the motor is running and thus produce a loud noise. Specific tests for this
trouble and repairs should be made in the manner already described.
A worn rotating device is likely to cause a noticeable noise when the motor is
in operation. Because part of the switch is located on the rotor, in revolves at
high speed. A loose member of the rotating device may hit or rub against some
other part of the motor and thus make the noise. When such a defect is suspected,
the rotor should be removed from the stator and the device fully inspected. It may
be found that the faulty parts can be repaired; if not, a new device must be
installed.
Should the rotor have an end play of more than 1/64 inch, it may produce a
noise during operation. The remedy for this trouble is to place fiber washers on
the rotor shaft at the proper places.
Sometimes foreign material, such as a piece of insulation or wire, becomes
embedded in a winding or a slot and protrudes sufficiently for the rotor to rub
against it. This will cause an undesirable noise. The foreign material can be
located by dismantling the motor and inspecting all windings and slots carefully.
After it is found, the foreign matter usually can be removed with a pair of pliers
or a screwdriver. In removing it, care must be exercised not to damage the
insulation on the wires or between the windings.
Figure 1-234 shows connection diagrams of single- and dual-voltage split-
phase motors and single- and two-speed split-phase motors. These motors and
line-wiring diagrams are the type received from motor manufacturers when a
request is made for the connection diagrams for specific motors. Figure 1-235
shows a variety of connection diagrams of capacitor motors and are reproduced
with permission of the motor manufacturers. Figures 1-236, 1-237, and 1-238
are two-pole diagrams.
Chapter 2
REPULSION-TYPE MOTORS
Repulsion-type motors are among the oldest forms of single-phase induction
motors and were widely used from the 1930s through the 1950s. At least one
manufacturer is still producing them today, but they have been largely replaced
by split-phase and capacitor-start motors. When compared with the split-phase
and the capacitor-start motor, the repulsion-type motor is much more efficient
when starting a load, as it has a minimum amount of inrush, or starting, current.
This gives it the capability of doing well on low-voltage conditions. Many of
these older motors are still in use.
In general, repulsion motors may be divided into three classifications: (1) the
repulsion motor, (2) the repulsion-start induction motor, and (3) the repulsion-
induction motor. These motors are called single-phase wound-rotor motors and
are defined and classified by NEMA as follows:
Repulsion Motor. A repulsion motor is a single-phase motor that has a stator

winding arranged for connection to a source of power and a rotor winding con¬
nected to a commutator. Brushes on the commutator are short-circuited and are
so placed that the magnetic axis of the rotor winding is inclined toward the
magnetic axis of the stator winding. This type of motor has a varying-speed
characteristic.
Repulsion-Start Induction Motor. A repulsion-start induction motor is a sin¬

gle-phase motor having the same windings as a repulsion motor, but at a prede¬
termined speed, the rotor winding is short-circuited or otherwise connected to
give the equivalent of a squirrel-cage winding. This type of motor starts as a
repulsion motor but operates as an induction motor with constant-speed charac¬
teristics.
Repulsion-Induction Motor. A repulsion-induction motor is a form of repul¬

sion motor that has a squirrel-cage winding in the rotor in addition to the repul¬
sion-motor winding. A motor of this type may have either a constant-speed or a
varying-speed characteristic.
These three classes are often confused by the beginner because of the similar¬
ity of names. But each is different from the others, having its own characteristics
71
and applications. However, one feature common to all is that each has a rotor
containing a winding that is connected to a commutator. Figure 2-1 shows a
repulsion-start induction motor. These motors generally operate from a single¬
phase lighting or power circuit, depending on the size of the motor.
CONSTRUCTION
Most repulsion-type motors generally consist of the following parts:
1. A stator similar to that of the split-phase or capacitor motor and one wind-
ing, usually of two sections, similar to the running winding of a dual-voltage
split-phase, or capacitor motor. Figure 2-2 shows the stator of a repulsion-start
induction motor.
2. A rotor having a slotted core into which a winding is placed and connected
to a commutator. The rotor is similar in construction to the armature of a dc
motor and will henceforth be referred to, interchangeably, as the rotor or arma¬
ture. The slots are generally skewed to produce the same starting torque, regard¬
less of the position of the armature, and to reduce magnetic hum. Figure 2-3
illustrates the armature of a repulsion-induction motor.
The commutator may be one of two types: an axial commutator, with bars
parallel to the shaft (Figure 2-3), or a radial commutator, with bars perpendicular
to the shaft (Figures 2-4 and 2-5).
3. Two end plates or brackets that support the bearing in which the armature
shaft must turn.
4. Brushes made of carbon that fit in the brush holders. The brushes ride
against the commutator and are used to conduct current through the armature
winding.
5. Brush holders, supported either on the front end plate or on the armature
shaft, depending on the particular type of motor.
THE REPULSION-START INDUCTION MOTOR
The repulsion-start induction motor is a single-phase motor ranging in size from

approximately one-quarter to ten hp. It has a high starting torque and a constant-
speed characteristic. It is used in commercial refrigerators, compressors, pumps,
and other applications requiring a high starting torque.
Repulsion-start induction motors are of two different designs. In one, known
as the brush-lifting type, the brushes are automatically moved away from the
commutator when the motor reaches approximately 75 percent of full speed. This
type generally has the radial or vertical form of commutator (Figures 2-5 and
2-24). In the other, called the brush-riding type, the brushes ride on the commu¬
tator at all times. This type has the axial form of commutator, as shown in Figure
2-3. In other operating principles, these motor types are identical.
Repulsion-Type Motors 73
Operation of the Brush-lifting, Repulsion-Start

Induction Motor
To produce a reasonably high starting torque in the repulsion-start induction
motor, a winding is placed on the armature. When the winding on the stator is
excited by current supplied from the line, a flux is set up that induces current in
the armature winding. The poles formed on the stator and on the armature have
the same polarity, thus causing a repulsion torque from which the motor obtains
its name.
After the motor reaches approximately 75 percent of full speed, the commuta¬
tor bars of the armature winding are short-circuited by means of a centrifugal
device, and the brushes are automatically moved away from the commutator.
The armature then acts like a squirrel-cage rotor. The motor continues to rotate as
an induction motor, just as the capacitor-start motor did (see Chapter 1).
The Centrifugal Short-circuiting Device

The centrifugal mechanism consists of several parts located in the armature.
These are shown in Figure 2-5 and consist of (1) governor weights, (2) short-cir¬
cuiting necklace, (3) spring barrel, (4) spring, (5) push rods, (6) brush holder and
brushes, and (7) lock washers. These are assembled as shown in the cutaway
view of a complete rotor in Figure 2-6.
When the armature reaches approximately 75 percent of full speed, the gover¬
nor weights are thrown outward, causing the push rods to move forward. These
in turn push the spring barrel forward and allow the short-circuiting necklace to
contact and short the commutator bars. At the same time, the brush holder and
brushes are moved away from the commutator to save the brushes and the com¬
mutator from unnecessary wear and also to eliminate objectionable brush noises.
When assembling the centrifugal device, each part must be placed in its proper
position. Figure 2-6 shows the parts in the order in which they are placed in
position. Note that the brush holder is part of the armature assembly.
Some manufacturers use parts that may not be identical with those shown, but
they are essentially the same and have a corresponding position in the armature.
When the mechanism is completely assembled, the brush holders should be
spaced approximately 0.030 in. from the commutator. This distance will vary
depending on the size and make of motor.
Many repulsion-start induction motors have the brush holder mounted on the
end-plate assembly instead of on the armature, but the operation of this motor is
similar to that of the other in all respects. Instead of the brush holder’s being
moved forward, only the brush springs are moved away. This has the same effect
as moving the brushes away from the commutator. The centrifugal device is
actuated by a governor, as before, which moves the push rods forward and
causes the necklace to short-circuit the commutator.
Instead of a lock washer, a threaded shaft and nut may be used to hold the
centrifugal mechanism in place. When dismantling this mechanism, it is impor-
tant to count the number of threads before taking off the nut, so that when
reassembling the mechanism, the proper pressure will be placed on the governor
spring. Figure 2-7 shows the order in which these parts are assembled.
Brush-riding, Repulsion-Start Induction Motor

In the brush-riding, repulsion-start induction motor, an axial commutator is used
on which the brushes ride. Such a commutator is shown in Figure 2-8.
The centrifugal apparatus generally used on this motor consists of a number of
copper segments held in position by an encircling garter spring, as shown in
Figure 2-9. This assembly is placed in position adjacent to the commutator, so
that at a preset speed, centrifugal force will cause the copper segments to short-
circuit the commutator bars. The segments are returned to their original position
by the garter spring when the motor stops. The motor runs as an induction motor
while the commutator is short-circuited. Many types of short-circuiting mecha¬
nisms are made for this motor, but the working principle is essentially the same
in all.
In the brush-riding type of repulsion-start induction motors, the brushes do not
conduct any current after the motor attains speed, even though they ride on the
commutator.
The number of brushes that ride on the commutator ordinarily depends on the
number of poles in the motor. A four-pole motor has four brushes (Figure 2-10).
Two brushes will suffice if the armature is wave wound or cross-connected, as
will be explained later in the chapter (Figure 2-11). Note that in Figures 2-10 and
2-11, all the brushes are connected together or shorted. This is true of all repul¬
sion-start induction motors, regardless of the number of poles or brushes. They
are not connected to an outside line, nor are they connected to the stator winding.
Stator Windings and Connections

The stators of repulsion-start induction motors have one winding, like the run¬
ning winding of the split-phase or capacitor motor. The coils of each pole are
concentric and are put in the slots in exactly the same manner as in the split-phase
motors. Insulation of the proper size and thickness is placed in the slots to
prevent grounds.
Dual Voltage. Most repulsion-start motors are made for dual-voltage operation,
regardless of the number of poles and the frequency of the current. The usual
method of connecting a motor is to connect all poles in series for high-voltage
operation and in two-parallel for low-voltage operation. Figure 2-12a illustrates a
four-pole, dual-voltage (115-230) stator connected for 230-volt operation using
the short jumper connection. Figure 2-12b shows the terminal markings used on
a dual-voltage repulsion-type motor. Each wiring diagram shows four leads out
of the motor which are lettered TX,T2,T3, and T4. For 230-volt operation, T2 and
T3 are connected together and taped. The line leads are connected to Tx and T4.
For 115-volt operation, Tx and T3 are connected to Lx, and T2 and T4 are con-
nected to L2. Figure 2-13 shows the same motor as Figure 2-12a except that long
jumper connections are used. All dual-voltage motors have four wires brought
out of the motor to permit changeover from one voltage to another.
Some dual-voltage motors are connected in two parallel for high-voltage oper¬
ation and in four parallel for low-voltage operation. Examples of these methods
of connection are shown in Figures 2-14a and b and 2-15.
The majority of repulsion-start induction motors are wound for four-pole,
1,750-rpm operation, but some are wound for six- and eight-pole operation.
Figures 2-16 and 2-17, show the stator windings of a six-pole motor, and Figures
2-18 and 2-19 show the windings of an eight-pole motor. Figure 2-18 shows long
jumper connections.
Recording Data. When it is necessary to rewind the stator of a repulsion-start

induction motor, care must be taken to record the proper data. Include the pitch
of the individual coils, the turns, and the size of wire. Of utmost importance is
recording the position of the poles in the stator. The coils of each pole must be
put back into the same slots in which they were located before the windings were
stripped. If the coils are put in other slots, the armature may not rotate, or if it
does rotate, it may not have the desired torque.
A simple method of recording the position of the original winding is to mark
the center slot or slots of each pole with a center punch (see Figure 2-20).
Another method is to make a drawing of the poles’ position in the frame. Some
motors have stator slots that are so constructed that it is impossible to make an
error in winding. On these motors the section of the core at the center of each
pole is wider than the other sections. This construction is shown in Figure 2-21.
The method of recording the winding data is similar to that used for the other
types of single-phase motors so far discussed. Figure 2-22 illustrates a typical
record of the pitch data of a 24-slot, four-pole motor. Because the stator winding
is similar to that of the main winding of a capacitor-start motor, it is stripped as
described in Chapter 1, “Capacitor-Start Motors.” A typical data sheet follows.
DATA SHEET FOR REPULSION MOTOR

Make
H.P. R.P.M. Volts Amps.
Cycle Type Frame Style
T emp. Model Serial » Phase
Rotor Bars Stats Coil Pitch Wave Lap
Lead Pitch T urns Coils/Slot Size Wire
Equalizer Pitch
Stator Poles Slots Size Wire No. of Circuits
Slot No. I 2 14 * h 6 9 10 1112 13 14 1*16 1'’ IK 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 2h 29 10 II 12 13 34 15 16 I
Winding
Armature Windings for Repulsion-Start

Induction Motors
Armature winding is taken up in detail in Chapter 6, Direct-Current Armature
Winding. However, some of the important points in the study of repulsion mo¬
tors, such as cross-connections and equalizer rings, will be discussed here. This
material applies not only to repulsion-start induction motors but also to repulsion
and repulsion-induction motors.
Construction of the Armature. The details of the armature are shown in Figure
2-23. The core consists of laminations punched from annealed high-grade electri¬
cal sheet steel. These are tightly pressed together and then pressed onto the shaft.
There is a large difference in the magnetic lines of flux between the iron teeth and
the open area of the slots in both the armature and the stator. If these slots are in
straight alignment, there will be an uneven torque because of this magnetic
difference. This will cause a magnetic hum and can result in unwanted vibration.
Skewing the laminations of either the stator or the armature prevents this prob¬
lem. Figure 2-23 is an armature with skewed slots that do not align with the
shaft.
Commutators of the radial type are either pressed on the shaft or screwed on,
depending on the make and type of motor. Usually on small motors the commu¬
tator is pressed on, but on large motors it is screwed on the shaft. When replacing
a press-on commutator, care must be taken to apply even pressure on the shaft to
avoid tilting the commutator; otherwise, too much of the commutator will have
to be turned down in a lathe in order to have the commutator run true. These two
commutators are illustrated in Figures 2-24 and 2-25.
Some commutators can be reinsulated by taking them apart, but most commu¬
tators are constructed in such a manner that reinsulation is impossible. These
commutators are assembled with a composition of Bakelite or other material that
may crack when subjected to the excessive heat caused by short circuits. When a
repulsion-start induction motor must be rewound because of burn-out, it is often
found that the commutator must also be replaced. Radial commutators nearly
always have to be replaced, but the axial type are much sturdier and can be used
again.
Winding the Armature. Armature windings are either lap or wave. Figure 2-26
shows a lap winding in which the end lead of a coil is connected to a commutator
bar adjacent to the starting lead of the same coil.
A wave winding is one in which the starting lead and the end lead are con¬
nected on opposite sides of the commutator for a four-pole motor (see Figure
2-27). For a six-pole motor, the starting lead and the end lead are connected
approximately one-third the number of commutator bars apart; for an eight-pole
motor, one-fourth the number of bars apart.
There may be the same number of coils as slots, in which case the number of
commutator bars must equal the number of coils or slots. This is called a one-
coil-per-slot winding. Such windings are shown in Figures 2-26 and 2-27. An
armature may have twice as many coils as slots. In this case, the commutator has
twice as many bars as slots. This is called a two-coil-per-slot winding and is a
very popular type of winding on small motors. It is shown in Figures 2-28 and
2-29. When each slot contains three coils, there are three times as many commu¬
tator bars as slots. This is called a three-coil-per-slot winding and is shown in
Figures 2-30 and 2-31. Notice the pitch of the coils. In these illustrations the coil
pitch is 1 and 8. All coils in an armature have the same pitch, turns, and wire
size.
Winding Procedure. Assuming a two-coil-per-slot lap winding having four

poles and 28 slots, the procedure for winding the armature is as follows:
1. Mark the core on each side of one coil with a file and trace the leads of this
coil to the commutator bars to which it connects. These bars are also file marked.
Determine by measurement the number of bars to the left or right of the slot to
which the leads of this coil connect. This is done by stretching a string from the
center of the slot to the commutator to see which commutator bar lines up with
the slot. The number of bars to the left or right is recorded as shown in Figure
2-32.
Strip the armature and record all necessary data such as coil pitch, number of
turns, type of winding (lap or wave), coils per slot (one, two, or three), pitch of
leads, size of wire, and so on. Stripping an armature is explained in Chapter 5,
page 175.
After the armature is stripped and the data taken, test the communicator for
faults.
If the commutator is not badly worn or otherwise damaged, the following
procedure may be used to prepare it for rewinding: When stripping the armature,
cut the leads at least an inch from the commutator and straighten them. Chuck the
armature in the lathe, and with an acetylene torch, heat the commutator while the
lathe spins it. Wear a protective face shield during this procedure. When the
solder softens, stop the lathe and pick out the wires with a pair of needlenose
pliers. Do not overheat the commutator, but apply only enough heat to soften the
solder. It may be necessary to reheat the commutator several times before all the
wires are removed.
After the commutator cools, clean the mica between the bars with a commuta¬
tor file or a hacksaw blade. Next use a test light to test for shorts between each
bar and between each bar and the shaft. If there are no shorts or grounds, the
commutator does not need to be replaced.
If it is of the radial type and replacement is necessary, the portion of the
commutator into which the short-circuiting mechanism fits will have to be bored
out and enlarged to accommodate the necklace. This is done on the lathe with a
boring tool either before or after winding. Extreme care must be exercised, as
some commutators may be easily broken if not handled properly.
Before new insulation is placed in the slots, remove all the old insulation.
Appropriate insulation about 0.007 to 0.015 in. thick is usually sufficient for
motors of less than three horsepower. The insulation, preferably cuffed, must
extend on either side of the core about 1/4 in. and cut a trifle below the top of the
slot. To insulate a stator, the procedure is, generally, to replace the insulation
with the same quality and thickness of insulation as the motor originally con¬
tained.
2. Set up the armature on horses in the position shown in Figure 2-33a or in
an armature holder shown in Figure 2-33b, and start winding with two wires of
the same size in hand. To identify the wires, it may be necessary to test each wire
end when it is placed into the commutator bar. This can be avoided by using
sleevings of different colors for lead identification or by cutting the end leads of
different lengths. Sometimes wires of different colors are used.
Place the beginning leads of the two wires in the notches of the correct two
commutator bars according to the data taken. These wires are usually tapped
lightly with a drift punch to secure them in the notches. Make sure that all
insulation on each wire is removed before putting it into the notch. Wind the
proper number of turns and cut the wires at the slot nearest you, allowing suffi¬
cient length of leads for connection to the bars. Bend the wires back on the core.
3. Start the next two coils in the next open slot and put the beginning leads in
the next two bars, as shown in Figure 2-34. Wind the proper number of turns;
then cut the wires and bend them back on the core, as was done with the previous
coils. This procedure is continued until the entire armature is wound.
4. When all the coils are wound, the end leads of each coil should be resting
on the core ready to be connected to the commutator bars. Place each end lead in
the notch of the commutator bar adjacent to the beginning lead of that coil, as
illustrated in Figure 2-35. Thus, each notch holds two leads—a beginning lead
on the bottom and an end lead on top. Wedges are fitted into each slot on top of
the wires in order to prevent the wires from being thrown outward by centrifugal
force when the armature rotates.
If the armature is coil wound, that is, if the coils are made up on a form and
then put into the armature, the method of placing the coils in the slots is slightly
different. When the armature is coil wound, only the bottom side of each coil for
the first one-fourth of the total number of slots is placed therein. The entire coil is
then put into the slots. In other words, the top side of the coil is not placed in a
slot until the bottom half of the slot has a coil unit.
Make sure that the top leads are connected in the right order to avoid having
reversed coils. After all the leads are connected, complete the winding by solder¬
ing all leads, testing, varnishing, and turning down the commutator.
Equalizer or Cross-Connections. Cross-connections are lengths of insulated

wire that connect commutator bars of the same potential. For a four-pole motor
these commutator bars will be 180 mechanical degrees apart; for a six-pole
motor, bars 120 degrees apart are connected. These connections are generally
placed behind the commutator bars and should be made with the same size of
wire as the armature winding. New commutators are often supplied with the
cross-connections already in place.
Nearly all lap-wound armatures used on repulsion motors are cross-connected.
Circulating currents due to unequal air gaps between the armature and the stator
are thus minimized. Such currents occur when a worn bearing causes the bottom
side of the armature to be closer to the stator than the top side. In addition, the
use of two brushes instead of four on a four-pole motor is permitted. On some
armatures, the cross-connections close the circuit through the armature.
To determine the bars in which cross connections are placed, it is necessary to
know the number of bars, the number of poles, and whether the commutator is
completely cross-connected or half cross-connected. A completely cross-con¬
nected commutator is one in which all commutator bars contain equalizer wires.
To determine the number of bars spanned by each cross-connection, use the
formula
no. of bars
Span =-;---;—
no. of pairs of poles
For example, if a commutator has 50 bars and if the motor has four poles, the
span will be
50
Span = = 25 bars
2
Therefore, to span 25 bars, the first cross-connection will be between bars 1

and 26; the next connection is between 2 and 27; and so on. If a six-pole motor
has 81 commutator bars, the equalizer span will be 81/3 = 27 bars, and cross-
connections are made between bars 1 and 28, 2 and 29, 3 and 30, and so on.
Figures 2-36, 2-37, and 2-38 illustrate a 36-bar commutator cross-connected for
four, six, and eight poles.
On lap windings that have no cross-connections, it is necessary to have as
many brushes as poles. On cross-connected commutators, only two brushes are
necessary, although more may be used.
If cross-connected armatures are tested for shorts on the growler, a hacksaw
blade will vibrate completely around the armature, ordinarily indicating a short
circuit. However, if this is not the case, and to determine whether or not the
armature is shorted, it is necessary to use a meter for testing. Another method of
testing for a shorted armature is described on page 86.
Rewinding a Wave-wound Armature. The method of winding a wave-wound

armature is similar to that for a lap-wound armature, except for the position of
the leads in the commutator. Figure 2-39 shows a commutator for a 23-slot,
four-pole armature having 45 bars. It has two coils per slot and is to be connected
as a retrogressive wave winding. The procedure for winding this motor is as
follows:
1. Record all necessary data, being careful to note the commutator pitch. The
formula for determining the commutator pitch of a retrogressive winding is
no. of bars — 1 45—1

Commutator pitch =-=-
no. of pairs of poles 2
= 22, or 1 and 23
Any four-pole, wave-wound armature must have an odd number of commutator

bars. If the commutator has an even number of bars, two of them must be
shorted.
Because the armature has two coils per slot, there are 2 x 23, or 46, coils
called for in the armature. However, only 45 coils can be connected to the 45-bar
commutator. Therefore, one coil is not connected in the armature circuit. Never¬
theless, the dead coil must remain in the armature for mechanical balancing (see
Figure 2-40).
In all two-coil-per-slot, four-pole, wave-wound armatures, it is necessary to
add a coil in the form of a jumper lead when the number of bars is one more than
the number of coils. For instance, if the armature had 22 slots instead of 23, only
44 coils could be wound on the armature; but because 45 are necessary, an extra
coil is put on the armature by connecting a jumper between the commutator bars
that would ordinarily have been used for the forty-fifth coil. Figure 2-41 shows
the connection of such a jumper lead.
2. Start winding the armature by hand with two wires, and place the bottom
leads in the proper bars according to the data. The leads are placed away from the
center of the coil, as shown in Figure 2-42. This is nearly always the case in
wave-wound armatures.
Wind the proper number of turns for each coil; then cut the wires, one long and
one short for identification, and bend them back on the core. If the armature is
coil wound, apply colored sleeving on each lead before it is placed in the arma¬
ture slots.
3. Connect beginning leads into the commutator bars and wind the next two
coils, as shown in Figure 2-43. If the armature is coil wound, the coil is placed in
the slots before the beginning leads are connected to the commutator bar.
4. After the coils are wound, the end leads are put in the commutator bars on
top of the beginning leads, as shown in Figure 2-44. The first top lead is usually
tested to make sure it is placed in the right commutator bar. All the others are put
down in sequence, as each one is identified either by its length or by its color. It
is essential that the proper commutator pitch be used, otherwise the armature
may not operate. In this wave winding, the top and bottom leads go away from
each other. In a lap winding, the leads go toward each other.
5. The procedure from here on is the same as that given for dc armatures in
Chapter 5. The armature can be tested for shorts on the growler as described on
page 181.
Reversing the Repulsion-Start Induction Motor

If a closed coil of wire is placed alongside and in the same plane as a field pole
supplied with alternating current, the coil will turn until it is at right angles to the
field pole, as illustrated in Figure 2-45. For this to take place, the coil must be
slightly tilted; otherwise a torque will be produced in both a clockwise and a
counterclockwise direction, with the result that the coil will not turn at all. The
current induced in the coil of wire causes a pole to be formed similar in polarity
to that of the field pole. Consequently, the two poles are repelled from each
other, until the movable one rotates to the horizontal position.
Figure 2-46 shows the armature of a repulsion motor substituted for the coil. If
the two brushes of a two-pole motor are shorted, as shown by the heavy line in
Figure 2-46, the current induced by the stator winding into the armature winding
by the transformer action will cause poles to be formed on the armature core,
identical with those on the stator core. No motion takes place because the repel¬
ling forces on both sides of the rotor are in a horizontal direction. The stator
winding is usually known as the inducing winding.
If the brushes are shifted either to the right or to the left (shown in dashed lines
in Figure 2-46), the armature will rotate just as it did in the case of the closed
coil. If the brushes are shifted clockwise, the armature will rotate in that direc¬
tion. And if the brushes are shifted counterclockwise, the armature will rotate in
that direction. Thus, a repulsion motor is reversed by shifting the brushes 15°.
Actually, to shift the brushes, the entire brush-holder assembly or rocker arm
must be moved. Usually there are markings on the end bracket, like those shown
in Figure 2-47, that correspond to the direction of rotation. To reverse a motor, a
small screw on the brush holder bracket is loosened, and the brush holder is
shifted to either of the two marks. The screw is then tightened before the motor is
started. This method of reversing applies to both brush-riding and brush-lifting
types of motors.
Stationary Brush Holders. Many motors, especially the brush-riding type, do

not have movable brushes. The brush holders may be cast as part of the end
bracket and therefore cannot be moved. Some of these motors are constructed so
that the field poles are off center. If the entire pole frame is reversed, the effect
will be the same as if the brushes were shifted. On some motors, additional stud
holes in the stator are provided to permit the stator to be moved. To reverse such
a motor, the end brackets are removed, the frame reversed end to end, and the
motor reassembled. The two positions are shown in Figures 2-48 and 2-49.
Cartridge Brush Holders. Another type of motor has two off-center brush
holders, which are individually moved. To reverse such a motor, each brush
holder is moved 180 mechanical degrees. On some motors, the entire brush
holder is removed and then set back in place after it is turned through 180
degrees. On other motors, a small setscrew is loosened, and the brush holder is
turned by means of a screwdriver. These brush holders are illustrated in Figures
2-50 and 2-51. They usually have an arrow on the cap indicating the direction of
rotation. Turning the off-center brush holders shifts the brushes to a new position
on the commutator and produces reversed rotation.
Some motors are constructed for only one direction of rotation. On motors of
this kind the brush holders cannot be shifted, nor can the frame be moved. One
good way to reverse such a motor is to unsolder the commutator leads and move
them over several bars, but this cannot always be done. Another method is to
rewind the stator so that the center of each pole is moved at least one slot away
from its original position.
Making a retrogressive winding from a progressive one will not usually re¬
verse the motor, as it does in a dc armature. However, on some motors reversal
of rotation may result.
Brushes. Motor brushes are made in different sizes, shapes, and grades, de¬
pending on the individual machine. Because they carry current and ride on the
commutator, they will wear and consequently must be replaced. A good rule to
follow is to replace with a brush identical with that in the motor. Replacements
can easily be obtained by ordering from supply houses, using the nameplate data
as information.
Most brushes are made from some form of carbon or graphite. Ordinarily these
materials are processed so that they will be suitable for operation in the motor for
which they are intended. The treatment consists of subjecting the carbons to high
temperatures and pressures, resulting in brushes with different characteristics
such as hardness, electrical and thermal conductivity, and toughness. Some
brushes are made from a mixture of powdered metal with graphite to carry larger
current than can be obtained from graphite alone.
Brushes are made in various shapes and usually equipped with a short length
of stranded copper wire called a pigtail. The purpose of the pigtail is to conduct
current from or to the brush proper and may or may not be connected to the brush
holder, depending on the type of motor. On repulsion-start motors having radial
commutators, the brush is wedge shaped so that it will resemble the shape of the
commutator bar, wide on top and narrower on the bottom. These brushes usually
come in pairs with a pigtail between them, as shown in Figure 2-52, and do not
connect to the brush holder.
Locating the Neutral Point. If new marks are to be made in the end bracket for
clockwise and counterclockwise rotation, it is first necessary to locate the neutral
point or setting of the brushes. At this setting, the motor will not run in either
direction. Two such points will be found in the ordinary repulsion-start induction
motor, one of which is the correct setting (hard neutral) and the other the incor-
rect one (soft neutral). To determine which is correct, move the brushes to a point
that the motor does not run in either direction and then shift the brush holder
slightly to the right of this point. The motor should then run in a clockwise
direction. Next shift the brush holder to the left of the neutral point. The motor
should then run counterclockwise. If the motor runs in the direction in which the
brushes have been shifted, the correct neutral (hard neutral) point has been used.
If the wrong neutral point has been used, shifting the brush holder to the right
will produce counterclockwise rotation.
THE REPULSION MOTOR
The repulsion motor is distinguished from the repulsion-start induction motor by

the fact that it is made exclusively as a brush-riding type and does not have any
centrifugal mechanism. This motor both starts and runs on the repulsion princi¬
ple. In common with a dc series motor, it has a high starting torque and a
variable-speed characteristic. It is reversed by shifting the brush holder to either
side of the neutral position. Its speed can be decreased by moving the brush
holder farther away from the neutral position. This motor is sometimes called an
inductive-series motor.
The stator of the repulsion motor is like that of the repulsion-start induction
motor, and the stator poles are connected in the same manner. The stator is
generally wound for four, six, or eight poles. Usually four leads are brought out
for dual-voltage operation.
The rotor consists of an armature constructed in the same manner as the dc
type. It is laminated and generally skewed. The winding may be either hand or
coil wound and is connected by either lap or wave. The commutator is the axial
type, and the brushes always ride on the commutator. The brushes all are con¬
nected together, as in the repulsion-start motor. Figure 2-53 illustrates a four-
pole repulsion motor.
Compensating Winding
Some repulsion motors use an additional winding called a compensating wind¬
ing, whose purpose is to raise the power factor and provide better speed regula¬
tion. The compensating winding is much smaller than the main winding and is
usually wound in the inner slots of each main pole and connected in series with
the armature. Figure 2-54 shows the compensating winding and its connections
to the brushes. Four brushes are necessary. Two of these are connected together,
and the other two are connected in series with the compensating winding. The
motor illustrated may be connected for dual-voltage operation. To reverse this
motor, it is necessary to reverse the compensating leads as well as to shift the
brush holder. A typical data layout diagram for a 36-slot, six-pole motor of this
type is shown in Figure 2-55.
THE REPULSION-INDUCTION MOTOR

It is sometimes impossible to tell the difference between the repulsion-induction
motor and the repulsion motor by external appearance. However, the repulsion-
induction motor has a squirrel-cage winding on the armature in addition to the
regular winding. The squirrel-cage winding is located underneath the slots of the
armature, as shown in Figure 2-56. The armature is usually lap wound and
cross-connected.
To tell the difference between a repulsion and repulsion-induction motor, con¬
nect the motor to the line and permit it to reach full speed. Then raise all brushes
so that they no longer contact the commutator. If the motor continues to operate
at full speed, it is a repulsion-induction motor.
Repulsion-induction motors are made in sizes up to about ten horsepower.
They are dual-voltage types and can be used for general-purpose duty. Figure
2-57 illustrates the connections of this motor for a 230-volt operation. In the field
of repulsion motors, this type is becoming very popular, because of its good
all-round characteristics, which are comparable to those of the dc compound
motor.
The advantage of this motor is that no centrifugal short-circuiting mechanism
is used. It has a high starting torque and, owing to the squirrel-cage winding, a
fairly constant speed regulation. These motors are also made with compensating
coils to increase the power factor of the motor circuit. An illustration of a com¬
pensated repulsion-induction motor connected for a 115-volt operation is shown
in Figure 2-58.
ELECTRICALLY REVERSIBLE REPULSION MOTORS

Repulsion motors are reversed usually by shifting the brush rigging approxi¬
mately 15° either side of neutral. Actually, the direction of rotation depends on
moving the brushes mechanically from one side of hard neutral to the other. The
rotation can be reversed by moving the magnetic field instead of the brushes. The
brushes remain in a fixed position at all times. This is done by using two sets of
windings on the stator instead of one. These are wound 90 electrical degrees
apart, just like the windings on a split-phase motor.
There are several ways of arranging the windings for the electrically reversed
repulsion motor. The main or inducing winding is wound on the stator as hereto¬
fore described, and the reversing winding is wound 90 electrical degrees from the
main winding. Both windings are connected in series. To reverse the motor it is
necessary only to reverse the leads of either winding.
Another method of winding is to wind the reversing winding in two sections.
In operation, the main and one section are connected in series for clockwise
rotation. For counterclockwise rotation, the main winding is connected in series
with the other section. The two sections are so connected as to give opposite
polarities for the same pole. This procedure shifts the magnetic axis either to the
left or right, producing the required rotation. Schematic diagrams of these and
other repulsion-type motor connections are shown in Figure 2-59, reproduced
through the courtesy of NEMA.
REWINDING AND RECONNECTING REPULSION

MOTORS
Rewinding for a change in voltage is the only change that does not cost too
much. Only the stator winding must be changed. The rules in this change are
similar to those in the split-phase or capacitor main winding.
Rule 1.
new voltage
New turns =-x ong. tums/coil
orig. voltage
Rule 2.
ong. voltage
New c.m. area =-x ong. c.m. area
new voltage
Example:
A 115/230-volt repulsion-start induction motor is to be changed to a 230/460-
volt motor.
Solution:
230
New turns =-x orig. turns
115 6
= 2 x orig. turns
Therefore, twice as many turns per coil are used.
115
New c.m. area =-orig. c.m. area
230 6
1
ong. c.m. area
2
Therefore, wire one-half of the original gauge is used. For example, if the origi¬
nal wire size was No. 16, use a No. 19 instead.
In a voltage change, the armature need not be disturbed in any way.
Testing
As in the case of other motors, repulsion motors are tested for grounds, shorts,
opens, and reverses. Both the armature and stator must be given these tests.
Test for Grounds. The usual method of testing the stator for grounds is to use
the test lamp. Connect one test wire to the frame and the other test wire to a stator
lead. If the lamp lights, a ground is indicated. The method of location and repair
of the ground is the same as that described for the split-phase and capacitor
motors.
The armature windings and the commutator are tested for grounds in exactly
the same way. On some motors, the brush holders are grounded to the end plate.
Consequently, before the armature is tested for grounds, the brushes must be
lifted away from the commutator. If a ground is indicated in the armature, test for
location by the meter method as described in Chapter 5. A voltage of approxi¬
mately 1,000 volts, applied between winding and ground, may flash at the point
of ground and show its location.
Test for Shorts. The stator is tested for shorts by using the internal growler, by
measuring the drop in voltage across each pole, by a resistance measurement of
each pole, or by feeling for the hottest coil after the motor runs for a short time.
A shorted coil can also be detected by applying direct current to the winding and
determining the strength of each field with a piece of iron. The pole having the
least attraction or pull is the shorted one. If a coil is burned or charred, visual
inspection alone will reveal the defective coil.
The armature is tested for shorts with the millivoltmeter, or it may be tested on
the growler if the armature is wave wound. It must be emphasized that lap-
wound armatures with cross-connections cannot be tested on the growler.
Shorted coils produce a low reading on the millivoltmeter and, if tested on the
growler, cause a hacksaw blade to vibrate. This is explained in Chapter 5.
A highly satisfactory method of testing for a short circuit in the armature of a
repulsion motor is illustrated in Figure 2-60. Remove the brushes or prevent
them from contacting the commutator. Connect the power line to the motor.
With the brushes removed, the motor will not rotate. Turn the armature by hand,
and if there is a shorted coil in the armature, it will tend to stick at certain points.
Otherwise the armature will turn freely. This test should be made only if the
bearings are in good condition.
Test for Opens and Reverses. The stator winding of the repulsion motor is
tested for opens and reverses as described in the previous chapters. The armature
is tested for such trouble in the manner described in Chapter 5.
Repairs
This section applies to all three types of repulsion motors. The symptoms that are
encountered in practice are given below. Under each are listed the possible
troubles. The numbers in parentheses after each trouble indicate the correspond¬
ingly numbered remedies to be found in the following pages.
Because only the repulsion-start induction motor has a centrifugal short-cir¬
cuiting mechanism, it is only this type that is referred to when the centrifugal
switch is mentioned.
1. If the motor fails to start when the switch is closed, the trouble may be
a. Bumed-out fuse.
b. Worn bearings (1).
c. Brushes stuck in holder (9).
d. Worn brushes (9).
e. Open circuit in stator or armature (2).
f. Wrong brush-holder position (5).
g. Shorted armature (3).
h. Dirty commutator (9), (12), (17).
i. Wrong lead connections (6).
j. Necklace shorting the armature (11).
2. If the motor does not start properly, the trouble may be
a. Worn bearings (1).
b. Dirty necklace or commutator (9), (12).
c. Brushes moving from commutator too soon (10).
d. Centrifugal mechanism not assembled properly (14).
e. Brush holder set in wrong position (5).
f. Short-circuited mechanism worn, broken, or improperly assembled (14).
g. Governor weights jammed (15).
h. Improper tension in the spring (16).
i. Shorted armature (3).
j. Excessive end play (8).
k. Overload (7).
l. Shorted stator (4).
m. Worn lip on brush holder (18).
3. If the motor becomes excessively hot, the trouble may be
a. Motor connected for 115-volt operation but being run on 230 volts.
b. Shorted armature or stator (3), (4).
c. Overload (7).
d. Worn bearings (1).
e. Broken or burnt necklace (12), (13).
f. Brush holder out of position (5).
4. If motor is noisy in operation, it may be caused by

a. Worn bearings or shaft (1).
b. Loose centrifugal device (14).
c. Shorted stator coil (4).
d. Excessive end play (8).
e. Dirty short-circuiting device (12).
5. If the motor burns out a fuse, the trouble may be
a. Grounded field (19).
b. Incorrect connections (6).
c. Brushes not contacting commutator (9).
d. Shorted armature (3).
e. Incorrect setting of brushes (5).
f. Frozen bearings.
6. If the motor hums but does not run, the trouble may be
a. Wrong lead connections (6).
c. Incorrect brush setting (5).
e. Shorted stator (4).
f. Grounded stator (19).
g. Brushes sticking or not making contact (9).
h. Dirty commutator (9), (12).
7. If the motor does not come up to speed, the trouble may be
a. Wrong spring tension on brushes (10), (16).
b. Dirty or burned necklace (12).
c. Dirty commutator (9).
e. Shorted stator coil (4).
f. Worn bearings (1).
g. Push rods too long (10).
8. If the motor sparks internally, the trouble may be
a. Open armature coils (2).
b. Dirty commutator (9).
c. High mica (20).
d. Short or sticking brushes (9).
1. Worn Bearings. If the bearings are so worn that the rotor touches the stator,
the motor will hum when the switch is closed, and the armature will have only a
slight tendency to rotate. With no voltage applied to the motor, test the bearings
by trying to move the shaft vertically. Movement indicates worn bearings, and
the remedy is replacement with new bearings. When the bearings are in such a
condition, the armature has smooth worn sections on the core, indicating that it
has been rubbing against the stator. If the bearings are slightly worn, the motor
will be noisy and run hot, and in some instances it will run at a slower-than-nor-
mal speed.
2, Open Circuit in Stator or Armature, To locate the position of the open, use
the test lamp and proceed as described in Chapter 1. After the open is located,
repair or rewind as the case demands.
In testing the stator for opens in a repulsion motor, make certain to test two
circuits. Because nearly all repulsion motors are dual-voltage motors, four leads
are brought out, two for each set of poles.
Opens in the armature are tested and located with a meter, as in the case of dc
motors. A burned spot on the commutator will indicate the position of the open
coil. The remedy is to repair the open by reconnecting the broken wire or, if the
break is not readily accessible, by rewinding the entire coil or armature.
3, Shorted Armature, If most of the coils of an armature are shorted, the motor
will make a feeble attempt to start, then hum, and remain inoperative. If only one
or two coils are shorted, the motor will run but will have a poor starting torque.
The shorted coil will become hot at start and may smoke if the starting is pro¬
longed.
When a shorted coil is placed in a changing magnetic field, it will have a
voltage induced into it. The short provides a completed circuit, and so current
will flow within the shorted turns. Not only does the current flow create heat in
the coil; the coil also will set up a magnetic pole that will conflict with the
motor’s normal poles. This will weaken the torque, and a normal load will be too
much for the motor to pull.
A good method of testing an armature for shorted coils is to remove the
brushes and then turn the armature while current is flowing through the stator. If
the armature turns freely without sticking, it is in good condition. Usually a
visual inspection of the armature winding of a repulsion motor will reveal shorted
coils. The armature is generally completely burned and charred so that the odor
of burnt insulation is evident.
It is not a good policy to cut out coils on repulsion motors. If one or more coils
are shorted, the entire armature should be rewound. Be sure the commutator is
perfect before the armature is rewound.
4, Shorted Stator, A shorted stator will cause the motor to run at a slower-than-
normal speed and produce a growling noise. In addition, the shorted coils will
become hot and smoke. Sometimes the motor will not reach the speed required
for the centrifugal mechanism to operate, and consequently, it will draw an
excessive current and bum out a fuse. Test for this condition with an internal
growler.
5, Wrong Brush-Holder Position, On repulsion motors, the brush holder must

be set in a definite position for rotation. If the holder moves from this position,
either the motor will have poor starting torque or it may not run at all, and a fuse
will bum out. This condition will occur when the setscrew holding the brush
rigging in place becomes loose and permits the holder to shift. A similar condi¬
tion arises when the armature is rewound and the leads are not put in the proper
commutator bars. If the leads are placed one or two bars away from the proper
position, a new neutral point must be located.
This will also occur if the stator has been rewound and the coils placed one slot
away from the original position. In either case, a new neutral position must be
located, and from this, the new position for clockwise and counterclockwise
direction is located. This can be found by shifting the brush holder back and forth
until the motor has the required torque.
6. Wrong Lead Connections. Figures 2-61 and 2-62 show the errors that are
sometimes made by beginners when connecting the four external leads of a
repulsion motor. In both cases, the motor will hum when power is applied. To
remedy this, reverse one set of motor leads.
Another error made in the lead connections is joining terminals Tx and T2
together and to line L1? and terminals T3 and T4 together and to line L2. Study of
the diagram of Figure 2-63 shows that such a connection is equivalent to having
an open circuit. With this connection, the motor will not even hum when con¬
nected to the line.
7. Excessive Load. Overloading a motor prevents it from operating at the re¬

quired speed and causes an excessive flow of current. In repulsion-start induction
motors, the centrifugal mechanism will not operate because the speed will be
insufficient. Instead, they will attempt to operate as repulsion motors and will be
noisy and very hot.
8. Excessive End Play. On some repulsion-start induction motors having radial

commutators, excessive end play will cause the brush holder to be too great a
distance from the commutator, resulting in poor brush pressure which will pro¬
duce sparking and may prevent the motor from coming up to speed. Allow at the
maximum 1/64-in. end play by placing washers on the shaft of the armature.
Make sure, however, that the washers are so placed that the core of the armature
lines up with that of the stator. Quite often, excessive end play will cause noisy
operation.
9. Brushes Not Contacting Commutator. If the brushes are stuck or worn,

they may not touch the commutator, and the motor will not start. A dirty commu¬
tator or poor spring tension will have the same result. If the motor does start,
considerable sparking will occur. These defects are easily detected by inspection
and are remedied by cleaning the commutator, renewing the brushes or springs,
or renewing both.
10. Brushes Lifting from Commutator Too Quickly. A repulsion-start induc¬

tion motor operates as a repulsion motor until it reaches approximately 75 per¬
cent of full speed and then comes up to speed as an induction motor. It is obvious
that if the brushes are moved away from the commutator before this speed is
reached, the motor will not attain full speed. Instead, it will slow down, causing
the brushes to ride on the commutator again. This cycle of operations may con¬
tinue indefinitely.
Premature movement of the brushes from the commutator may be due to poor
spring tension. On the type of motor that has the brush-holder assembly on the
armature, it may be necessary to replace the spring. On the other type, the
tension on the spring may be increased by tightening the nut.
If the push rods are too long, the brush holder is held too far away from the
commutator. At start, the brush holder should be approximately 1/32 in. from the
commutator. The push rods should be shortened when the commutator is turned
down on the lathe. Incorrect assembly of the centrifugal mechanism will also
cause premature movement of the brush holder.
11. Necklace Shorting the Armature. It is usually the fault of the assembly
when the necklace shorts the armature. This can easily be rectified by referring
to Figure 2-6 and reassembling the parts in the proper order, as shown there.
On the brush-riding, repulsion-start motor, the short-circuiting segments may
become welded to the commutator bars, or the commutator bars may become
grounded.
12. Dirty Centrifugal Necklace or Commutator. If the necklace is dirty or

broken or if the part of the commutator that is shorted by the necklace is dirty,
then the commutator will not become entirely shorted at the right time. Conse¬
quently the motor will run in a manner similar to that of a squirrel-cage rotor with
open-circuited bars. Such a motor will not pull a load and will slow down and
overheat. The motor will also be noisy. The brush-lifting type will slow down
sufficiently so that the brushes will again ride on the commutator, and this in turn
will make the motor speed up. But as soon as a load is placed on it, it will slow
down again. This operation will repeat itself until a fuse blows.
The remedy is to remove all the mechanism and clean the necklace, replacing
parts if necessary. The commutator must also be cleaned thoroughly.
13. Short-circuiting Necklace Broken or Not Operating Properly. If the neck¬

lace is of the type consisting of many individual pieces of copper segments held
together with a length of wire through holes in each piece, make sure that it is
placed on its holder so that the holes are toward the rear of the commutator. Each
segment also has a shoulder that must be in a position to contact the commutator.
If the necklace is the one-piece type, it is so constructed that it curves. It is
important that it be assembled on the necklace spool to fit the curvature of the
spool.
If the necklace is broken, burned, or assembled improperly, the armature may
not be completely shorted after it reaches speed. The motor then operates at all
times as a repulsion motor. The remedy is a new necklace or proper assembly.
14. Centrifugal Mechanism Not Assembled Properly. If the necklace is as¬

sembled in such a position that it always short-circuits the commutator, the motor
will not start. If the spring barrel is assembled improperly, the mechanism will
jam. Incorrect tension on the spring will cause the brushes to lift from the com¬
mutator too quickly or too slowly. An improperly assembled mechanism may
also be loose and cause this condition during operation.
If the centrifugal device is suspected, dismantle it entirely, clean all parts,
make sure that each part is in perfect condition, and then reassemble correctly.
Use Figure 2-6 as a guide.
15. Centrifugal Weights Jammed. When the centrifugal weights are jammed,
the motor operates as a repulsion motor at all times; it will be noisy and have
poor torque. If the weights are jammed, the push rods will not operate, and
consequently the short-circuiting apparatus will be inoperable. Further, the
brushes will ride on the commutator at all times. This will also cause severe
overspeeding with most types of loads. The armature and brushes are not de¬
signed to work as a repulsion-type motor, and so if they are allowed to run this
way very long, they will overheat and bum out.
16. Incorrect Tension of the Spring. If the spring tension is insufficient, the
commutator will become shorted at a very low speed, and the brushes will be
lifted from the commutator too quickly. This will have the effect of producing a
low starting torque, and the motor will be unable to achieve the speed necessary
to change over from the repulsion-start to the induction-run condition. The spring
may have to be replaced or adjusted for the proper tension.
If there is too much tension, the brushes will not release, nor will the armature
become shorted. This will cause the motor to run as a repulsion motor at all
times, with resultant noisy operation and sparking. Remedy this fault by adjust¬
ing the nut for the proper tension.
17. Dirty Commutator. This condition is similar to that of sticking brushes, as

no current will flow through the armature if dirt on the commutator prevents the
brushes from making contact on the commutator. If such a condition exists, the
motor will hum, and there may be sparking between the commutator and the
brushes. The remedy is to clean the commutator with a clean cloth and sandpa¬
per.
18. Worn Lip on Brush Holder. A worn lip on a brush holder is a common
cause of failure, particularly when the holder is of white metal. The worn lip
causes the holder to wobble and give poor brush contact. To remedy, replace the
brush holder.
19. Grounded Field. If the field is grounded in one place, the operator may get
a shock if the motor is touched. If the frame of the motor is grounded according
to code regulations, a fuse will blow. Two or more grounds on the field winding
are equivalent to a short and in nearly all cases will cause a fuse to blow. The
motor may hum for a while before the fuse blows.
20. High Mica. When the copper bars of a commutator wear more than the
mica strips between the bars, the condition known as high mica develops. The
high mica does not allow the brushes to make good contact with the commutator,
and sparking is caused. The remedy is to turn down the armature in a lathe and
then undercut the mica.
Chapter 3
THREE-PHASE MOTORS
VARIETIES OF THREE-PHASE MOTORS
Three-phase motors vary from fractional-horsepower size to thousands of horse¬

power. These motors have a fairly constant speed characteristic and are made in
designs giving a variety of torque characteristics. Some three-phase motors have
a high starting torque; others, a low starting torque. Some are designed to draw a
normal starting current; others, a high starting current. They are made for practi¬
cally every standard voltage and frequency and are very often dual-voltage mo¬
tors. Three-phase motors are used to drive machine tools, pumps, elevators,
fans, cranes, hoists, blowers, and many other machines.
Construction of Three-Phase Motors

A three-phase motor is shown in Figure 3-1. It has three main parts: stator, rotor,
and end plates. Its construction is similar to that of the split-phase motor, but it
has no centrifugal switch.
The stator is shown in Figure 3-2 and consists of a frame and a laminated steel
core like that used in single-phase motors and a winding formed of individual
coils placed in slots. The rotor may be a die-cast aluminum squirrel-cage type or
a wound rotor. Both types contain a laminated core pressed onto a shaft. The
squirrel-cage rotor is shown in Figure 3-3 and is like that of a capacitor-start
motor. The wound rotor is shown in Figure 3-4. It has a winding on the core that
is connected to three slip rings mounted on the shaft.
The end plates or brackets are bolted to each side of the stator frame and
contain the bearings in which the shaft revolves. Either ball bearings or sleeve
bearings are used.
Operation of Three-Phase Motors

The coils in the stator’s slots are connected to form three separate windings
called phases. These are shown in Figure 3-5. Each winding or phase is con¬
nected in the same way as is a single-phase run winding. The same connection
rules apply to these phases that apply to a single-phase run winding. Adjacent
94
Three-Phase Motors 95
poles must be connected to have opposite polarity, and they may be connected
long or short jumper. The number of circuits per phase will be any number that
will divide evenly into the number of pole groups. For example, a phase with
four pole groups can have one, two, or four circuits.
The following explanation pertains to a four-pole, 36-slot motor. (“Chord
Factor” in Chapter 1 explains degrees per tooth.) Each pole group is placed in
the stator slots and connected so that they will be 120 electrical degrees from the
other. Figure 3-6a shows the 120° slot in a concentric-wound coil group, and
Figure 3-6b shows the 120° slot in a lap-wound coil group. The coil in the 120°
slot is the start of the group of the next phase. Figure 3-7 shows three coil groups
that are spaced 120° from one another. The illustration shows only the coils of
each phase that are of the same polarity. The rest of the coils that are wound with
them have been left out for clarity.
The rotation in a three-phase motor is accomplished by a rotating magnetic
field in the stator reacting to the squirrel-cage winding of the rotor. The rotating
magnetic field is created by three separate voltages energizing the three-phase
windings explained above. Each voltage reaches its peak value 120 electrical
degrees in time after the other (1/180th of a second).
Each winding is spaced 120 electrical degrees from the other, as shown in
Figure 3-7. Electrical degrees are used in a stator to measure where to place the
poles: 360 electrical degrees equal two poles, one north and one south pole, and
one cycle of ac electricity equals 360 electrical degrees. The degrees of a cycle
measure the time it takes to generate that cycle. On 60-cycle-per-second (Hz)
power, one cycle takes 1/60 of a second. Figure 3-8 shows how one cycle of a
single phase looks in the form of a sine wave. Figure 3-9 depicts a three-phase
sine wave. The three-phase sine wave is actually three single-phase sine waves
spaced 120 electrical degrees in time from one another. The voltage of each sine
wave peaks in value or reaches full voltage 120° or 1/180 of a second apart.
When each of these voltages are fastened to a phase winding, the windings each
reach their full magnetic power 120° or 1/180 of a second after the other. This
120° magnetic timing and the 120° spacing of the windings in the stator create a
rotating magnetic field. Figure 3-10 illustrates the poles and the way they fit the
sine wave. Figure 3-1 la shows a two-pole stator with direct current applied to
phase A. This represents the 90° spot on phase A of the sine wave and the peak
magnetic power of phase A’s winding. The bar magnet representing the rotor
aligns itself as shown. In Figure 3-1 lb, phase# is energized. This happens 1/180
of a second, or 120°, later on 60 Hz, as shown on the sine wave. The bar magnet
aligns itself with the center of phase #’s winding. In Figure 3-1 lc, phase C is
energized. This happens 120°, or 1/180 of a second, after phase B has reached its
peak power and aligns with the bar magnet as shown. Phase A is again energized,
as shown in Figure 3-1 Id, and completes the revolution.
This is a simplified explanation of the way a three-phase motor works. But
with three-phase power and a squirrel-cage induction, three-phase motor, the
explanation becomes much more complicated.
The Squirrel-Cage Rotor

Poles form in a stator around a spot where the current flows in opposite directions
in the slots on either side. Figure 3-12 illustrates how this happens in a stator.
Poles are formed in the rotor in much the same way. The lines of force from the
rotating magnetic field cut the rotor bars, inducing a low voltage into them. The
end rings short out the rotor bars, providing a circuit in which the current can
flow. Figure 3-13 shows how the poles form. The lines of force from pole 1 cut
the bars of the rotor, creating a current flow as shown; pole 2 creates the current
flow in the opposite direction. The end rings carry the current from bar to bar.
The bars between the poles are not cut by the lines of force, and so they produce
no voltage. The current in the bars above and below the bars with no voltage is
flowing in opposite directions, and a pole is formed at this spot. This spot is at
a 90° angle to the stator poles. The 90° angle gives the motor its best efficiency.
When a three-phase motor starts, the lines of force from the rotating magnetic
field cut the rotor bars at a very high rate. This causes a high-frequency voltage
in the rotor bars. This high rate of change in voltage and resulting current give
the rotor circuit a high inductive reactance. (The current lags behind the voltage
in the rotor circuit.) This lag in current flow makes the rotor’s pole form later
than the stator’s pole does. The stator pole has decreased in power by this time,
and the two poles do not react to each other as they do at 90°, and so there is less
torque per amp.
As the rotor speed catches up to the speed of the rotating magnetic field, the
rotor frequency drops, and the angle improves. At approximately 70 to 80 per¬
cent of synchronous speed (synchronous speed is the speed of the rotating mag¬
netic field), the motor will develop maximum torque. If there is no load, the rotor
will accelerate to near-synchronous speed. At this speed, few lines of force are
cutting the rotor bars, and so there is very little current flowing in the rotor
circuit. When there is very little current, the rotor poles will be very weak, and
very little torque will develop. The synchronous speed is reached when the rotor
and the rotating magnetic field are traveling at the same speed.
At synchronous speed the lines of force flow through the rotor in only one
direction. Because of this, the bars are not cut, and no voltage is produced in
them. In Figure 3-14a, the lines of force travel from pole 1 to pole 2. By the time
the cycle changes, the rotor is aligned with pole 2, so that the lines of force go
through the rotor in the same direction, now from pole 2 to pole 1 (see Figure
3-14b).
If the rotor is placed in a dc field and not moved, there will be the same
reaction, no current flow in the rotor bars.
When the rotor is loaded down to 2 to 5 percent slip, or 95 to 98 percent of
synchronous speed, the current in both the rotor and stator circuits is normal, and
the motor will pull its rated load. The percentage of slip = synchronous
speed — shaft speed -r- synchronous speed.
Single-phase motors have a rotating magnetic field created by the offset cur¬
rents of the start and run windings. This rotating magnetic field brings the rotor
up to 70 to 75 percent of synchronous speed, and the start winding is then
switched off. The motor will continue to accelerate to its rated speed because of
the poles created in the rotor by the lines of force from the run winding. These
lines of force from the run winding create a voltage and a current in the rotor in
the same way as does any one of the three windings of a three-phase motor. A
three-phase motor will continue to run if one phase is opened but will not start on
two of its windings. The motor’s pulling power will also drop to one-half of its
normal rating.
The bars in the rotor of three-phase motors have many variations. The size, the
shape, the material they are made of, and the depth they are placed in the rotor’s
iron all will determine how much current will flow in the rotor circuit. The
amount of current flowing in the rotor circuit will establish how much starting, or
inrush, current will flow in the stator and the amount of starting torque the motor
will have. It will also determine how much slip the motor will have at full load.
By varying the design of the rotor bars, the motor can be made for different load
requirements. This information is found on the nameplate as the code letter. The
code letter designates the locked-rotor KVA per horsepower, according to
NEMA standards. All electric motors should perform within these standards.
Preparing the Stator for Stripping. Because the windings are usually hard
baked, and some are encapsulated (covered with an epoxy compound for addi¬
tional protection), it is necessary to soften or char the insulating material. Before
doing this, the coil ends opposite the connections should be cut off. Figure 1-52
is one method of doing this using an air chisel. The insulation is charred with a
bum-off oven. When insulation is burned off, the temperature should be care¬
fully controlled, or the insulation between the laminations will be destroyed. The
temperature should not exceed 700°F, This insulation is used to insulate magneti¬
cally the laminations from one another. When this insulation is destroyed, the
laminations will heat excessively because of the circulating current between
them. As T-frame motors have a minimum amount of iron per horsepower, any
loss of insulation will cause them to heat excessively. Heating the stator un¬
evenly or too fast can also warp the laminations. If the winding insulation catches
fire, especially that on encapsulated windings, the additional heat can seriously
damage the stator. Some ovens are equipped with controls that turn on a fine mist
of water to snuff out any flames.
Another method of breaking down the winding insulation is with chemicals.
After the windings are cut off, the stator is placed in a special tank. Some types
use fumes and others immerse the stator in liquid. Once the insulation has been
broken down and the connections are pliable, the data can be accurately re¬
corded.
REWINDING THREE-PHASE MOTORS
There are many steps in rewinding the three-phase motor.
1. Taking data.
2. Stripping the winding.
3. Insulating the stator.
4. Winding the coils.
5. Placing the coils in the slots.
6. Connecting the coils.
7. Testing the winding.
8. Varnishing and baking.
Taking Data. The following information should be recorded: (1) nameplate

data, (2) connection, (3) number of turns per coil, (4) wire size, (5) wires in
multiple, (6) pitch, (7) coil extension, (8) number of groups, (9) number of
poles, (10) number of coils per group, (11) number of slots, and (12) whether the
winding is lap or concentric.
All these data must be recorded accurately to enable the repairperson to rewind
the stator without loss of time. The following is a chart listing all the important
data needed to do this. After “Remarks,” such things as length of leads, special
insulation, or anything that may be destroyed during the stripping process should
be noted.
DATA SHEET FOR POLYPHASE MOTOR
Make Serial Cycle

H.P. R.P.M. Volts Amps Frame
Temp. Duty S.F. Code Design
Model Type Style Enclosure Hz
Efficiency Power factor Bearings SI. BB. #
Connection Turns Wire size Wires in mult.
Pitch Coil ext. No. of groups No. of poles
Coils/Group No. of slots Lap Concentric
Remarks:
A sample data sheet for rewinding three phase motors.
A sample data sheet for rewinding three-phase motors.
NAMEPLATES FOR DUAL-VOLTAGE.

THREE-PHASE MOTORS
Figure 3-15 shows a typical nameplate for a three-phase, dual-voltage, wye-con -
nected motor. Note the connections for both high and low voltage. Examination
of the nameplate reveals that it is for a 230/460-volt, three-phase, 60 Hz, 10 hp,
1,760 rpm motor. Usually these plates provide a connection diagram for high and
low voltage. The connection diagram will also indicate the type of internal con¬
nection the motor has. The nameplate should be removed if the stator is going to
be burned.
It is important to understand the meaning of some of the terms listed on the
nameplate. Some of these terms are design, code, rating, service factor, insula¬
tion class, frame, temperature, efficiency, and power factor.
Design. Polyphase, squirrel-cage, integral-horsepower, induction motors have

been designated as being design A, B, C, or D. These motors are designed to
withstand full-voltage starting. Motors with designs A, B, and C have a slip at a
rated load of less than 5 percent. Design D motors have a slip at a rated load of
5 percent or more. Design A and B motors of ten poles or more may have a slip
at a rated load of 5 percent or more. The locked rotor and breakdown torques that
are developed and the locked rotor currents are related to the design letter. Tables
of such value can be found in the NEMA publication, Motor Standards. All
motors should perform within the standards described in this publication if they
meet NEMA standards.
Code. The code letter is the letter that appears on the nameplate of ac motors to
show the locked rotor K.V.A. (kilovolt amperes, or 1,000 x volts x amperes)
per horsepower. Locked rotor amperes can be computed from tables listing the
K.V.A. per horsepower for the different code letters. For example, for the code
letter G, the K.V.A. per horsepower is 5.6 to 6.3. The K.V.A. input for a
ten-horsepower motor exceeds 10 x 6.3 = 63 K.V.A.; that is, watts / volts =
amperes. To find the inrush amperes or the locked rotor amperes for the motor if
it is connected for 230 volts, the following method is used: 63 K.V.A. = 63,000
watts, 63,000 / 230 volts = 274 amperes. If the motor is connected for 460
volts, 63,000 / 460 =137 amperes. This figure is needed to determine the size
of overcurrent protection for the circuit and the motor.
Rating. The term Cont, or 24 hours, indicates the period of time in which the
motor will develop full horsepower at the stated voltage and frequency shown on
the nameplate without overheating and exceeding the temperature rise on the
nameplate. Duty is also a term used for this purpose on some nameplates. Some
motors are designed for one-half or one hour of duty.
Service Factor. The service factor of an ac motor is a multiplier that, when

applied to the rated horsepower, indicates the permissible horsepower loading
that may be carried at the rated voltage, frequency, and temperature. The multi¬
plier 1.15 indicates that the motor may be overloaded to 1.15 times the rated
horsepower.
Insulation Class. The insulation class is not on all nameplates; it indicates the
temperature class of the complete insulation system inside the motor. Some
service centers upgrade all rewound motors to Class F or H. The insulation
classes are given in centigrade. To convert centigrade to Fahrenheit, use the
formula F = (9 / 5) x C° + 32. The insulation classes are Class A, 105°C; Class
E, 120°C (used in Europe); Class B, 130°C; Class F, 155°C; Class H, 180°C; and
Class C, 220°C.
Frame. The frame number can be used to determine a motor’s measurements.

This information is documented in the form of a chart. Some of the measure¬
ments found on the charts are the shaft diameter, the distance from the shaft to
the base, the spacing of the mounting holes, and the type of mounting. These are
NEMA standard measurements, and so all motor manufacturers build motors to
these specifications.
Temperature. This is the temperature the motor is allowed to reach under full
load and within its duty time. It is usually given in degrees centigrade.
Efficiency. Efficiency is a measurement of the total power input divided by the

total power output and is expressed as a percentage. To obtain this figure, the
electric motor companies select a number of motors, test each of them, and then
average the results.
Power Factor. A motor’s power factor is the ratio of kilowatt input to the
killovolt ampere input. The number is expressed as a percentage. The electric
motor manufacturers compute the power factor of a number of motors that are
loaded at a rated load and on a rated voltage. The power factors of all these
motors are then averaged. If a factory corrects its power factor, this information
can be useful.
A motor’s power factor can vary. If a motor is underloaded or the voltage is
higher than the motor’s rated voltage, the motors power factor will go down. The
power factor can be found using a wattmeter, a voltmeter, and an ammeter. After
taking each of these readings from the motor, use the formula
Watts _
-= Power Factor
Volts x Amps
The wattmeter gives the actual power being used by the motor. Multiplying
the voltmeter reading by the ammeter reading gives in watts the apparent power
used by the motor. The difference between the actual power and the apparent
power is called wattless power or magnetizing power, and wattless power / ap¬
plied voltage = the amperes of wattless power or magnetizing amperes.
Correcting the power factor reduces the magnetizing amperes, and so the
amperes of the circuit will go down. Reducing the magnetizing amperes of the
circuit allows more of the circular mils of the circuit’s conductor to be used for
the amperes of actual power. Even though the magnetizing amperes are not part
of the actual power, the conductor must be large enough to carry both. The result
of lowering the magnetizing amperes of a circuit is a higher voltage. If the power
company has to correct the power factor, it will charge a penalty.
RECORDING OTHER DATA

After the nameplate information is recorded, the stator should be marked with a
chisel where the leads come away from the connection side of the winding. Some
stators have more room on the connection side. The first information that is taken
from the windings is the connection. In order to recognize these connections, the
repairperson must have a basic knowledge of windings and their connections.
After recording the connections, measure the coil extension and take the wire
size from the cross-connections. The wire size should be noted carefully. A
common mistake is to record one size larger. If the wire is not straight or clean, it
can appear to be the next size larger. If there are multiple wires (more than one
strand coming out of the coil group), check them all as two wire sizes are
common. If the wire fits loosely in the wire gauge or measures between sizes
with a micrometer, it could be a half-size wire. In this case, the replacement wire
should be the larger size if the half-size is not available. Pull out several coils
until a complete coil is uncovered. The span or pitch can then be counted. Start
with one coil side as one and count each slot up to and including the other coil
side, as shown in Figure 3-16. This coil span is 1-8. Next count the turns of a
coil and record them. The data sheet is arranged to record the most important
information first. The connection, turns, wire size, pitch, and winding arrange¬
ment (lap or concentric) will be destroyed when the stator is stripped. Coil
arrangement will be explained under “Three-Phase Concentric Windings” in
this chapter.
Stripping the Windings. After the previous information is recorded, the wind¬
ings can be stripped. Figure 3-17 shows a pair of pliers being used to pull out the
wires. Care must be taken not to bend the laminations.
After the wires have been removed, check carefully for sharp burrs, fused
copper, and bent stator teeth. Anything that can puncture the slot liner should be
removed with a file or chisel.
Insulating the Stator. The stator insulation should be replaced with insulation
of the same thickness and as high or a higher temperature rating. Most shops use
Class F or Class H paper for all slot-liner insulation. Cuffed insulation of these
types is also available in all standard widths and thicknesses. Sheets and rolls are
also available. Some shops reenforce the edges of the insulation with glass tape
before forming it. Figure 3-18 shows a motor being insulated with cuffed liners.
Figures 1-59 and 1-60 are two types of liner formers. It is important that the
liners fit the slot exactly. The liner should extend beyond the slot 3/16 inch on
small motors and up to 3/8 inch on large motors.
Coil-Group Arrangements in Three-Phase Motors. There are two coil group

arrangements for three-phase motors, lap winding and concentric or chain wind¬
ings. The coils of lap windings (Figure 3-19) all have the same shape, the same
span, and the same number of turns. There is the same number of coils as there
are slots, .and each slot contains two coil sides. Concentric or chain windings
(Figure 3-20) can have one, two, three, or more different spans. They can also
have a different number of turns per coil, and the slots can contain one or two
coil sides. The number of coils can be the same as, one-half as many, or two-
thirds as many as the number of slots in the stator.
Coil Types for Lap Windings. There are two types of lap windings, the formed
coil and the mush coil. The formed-coil lap winding is usually found in larger
motors that range from 50 to thousands of horsepower and are designed for
voltages of over 600 volts. The wire in these motors is either square or rectangu¬
lar. To form the coils, the wire is wound in layers in the shape of a loop or skein,
and then the loop is placed in a forming machine that shapes it into a diamond
shape. Figures 3-21 and 3-22 show these two machines. The shaped coils are
then taped (as shown in Figure 3-23), after which they are dipped in varnish and
baked. The coils are then inserted in the stator. Stators that are wound with
formed coils have open slots, as pictured in Figure 3-24a. The coils are con¬
nected into groups, and the groups are then connected as wye or delta. Some
companies specialize in making formed coils for shops that do not have forming
equipment.
The mush coil is used in motors of up to 300 horsepower that operate on

voltages below 600 volts. The coils are shaped on a winding head and are made
with round wire. The wire is not layered, as with formed coils, but is guided at
random into the grooves of the winding head. The mush coils are sometimes
called random-wound coils. The coils are wound in groups with the wire(s)
crossing over from coil to coil without being cut. Stators using the mush coil
usually have semiclosed slots, as seen in Figure 3-24b.
It is common to have to feed the wires of mush coils into the slots one at a
time. Figure 3-25 shows how to insert a coil. There are several types of winding
heads available to form mush coils. The heads shown in Figures 3-26 and 3-27
can form diamond- or rectangle-shaped coils. The head in Figure 3-28 forms
coils with rounded ends. This round form comes in several widths. After select¬
ing the form with the right width, only the length adjustment needs to be made.
Another type has enough slots to wind a complete phase for a four-pole motor
without cutting the wire. This one is called a continuous head, and with it there is
no need to make group-to-group connections. Figure 3-29 shows a winding head
with the coils wound on it and also a group removed from the head. This is a
diamond-shaped group. Figure 3-30 shows a lap-wound stator with diamond¬
shaped coils. If the stator were cut apart and the slot assembly flattened, it would
look like that shown in Figure 3-31. Note the coil-to-coil cross-connections; they
are drawn in for illustration purposes but would not show in an actual winding.
The number of coils per group depends on the number of poles and the number of
slots. This will be explained in “Odd-Pole Grouping” in this chapter.
Winding the Coils. After the slot liners are in place, the measurement for the
new coil setting is made. A single wire can be formed in the shape of the old coil
by threading it through the slots of the proper span and shaping the ends. The coil
should extend beyond the slot liner about 3/8 to 1/2 of an inch, as illustrated in
Figure 3-32. This is done so that the phase insulation paper (explained later) .will
stay in place easily. The point or nose of the coil is shaped according to how
much end room is available. The pattern is shaped to fit from the bottom of the
slot on one side to the top of the slot on the other side. The point of the coil will
assume a shape during the winding that will allow it to fit the rest of the coils
without difficulty. If the point is not long enough, the coils of the winding will
“stack,” and the winder will have difficulty inserting the coils and later shaping
them. If the point is too long, it can touch the end bell and cause a ground. The
pattern wire is the size of the smallest part of the coil. The number of turns and
the size of the wire will determine the size of the outside or largest part of the
coil.
Remove the pattern wire from the stator and place it on the winding head.
Expand the head to fit the pattern wire tightly, and then remove the pattern wire
and fit it into the slots again to see whether it has the right shape. Several turns of
wire can be wound around the winding head for this pattern coil if preferred. If
the pattern is satisfactory, a coil group can be wound.
The coils of small motors may be wound into a rectangular form and then the
two sides shaped into a rounded or diamond form by pulling at the center of the
opposite sides, as shown in Figure 3-33. This forms a four-sided coil of two
straight sides for the slots and two rounded sides on the ends. This type of coil
takes up less end room.
Group Winding. Most three-phase motors, with the exception of very large
ones with formed windings, use coils wound in groups. The number of coils in
each group depends on the number of slots and the number of poles, as described
under “Connecting the Three-Phase, Lap-wound Motor.” This practice is called
group or gang winding. In group winding, several coils are wound before the
wire is cut, as shown in Figure 3-34.
Placing the Coils in Slots. The turns of the coils are inserted one by one into
semiclosed slots. Use the following procedure: Spread or fan out the turns on one
side of the coil, and hold the coil at an angle so that all the turns can be fed into
the slot. Figure 3-35a shows this procedure. Make sure that each turn is placed
inside the insulation. Sometimes the wires are placed by mistake, between the
insulation and the iron core, and a ground results.
Pull the side of the coil through the slot until all the turns are in the slot. The
other side of the coil remains free, as shown in Figure 3-36. Note that a coil side
occupies half a slot. Many winders prefer to hold the coil over the entire length of
the slot and drop the turns directly into the slots one at a time, as shown in Figure
3-35b.
Continue by placing one side of the second coil in the slot beyond the first, as
shown in Figure 3-37. The following coils are fitted in the same manner until the
slots of a complete coil pitch hold one side of each coil. The second side of each
coil is left out until the bottom half of a slot is occupied by a coil side. The
second side of each coil is then fitted on top of the first side of a coil several slots
away, according to the pitch of the coil. When coils are wound in groups, the
winder always works with a complete group of coils at a time, placing them into
the slots, as explained above and illustrated in Figure 3-38.
In this method, one side of each coil is in the bottom half of a slot, and the
other side of the coil is in the top half of another slot several slots away, depend¬
ing on the pitch of the coil. The number of coils of which the top side is left out
is usually one or two more than the coil pitch, and they are not put into slots until
the stator is nearly completed. Make certain that each coil side extends beyond
the slot at both ends and does not press against the iron core at the comers.
Before inserting the second side of each coil, it is necessary to insulate it from
the coil already in the slot. This is because each group belongs to a different
phase. The voltage between groups is very high.
To insulate between the coil sides in the same slot, follow the procedure given
in Figure 3-39 for both open and semiclosed slots. A creased separator or insula¬
tion of the proper width and thickness (usually 0.010 to 0.015 in.) is used to
insulate between the top and bottom coil sides in the slot. Slide a separator over
the bottom sides of the coil in the slot before installing the top side. It should
extend about 1/2 in. beyond the slot liner. When the top side is placed into the
slot, slip a formed fiber wedge (round or square) over the top coil. This should
extend about an 1/8 in. beyond the slot liner. As each group of coils is placed in
the slots, put phase insulation between groups. Varnished glass is used for this
purpose. Phase insulation between groups is shown in Figure 3-40. Heavy sepa¬
rators are placed between the coils in the slot and the U-shaped insulators over
the top coils. Slot wedges are inserted to hold the coils securely in place. Note
also that coils are wound with three wires in parallel.
If there is a large span, as with a two-pole motor, the complete coils may be
placed in the slot, starting with the first coil. Use the same insulating procedure
as described above for this method.
CONNECTING THREE-PHASE,
LAP-WOUND MOTORS
In the following discussion, we shall assume a 36-coil, four-pole, lap-wound,
three-phase motor.
All three-phase motors are wound with a number of coils, usually as many
coils as slots. These coils are so connected as to produce three separate windings
called phases, each of which must have the same number of coils. The number of
coils in each phase must be one-third the total number of coils in the stator.
Therefore, if a three-phase motor has 36 coils, each phase will have 12 coils.
These phases are usually called phase A, phase B, and phase C.
Rule 1. To find the number of coils in each phase, divide the total number of
coils in the motor by the number of phases.
Example:
36 coils
-=12 coils per phase
3 phases
All three-phase motors have their phases arranged in either a wye (Y) connec¬
tion or a delta (A) connection.
A wye-connected three-phase motor is one in which the ends of each phase are
joined together. The beginning of each phase is connected to the line. Figure
3-41 shows the wye connection. Because of the pattern formed by the phases in
the diagram, this circuit is also called a Y (wye) connection (actually an inverted
Y). Henceforth, wye (Y) will be used to describe this connection.
A delta connection is one in which the end of each phase is connected to the
beginning of the next phase. Figure 3-42 shows the end of the A phase connected
to the beginning of the B phase. The end of the B phase is connected to the
beginning of the C phase, and the end of the C phase is connected to the begin¬
ning of the A phase. At each connection, a wire is brought out to the line.
Another way is to connect the end of A to the beginning of C, the end of C to the
beginning of B, and the end of B to the beginning of A.
Poles. In the motor under discussion, the coils are connected to produce four
poles. Thus, in a 36-coil, four-pole motor, each pole consists of nine coils, as
shown schematically in Figure 3-43.
Rule 2. To find the number of coils in each pole, divide the total number of
coils by the number of poles.
Example:
36 coils
-= 9 coils per pole
4 poles
To the eye, the coils appear as shown in Figure 3-44. To simplify the connec¬
tion process, each coil can be eliminated from the drawing so that only two leads
of the coil are shown. Figure 3-45 is such a simplified drawing.
Group. A group is a definite number of adjacent coils connected in series. In all

three-phase motors there are always three groups in each pole, one from each
phase. Thus, one group is from phase A, another group from phase B, and a third
group from phase C.
Therefore, if a pole has nine coils, there must be three coils in each group.
This section of three coils is often called a pole-phase group or pole group. Three
groups in one pole are shown in Figure 3-46.
The coils of any one group are always connected in series, illustrated in Figure
3-47. Here the end of coil 1 is connected to the beginning of coil 2. Likewise, the
end of coil 2 is connected to the beginning of coil 3. The beginning of coil 1 and
the end of coil 3 are coil-group leads for connection to other groups. Another
view of the same connection is shown in Figure 3-48a.
Coils are connected into a group when they are individually wound. When
coils are group wound, the groups are automatically formed by the method of
winding, as shown in Figures 3-48a and 3-48b. Most motors are group wound.
Rule 3. A simple way to determine the number of groups is to multiply the

number of poles by the number of phases. For example, in the motor being
discussed, 4 poles X 3 phases =12 groups, or groups = poles X phases.
If the number of groups is known, it is easy to determine the number of coils in

each group.
Rule 4. The number of coils in each group is equal to the total number of coils
in the motor divided by the number of groups:
total number coils 36

Coils per group =-;-:- = 3
number of groups 12
When a three-phase motor is to be connected, the number of groups is first

determined, and then the coils per group are computed. For example, a six-pole,
54-coil, three-phase motor has 3 phases x 6 poles, or 18 groups. Then, 54
coils -T- 18 groups equals 3 coils per group.
Wye Connection. The windings of the motor can now be connected. Assume a
36-slot, four-pole, wye-connected motor. The procedure is as follows:
1. There are three coils in each group, and the coils in each group are con¬
nected in series when the group is wound. This is shown in Figure 3-49.
2. Connect the groups of the A phase together, as shown in Figure 3-50. The
groups must be connected so that the current will flow through the first A group
in a clockwise direction and through the second A group in a counterclockwise
direction, and so on. This will produce alternate north and south poles.
The beginning of the A phase is spliced to a flexible lead wire and brought out
of the motor. The end of the A phase is connected later to the ends of the B and
C phases and insulated.
3. Connect the C phase exactly like the A phase. To simplify connections,
skip phase B. The connections of phase C are shown in Figure 3-51.
4. Connect phase B in the same manner as phases A and C were connected.
Figure 3-52 shows that the start of phase B begins at the fifth group. This type of
connection, in which a group is skipped in order that connection of the next
phase can be started, is called a skip-group connection. In Figure 3-52, the
arrows under each group point in opposite directions; that is, the first arrow
indicates clockwise; the second arrow, counterclockwise; the third, clockwise;
the fourth, counterclockwise. This is one method of checking connections for the
correct polarity of groups. To simplify these diagrams, each group can be shown
as a rectangle, as shown in Figure 3-53, which is a straight-line diagram.
As stated earlier in this chapter, the three-phase winding consists of three
single-phase windings. In Figures 3-53a and 3-53b, the A phase and the C phase
are connected exactly like the single-phase run winding illustrated in Figure
l-54b. The B phase has to be the opposite polarity of the A and C phases. This is
accomplished by skipping the first B phase group and starting the connection at
the second B phase group, as in Figure 3-53c. Figure 3-53d shows the result of
putting all three phases together in a straight line. The same circuitry rules apply
to each phase of a three-phase winding as apply to a single-phase winding. A

four-pole winding can be connected in one, two, and four, one and two, and two
and four circuits.
Figures 3-54a, b, c, and d show a circular diagram made in the same sequence.
First the A phase, the C phase, and the B phase and then all three phases are put
together in a circular diagram. Note the small number next to each group. This
number shows the position the group has in the circular diagram. The number
and position of the groups can be compared with the straight-line diagram in
Figure 3-53d.
In these diagrams, the arrows on the line leads all point in the same direction.
Actually the current at one moment flows in one line lead and out of the other
two, and the next moment in two lines and out of one. To be certain of correct
connections, the arrows will be shown pointed inward. In all of the diagrams just
presented, the B phase, or middle phase, has the arrow drawn in the opposite
direction from the two other phases. This provides a check for correct connec¬
tions of three-phase motors.
A schematic diagram of a three-phase, four-pole, series-wye (1Y) motor is
shown in Figure 3-55. In this diagram, each phase consists of four groups, which
determine the number of poles in the motor. If there are four groups in each
phase, it is a four-pole motor, except when the consequent pole is used. By
looking at the schematic diagram, it is possible to tell the number of poles in the
motor by counting the number of groups in any phase.
The wye point indicates that it is a wye-connected motor. The diagram also
shows that the groups in a phase are connected in series. Therefore, the sche¬
matic diagram indicates that the motor is a three-phase, four-pole, series-wye
(1Y) connection.
Delta Connection. The same motor will next be connected as a four-pole,

series-delta-connected motor. A better understanding of this connection may be
gained if the schematic diagram of Figure 3-56 is studied before the connections
are made. This diagram shows that the groups are connected in series and,
because there are four groups in each phase, that it is a four-pole motor. Because
it has no wye point and is connected by joining the end of the A phase to the
beginning of the C phase, and so on, it is delta connected. Thus, this is a
three-phase, four-pole, series-delta (1A) connection. Note: Each phase in the
schematic diagrams is 120° from the other.
Because this is a three-phase, four-pole motor, it will have 3 phases x 4
poles =12 groups of three coils each. It is not necessary to show the individual
coils, as these were shown in the wye connected diagrams. Each group has three
coils connected in series. It is a good policy, when making these diagrams, to
mark each group with its phase letter and an arrow to show polarity. It is also
helpful to color each phase group and the connections of each phase a different
color.
The next step is to connect the groups of the A phase for proper polarity, as
shown in Figure 3-57a. Show the first arrow clockwise, the second arrow coun¬
terclockwise, the third arrow clockwise, and the fourth arrow counterclockwise.
1. Connect phase A in the same manner as in the wye connection.

2. Connect the phase C for proper polarity, as shown in Figure 3-57b. The groups
are connected so that the current flows into the groups in the direction of the
arrows. Connect the end of A phase to the start of C phase. To check the
polarity, see that all arrows indicating line leads are in the same direction.
3. Continue by connecting the end of phase C to the beginning of phase B.
The B phase is started at the fifth group or at the second B phase group from the
starting point, as shown in Figure 3-57c. In Figure 3-57d, all three phases are put
together to form a complete diagram. The end of the A phase is fastened to the
start of the C phase, the end of the C phase to the start of the B phase, and the end
of the B phase to the start of the A phase.
Because the coil groups are located in a circle in a motor, Figures 3-58a, b, c,
and d show how a straight-line diagram is made into a circular diagram. The
diagram of Figure 3-58d shows their true position in the motor.
The procedure in connecting either a wye or delta motor is the same except for
the point at which the ends of the phases are connected. For a wye connection,
the ends of each phase are connected together for a wye point; for a delta connec¬
tion, the ends of each phase are connected to the beginning of another phase.
The wye and delta connections shown so far have been connected in accor¬
dance with the skip-group method. It is permissible to connect these motors
without skipping a group. Figure 3-59 shows a wye connection in which phases
A,B, and C are connected in that order.
Although this connection is just as effective as the skip-group connection,
many winders and repairpersons prefer the latter for ease in connecting.
Parallel Connections. Many three-phase motors are designed so that each

phase has two circuits or two paths for the current to travel. These are called
two-circuit, or two-parallel, connections. For comparison, the schematic dia¬
grams of a series-wye (1Y) and a two-parallel wye (2Y) connection are given in
Figures 3-60 and 3-61. The parallel connection of the groups in each phase
provides two paths for the current to follow.
Phase A of the two-parallel wye (2Y) connection diagram with rectangles is
illustrated, with the groups indicated, in Figure 3-62a. Begin by connecting one
line wire to groups 1 and 3 of the A phase. Continue as shown in the diagram.
After connecting phase A, connect phase C, as shown in Figure 3-62b. Next
connect the B phase, as in Figure 3-62c. Each wye must contain one end of each
phase. Figure 3-62d shows a complete diagram of a three-phase, four-pole, two-
parallel wye connection. Figure 3-63 shows a circular diagram of the same
motor.
How to Recognize a Connection. It was pointed out previously that determin¬

ing the connections on a three-phase motor when stripping it is important and
requires a knowledge of connections. A simple method of taking connection data
requires that the winder or repairperson visualize the schematic diagram of each
type of motor.
It is important at this point to take several precautionary measures that may be
helpful in recognizing these connections. Do not cut or remove any wires or
leads from the winding until you are certain of the connection. Read and record
the nameplate data. This will usually tell you if the motor is wound and con¬
nected for single or two speed, single voltage or dual voltage, and sometimes
wye or delta. The speed is always recorded on the nameplate, and because the
speed depends on the number of poles, it is simple to find the number of poles:
Just divide 7,200 by the speed for a 60 Hz motor. Remember also that the
number of groups in each phase is equal to the number of poles. If the motor is
connected for two voltages (dual voltage), nine leads are brought out and these
may be connected in series or in parallel and as wye or delta, as explained in the
section “Connecting a Two-Voltage Wye Motor” (page 112). If the motor is a
two-speed motor, only six leads may be brought out. Thus, if the schematic
diagram of the above motors is mentally pictured, little trouble should be en¬
countered in determining the connection. With this in mind, proceed as follows.
First, trace out a line lead to the winding and count the number of groups or
coils that each line or terminal lead connects to. Refer to Figure 3-64 and note
that each line lead connects to just one group. Figure 3-64 is a schematic and
Figure 3-65 is a diagram of a two-pole, series-wye or lY-connected motor,
probably the simplest of all three-phase motors. Look at Figure 3-66, a four-pole
series-wye or 1Y and note again that each line lead still connects to just one
group. Consequently, if a line lead connects to just one group, the connection
must be a series-wye. This is the only three-phase motor in which all terminal
leads connect to only one group. The only difference between these two motors
is in the number of pole groups. A two-pole motor will normally have 2
poles x 3 phases = 6 groups (two in each phase); a four-pole motor will nor¬
mally have 4 poles x 3 phases =12 groups (four in each phase); and so on. The
number of groups can always be obtained from the nameplate speed and some¬
times by actual count. It should be remembered that schematics for recognizing
connections do not have to take into consideration the number of poles; this
information can be obtained from the nameplate. The important points are type
of connection (wye or delta) and the number of circuits (1Y, 2Y, 1A, 2A, and so
on).
If each line lead connects to two groups, it can be assumed that the connection
is either series-delta (1A) or two-parallel wye (2Y). Both circuits are shown in
Figure 3-67. To identify the two-parallel wye connection, look for a wye connec¬
tion in which six groups are joined. If this cannot be found, the connection must
be series-delta. Sometimes two separate wye points of three groups each will be
found, as in Figure 3-67b.
If each line lead connects to three groups, as shown in Figure 3-68, the motor
can only be a three-parallel wye (3Y) type. No other type has such a connection.
If each line lead connects to four groups, as shown in the two circuits of Figures
3-69a and b, the motor may be either a two-parallel delta (2A) or a four-parallel
wye (4Y). Identification of the four-parallel wye (4Y) is then indicated by the
connection of twelve groups at the wye point or four separate wye connections.
These examples show that if the schematic diagram is visualized, the type of
connection can easily be determined.
To determine the number of poles, several different methods may be used. If
the speed of the motor is known, the number of poles is easily found, as the
speed of a three-phase motor bears a definite relationship to the number of poles.
This was explained in Chapter 1. Thus, if the speed marked on the nameplate is
1,725 rpm, it is a four-pole motor; if 1,150, it is a six-pole motor, and so on.
Another method of determining the number of poles is to count the number of
groups and divide by the number of phases. For instance, if 12 groups are found,
divide 12 by three phases, and the result is four poles. The groups are easily
recognized because each group has two jumper leads.
Another method is to count the number of jumpers. For instance, if it is found
that a motor has a two-parallel wye connection and there are six jumpers, this
indicates that it is a four-pole motor, and it is connected as shown in Figure 3-70.
In this illustration, the numbers indicate the jumpers.
Sometimes it is hard to identify the groups when a winding is charred from the
bum-off oven. In this case, an easy way to identify the number of groups is to
count the group ends. This includes the ends fastened to the leads and the ones
that are joined in wye connections. Divide this number by two (two ends per
group) to obtain the number of groups. Divide the number of groups by the
number of phases (three) to obtain the number of poles. It is common for motors
to bum off some of the group ends when they bum out. The number of groups in
a three-phase motor will always be divisible by six. Each phase will always have
a pair of poles, never one or three, and each will have the same number of poles.
Therefore, two poles (per phase) times the phases (three) equals six groups.
There would never be ten or 11 groups in a four-pole, lap-wound, three-phase
motor.
The span of the coils is another way of determining the number of a motor’s
poles. The approximate span is found using the formula (slots / poles) + 1 x
0.8 = span. A four-pole, 36-slot motor can have a 1-7, 1-8, or 1-9 span,
depending on the manufacturer’s design. Full span or pitch is found using the
formula (slots / poles) + 1 = full span. The span of most motors is 80 percent of
full span.
Connecting Three-phase Motors for Two Voltages. Most small- and medium¬
sized three-phase motors are made so that they can be connected for either of two
voltages. The purpose in making motors for two voltages is to enable the same
motor to be used in localities that have different power-line voltages.
Usually the leads external to the motor are connected to provide a series
connection for the higher voltage and a two parallel connection for the lower
voltage.
Figure 3-71 shows four coils that, if connected in series, may be used on a
460-volt, ac power supply. Each coil receives 115 volts. If the four coils are
connected in two parallel to a 230-volt line, as shown in Figure 3-72, each coil
still will receive 115 volts. A third method of connection of the four coils is given
in Figure 3-73. This is a four-parallel connection for a 115-volt operation of the
motor. Each coil still receives 115 volts. Thus, regardless of the line voltage, the
coil voltage is the same. This is the principle used in all two-voltage machines.
Therefore, if four leads are brought out of a single-phase motor designed for 460-
and 230-volt operation, it can be readily connected for either voltage. Figure
3-74 shows the series connection for 460 volts, and Figure 3-75 gives the parallel
circuit for 230 volts.
This principle of voltage dividing between the coils is applied to a three-phase,
four-pole, wye-connected motor in Figure 3-76. This motor is a series-connected
wye for 460-volt use. If it is used on a 230-volt line, it will be connected for two
parallel, as shown in Figure 3-77. An alternative connection using two wye
points is shown in Figure 3-78. Both diagrams are correct.
Connecting a Two-Voltage (Dual-Voltage) Wye Motor. Practically all three-

phase, dual-voltage motors have nine leads brought out of the motor from the
winding. These are marked Tx through T9, so that they may be connected exter¬
nally for either of two voltages. These are standard terminal markings and are
shown in Figure 3-79 for wye-connected motors. There are four circuits in this
motor—three circuits of two terminals and one circuit of three terminals. This
information will be used later for testing.
An easy way to determine the numbering system of a wye or delta schematic is
the spiral method as shown in Figure 3-80a. Starting at Tx, draw a line through T2
and 7V Then drop down to the next lead of the A phase, T4, and go through T5
and T6. Continue on to the third lead of the A phase and complete the spiral from
T7 through Ts and T9. Figure 3-80b shows how the numbering is done with a
delta schematic. Note that each phase has a two-section winding so that these
sections may be connected in series for the higher voltage and in parallel for the
lower voltage. To connect for the high voltage, connect groups in series, as
shown in Figure 3-81. Use the following procedure: Connect leads T6 and T9,
and tape; connect leads T4 and T7 and tape; connect leads T5 and 7g, and tape;
and connect leads Tu T2, and T3 to the three-phase line.
To connect this same motor for the low voltage, the groups are connected in
two parallel, as shown in Figure 3-82. Use the following procedure: Connect
lead T7 to Ti and to line lead L\; connect lead T%toT2 and to line lead L2; connect
lead T3toT9 and line lead L3; and connect T4, T5, and T6 together to form an
external wye.
Figure 3-83 is a straight-line diagram of a two-voltage, four-pole, wye-con¬
nected motor that is connected as explained for the motor shown in Figure 3-81.
Figure 3-84 shows a circular diagram of a three-phase, dual-voltage, wye-con¬

nected motor.
Connecting a Two-Voltage Delta Motor. Refer to Figure 3-85 for the standard
terminal markings of a dual-voltage, delta-connected motor. Note that a dual¬
voltage, delta-connected motor has three circuits of three terminals each. Figure
3-86 shows a schematic diagram for both high- and low-voltage connections. For
a high-voltage operation: Connect lead T4 to jT7; connect lead T5 to jT8; connect
lead T6 to T9; and connect leads 7\, T2, and T3 to L\, L2, and L3, respectively.
For a low-voltage operation: Connect leads 7\, T7, and T6 to the line lead Lx\
connect leads T2, T4, and T$ to line lead L2; and connect leads 73, T5, and T9 to
line lead L3.
A straight-line diagram of a two-voltage, four-pole, delta-connected motor is
shown in Figure 3-87 and is connected for the higher voltage.
Wye-Delta, Dual-Voltage. Some motors are designed so that they may be con¬
nected in delta for low voltage and in wye for high voltage. The voltage ratio
between high and low should be \/3 to 1. Figure 3-88 shows the terminal mark¬
ings for this type of motor. Note that six leads are brought out of the motor, two
from each phase.
This connection is also used for starting large motors or, with smaller motors,
when reduced torque on starting is needed. The motor is started with a controller
that connects the windings as wye for starting. It is then switched to delta for
running. There is less inrush current when the motor starts on the wye connec¬
tion. When there is less current, there is also less torque. The motor has full
power when the controller connects its windings as delta for running. Any delta-
connected motor can be converted to a wye-delta. The end of each phase is
disconnected from its respective line; a lead is put on it; and it is brought out of
the motor. The control will be explained later in Chapter 4.
The voltage ratio between wye and delta is V3, or 1.73. This means that if a
wye-connected motor is mistakenly connected delta, the windings would receive
1.73 times as much voltage as they are designed for. The motor would draw
excessive amperes and soon bum out.
If a delta-connected motor were mistakenly connected wye, the windings
would receive voltage applied divided by 1.73, or times 0.58. A fifty-eight
percent reduction in voltage would cause the motor to have much less power than
its rating and the amperes at no load would be very low.
Short Jumper Connections

All of the diagrams that have been shown thus far have been made with short
jumper connections, in which the end of a group is connected to the end of the
adjacent group of the same phase, in other words, an end-to-end or a beginning-
to-beginning connection, as shown in Figure 3-83. These are also known as
top-to-top, right-to-right, and short throw connections.
The short jumper connection is sometimes made with the B phase arranged as
in Figure 3-89a. The first coil group of the B phase is skipped as before, but from
the second coil group, the connection is made back to the first coil group instead
of the third group. The left lead of the fourth B phase coil group is called T9, and
the right lead of the fourth group connects to the right lead of the third coil group.
The left lead of the third coil group is the end of the phase. Figure 3-89b is a
complete straight-line diagram of a one- and two-wye, four-pole, short jumper
motor connected in this way. The diagram appears split in half, with the Tx
through T6 leads in one half, and the T7, T8, and T9 leads with the internal wye
contained in the other half. Figure 3-90 is a circular diagram of this one- and
two-wye connection. A motor connected in this way looks much different from a
motor connected as in Figure 3-84, but electrically is no different.
The two-pole motor can be connected in seven different ways: one wye, two
wye, one and two wye, wye-delta, one delta, two delta, and one and two delta.
Figure 3-9la, b, c, d, e, and f show all but the one-wye connection; the one-wye
diagram is in Figure 3-65.
The two coil groups of each phase in a two-pole motor are considered to be
adjacent and must be of opposite polarity. The span of each coil group of a
two-pole motor will cover one-half of the stator’s circumference. Two-pole mo¬
tors do not have as much starting torque as do the slower-speed motors of the
same horsepower.
The four-pole, short jumper connections illustrated so far are one wye, two
wye, one and two wye, wye-delta, one delta, one and two delta, and one and two
wye split. Some other connections are four wye (Figure 3-92a), two and four
wye (Figure 3-92b), four delta (Figure 3-92c), and two and four delta (Figure
3-92d). Figure 3-92e is a one-wye connection with the B phase reversed by
starting it at the opposite end.
A good way to learn three-phase connections is to draw each one in color. First
draw each phase separately and then combine them into one drawing. Place an
arrow next to each pole to show its polarity, and then follow the following six
rules:
1. Adjacent poles must be of opposite polarity (with the exception of consequent
pole).
2. Phase B is connected to have the opposite polarity of phases A and C.
3. Each phase must have the same number of coil groups.
4. Each circuit must have the same number of coil groups and turns.
5. The number of circuits possible will be any number that will divide evenly into
the number of pole groups. For example, a six-pole motor can have one, two,
three, or six circuits.
6. The lead numbers can be found by using the spiral method described in Figures
3-80a and b for dual voltage.
Long Jumper Connections

Long jumper connections are those connecting the end of the first group to the
beginning of the third group of the same phase, as shown in Figure 3-93a. These
are also called top-to-bottom, right-to-left, and long throw connections. Figure
3-93b shows the B phase, and Figure 3-93c shows the C phase. Like the short
jumper connection, skipping the first B phase coil group and starting at the
second coil group will reverse the B phase. Figure 3-94 shows all three phases in
a straight-line diagram. This is called a four-pole, one-wye, long jumper connec¬
tion. Figure 3-95a is a two-wye; Figure 3-95b is a one- and two-wye; Figure
3-95c is a two- and four-wye; and Figure 3-95d is a wye-delta connection. Figure
3-96a is a one-delta; Figure 3-96b is a two-delta; Figure 3-96c is a one- and
two-delta; and Figure 3-96d is a two- and four-delta connection. The long jumper
connections have like poles connected in sequence or in the same circuit as in the
two and four circuit motors. Short jumper connections have adjacent or opposite
polarity poles connected in sequence or in the same circuit.
The long jumper and short jumper connections make no difference in a mo¬
tor’s power or starting ability. When a motor is started using the part-winding-
start method (explained later), the short jumper connection will make more noise
than will the long jumper connection.
A two-circuit motor will have better ampere distribution between circuits con¬
nected long jumper if the motor has an uneven air gap between the stator and
rotor. A coil group located next to a large air gap will draw more amperes than
will a coil group located next to a small air gap. Putting the two groups in series
will equalize the amperes.
If a motor has an odd-pole grouping (explained later under “Odd-Pole Group¬
ing”), it may not be possible to use a long jumper if there is more than one
circuit. All two-speed consequent-pole motors are connected on long jumper.
In conclusion, it is necessary to be able to recognize and to make both long and
short jumper connections. Some repair shops rewind all motors in exactly the
way they were wound originally, which is probably the safest procedure for
rewinding motors.
THREE-PHASE CONCENTRIC WINDINGS
The concentric method of forming three-phase coils has been used for a long
time; patents on them date back to the late 1800s. The reason for the return to this
type of winding is that the concentric coil can be wound into the stator by
machine, thereby cutting down on the manufacturing cost. The lap winding can
be inserted only by hand and is in most cases more efficient. The many variations
of the concentric windings are a result of the manufacturers’ attempting to im¬
prove their performance.
The concentric windings have many variations compared with the lap wind¬
ing. The coils of a lap winding all have the same shape, turns, and span, and the
slots all contain two coil sides. There is also the same number of coils as there are
slots. With the concentric winding, the coils in a group will not have the same
pitch as with lap windings. The slots may contain either one or two coil sides.
There can also be a different number of turns in the coils of a group.
One of the many variations used in the concentric winding method is the
four-pole, 36-slot diagram shown in Figure 3-97. Concentric windings are placed
in the stator in layers, which makes the connecting sequence look different from
the lap winding. Figure 3-97 is a three-layer winding. Each layer is a complete
phase, and the coils of each group do not share the slots with any other coils.
It is important to record the slot location for each coil group when taking data
before stripping a concentric winding. One method of illustrating concentric
windings is shown in Figure 3-98. The 36 slots shown in this diagram are sepa¬
rated into four layers. This method makes recording and understanding the wind¬
ing sequence easier than a circular drawing does. To illustrate this winding, the
second and third layers must go off the diagram on the right and back on on the
left showing their location with respect to the slots.
The motor illustrated in Figure 3-99 is wound in four layers of three groups.
The outer layer consists of three groups, and each group has one coil. The next
two layers contain three groups per layer, and there are two coils per group. The
final layer contains three groups with one coil per group. Figure 3-100 is a
straight-line version of this winding. When Figure 3-100 is compared with Fig¬
ure 3-98, it can be seen that the coils occupy the same slots in both drawings.
Only the coil ends are different, and this is because of the sequence in which the
coils were inserted. Electrically, there is little difference between the two se¬
quences of insertion. Rewinding this motor in three layers, as shown in Figure
3-98, is easier.
Some of the standard concentric patterns for 36-slot stators are
1. Two coils per group with the outside coils of the group sharing the slots
with the other phase, as shown in Figure 3-101. The outside coil span is 1-10,
and the inside coil span is 1-8. The outside coil will have one-half as many turns
as the inside coil will.
2. Two coils per group with the inside coils of the group sharing the slots with
the inside coils of other phases, as shown in Figure 3-102. This group will have
an outside coil span of 1-9 and an inside coil span of 1-7. There will be one-half
as many turns in the inside coil as there are in the outside coil.
3. Two per group, skipping one slot on either side of the outside coil. The
span of the outer coil is 1-8, and the span of the inside coil is 1-4, as shown in
Figure 3-103. The inside coil will share the slot with the inside coils of other
phases and will have one-half as many turns as will the outside coil of its group.
4. Three coils per group, all sharing the slots with other phases. The span will
be 1-9, 1-7, and 1-5, as shown in Figure 3-104. Each coil will have a different
number of turns, with the outer coil having the most and the inside coil having
the least. This is one of the more efficient concentric winding designs. The turns
should be counted very carefully.
5. The consequent-pole concentric winding is shown in Figures 3-105 and
3-106. This winding has six coil groups containing three coils per group. The
span is 1-12, 1-10, and 1-8. The coils do not share the slots, and all contain the
same number of turns. There are two coil groups in each phase and they are
located opposite each other. All the coil groups are connected for the same
polarity. Figures 3-107a, b, c, d, e, and f show all the connections for this motor.
The consequent-pole motor is explained in both Chapter 1 and also later in this
chapter.
6. Concentric windings designed for a part-winding start. This design splits
each coil group into two parts, as illustrated in Figure 3-108. In any of the
previously described winding designs, the coils can be split into halves. One-half
of the coil group is inserted and insulated, and the other half is then inserted and
insulated from the other phases. There are now two circuits in the coil group.
Figure 3-109 shows how the connections are made for a two-wye, part-winding-
start motor. Part-winding starts will be explained later in this chapter.
Connecting the Concentric Winding

The concentric winding looks different from the lap winding, as mentioned pre¬
viously. A simple procedure for connecting the concentric winding is as follows.
Start the connections with a group in the outer layer at the six o’clock position
and proceed in a counterclockwise direction. The left lead of this group will be
Ti. Connect this group to the rest of the groups of the outside layer as the A
phase, leaving the end of the phase for the wye connection, as shown in Figure
3-110a. Next locate the group that lies 120° to the right of the first coil in the first
coil group that was labeled T\. Tag the left lead as T3 and connect this group to
the rest of the groups of this layer, as shown in Figure 3-110b, leaving the last
lead for the wye connection. Locate the coil group in the last layer that is 120° to
the right of the first coil of the group labeled T3 and tag the left lead of this group
as T2. Connect this group as shown in Figure 3-110c to the rest of the groups of
this layer, and join the ends of all groups for the wye connection.
The phases of concentric windings may be separated into two or more circuits
for dual voltage. Each circuit must have the same number of coils and turns. The
method described for the part-winding start can also be made into dual voltage.
Figure 3-111 shows a one- and two-coil-per-group winding connected in one and
two wye, and Figure 3-112 is a split winding also connected for dual voltage, one
and two wye.
When concentric windings do not have the coil groups of the same phase in the
same layer, it is necessary to identify all the groups of the same phase before
starting the connecting process. This can be done with a marking pen or different
colored sleevings. This method of identification can also be used with lap wind¬
ings to make each phase easy to see.
How to Recognize a Connection

The windings must be loosened by burning or with chemicals in order to deter¬
mine the connection. Separate the connections and the coil groups so that they
may be counted. If the stator has previously been wound with a continuous
winding head, as pictured in Figure 3-113, the group-to-group connections will
not be welded and will be hard to find. With this winding head, the whole phase
is wound without cutting the wire. The jumper can go from one group to the next
on either side of the stator.
Count the number of leads coming out of the winding. Nine leads mean dual
voltage and can be in wye or delta. If a nine-lead motor is connected in delta,
there will be two times as many coil groups connected to T\, T2, and T3 as there
are to the other six leads. Figure 3-114a shows a one- and two-delta connection
with two coil groups connected to Tx, T2, and T3 and one coil group each for the
rest of the leads. Figure 3-114b has four coil groups connected to Tx, T2, and T3.
Each of the remaining six leads has two coil groups connected to them. This is
a two- and four-delta connection.
A wye-connected motor will have as many coil groups connected to each lead
as there are wye connections. A wye consists of one coil-group end from each
phase. There will be three coil-group ends for each wye. If there is more than one
wye connected internally, they may be connected together or separately. Figure
3-115a shows a one- and two-wye connection, and Figure 3-115b shows a two-
and four-wye connection. There are two coil group ends connected to each of the
nine leads in Figure 3-115b. When there is more than one wye, the coil-group
ends of each wye are sometimes connected to a common wire. The common-wire
method is much less bulky than a cluster of six or more group ends.
Other things to look for are long jumper, short jumper, and, in many motors,
odd-pole grouping. (Odd-pole grouping will be explained later in this chapter.) If
all groups do not contain the same number of coils, it will be odd-pole grouping.
The 12-lead motor can be connected in several ways. Among these are part¬
winding start, wye-delta, and multiple voltage. Some of the voltages with 12
leads are two delta-220 volts, two wye-380 volts (V3 X 220 volts), one delta-
440 volts, and one wye-760 volts. Figure 3-116a shows the end of each phase,
with the numbers Ti0, Tn, and TX2 identifying them. Figure 3-116b shows the
different voltage connections. This motor is designed for two delta, 220 volts.
Six leads are used on a number of different connections. One of these is a
two-wye, part-winding-start motor. Figure 3-117 shows this schematic and the
numbers that are used. The leads Tu T2, and T3 go to one of the internal wyes,
and y7, r8, and Tg go to the other wye. These numbers differ from those for
another six-lead connection used for a wye start and a delta run. Figure 3-88 is
a schematic of this motor, using the numbers Tx, T2, T3, T4, T5, and T6, which
represent both ends of each phase. Other six-lead connections are used on two-
speed motors of various types. These motors use lead numbers TX,T2,T3,T4,T5,
and T6. Two-speed motors will be explained later in this chapter.
The concentric windings, although they look different, have the same connec¬
tions as do the lap windings. One exception is the concentric-wound consequent-
pole motor. The consequent-pole motor was explained in “Three-Phase Concen¬
tric Windings.” Figures 3-118a and b show how the two windings compare.
Both windings have the same number of coil groups, although the span and the
number of coils per group are different. The span of a two-pole winding is
one-half the circumference of the stator, and the two-pole winding has more coils
per group. The span of the consequent-pole winding, four poles in this case, is
about one-third the circumference of the stator. There are three coils per group in
this 36-slot stator.
PART-WINDING-START MOTORS
NEMA Definition. A part-winding-start induction motor is arranged for start¬

ing by first energizing part of its primary winding and then energizing the re¬
mainder of this winding in one or more steps. The purpose is to reduce the initial
values of the starting current drawn or the starting torque developed by the
motor. A standard part-winding-start induction motor is arranged so that one-half
of its primary winding can be energized initially and the remaining half can be
energized subsequently, both halves then carrying the same current.
As noted above, the main purpose of using part-winding-start motors is to
reduce the inrush starting current or to reduce the starting torque developed by
the motor. Although part-winding-start induction motors are single-voltage mo¬
tors, some dual-voltage type polyphase motors (for example, 220/440) are suita¬
ble for part-winding starting on 220 volts. The dual-voltage motor is used on the
lower voltage by connecting half the winding for start and then connecting both
halves in parallel for run. Many of these motors are connected in wye or delta
with the nine leads brought out. See Figure 3-119a and b and Figure 3-120a
and b.
Refer to Figure 3-119a and note that connecting T4, T5, T6 together doubles the
motor’s wye points. Connecting 7V, T2, and T3 to L\, L2, and L3 energizes
one-half of the winding. Connecting TV, T8, and T9 to Lj, L2, L3 completes the
sequence with both 220-volt wyes in parallel. If the motor has just six leads
brought out, leads T4, T5, T6 are connected together permanently inside the
motor.
For the delta motor in Figure 3-120a, one-half the motor is connected in delta
by connecting T\ and T6 to L\\ T2 and T4 to L2\ and T3 and T5 to L3. This
sequence is completed by connecting TV to Ti, T6 and Ts to T2 and T4, and T9 to
T3 and T5, placing both halves in parallel and across the line. If a delta motor has
six leads brought out instead of nine, leads T\ and T6, T2 and T4, and T3 and T5
are connected permanently for starting. For running, connect T7 to T\ and T6; T8
to T2 and T4; and T9 to T3 and T5.
For a two-thirds part-winding start, the delta-connected motor has 12 leads
brought out, as shown in Figure 3-120b. For starting, the leads are connected as
follows: L\ connects to TV, TV; T12; L2 connects to T2, T4, and T10; and L3
connects to T5, T9, and Tu. For running, T6 is added to L\ \ T8 is added to L2; and
T3 is added to L3. In practice, all connections are made automatically by means
of a controller designed specifically for this purpose. This is explained in

Chapter 4.
Winding the Part-Winding-Start Motor. These motors are wound for a single
voltage. The nine- and the 12-lead motors can be used as dual-voltage motors,
but only on low voltage as part-winding start, as explained earlier. The six-lead
motor is used on the voltage for which it was designed. Figure 3-121 shows a
six-lead, two-wye diagram, and Figure 3-122 shows a 12-lead diagram. These
are long jumper diagrams. Short jumper-connected motors work just as well but
will be noisier on the first step of the starting sequence.
IDENTIFYING THE NINE LEADS OF UNTAGGED

THREE-PHASE, DUAL-VOLTAGE, WYE-CONNECTED
MOTORS
The following equipment is used for this test:
1. An ac voltmeter. Scale up to 460 volts.

2. A source of three-phase current—208, 220, or 230 volts.
3. A circuit tester, a test lamp or buzzer, and a battery.
The test may be broken down into two main parts:
A. Testing for the four circuits. Continuity test.

B. Connecting the two-lead circuits to their proper phase.
A. Testing for the Four Circuits
Step 1. Refer to Figure 3-123a. If there is any doubt about the condition of the
winding, the circuits should be tested for shorts and grounds, as explained later
in “Troubleshooting and Repair.” Test the nine leads for complete circuits using
the buzzer, lamp, or other circuit tester. If there are four circuits—three of two
leads and one of three leads—this motor must be wye connected. Note that the
circuits will be T7, T8, T9—the internal wye; Tx-T4\ T2-T5\ and T3-T6. If the test
shows three circuits of three leads each, this will be a delta-connected motor.
Assuming a wye-connected motor, continue with the next step.
Step 2. Tag the circuits. Use r7, Ts, T9 permanently for the three-lead circuit.
Temporarily tag the three two-lead circuits Tx-T4, T2-T5, and T3-T6. We are not
certain at this point that the three two-lead circuits are marked correctly, and so
our main problem is to locate and mark them correctly.
B. Connecting the Two-Lead Circuits

to Their Proper Phase
Step 1. Assuming a three-phase, 230-460 volt motor in good condition; apply

the lower voltage (230) to leads T7, T8, and T9. The motor should run without
load. The other leads must remain open.
Step 2. Measure the voltage across each of the two lead sections. This voltage
should be 230 / V3, or approximately 130 volts. See Figure 3-123b.
Step 3. With the motor running, connect temporarily marked T6 to T9 and

measure the voltage across T3 and TV and across T3 and T8 (Figure 3-123c). If
these voltages are equal and approximately 340 volts, the connection of T6 to T9
will be correct and should be tagged permanently. If equal readings of approxi¬
mately 130 volts are recorded, reverse T6 and T3. If the voltages are unequal, try
the connection with another two-lead section until approximately 340 volts is
obtained.
Step 4. Repeat this procedure for each of the other two-lead circuits; for exam¬
ple, connect T5 to T8 and test between T2 and T7 and between T2 and T9. Connect
T4 to T7 and measure the voltage between T\ and T8 and between T\ and T9.
Step 5. In order to check if the connections are correct, connect the motor for
low-voltage operation according to the terminal-marking chart. The motor
should be able to pull a normal load, and the line amperes should be equal and of
normal value. If the motor is concentric wound, it may be necessary to spin the
shaft to make it run on part of its windings.
Untagged Dual-Voltage Delta-connected Motor

The following equipment is used for this test:
1. An ac voltmeter. Scale up to 460 volts.

2. A source of three-phase current—230 volts.
3. An ohmmeter.
4. A test lamp or buzzer with battery.
The test consists of the following:
A. Testing for three circuits. Continuity tests.

B. Identifying center tap.
C. Connecting the circuits in the proper places.
A. Testing for Three Circuits

Step 1. Refer to Figure 3-124a and note that there are three circuits of three
wires each. This is true of all nine-lead, dual-voltage, delta-connected motors.
Test with buzzer or lamp to identify the three circuits, and mark them A, B,
and C.
B. Identifying the Center Tap

Step 1. Use an ohmmeter for this test and measure the resistance between leads
of this three-lead circuit. The two leads showing the highest resistance should be
marked temporarily as T4 and T9. The other lead is marked Tx permanently and is
the center tap. Refer to Figure 3-124b and note that the resistance between T4 and
T9 is twice that between T\ and T4 or Tx and T9.
Step 2. Repeat this test for the other two circuits, B and C.
C. Connecting the Circuits in the Proper Phases

Step 1. Connect circuit A to a three-phase, 230-volt line. The motor should run
without a load as an open delta motor (see Figure 3-124c).
Step 2. As we know lead Tx and we know that the other two leads are T4 and
T9, we connect what we think is lead T4 to one of the outer leads of circuit B.
Step 3. Measure the voltage between T] and 7V This should be approximately

460 volts.
Step 4. If lead T5 is connected to T4, approximately 390 volts will be obtained.

This, of course, is wrong. It will be necessary to use the trial-and-error method
until the proper voltage is recorded. Stop the motor when making lead changes.
Step 5. Repeat the above procedure with all the circuits and mark the leads
according to terminals shown in Figure 3-124c.
Two-Speed, Three-Phase Motors

It was pointed out previously that the speed of three-phase motors depends on the
number of poles and frequency of the current. If the frequency remains the same,
then to obtain a different speed from a three-phase motor, the number of poles
must be changed. This alteration can be effected by changing the connection
between groups. For example, if one phase of a four-pole motor is connected in
the usual manner, as shown in Figure 3-125, four poles are produced, causing
rotation just under 1,800 rpm. If the same four poles are connected for like
polarity, as in Figure 3-126, four additional poles will be produced, making eight
magnetic poles in all and giving a speed just under 900 rpm. The theory of this
action was explained in Chapter 1 (page 37 and Figure 1-164). This type of
connection is called a consequent-pole connection. In all consequent-connected
motors producing more than one speed, long jumper connections must be used.
The span of all two-speed, consequent-pole motors is always that of the lower
speed. A four- and eight-pole, two-speed motor has 12 groups, the same as a
four-pole motor, but the span is about 1-5. The normal four-pole span is about
1-8.
The two-speed, three-phase motor can be connected to have constant horse¬
power at both speeds, to have constant torque at both speeds, or to have variable
torque at both speeds. For constant torque, the motor is usually connected in two
parallel, two wye (2Y) for high and series-delta (1A) for low speed. Figure 3-127
shows the connection of the A phase for high-speed operation of a four- and
eight-pole, three-phase, constant-torque motor. In tracing out the circuit from T6,
note the opposite polarity in adjacent groups of the A phase, indicating a four-
pole or high-speed connection, and also that the circuit is two parallel. Figure
3-128 illustrates the same motor with the current entering Tx. All groups now
have like polarity, thereby forming four consequent poles and making a total of
eight poles. This will give the motor low-speed operation. T6 is not used in the
series-delta connection.
Constant torque is the most popular connection of the three types. With con¬
stant torque, the connection for high speed is two wye. Figure 3-129a is a sche¬
matic diagram of the motor connected in two wye. From this diagram, two
circuits can be seen going from Lx to L2. Each circuit has four groups, .two A
phase groups and two C phase groups. When the motor is connected in series-
delta, as shown in Figure 3-129b, there is only one circuit containing the four
groups of the A phase between Lx and L2. The two-wye connection allows more
current to flow than the one-delta connection does. More current gives the motor
more torque. When the speed is increased, more power is needed to keep the
torque the same. By connecting the motor in two wye in high speed, the current
and magnetic power of the windings are increased in about the same proportion
as is the increase in speed. The result of this is the same torque at both high and
low speeds. One horsepower is developed when 550 pounds of weight is raised
one foot in one second. If the motor has constant torque and can raise 550 pounds
in one second on low speed, it will be able to raise the 550 pounds two feet in one
second if the speed is doubled, as in high speed. This also means that the motor
has one horsepower in low speed and two horsepower in high speed. A constant-
torque motor has two different horsepower ratings and two different amp ratings
on its nameplate.
Figure 3-130a is the way a four-pole, constant-torque, phase A motor is con¬
nected, Figure 3-130b is the B phase, and Figure 3-130c is the C phase. Figure
3-130d shows all three phases put together to form a four- and eight-pole, con¬
stant-torque motor.
The entire connection of a four- and eight-pole, constant-torque motor is

shown in Figure 3-130e. Six leads are brought out of the motor. For high-speed
operation, T6, 75, and T4 are connected to the three-phase power supply. TUT2,
and T3 are connected together and taped. For low-speed operation, Tx, T2, and T3
are connected to the three-phase power supply, and 76, 75, and T4 are taped
individually and not used.
For constant horsepower, the connection is the same as for a one-delta, long
jumper motor. The one-delta, long jumper connection is illustrated in Figure
3-13 la. The only difference is in the jumper that is the center of each phase. This
jumper has a lead fastened to it, as can be seen in Figure 3-13 lb. Figure 3-131c is
the A phase connected in two wye.
When the constant-horsepower motor is connected in one delta, as in Figure
3-132a, the motor will have four poles and be connected for high speed. When
connected in two wye, the groups all will have the same polarity. This will
double the poles in the stator, and the motor will have eight poles for low speed.
Assuming that this motor can pull 550 pounds one foot in one second in high
speed (1,800 rpm), it is rated as one horsepower. The connection for high speed
is one delta, and the current going from Lx to L2 has one path through four
groups. When the motor is connected in two wye for low speed, as in Figure
3-132b, there are two circuits going through four groups from Lx to L2. With the
circuits doubled, the current and magnetic power increase, and the motor will
have more torque. The increase in torque enables the motor to lift 1,100 pounds,
but the speed is now one-half (900 rpm), and so the weight will be lifted six
inches per second. The motor’s power is still rated at one horsepower. The
constant-horsepower motor will have a one-horsepower rating and two amp rat¬
ings on the nameplate. Figure 3-133a shows the A phase; Figure 3-133b shows
the B phase; Figure 3-133c shows the C phase; and Figure 3-133d shows them all
put together to illustrate the complete constant-horsepower connection.
Figure 3-133d shows a four- and eight-pole constant-horsepower motor. For
low-speed operation, T\, T2, and T3 are connected to the power line, and 74, T5,
and T6 are connected together and taped. For high-speed operation, 74, T5, and
T6 are connected to the power supply. TX,T2, and T3 are taped separately and not
connected.
The difference between constant horsepower and constant torque is shown in
Figures 3-134a and b. The direction in which the jumper is connected from the
center of the phase determines whether the groups will be two poles or four poles
and as a one-circuit or a series-delta connection. Constant horsepower has two
poles when connected in delta, and constant torque has four poles when con¬
nected in delta. Constant horsepower resembles a one-delta connection, but con¬
stant torque is not similar to any other connection. When comparing the complete
diagrams of Figure 3-130d (constant torque) and Figure 3-133d (constant horse¬
power), each line lead of a constant torque is fastened to one left and one right
lead of two coil groups. The constant-horsepower line leads are fastened to either
two right leads or two left leads of two coil groups. This is important to know
when stripping a stator with no nameplate.
The lead at the center of the phase is the key to connecting all two-speed
1 delta-2 wye motors, no matter how many poles they have. Phase A of the two-
and four-pole motor in Figure 3-134a is constant torque, and phase A of the two-
and four-pole motor in Figure 3-134b is connected for constant horsepower. The
center lead of the phase in a two- and four-pole motor is in the first group.
Phase A of a four- and eight-pole motor shown in Figure 3-135a is constant
torque, and phase A in Figure 3-135b is constant horsepower. In these illustra¬
tions, the center of the phase is between the second and fourth coil group. Phase
A of the six- and 12-pole motor shown in Figure 3-136a is constant torque.
Figure 3-136b shows constant horsepower. The center group in this motor is
between the fifth and sixth group. The group-to-group long jumpers skip the
same number of phase groups in all the motors from four- and eight-poles on, no
matter how many poles there are.
Multispeed motors can be operated with two separate windings. When two
windings are wound in the same stator, the energized winding will induce or
transform a voltage into the idle winding. If the idle winding has a delta connec¬
tion, the winding will be a closed circuit and a current will flow in it, as shown in
Figure 3-137. This current is furnished by the energized winding and will be in
addition to its normal full-load current. This additional current will overheat the
energized winding and cause it to bum out. To prevent this, the circuit is opened,
as shown in Figure 3-138. The lead T3 normally has two groups fastened to it.
The group on the T5 side of T3 is brought out with a lead that is called Tv, and the
group on the T4 side of T3 remains labeled T3.
The multispeed motor can have two, one-speed windings, two, two-speed
windings, or a combination of a one-speed and a two-speed winding. When this
is done, any winding with a delta connection must be opened when the other
winding is energized. When two windings are used, one winding will be num¬
bered T\, T2, T3, and so on. The second winding will be numbered Tn,Ti2, T13,
and so on.
A third type of consequent-pole, two-speed connection is the variable torque.
This type is connected in one and two wye. This motor is connected in one wye
for low speed and in two wye for high speed. Figure 3-139 shows the A phase as
two wye for high speed. Figure 3-140a shows one wye for eight poles and low
speed. The end of each phase will terminate at the wye instead of at the start of
the next phase, as with the constant-torque motors. Figure 3-140b shows the B
phase, and Figure 3-140c shows the C phase. Figure 3-140d is the complete
variable-torque, four- and eight-pole diagram.
Consequent-pole, one-speed windings are much easier to install than are nor¬
mal windings. An eight-pole, consequent-pole, three-phase winding consists of
12 groups, whereas a normal eight-pole, three-phase winding has 24 groups.
Figure 3-141 shows an eight-pole, one-speed, consequent-pole, three-phase
winding connected in one wye. Figure 3-142 is the same winding connected in
one delta. Two windings are sometimes combined for two-winding, two-speed
motors. Figure 3-143 shows some multispeed, three-phase connections that were
reproduced with permission of the Allen-Bradley Company. When the delta
connection is used in a two-winding motor, there must be an extra lead to allow

the delta winding to be opened when the other winding is energized.
There is an exception to this rule. If the two windings are laid in the slots and
connected in a certain sequence, the transformed voltage will cancel itself. When
taking data on this motor, it is important that the windings and connections be in
the same position as the original windings.
ODD-POLE GROUPING
Odd-pole grouping is necessary when the number of slots in a stator does not
divide evenly into the number of groups in the winding. A lap-wound stator will
usually have the same number of coils as it has slots. Each slot will contain two
coil sides. Odd-pole grouping is used because it is more economical to make a
winding fit a stator than to build a stator for each type of winding.
The following is the procedure for odd-pole grouping:
1. The number of groups in a winding = poles x phases.

2. The number of coils per group.
3. Distribution of odd groups.
Example 1: 48-slot, 6-pole winding.
1. 6 poles x 3 phases = 18 groups.

2. 48 slots/18 groups = 2 12/18 coils per group.
Because there is no such thing as a fraction of a slot, there must be groups that
contain two coils and groups that contain three coils. Using the fraction 12/18,
the numerator 12 determines the number of groups with the greater number of
coils or, in this case, 12 groups of three coils per group. Because there are 18
groups, the remaining six will have two coils per group. The smaller number of
groups (six) is considered the odd-pole group.
Distributing the odd-pole groups is the next step. The guidelines for distribu¬
tion are that Rules 2, 3, and 7 must be followed; the rest are not absolutely
necessary but are recommended.
1. The placement of odd groups should be as symmetrical as possible.

2. Each phase must have the same number of coils or turns of wire.
3. Each circuit of each phase must have the same number of coils or turns of wire.
4. North and south poles should have the same number of coils in each phase.
5. Each half of the stator should have an equal number of odd groups.
6. Dead coils: a. Should not be placed between the same phases.
b. Should be placed in each half.
c. Should not be placed across the stator from each other.
7. The number of circuits possible must divide evenly into the number of odd-pole
groups.
8. The connection may have to be short jumper.
9. The connection sequence may have to start with the first pole group that is
placed in the stator.
It has been determined that there are six groups of two coils per group that are
considered odd-pole groups: 6 groups/3 phases = 2 odd groups per phase that
must be distributed in the two halves of the stator. An easy way to visualize this
is shown below. A cluster consists of phases A, B, and C for each pole. Also,
polarity is shown as N or S for each group.
First Half 1_7/2 line_ Second Half 2

1 2 3 1 2 3
A B C A B C A B C A B C ABC A B C
N S N S N s N S N S N s N S N S N s
2 2 2 2 2 2
A good way of distributing the odd poles is to place one odd group of the A
phase in the first cluster of the first half and the second odd group of the A phase
in the first cluster of the second half. Next an odd group of the C phase is placed
in the second cluster of the first half, and the second odd group of C phase is
placed in the second cluster of the second half. The B phase’s odd groups are
placed in the third cluster of the first and second halves. The last step is to put the
majority number, in this case, three, under all the remaining phase letters. Figure
3-144 shows this arrangement.
If all the odd groups are placed in the first cluster of each half, the number of
slots occupied by the first cluster will be smaller than the number of slots occu¬
pied by the second or third clusters. This will cause a magnetic unbalance that
can adversely affect the motor’s torque.
There are two odd poles in each phase. Rule 7 states that the number of circuits
possible must divide evenly into the number of odd-pole groups. This winding
can be connected on one circuit, two circuits, or one and two circuits. All group¬
ing arrangements can be connected in one circuit, and all one-circuit connections
can be long or short jumper. Two circuits or one and two circuits cannot always
be connected long jumper. Rule 4 states that north and south poles should have
the same number of coils in each phase. In this case there is one north and one
south odd-pole group. The sequence of connecting can start with any group with
this arrangement.
Example 2: 54 slots, 4 poles.

2. 54 slots/12 groups = 4 6/12.
6 groups of 5 coils per group = 30.
24
6 groups of 4 coils per group = coils (1 coil per slot).
54
3. In this case, there are an equal number of groups of four and five. Figure 3-145
shows how this grouping can be arranged. The short jumper-only arrangement
is shown first, and the long jumper-only arrangement is next. Either can be
connected by starting the sequence at any group. If the long jumper arrangement
is connected short jumper, the connecting sequence must start with the first
cluster of either half.
Example 3: 80 slots, 4 poles.

2. 80 slots / 12 groups = 6 8/12.
8 groups of 7 = 56 coils.
24 coils
4 groups of 6 =
80 coils (or slots).
3. Distribution. When the numerator (8) is not divisible by six, there must be dead
coils to achieve a balanced winding.
All motors that are not consequent pole will have the same number of north
poles as south poles in each phase. For example, a two-pole motor will have a
north and a south pole in each phase: 2 poles x 3 phases = 6 groups. A four-
pole motor will have two north poles and two south poles in each phase: 4
poles x 3 phases =12 groups. A six-pole motor will have three north poles and
three south poles in each phase: 6 poles x 3 phases = 18 groups. From these
examples, we can see that the number of groups are in increments of six. There¬
fore if the numerator is not divisible by six, there must be dead coils.
A dead coil has the same number of turns as do the other coils in the winding.
The dead coil is necessary to maintain the magnetic balance for the winding. The
ends of the coil must be insulated so that the coil has no circuit within itself or
with any other part of the winding. If the ends were shorted together, there would
be a circulating current in the coil that could char the insulation and cause a short.
The charring would also short the coils that share the slots with the dead coils.
The location of the dead coil will be shown as the letter X. There are charts for
odd-pole grouping that signify a dead coil by either printing the group number in
boldface or underlining the group with a dead coil. But this method does not
indicate on which side of the group the dead coil is located. When using these
charts, take note of Rule 6.
The 12 groups consist of eight groups of seven and four groups of six. Two of
the groups of seven will become groups of six coils per group. This will bring the
number of six-coil groups to six and the number of seven-coil groups to six.
There will be two dead coils that need to be placed in the winding. Example 2
can be used to place the coil groups, and Rule 6 can be used to locate the two
dead coils. Figure 3-146 shows how this can be done.
REWINDING AND RECONNECTING

THREE-PHASE MOTORS
Reconnecting for a Change in Voltage
Motors are often brought into shops to be changed to operate on a voltage other
than that on the nameplate. For example, it may be a 220-volt, three-phase motor
to be changed to operate on 440 volts.
There are several methods, depending on the original connection. If the motor
originally had a series connection, it can be converted to a two-parallel connec¬
tion for half-voltage operation. If the motor was originally a two-parallel-
connected motor, it can be changed to operate on twice the voltage by connecting
the windings in series.
Thus a six-pole, three-phase, one-wye, 440-volt motor can be converted to
operate on 220 volts by reconnecting it as a six-pole, two-parallel wye. If it is a
six-pole, three-phase, two-parallel wye type operating on 220 volts, it can be
changed to series-wye for 440 volts.
The principle in all reconnections is that the coil voltage remains the same
despite the line-voltage change. This was explained when two-voltage motors
were discussed. Delta-connected motors can also be reconnected from series to
parallel for the lower voltage and from parallel to series for the higher voltage.
Three-phase motors can be reconnected for voltage changes by converting
from wye to delta or vice versa. Many variations are possible: for example, from
series-delta to two-parallel wye, from parallel-delta to series-wye, and so on.
After some of these changes, the voltage required by the motor may not be a
multiple or simple fraction of the original. Thus a wye-connected motor changed
to delta should operate on 58 percent of the original voltage. A delta motor
changed to a wye connection should operate on 173 percent of the original
voltage. In this book no attempt will be made to cover these reconnections in
great detail, as many excellent books treat the subject thoroughly.
Example: What voltage should be used on a motor if it is changed from two-

parallel delta, 220 volts, to series-wye?
Solution: If changed to series-delta, the motor will require 440 volts; a

change to series-wye will require 440 x 1.73 = 760 volts.
Voltage changes by means of reconnections are not always possible. For ex¬
ample, a four-pole, 220-volt, series-wye cannot be changed for higher-voltage
operation, because if a higher voltage is impressed on the series connection,
more current will flow through the coils than they were designed for, and they
will therefore bum out. Likewise, four-pole, four-parallel wye cannot be recon¬
nected for a lower voltage because there can be no more than four parallels in a
four-pole motor.

Three-phase motors can also be rewound for a change in voltage. The only
changes necessary are in the number of turns and the size of the wire.
Example: If a 220-volt motor is to be rewound to operate on 440 volts, use

twice as many turns on each coil and one-half the circular-mil area of wire. In
other words, if 40 turns of No. 17 wire were used on the original motor, 80 turns
of No. 20 should be used on the new motor.
Example: Some motors rated for 230 volts will not handle the load on 208 volts
if loaded to the maximum. The turns must be reduced to the ratio of the voltage
change. As an example, 230-volt motor has 40 turns: 230/208 = 1.1, 40
turns / 1.1 =36 turns. If there is enough room, the next size larger wire should
be used. An easy way to determine whether there is enough room is to cut the
required number of lengths of wire of this size and fit them into the slot.
Rewinding for a Change in Speed

It has been mentioned that the speed of a three-phase motor will decrease if the
number of poles is increased, and vice versa. This can be accomplished by
rewinding the motor with a redesigned winding. Caution should be used because
some rotor designs are not compatible with a change of poles.
If the applied voltage remains the same when changing from a low speed to a
higher speed, the number of turns per phase must be decreased. From a high
speed to a lower speed, the number of turns per phase is increased.
Example: Redesigning a six-pole, 240-volt two-circuit delta to a four-pole,

240-volt motor. Proceed as follows:
no. of coils
1. Change the coil pitch to 1 and-1.
no. of poles
Thus for a 48-slot motor, the pitch is 1 and 48/4 —1 = 1 and 11.
2. Rewind each coil, using new turns equal to
Orig. speed . 1200

—-— x orig. turns =-= 66% of orig. turns.
New speed 1800
3. Use a size of wire equal in circular mils to
New speed 1800

——-- x c.m. of orig. wire = —— = 1.5 x c.m. of orig. wire.
Orig. speed 6 1200 6
4. Use original method of connection.

Changes for New Frequency

Three-phase motors can be changed to operate on new frequencies by reconnect¬
ing or rewinding. Usually rewinding is required. Sometimes it is possible to
operate a motor on a different frequency and a different line voltage. For exam¬
ple, a 25- or 30-cycle, 110-volt motor can operate on 60 cycles at 220 volts. This
approximately doubles the original speed.
If a change in frequency is desired without an appreciable change in speed, it
will be necessary to rewind the motor.
Example: Changing a four-pole, 25-cycle motor to operate on 60 cycles at

approximately the same speed.
1. 4 pole, 25 cycle = 750 rpm

8 pole, 60 cycle = 900 rpm
2. Change the pitch of coil for an eight-pole motor.
3. The number of turns in each coil is 750/900 = 83 percent of the number of
original turns. Therefore each coil should be wound with approximately 83
percent of the original turns.
4. Use the next larger size of wire.
5. If the motor has 48 slots and 50 turns of No. 18 wire, it should be rewound with
42 turns of No. 17 wire and a pitch of 1 and 6.
Changing from 50 Hz to 60 Hz is done quite often because of the many foreign

motors being used. There are two ways to convert these motors; one keeps the
same horsepower, and the other keeps the same torque.
For the same horsepower, use the following formula: Old turns x
V(old Hz / new Hz) = new turns. If it is not important to supply the same
horsepower, the following formula is used: Old turns x old Hz / new Hz =
new turns.
CHANGING CONCENTRIC WINDINGS

TO LAP WINDINGS
The first method that we shall explain works best if all the coils in the concentric
winding have the same number of turns. This method works with six-group
consequent-pole windings and also with 12-group concentric windings that have
one coil per slot. The following is a description of this method.
Example: A 36-slot, four-pole concentric winding with 40 turns per coil: 40

turns / 1.9 = 21 turns per coil. Most lap-wound, three-phase motors are spanned
at 80 percent of full span. The formula for this is (slots/poles) + 1 x 0.8 =
80% span, or (36/4) + 1 x 0.8 = 8, or a span of 1-8. A four-pole lap winding
has 12 groups (4 poles x 3 phases = 12 groups). Coils per group =
slots/groups, or 36/12 = 3 coils per group. The data for the new lap winding are
21 turns per coil, span 1-8, 12 groups of three coils. The wire size and connec¬
tion remain the same. The coils of the lap winding will share the slot with coils of
other groups, and so the appropriate insulation procedures described earlier
should be used.
Computer software is available for redesigning almost all types of electric
motors. Electrical Apparatus Service Association, Inc. (EASA) has developed
this software. EASA is a worldwide organization consisting mainly of electric
motor service centers and has its headquarters in St. Louis.
When the coils do not have the same number of turns, the best method to
convert concentric to lap is to find the number of effective turns of the concentric
winding and then to design a lap winding with the same number of effective
turns. To find the number of effective turns, the chord factor must be used.
Chord factor tables do not always have enough data for all situations. The fol¬
lowing explanation will enable the repairperson to understand how these data
have been obtained.
Chord Factor
The chord factor is a multiplier (one or less) used to find the number of effective
turns in a coil of wire. The components in determining chord factor are (1) the
number of teeth in the stator, (2) the number of poles in the stator, and (3) the
span or pitch of the coil, which will determine the number of teeth surrounded by
the coil.
Each tooth in a stator represents a number of electrical degrees. Figure 3-147
is a portion of a stator that is flattened to illustrate how electrical degrees, the sine
wave, and the teeth of a stator are related. One full-pitch coil is shown in each
half of the sine wave. This illustration represents a 36-slot stator with a four-pole
winding. The formula to determine the number of electrical degrees per tooth is
(180° x poles) / the number of teeth in the stator = degrees per tooth. The coil
shown in the drawing has the chord factor 1 because it is full span. As explained
in Chapter 1, the chord factor is the sine of one-half the angle. The degrees per
tooth encompassed by a coil are added to get the angle of the coil. The sine of
one-half of this angle is the chord factor. Charts listing all the sine numbers, or
a calculator with a sine function, can be used.
A coil with a small span will have a low chord factor and have fewer effective
turns than will a coil with a full span. A coil that is over full span, for example, a
1-11 span (four-pole, 36-slot stator) will have the same chord factor as will a
coil with a 1-9 span. Concentric windings will often be over full span.
The following shows how to convert to a lap winding a concentric-wound,
four-pole, 36-slot motor with a different number of turns in each coil. The origi¬
nal winding data are converted to effective turns.
Span Turns Chord factor Effective turns

1-9 50 X .984 = 49.2
1-7 32 X .866 = 27.7
1-5 12 X .642 7.7
84.6 Total effective
turns per group
The next step is to determine the number of coils per group for the lap winding:
Slots/groups = coils per group, or 4 poles x 3 phases = 12 groups, or 36 slots/
12 groups = 3 coils per group.
A 1-8 span will be used as in the previous example, using the formula
(slots/poles) + 1 x 0.8 = span. The chord factor for a 1-8 span is 0.939. The
effective turns of one group from the old winding are 84.6 turns. The number of
effective turns of the old winding/chord factor of new winding = actual turns of
new winding: 84.6/0.939 = 90 turns per group in the new winding, or 90
turns/3 coils per group = 30 turns per coil in the new winding, span 1-8. The
connection and wire size remain the same.
Ball Bearings
Ball bearings have excellent characteristics for their use in electric motors:
1. A wide selection of seals and protective shields.

2. All angles in smaller motors.
3. Can be permanently greased.
4. Special grease for high temperatures.
5. Allow manufacturers to use smaller air gap.
6. Ease of installation (no reaming).
7. Fewer items required in inventory because of their standard size.
8. Withstand high speeds very well.
The components of a ball bearing are:
1. The outer race.

2. The balls.
3. The spacing strap.
4. The inner race.
5. The shield, seal, or a combination of both.
6. The lubrication.
The outer race provides a track for the balls to carry the load and to retain them as
they go over the top. The balls carry the load. The spacing strap keeps the balls
spaced evenly. The inner race contains the shaft and moves in an electric motor.
The shield keeps the grease in place and will resist some contaminants. The seal
is designed to keep out most contaminants. A bearing can have shields, seals, or
a combination of both. Figure 3-148 shows these components. The lubrication is
usually grease. Grease is available in low, normal, and high temperature ratings.
Ball bearings have an estimated life based on their running time, load weight,
and rpm. Their life can be shortened by many conditions, among which are heat,
vibration, impact-type loads, contaminants, misalignment, overloading, carrying
electrical current, and too little or too much grease.
Bearings should be changed when they become noisy or loose. The shaft
should have no up-down movement and should have very restricted end move¬
ment. Some shops change the bearings on all motors that are repaired, with few
exceptions.
The ideal way to remove a ball bearing is to pull evenly on only the inner race
with a bearing puller or press. But most motors are constructed so that this is not
possible, and so the only place to grip the bearing is the outer race. Figure 3-149
shows a wheel puller being used to remove a bearing. A hydraulic press works
very well for this, and there are presses built especially for pulling electric motor
bearings. Care must be taken to keep the bearings clean. The thrust washers and
space washers must be reassembled in the order in which they were originally
placed.
The replacement bearing should be selected in accordance with the motor’s
operating conditions. It may be necessary to choose a sealed bearing because of
dust or dirty conditions. If the ambient temperature is high, the choice is a
bearing with high-temperature grease. In the case of high temperature, a fit-free
bearing can be used. The fit-free bearing is designed with extra tolerance for heat
expansion; an electric motor produces uneven heating. The shaft transfers heat to
the bearing and the bearing to the end bell. The end bell has more cooling ability
and will not expand at the same rate. This puts a lot of pressure on the outer race
of the bearing and results in early failure. But the fit-free bearing should handle
this expansion problem.
The extra tolerance of the fit-free bearing may allow the shaft to slip in the
inner race, or it may allow the outer race to slip in the end bell. In this case, a
special liquid plastic is used. The plastic cures to a semihard state and will not
allow the components to slip. The semihard plastic will absorb the expansion
with little pressure on the bearing, and it is available at electric motor parts
dealers.
The shaft and end bell must be inspected for wear caused by the bearing’s
slipping. If there is wear, the worn area must be rebuilt exactly to the original
size, for if there is misalignment, the replacement bearing will overheat.
After removing the old bearing, cleaning and inspecting the parts, and select¬
ing the new bearing, the new bearing can be installed. Several methods are used
to do this:
1. Heating the bearing with oil.

2. Heating the bearing dry.
3. Pressing on the bearing with special bearing tubes.

4. Hammering the bearing into place with special bearing tubes and a lead ham¬
mer.
Heating the bearing in clean oil will uniformly expand the whole bearing.
Once expanded, the bearing is slipped nonstop into place on the shaft. Once the
bearing has stopped moving on the shaft, it will shrink to its original size. If it
is not in place, it will have to be pressed or hammered into place. Handling the
bearing in hot oil can be hazardous, and so use caution.
Dry heating the bearing works much the same as with oil. The bearing is
slipped nonstop into place after it is expanded. Figure 3-150 shows one type of
bearing heater.
The bearing is pressed onto the shaft by applying pressure on the inner race
only. A piece of pipe that has an inside diameter slightly larger than the inside of
the bearing’s inner race can be used for this. Figure 3-151 shows special tubes
made for this purpose. The pressure must be applied uniformly to the bearing’s
inner race. Also, care must be taken to align the bearing properly with the shaft.
A lead hammer and pipe or tube can be used to drive the bearing into place.
The pipe or tube will distribute the blow evenly on the inner race of the bearing.
Make sure the bearing is aligned properly with the shaft. The soft lead will
reduce the shock of the blow, and the weight of the lead will move the bearing on
the shaft. However, a hard blow from a steel hammer can damage a bearing. The
outer race should never be used to drive the bearing onto the shaft.
Lubrication is used to reduce the friction between the components of a ball
bearing. A sleeve bearing must have a film of oil between the shaft and the
bearing, or else the bearing will wear very rapidly. Grease is used in a ball
bearing to reduce the heat produced by the friction between the balls and the rest
of the components.
In ball-bearing electric motors that are built to allow for greasing, the end bells
have two passages. The grease is forced into one passage, pushing the old grease
out the other passage. This is done, if possible, while the motor is running. The
bearing cavity should be one-third to one-half full when filled properly.
If too much grease is left in the bearing cavity, the bearing will chum the
grease and cause it to overheat. Overheating the grease will cause it to separate
and break down. When overgreased, the excess grease sometimes is forced into
the inside of the motor and will create many problems there.
Reversing Three-Phase Motors

Figure 3-152 shows the three leads of a three-phase motor connected to a three-
phase power line for clockwise rotation. To reverse any three-phase motor, it is
necessary only to interchange any two of the motor leads, as shown in Figure
3-153. It can also be reversed by interchanging two of the power leads.
Testing
The three-phase motor should be given tests for the following defects after re¬
winding: grounds, opens, shorts, and reverses.
Grounds. Use the test leads as shown in Figure 3-154. Connect one test lead to
the frame of the motor and one test lead to one of the leads of the motor. If the
lamp lights, a winding is grounded. To ensure a thorough test, move the test lead
to each lead of the motor.
If the motor is grounded, it will be necessary to locate and remove the ground
before making other tests. Just as in other motors, first try to locate the ground by
inspection.
Sometimes one lamination is pushed out of place so that its sharp edges cut
into the wire. This can usually be remedied by pressing the lamination back into
its proper position. Frequently the fault will be found to be the insulation in the
slot. Too, the wire may be placed by mistake between the insulation and the slot,
or the insulation may have shifted and left the slot core uncovered.
If it is not possible to find the ground by inspection, the ground may be found
using the following procedure: If the motor has a wye connection, apply the
appropriate current from the test panel (large motors need more current than
small motors do), as shown in Figure 3-155. The lead that is closer to the ground
will have fewer turns to go through, and so there will be less resistance to the
ground, and the current will be higher than from the other leads to the ground.
The difference of a fraction of an ampere will point out the phase with the
ground. There is very little chance that the ground will be in the exact center of
a phase. Bare the wye connection and take a reading from it to the ground, as
shown in Figure 3-156. Compare this reading with the reading from the lead to
the ground. The higher reading will be the point closer to the ground. Assuming
the lead has the higher ampere reading, open the connection between the first and
second group from the lead. If the lead still shows a ground (using test light, as
in Figure 3-157), the ground is in the first group. If the first group is not
grounded, disconnect the splice between the second and third group, and so on,
until the grounded group is found. The group must then be removed from the
stator and the insulation replaced between the wire and the slot.
The delta-connected motor is tested, as shown in Figure 3-158. The ground
will be found between the two leads that have the highest amp reading to the
ground. The lead with the highest amp reading will be closer to the ground.
Disconnect the splice between the first and second group from this lead and
proceed as described above for the wye-connected motor. Check the groups
between the lead with the highest amp reading toward the lead with the next
highest reading. Figures 3-159 and 3-160 show how to test a one- and two-wye
and a one- and two-delta motor for a ground.
The approximate location of the ground can be found by applying for a short
time the appropriate current to the grounded phase lead and the frame and then
feeling the coils. The groups between the lead and the ground will become warm,
and the groups beyond the ground will remain cool. The groups between the lead
and the ground will also magnetize the stator up to the grounded group and will
attract a screwdriver blade.
Open Circuits. Open circuits in a three-phase motor may be due to a break in

the coil or a loose connection at the splices or jumpers. To locate the open,
proceed as follows:
Use the test lamp and determine which phase is open. If the motor is series-
wye connected, the phase with an open, as shown in Figure 3-161, will not light
to the other two phases. Figure 3-161 shows the open to be in the A phase. To
find the open, remove the insulation covering the jumper splices of the A phase
and test from Tx to each splice. The light will light until the open is passed (see
Figure 3-162). The open group will be between the splice where there was light
and the splice where there was no light. The open may now be located and
repaired. If the open is in the coils of the group, it may be necessary to remove
the group from the stator to repair it.
When the motor is connected in series-delta, the limited current comparison
method may be used. Figures 3-163a, b, and c show where the current would
flow and what the amp readings would be if the A phase were open. When the
current flows through the B phase only or the C phase only, there are fewer turns
of wire in the path than when the current is applied across the open A phase.
When the path through the A phase is open, the current must go through both the
B and C phases. The amps will be much lower across an open phase of a delta-
connected motor. The open can now be found by removing the insulation from
the jumper splices and applying current from T\ to each splice. The amp reading
should be high until the splice beyond the open is found. Figure 3-163c shows
the path that the current takes when these tests are carried out. If a current-
limiting test panel is not available, it will be necessary to open the delta connec¬
tion at one of the leads, as shown in Figure 3-164, and use a test light from splice
to splice, as shown in Figure 3-165.
If the motor is connected in two-parallel wye, it will be necessary to determine
in which circuit the open is located. This is done by connecting one test lead to
the wye connection, as in Figure 3-166, and the other test lead to both sections of
each phase in succession. The procedure from here on is the same as in the
single-circuit wye.
When the limited current method is used, apply the appropriate current from
Ti to T2, from T2 to T3, and from T3 to Tx. The phase with an open circuit will
have a slightly lower amp reading than will the phases with two circuits. The
phase with the open circuit will have the same low amp reading when combined
with either phase, as shown in Figure 3-167. An open in a two-circuit delta motor
can be found with a test light. Open the lead connections one circuit at a time,
and test from that circuit to one of the other two leads. When the light does not
light, the open circuit will be found. Figure 3-168 shows the ampere readings
when the limited current method is used. The phase with the open will read fewer
amps than the other two will. When the phase with the open circuit is located, the
open circuit is found in two-wye or two-delta motors with a clip-on ammeter.
Separate the group leads that are fastened to the line leads; apply current to the
phase; and check for the current flow in each circuit with the ammeter, as shown
in Figure 3-169. The circuit with no amp reading will be open. The group within
the open circuit can then be located with the test light, as explained earlier.
Shorts. A short is a path of very low resistance caused by two wires making
electrical contact. A shorted winding in a motor is two or more turns of short
circuited wire. When several turns are shorted out of the circuit, the resistance of
the circuit is lowered; the current will become too high; and the motor will bum
out. Shorts can occur when the coil wire is scratched during insertion or from
careless handling. One way to find a shorted coil is with an internal growler.
Figure 3-170 shows how this instrument is used. The shorted coil or group is
located by the vibrations of a hacksaw blade.
It must be remembered that the growler is not effective for parallel-connected
motors. All parallels must be disconnected in order to test the winding with the
growler. If the growler is held in position for a few minutes, the defective coil or
coils will become hot.
Another method of determining a shorted coil or group is to operate the motor
for a few minutes. The defective coil will become much hotter than the others
and can be located easily by touch.
The “balance test” can be used with a limited current to locate a shorted
phase. This test can be used with the stator only or on an assembled motor. If
there are no shorts, each phase will have the same, or a balanced, amp reading. A
short in a phase will cause the phase to have less resistance and more amperes.
Figure 3-171 shows what to expect if the A phase of a one-wye motor has a short.
There may be less than a one-ampere difference in the unbalance. Figure 3-172
shows a one-delta winding being tested. If a motor has two or more parallel
circuits, the shorted circuit may be found using the method described in Figure
3-169. Separate the circuits and check each of them with a clip-on ammeter. The
circuit with the high reading will have a short. Dual-voltage motors can be tested
as shown in Figures 3-173a and b.
Reverses. Reverses occur when a coil, group, or phase is improperly con¬

nected. Reverses in three-phase motors may occur in (1) coils, (2) groups, and
(3) phases.
Reversed Coils. In all three-phase motors, the coils of a group are connected
so that the current flows through each coil in the same direction. It is possible
that the winder may have placed the coils in the slots in the wrong direction.
Visual inspection is the best method of detecting a reversed coil; however, this
is not always possible. An accurate check is to pass a low-voltage direct current
from a battery through each phase and place a compass against the core. The
compass needle should reverse at each group of one phase, and indicate N at one
group, S at the next group, and so on. If at any group the compass needle is
indefinite, there may be a reversed coil in that group. The reversed coil builds up
a magnetic field that opposes that set up by the other coils, and this causes a very
weak field, which has little effect on the compass needle.
Reversed Coil Groups. To test for reversed groups, connect one lead of a
low-voltage, dc line to the wye point and the other lead to each phase in order.
Move a compass inside the stator to indicate the polarity of each group. If the
compass needle reverses at each group as shown in Figure 3-174, the correct
polarity is indicated. To test a delta-connected motor for reversed groups, open
one delta point and connect a source of low-voltage direct current to the two
wires. If the compass needle reverses at each group, the polarity is correct. If a
group is reversed, there will be a magnetic opposing action in the circuit. This
opposing action will cause a high current flow in the affected circuit. This high
current reading may be confused with a short when using the balance test. An
excellent instrument for detecting reversed coils or groups is a modified squirrel-
cage rotor. The rotor must be fitted to a long shaft and modified so that it will
spin freely. Figure 3-175 shows how to use this instrument. Apply a controlled
three-phase current to the windings and slowly move the rotor around the inside
of the stator. The rotating magnetic field will cause the rotor to spin. When the
reversed coil is found, the rotor will stop or will reverse itself. If a method to
limit the three-phase current is not available, a motor connected for 460 volts can
have 230 volts applied for a short time for this test.
Reversed Phases. A common error in connecting a three-phase motor is to

connect the middle phase in the wrong manner. This mistake is easily found with
the compass. Connect the phases to the low-voltage direct current as in testing
groups—and test with the compass from group to group for reversal of the
needle. If the needle indicates three north poles and three south poles, as shown
in Figure 3-176, it is an indication of an improperly connected middle phase.
Reverse the B, or middle, phase to obtain the correct connection. When the test
rotor is used in a stator with a reversed B phase, it will not spin in any position.
After the motor is tested, it may be dipped and baked. Some procedures
require the motor to be preheated before dipping it in varnish. Be sure to follow
the directions given for the particular varnish being used.
Common Troubles and Repairs

The symptoms encountered in defective three-phase motors are given below.
Under each symptom are listed the possible troubles. The number in parentheses
after each trouble indicates the correspondingly numbered remedy to be found in

the following pages.
1. If a three-phase motor fails to start, the trouble may be

a. Bumed-out fuse (1).
c. Overload (3).
d. Open phase (4).
e. Shorted coil or group (5).
f. Open rotor bars (6).
g. Wrong internal connections (8).
h. Frozen bearing (9).
i. Defective controller (10).
j. Grounded winding (11).
2. If a three-phase motor does not run properly, the trouble may be
a. Bumed-out fuse (1).
c. Shorted coil (5).
d. Reversed phase (12).
e. Open phase (4).
f. Open parallel connection (13).
g. Grounded winding (11).
h. Open rotor bars (6).
i. Incorrect voltage (7).
3. If the motor runs slowly, the trouble may be
a. Shorted coil or group (5).
b. Reversed coils or groups (8).
c. Worn bearings (2).
d. Overload (3).
e. Wrong connection (reversed phase) (12).
f. Loose rotor bars (6).
4. If the motor becomes excessively hot, the trouble may be
a. Overload (3).
b. Worn bearings (2) or tight bearing (9).
c. Shorted coil or group (5).
d. Motor running on single phase (4).
e. Loose rotor bars (6).
7. Burned-out Fuse. Remove fuses and test with test lamp as shown in Figure
3-177. If the lamp lights, the fuse is good. A bumed-out fuse is indicated when
the test lamp does not light.
To test fuses without removing them from the holder, a voltmeter must be
used. If a test light designed for 230 volts is mistakenly used on 460 volts, it will
blow out and may trigger a severe electrical explosion. If the fuse is open, there
will be a line voltage read across it, as shown in Figure 3-178.
If the fuse bums out while a three-phase motor is in operation, the motor will
continue to operate as a single-phase motor (Figures 3-179 and 3-180). This
means that only part of the winding is carrying the entire load. If the motor
continues to operate in this manner, even for a short time, the winding will
become very hot and bum out. Further, the motor will be noisy in operation and
may not pull the load. To find the trouble, stop the motor and try to start it again.
A three-phase motor will not start with a bumed-out fuse. To remedy this condi¬
tion, locate and replace the defective fuse.
If the motor is a parallel-connected wye, current will be induced in the open
phase and cause the winding to bum out quickly. This should be prevented if
possible.
2. Worn Bearings. If a bearing is worn, the rotor will ride on the stator and
cause noisy operation. When the bearings are so worn that the rotor rests firmly
on the core of the stator, rotation is impossible. To check a small motor for this
condition, try moving the shaft up and down, as shown in Figure 3-181. Motion
in this manner indicates a worn bearing. Remove and inspect the rotor for
smooth, worn spots. These indicate that the rotor has been rubbing on the stator.
The only remedy is to replace the bearings.
On a large open motor, the check for worn bearings is made with a feeler
gauge, shown in Figure 3-182. The air space between the rotor and the stator
must be the same at all points (Figure 3-183). If it is not, the bearing must be
replaced.
3. Overload. To determine whether a three-phase motor is overloaded, remove

the belt or load from the motor and turn the shaft of the load by hand (Figure
3-184). Usually a broken part or dirty mechanism will prevent the shaft from
moving freely.
Another method is to use an ammeter on each line wire. A higher current
reading than on the nameplate may indicate an overload. Many shops and motor
repairpersons use a snap-around volt ammeter and ohmmeter to test the current in
the main line leads feeding the motor. The current in each lead should be the
same and approximately the same as the nameplate reading. An excessive read¬
ing in one phase indicates a shorted phase. This instrument can be used on all
motors from split-phase through three-phase and can be used to test voltage,
resistance, and current. It can be used to test unmarked leads on split-phase
motors by using the ohmmeter and also to test voltage across components in
motors and starters. Figure 3-185 illustrates a method of testing line current in a
three-phase motor.
4. Open Phase. If an open occurs while the motor is running, it will continue
to run but will have less power. An open circuit may occur in a coil or group
connection.
The motor will continue to run if a phase opens while the motor is in operation
but will not start if at a standstill. The conditions are similar to those of a blown
fuse.
5. Shorted Coil or Group. Shorted coils will cause noisy operation and also
smoke. After locating such defective coils by means of the eye or balance test,
the motor should then be rewound.
When the insulation on the wire fails, the individual turns become shorted and
cause the coil to become extremely hot and bum out. Other coils may then bum
out, with the result that an entire group or phase will become defective.
6. Open Rotor Bars. Open rotor bars will cause a motor to lose power. One
sign of open bars is when a motor is connected to the right voltage at no load, it
has a very low amp reading. A light load will pull down the speed, and at full
load the motor will mn below the nameplate speed. This high amount of slip will
cause the motor to overheat because of the high current. Open or cracked rotor
bars are hard to locate visually in a cast-aluminum rotor. Two methods of locat¬
ing these opens are explained in Chapter 1 on page 68.
Some special-duty motors or large motors have brass or copper bars. It is
possible for these bars to be open or loose in the end rings. Loose bars are
repaired by soldering or welding them to the end rings. There must be a good
electrical connection between the bars and the end rings. Broken bars must be
replaced. The bars usually break because of a loose fit in the rotor slots. The bars
will move and vibrate when the motor starts and runs, causing them to crack and
break.
7. Incorrect Voltage. Some T-frame motors are designed for a definite voltage.
Thus a motor designed for 208 volts will overheat when operated on 250 volts,
and a motor designed for 250 volts will not have enough power if operated on
208 volts. If the motor is rated 208-220-440 volts on the nameplate, it will
operate well on a range of voltages. Voltage problems become more serious
when the motors are loaded to their rated horsepower. If there are problems with
a motor designed for the wrong voltage, it should be replaced with one of the
right voltage. If it is burned out, the turns may be changed using the formula
found in Chapter 1, “Rewinding for a Change in Voltage.”
8. Wrong Internal Connections. A good method of determining whether or

not a polyphase motor is connected properly is to remove the rotor and place a
large ball bearing in the stator. The switch is then closed to supply current to the
winding. If the internal connections are correct, the ball bearing will rotate
around the core of the stator, as shown in Figure 3-186. If the connections are
incorrect, the ball bearing will remain stationary.
For medium- and large-sized motors, reduced voltage should be used; other¬
wise, a fuse may blow.
9. Frozen Bearing. If oil is not supplied to the part of the shaft that rotates in
the bearing, the shaft will become so hot that it will expand sufficiently to
prevent movement in the bearing. This is called a frozen bearing. In the process
of expansion, the bearing may weld itself to the shaft and make rotation impossi¬
ble.
To repair, try to remove the end plates. The end plate that cannot be removed
easily contains the bad bearings. Remove the end plate and armature as a unit;
hold the armature in a stationary position, and turn the end plate back and forth.
If it is impossible to move the end plate, loosen the setscrew that holds the
bearing in the housing, and try to remove the armature and bearing as a unit. Be
careful to keep the oil ring free from the bearing while this is being done. The
bearing can then be removed by tapping it with a hammer. The shaft will proba¬
bly have to be turned down on a lathe to a new size and a new bearing made. If
ball bearings are used, replace with new ones.
10. Defective Controller. If the contacts on the controller do not make good
contact, the motor will fail to start. To locate trouble and repair this unit, see
Chapter 4.
11. Grounded Winding. This will produce a shock when the motor is touched.
If the winding is grounded in more than one place, a short circuit will occur
which will bum out the winding and perhaps blow a fuse. Test for a grounded
winding with test lamp and repair by rewinding or by replacing the defective
coil.
12. Reversed Phase. This will cause a motor to run more slowly than the rated
speed and produce an electrical hum indicative of wrong connections. Check the
connections and reconnect them according to plan.
13. Open Parallel Connection. This fault will produce a noisy hum and will
prevent the motor from pulling full load. Check for complete parallel circuits.
Chapter 4
ALTERNATING-CURRENT
MOTOR CONTROL
If an ac motor is started on full voltage, it will draw from two to six times its
normal running current. Because the motor is constructed to withstand the shock
of starting, no harm will be caused by this excessive flow of current. However,
on very large motors, it is generally desirable to take some measure to reduce the
starting current; otherwise, damage may be done to the machinery driven by the
motor, and line disturbances may be created that affect the operation of other
motors on the same line.
For the small motor or when the load can stand the shock of starting and no
objectionable line disturbances are created, a hand-operated or an automatic
starting switch can be used for control of the motor. This type of switch connects
the motor directly across the line and is called an across-the-line-starter, or a
full-voltage starter.
In the case of the large motor, when the starting torque must develop gradually
or when the high initial current will affect the line voltage, it is necessary to
insert in the line some device that will reduce the starting current. This device
may be a resistance unit or an auto transformer. Controllers that use this method
of starting a motor are called reduced-voltage starters. Controllers are also used
to protect the motor from overheating and overloading, to provide speed control,
to provide for reversing the motor, and to provide undervoltage protection.
The following popular types of controllers will be described: pushbutton
switch starters for small motors, magnetic across-the-line starters, reduced-volt¬
age resistance starters, solid-state reduced-voltage starters, compensator starters,
wye-delta starters, drum starters, part-winding starters, two-speed controllers,
adjustable-frequency speed controllers, and plugging and braking controllers.
WIRING DIAGRAMS AND LINE DIAGRAMS

There are two kinds of diagrams of a control, wiring diagrams and line diagrams.
The wiring diagram shows all the devices in the system in the position in which
they are located in the enclosures. The wiring diagram is helpful when the de-
144
Alternating-Current Motor Control 145
vices are being installed. They show exactly where the power lines, control
devices, and the motor are connected. But the wiring diagram is hard to trace
when it is necessary to understand the electrical sequence of circuits. Figure 4-1
is a wiring diagram.
The line diagram, also called a ladder diagram, elementary diagram, or sche¬
matic diagram, is drawn out to show the devices in as straight a line as possible
from line 1 to line 2 (Figure 4-2). The heavier power circuits are sometimes left
out for clarity.
A wiring diagram is made to show how to connect control devices and to aid in
physically tracing out the circuits when troubleshooting.
A line diagram is the simplest way to present circuits so that their function can
be understood. Figure 4-2 points out an important fact to remember; all control
circuitry is connected between L\ and L2 in three-phase controllers. Breaking
down the control circuitry farther, between Lx and the holding coil of the control
(M) is where all the on-off switching is located. And between the control hold¬
ing coil (M) and L2 is where all the overload contacts are connected. This is
typical of all controllers.
STARTERS
Pushbutton Switch Starter for Fractional-Horsepower
Motors
The pushbutton switch starter for fractional-horsepower motors is a simple type
of switch that connects the motor directly to the line. Two pushbuttons are lo¬
cated on the switch, one for starting and the other for stopping the motor. Press¬
ing the start button causes the contacts inside the switch to make and connect
the motor across the line. Pressing the stop button causes the contacts to break
apart and open the circuit to the motor. This type is shown in Figure 4-3.
The usual type of pushbutton switch starter is equipped with a thermal over¬
load device connected in series with the line. It opens the circuit to the motor if
an overload current persists for a short period of time. Figure 4-4 shows one type
of overload device that consists of a small cylinder containing an alloy that will
melt when an overload persists. Embedded in the metal is a small shaft to which
is attached a ratchet wheel. When the start button is pressed, the shaft is held in
place by a spring that engages the ratchet wheel. If an excessive current passes
through the overload device, the alloy in the cylinder will melt and cause the
start button to spring to its off position and disconnect the motor from the line.
To restart the motor, it is necessary to wait several seconds until the metal
hardens.
Another switch used on fractional-horsepower motors is of the ordinary snap-
action type. This switch contains a thermal relay to provide overload protection.
A coil of resistance wire is connected in series with one motor lead so that it heats
when excessive current flows. A solder film that will melt from heat is located
inside the coil. When the solder film melts, a trigger is tripped, releasing the
main contacts of the switch.
Most of these starters can be used for single- or three-phase motors. Figure 4-3
shows a diagram of a pushbutton starter connected to a single-phase motor, and
Figure 4-5 shows such a starter connected to a three-phase motor. In Figure 4-3,
when the start button is pressed, it closes the contacts Lx and L2 and connects
the motor across the line. If an overload occurs, the thermal relay will trip the
releasing mechanism and cause the contacts to open, thereby stopping the motor.
To reset the tripping mechanism, it is usually necessary to press the stop button.
If the motor is running normally and it is necessary to stop it, the contacts are
released by pressing the stop button. Figure 4-6 shows different types of manual
starters.
Magnetic Full-Voltage Starter

A starter that connects a motor directly across the line is called a full-voltage
starter. If this starter is operated magnetically, it is called a magnetic full-voltage
starter. A magnetic starter designed to operate a three-phase motor is shown in
Figures 4-7 and 4-8. Some of the wiring symbols in this and other diagrams are
shown in Figure 4-9. Figure 4-8 has three normally open main contacts that,
when closed, connect the motor directly to the line. It also has a magnetic
holding coil, which closes the main contacts upon being energized and also
closes a normally open auxiliary or maintaining contact to maintain the current in
the holding coil. The main and auxiliary contacts are generally joined by an
insulating connecting bar so that all contacts will close when the holding coil
becomes energized. It is obvious that any size of magnetic switch can be oper¬
ated just by sending a small current through the coil. Starters are often equipped
with dual-voltage coils for operation on either high or low voltage. Coils are
made in two sections—series for high voltage, parallel for low voltage.
Two overload relays are shown in Figure 4-7. All three-phase starters are now
made with provisions for a third overload relay as standard equipment, as shown
in Figure 4-8.
The holding coil on an ac magnetic starter is excited by a pulsating current,
and therefore its pull is not continuous but, rather, alternates according to the
frequency of the current. This tends to cause chattering; to overcome this condi¬
tion, the core of the magnet is equipped with a shading coil that produces an
out-of-phase flux. The shading coil is a small, single-turn copper coil embedded
around a portion of the core tip. The current induced in this coil is sufficient for
the magnet to retain the contactor during the reversal of current. A complete
magnetic starter is pictured in Figure 4-10.
An advantage of a magnetic starter over a manual starter is that is may be
operated merely by pressing a pushbutton which may be located some distance
from both the starter and the motor. This lends to convenience and safety in
starting and stopping a motor, especially if it is of high voltage or if is must be
controlled from one or more remote points.
Overload Relays. Nearly all magnetic starters are equipped with an overload
device to protect the motor from excessive current. Two types of overload relays
are used on magnetic starters, and these are either magnetic or thermal in opera¬
tion . The thermal overload relay may be either the bimetallic or solder-pot type.
A thermal relay is illustrated in Figure 4-1 la and b. This bimetallic type of
relay consists of a small heater coil or strip that is connected in series with the
line and that generates heat by virtue of the current flowing through it; the
amount of heat generated depends on the current flow in the line. Mounted
adjacent to, or directly inside, the coil is a strip formed of two metals. This is
fixed at one end, the other end being free to move. The two metals have different
degrees of expansion, and the strip will bend when heated. The free end normally
keeps two contacts of the control circuit closed. When an overload occurs, the
heater heats the thermostatic bimetal so that it will bend and separate the two
contacts, thereby opening the holding-coil circuit and stopping the motor. The
bimetallic type of overload relay is usually designed with a feature that permits
automatic resetting, although it is also designed for manual resetting. Some
overload relays are ambient compensated to provide maximum protection when
the temperature surrounding the relay differs from the temperature surrounding
the motor. A number of manufacturers feature a bimetallic overload relay that
can be converted from manual to automatic by positioning a reset selector lever.
Automatic reset is desirable when control is not readily accessible or regularly
attended. Some overload relays are trip free. This means that the starter contacts
cannot be held closed during an overload and cause damage to the motor.
The solder-pot type of thermal overload relay consists of a eutectic alloy
element, heater coil, normally closed contacts, and a reset button (Figure 4-12).
The eutectic alloy element contains a solder that a specific temperature immedi¬
ately changes from a solid state to a liquid state. The heater coil carries the main
line current and surrounds the thermal element. When an excessive current flows
through the heater coil, the heat generated by the coil melts the eutectic alloy in
the thermal element, allowing a shaft and ratchet wheel assembly within the
sleeve to turn and trip the normally closed contacts. This opens the holding-coil
circuit, causing the main contacts to open and disconnect the motor from the line.
To restart the motor, the reset button is pressed after the solder has cooled. This
type of relay is manually reset and is trip free. This prevents holding the contacts
closed by pressing the reset button. This important protective feature prevents
forcing the motor to operate under persistent overload conditions. Use of this
type of overload relay is desirable because the necessity of resetting the relay
draws attention to the cause of the overload and because the possibility of injury
to persons by the automatic restarting of a motor is eliminated.
Number of Overload Relays Required

The National Electrical Code clearly indicates the minimum number of overload
units to be used for the protection of single phase, three-phase, and dc motors.
The code, generally, requires one overload unit for single-phase and dc motors
and three overload units for all three-phase motors. Figures 4-13a, b, and c show
three controllers manufactured by three different companies. Note the overload
units.
Pushbutton Stations
Magnetic starters are controlled by means of pushbutton stations. The most com¬
mon station has start and stop buttons, as shown in Figure 4-14. When the
start button is pressed, two normally open contacts are closed; and when the
stop button is pressed, two normally closed contacts are opened. Spring action
returns the buttons to their original position when finger pressure is removed. To
operate a magnetic switch by a start-stop station, it is necessary to connect the
holding coil to the station contacts so that when the start button is pressed, the
coil will become energized; and when the stop button is pressed, the holding-coil
circuit is opened.
A diagram of a typical full-voltage magnetic starter equipped with three ther¬
mal overload relays and connected to a start-stop station is shown in Figure
4-15. In the diagrams to follow, the motor circuits are indicated by heavy lines,
and the control circuits are shown by light lines. The operation of this starter is
as follows:
When the start button of Figure 4-15 is pressed, it completes the circuit from
Lx to the normally closed contacts of the stop button through the holding coil M
and normally closed contacts of the overload relays to L2. Thus, the coil is
energized, and it closes contacts M and connects the motor across the line. A
maintaining circuit is completed at point 2 to keep the holding coil energized
after the finger is removed from the start button. Pressing the stop button opens
the coil circuit and causes all contacts to open. If a prolonged overload should
occur during the operation of the motor, the overload relay contacts will open
and deenergize the holding coil. If an overload condition has caused the relay to
trip, it will be necessary to reset the relay contact by hand before the motor can
be restarted.
Figure 4-16 shows a line diagram of the control circuit. Figure 4-17 is a line
diagram of the starter. Coil M is used to close main contacts M; OL is the
normally closed overload relay contact.
Magnetic full-voltage starters are made by all controller manufacturers. A
typical controller is shown in Figure 4-18. Figures 4-19 and 4-20 show control¬
lers with a step-down transformer in the control circuit. This permits operating
the control circuit at a lower voltage than the line voltage and is usually done for
safety reasons.
If a control-circuit transformer is used, the primary should be connected to the

line terminals of the starter. A separate voltage source is hazardous to personnel
and machine unless it is disconnected when the contactor coil is opened.
Note that in these diagrams one end of the secondary is grounded and one side
of control coil M is connected to the grounded side. It is important when one side
of the control circuit is grounded that the control circuit be so arranged that an
accidental ground in the remote control devices will not start the motor. Overload
contacts are always connected between coil M and L2.
Combination Starters. A combination starter consists of a magnetic starter and

disconnect switch mounted in the same enclosure. These starters are supplied
with either a fused disconnect switch or a circuit breaker. The fuses (or circuit
breaker) provide short-circuit protection by disconnecting the line. A combina¬
tion starter and circuit breaker will prevent single phasing by simultaneously
opening all lines when a fault occurs in any one phase. This type of starter can be
quickly reset after the fault has been cleared. Figure 4-21 illustrates a fused
combination starter. Figure 4-22 shows a combination starter and circuit breaker.
Pushbutton-Station Connections. A number of control circuits will be illus¬

trated using various combinations of pushbutton stations. All of these diagrams
employ one type of magnetic switch, but others can be used. Figure 4-23 illus¬
trates a magnetic switch that is operated from any of three stations. Figure 4-24
shows a straight-line diagram of the control circuit of three start-stop stations.
Figure 4-25 gives the control circuit of two start-stop stations. In these dia¬
grams, the start buttons are connected in parallel, and the stop buttons are
connected in series. This must be done regardless of the number of stations. Note
that the maintaining contact is always connected across the start button. All
stop buttons are connected in series with one another and in series with the
holding coil, so that the motor can be stopped from any position in case of
emergency.
Jogging. Magnetic switches can be “jogged” or “inched.” By this method the

motor is made to run only while the finger is pressing the jog button. As soon as
pressure is removed, the motor stops.
Jogging may be accomplished by using (1) a station with a selector pushbut¬
ton, (2) a station with a selector switch, or (3) a station with standard pushbuttons
and a jog relay.
Figure 4-26 shows a full-voltage magnetic starter connected to a start-jog-
stop station having a selector pushbutton. This button is constructed with a sleeve
that may be turned to either a jog or a run position. With the sleeve turned to the
run position, the start and stop buttons function as in an ordinary start-stop
station. With the sleeve in the jog position, the circuit to the holding contacts is
broken, and the motor will run only when the jog button is held down. Depress¬
ing the start button cannot cause the motor to run.
The operation of the control circuit of Figures 4-26 and 4-27 is as follows:
With the selector sleeve on run, pressing the start button completes a circuit
from Lj through the stop button and the closed contacts of the jog selector
button, the start contacts, the holding coil, the overload contacts, and to L2. This
energizes the holding coil, causing contacts M to make and connect the motor
across the line. The maintaining contact keeps the holding coil in the circuit after
the finger is removed from the start button. Pressing the stop button opens the
coil circuit and stops the motor. With the selector sleeve on jog, current cannot
flow to the start button because the front contacts are in the open position.
Depressing the jog selector button completes a circuit through the stop button,
the back contacts of the selector button, the holding coil, the overload contacts,
and to L2. The motor will run only when the button is depressed.
Figures 4-28, 4-29, and 4-30 show jog stations that use a selector switch rather
than a selector button. The start button is used to jog or to run the motor,
depending on the position of the switch. In each case, with the button in the jog
position, the circuit to the holding contact is broken. A station in which the
start button is used for starting and jogging is shown in Figure 4-31. A mag¬
netic switch operated by this type of station is illustrated in Figure 4-32. Another
method of jogging is through the use of a jogging relay, as shown in Figures 4-33
and 4-34.
When the start button is pressed, the relay coil is energized, thus closing the
relay contacts, CR; CR closes the circuit for the holding coil, causing contacts M
to close. This completes the maintaining circuit for the holding coil, M, when the
start button is released. In the meantime all the main contacts are made, closing
the circuit to the motor. If the jog button is pressed while the motor is at stand¬
still, a circuit is formed through the holding coil only as long as the button is
pressed. It is impossible for the starter to lock in, no matter how quickly the
finger is withdrawn.
Another diagram showing the connections of a jog relay and magnetic switch
is given in Figure 4-35. Pushing the start button operates the motor starter and
jog relay, causing the starter to lock in through one of the relay contacts. When
the jog button is pressed, the starter operates, but this time the relay is not
energized, and thus the starter cannot lock in.
A control circuit is shown in Figure 4-36. In this diagram, when the jog button
is depressed, the jog relay is bypassed, and the main contactor coil is energized
solely through the jog button. When the button is released, the contactor coil
releases immediately. Pushing the start button closes the control relay, and it is
held in by its own normally open contacts. The main contactor coil in turn is
closed by another set of normally open contacts on the jog relay and is held in.
start-stop Station with a Pilot Light. Sometimes it is advisable to have a pilot

light on the pushbutton station to indicate whether the motor is running. The
lamp usually is mounted on the station and is connected across the holding coil.
Such a connection is shown in Figures 4-37 and 4-38. Figure 4-39 shows a
control circuit with pilot light on when motor is stopped. Normally closed con¬
tacts are needed on this starter. With the motor running, these contacts are open.
Contacts are closed when the motor is stopped and the pilot light goes on. A
start-stop station with a pilot light is pictured in Figure 4-40.
Full-Voltage Reversing Starter. The magnetic starters shown thus far are de¬
signed to operate the motor in one direction, either clockwise or counterclock¬
wise. If it is necessary to reverse the motor, its connections must be changed.
Some applications, such as conveyors, hoists, machine tools, elevators, and
others, require a motor starter that can reverse the motor when a button is
pressed. Thus, two of the line leads can be interchanged to reverse a three-phase
motor by means of a magnetic reversing switch. A reversing starter of this type is
shown in Figure 4-41. The circuit is given in Figures 4-42 and 4-43. Note that it
is necessary to use a forward-reverse-stop station with three buttons and that
two operating coils are used, one for forward rotation and the other for reverse
rotation.
Two sets of main and auxiliary contacts are used. One set closes when forward
operation is desired; the other set closes for reverse rotation. These contacts are
connected in such a manner that two line wires feeding the motor are inter¬
changed when the reverse contacts close.
In operation, pressing the forward button completes a circuit from L1? the
stop button, the forward button, the forward coil, and the overload contacts to
L2. This energizes the coil, which closes the contacts for forward operation of the
motor. Auxiliary contacts F also close, maintaining the current through coil F
when the button is released. Pressing the stop button opens the circuit through
the forward coil which releases all contacts. Pressure on the reverse button
energizes the reverse coil which closes the reverse contacts. Terminals T\ and T3
are now interchanged, and the motor reverses.
Usually, reversing starters are equipped with a mechanical interlock in the
form of a bar which will prevent the reverse contacts from making while the
forward contacts are closed. This bar is pivoted in the center, and when the
forward contactor goes in, it moves the bar into a position where it is impossible
for the reverse contacts to make. This starter does not have an electrical interlock
to prevent the forward and reverse coils from being energized simultaneously.
All of these starters are equipped with overload relays, generally of the ther¬
mal-relay type.
Sometimes more than one forward-reverse-stop station is used to control a
magnetic reversing switch. Figure 4-44 shows connection diagrams of two such
stations in different positions.
Besides having a mechanical interlock, most reversing starters are also electri¬
cally interlocked. In this system, additional normally closed auxiliary contacts
are used to prevent the forward and reverse contactors from being energized at
the same time. The holding circuit of each main contactor coil is wired through
the normally closed auxiliary contacts of the opposing contactor, thus providing
the electrical interlock.
Figure 4-45 shows a magnetic reversing starter with mechanical and electrical
interlocks and a forward-reverse-stop pushbutton station. The stop button
must be depressed before changing directions. Limit switches can be added to
stop the motor at a certain point in either direction. Connections A and B must be
removed when limit switches are used. A line diagram of the control circuit is
In operation, pressing the forward button closes a circuit from/.! through the
stop button, the forward button, the reverse normally closed auxiliary con¬
tacts, the forward limit switch (if used), the forward coil, and the overload
contacts to L2. The maintaining contacts for the forward coil keep it energized
when pressure is removed from the button. At the same time, the normally closed
forward auxiliary contacts are opened, preventing a complete circuit through the
reverse coil.
A momentary contact pushbutton station that permits immediate reversal of
direction without first pushing the stop button is shown connected to a full-volt¬
age magnetic reversing starter in Figure 4-47. Note that this is also electrically
interlocked. Note also that the forward and reverse buttons each have a nor¬
mally closed and normally open contact. Figure 4-48 shows a line diagram of the
control circuit.
In operation, pressing the forward button completes a circuit from Lx
through the stop button, the normally closed contacts of the reverse button, the
forward contacts, the limit switch (if used), the normally closed reverse auxiliary
contacts of the electrical interlock, the forward coil, the overload contacts, and to
L2. The forward coil becomes energized, all the contactors close, and the motor
runs. At the same time the normally closed forward contacts are broken, prevent¬
ing a circuit to the reverse coil. When the forward contactor coil is energized, the
forward maintaining contacts are closed, keeping the coil energized, and the
forward normally closed auxiliary contacts in series with the reverse coil are
opened, preventing the reverse coil from becoming energized. To reverse the
motor, press the reverse button. This opens the circuit to the forward coil and
closes the circuit to the reverse coil.
It is sometimes necessary to operate a reversing magnetic controller from two
places. Figure 4-49 shows how two stations can be connected for that purpose.
Figure 4-50 is an elementary diagram of a reversing magnetic controller with an
electrical interlock controlled by a forward-reverse-stop station wired for
changing direction without pushing the stop button. Figure 4-51 shows a control
circuit using a step-down transformer for reduced coil voltage.
Reversing magnetic starters are made in numerous designs. Figure 4-52 shows
a starter similar to that of Figure 4-42, except that it is of the vertical type instead
of the horizontal type. The starters are mechanically and electrically identical,
the only difference being in the panel layout. The operation of this starter is
exactly the same as that of the starter described in Figure 4-42.
Reduced-Voltage Starters
If a squirrel-cage motor is connected directly across the line, the starting current
will be several times the normal running current. In very large motors this abnor¬
mal flow may be injurious to the driven machinery.
On small motors this injurious effect is seldom noticeable, so that across-the-
line starters may be used safely. For the large motor, however, it is sometimes
necessary to use a starter that will hold the starting current at a safe value. The
need for these starters depends a great deal on the construction of the motor and
the use to which it is put.
The following controllers will be treated in this section: primary-resistance
starters; secondary-resistance starters; and autotransformer starters—com¬
pensators, wye-delta starters, part-winding starters, and solid-state, reduced-
voltage starters.
Primary-Resistance Starters. When resistance is placed in series with the wind¬

ings of a three-phase motor, the motor will have less power than if it is connected
across the line. The amount of current that flows in the motor’s circuits is re¬
duced to whatever value the resistors will allow. The speed is determined by
the load applied to the shaft. If there is no load, the motor will accelerate to near-
synchronous speed. The motor will accelerate more slowly than if line voltage is
applied and will draw less current. With this type of starter, the motor is started
with resistors in series with the windings. After the motor accelerates to a certain
speed, the contacts in parallel with each resistor close. The current then bypasses
the resistor, and more current flows in the motor. When all the resistors are
bypassed, the motor will pull its rated load at its rated speed.
Resistance starters may be used in either the stator (primary) circuit or the
rotor (secondary) circuit. In the latter case, a wound rotor with three slip rings is
used. The motor will be discussed later in this book.
Rheostat Type of Resistance Starter. There are two types of primary-

resistance starters: manual resistance starters of the rheostat type and automatic
resistance starters. The rheostat type of starter (old) for a three-phase motor is
shown in Figure 4-53. It can also be used for a repulsion-induction motor. The
resistances are connected in two of the three phase lines. The arm of this rheostat
consists of two sections insulated from each other. Under each section, a metal
strip, usually made of copper, rides on contacts that are connected to taps on the
resistances.
As the arm is moved, sections of resistance are cut out, increasing the speed of
the motor. The starter is so constructed that equal amounts of resistance are
removed from each line as the arm is moved.
Some starters are equipped with a holding coil to keep the arm at the last
contact point, and the rheostat is used only for starting. In other cases, the arm
can be set in any position for speed regulation. The starting torque is cut down
considerably when a resistance starter is used, because the voltage drop due to
the resistance converts most of the energy needed for starting into heat.
Magnetic Primary-Resistance Starter. Figure 4-54 is an illustration of a

magnetically operated resistance starter. Three resistance units are used in this
starter. The diagram shows two sets of contacts. When the contacts marked S are
closed, a resistance unit is placed in series with each line lead feeding the motor,
thereby causing it to start slowly and on reduced voltage. After a definite time,
another set of contacts, R, also close, cutting out the resistance and placing the
motor directly across the line. An elementary diagram of this starter is shown in
Figure 4-55. Its operation is as follows:
When the start button is pressed, the circuit is completed from Lx through
coil S to line L2. Coil S is energized, closing the starting contacts, and the motor
starts slowly. When the starting contacts close, the auxiliary interlock contacts
also close to maintain a circuit through coil S. At the same time, the coil TR of
a time-delay relay connected across A and B is energized, setting in motion a
timing mechanism. After a predetermined time, contacts TR close, and a circuit
is completed through coil R. This coil becomes energized and causes running
contacts R to close. These cut out the resistance and connect the motor across the
line. Pressing the stop button opens all circuits through the holding coils, and
thus all contacts to the motor are opened. Figure 4-56 shows a General Electric
reduced-voltage, magnetic, primary-resistance starter. This magnetic primary
resistor consists of a three-pole start contactor, a three-pole run contactor, a
pneumatic timing relay, a single-step primary resistor, and two or three bimetal¬
lic overload relays.
Pressing the start button energizes the start-contactor coil. The start contac¬
tor closes, placing the motor on reduced voltage. The resistors in series with the
line reduce the starting current drawn from the line. At the same time the timing-
relay coil is energized, and after a definite time delay, the run-contactor coil is
energized, closing the run contactors. The resistors are now bypassed, thus send¬
ing full voltage to the motor. Pressing the stop button deenergizes all the contac¬
tors and stops all power to the motor.
A sustained overload will cause the heaters to become hot and will trip the
overload contacts, opening the holding-coil circuits. To start the motor again, the
overload contacts automatically reset or must be reset manually before the push¬
button circuits become operative. A dashpot and its operation and a timing mech¬
anism are described under the heading of “Definite Mechanical Time Starter” in
Chapter 7.
The two resistance starters just described place resistance units in series with
the line and thereby reduce the voltage applied to the stator winding. These are
called primary-resistance starters. The starting torque produced by a motor is
comparatively low if this type of starter is used.
Secondary-Resistance Starter. If the resistance is inserted in the secondary or

rotor circuit instead of the primary, the starting torque can be decreased consider-
ably. This can be accomplished by using a wound-rotor type of motor and by

inserting resistance in the rotor-winding circuit.
The rotors of this type of motor have a three-phase wye-connected winding,
the leads of which are joined to three slip rings located on the shaft of the rotor.
The stator of this motor is connected across the line by means of either a triple¬
pole fused switch or an across-the-line magnetic starter.
The principle of operation is as follows:
If the three slip rings are shorted, the effect is similar to having a motor with a
squirrel-cage winding. This motor will draw an excessive current if connected
directly across the line. However, if the three slip rings are connected through
three resistance units, a much lower current will flow through the line wires. The
motor will start slowly, and, as it accelerates, the resistance is gradually cut out
until the motor runs at full speed.
This type of motor is always started with the entire resistance in the circuit. In
Figure 4-57, the manual switch is first thrown in, and then the handle on the
resistance starter is slowly moved in a clockwise direction until all the resistance
is cut out. This gradually increases the speed of the motor until it is running at
full speed. These controllers are also made as speed regulators so that any desired
speed can be obtained. Figure 4-58 shows a resistance starter that uses a mag¬
netic switch for line connections.
Wound-rotor resistance starters are designed for magnetic operation as well as
for manual control. An elementary diagram of a simple starter with two steps of
acceleration is illustrated in Figure 4-59. In operation, pressing the start button
energizes coils S and TR. This closes all S contacts, placing the stator directly
across the line and the rotor in series with the resistance units. A timing mecha¬
nism of the dashpot, escapement, or other definite-time type, prevents time-
delay contact TR from closing until a set time has elapsed, whereupon coil R is
energized and contacts R close, cutting out the resistance of the rotor circuit. This
brings the motor up to full speed. If the stop button is pressed or, in the event of
a prolonged overload, coil S is deenergized, the motor will stop.
Solid-State, Reduced-Voltage Starter. The solid-state starter, as shown in Fig¬

ure 4-60, reduces the line voltage electronically during the starting of the motor
and applies full voltage when the run cycle is energized. Conventional contacts
are used for the run cycle, and the starting circuitry is then disconnected.
The voltage is reduced during the start by the controlled firing of the SCRs
(refer to Chapter 10, Solid-State Motor Control). Part of the cycle is eliminated,
as shown in Figure 4-6lb. Figure 4-6la shows a normal sine wave. Eliminating
part of the cycle results in a reduced current, which weakens the motor and limits
the starting torque. The amount of current is adjustable and can be set according
to the load requirements or line limitations. Once the control is set, it will allow a
constant limited current to the motor until the start cycle is completed. This
results in a timed start cycle. The motor will receive full voltage at a given time,
regardless of the shaft speed.
A tachometer can be used on this type of control to govern the amount of time
that the shaft takes to reach full speed. The tachometer is fastened to the motor
and tells the control exactly what the shaft speed is. There are three adjustments
necessary to customize the motor to the load when this control is used:
1. The amount of current to which the motor is limited as the load is brought up to
speed.
2. The acceleration time. This adjustment may require the current limit (1) to be
adjusted.
3. The breakaway torque adjustment. This part of the control will apply the maxi¬
mum current allowed by the current-limiting control setting (1) until the shaft
starts to move. Once the shaft starts to revolve, the acceleration control (2) ap¬
plies the current needed to bring the motor up to the set speed in the given or set
length of time.
This control can be purchased with the following protective features: (1) over¬
load protection, (2) problems within the starting circuitry (if the motor is not up
to speed within five seconds), (3) a signal if one of the motor leads is open,
(4) low line voltage, (5) a signal if one of the power lines is open, and (6) a signal
if the power lines are reversed.
Autotransformer Starters—Compensators. Although resistance starters are

used to a great extent, autotransformer starters are much more satisfactory for
reducing the voltage in the motor. The advantage is that the reduced voltage is
accomplished by transformer action and not by a resistance, which wastes energy
through heat.
The autotransformer is a coil of wire wound on a laminated iron core. Several
taps are brought out to obtain different voltages. On the common type of com¬
pensator, three autotransformers, one for each phase of the line, are connected in
wye, as shown in Figure 4-62. If each coil is tapped at the center and connected
as shown to a three-phase motor, the voltage impressed will be one-half the line
voltage. This is the manner in which the motor is connected when it is started.
With this connection, the line current at start is considerably reduced.
On the ordinary compensator, two or three taps are usually brought out of the
autotransformer so that different voltages can be applied to the motor at start.
Whichever tap produces the most satisfactory starting torque at the lowest start¬
ing current should be used.
Manual Autotransformer Starter. typical manual autotransformer

A
compensator is shown in Figure 4-63. It contains two sets of stationary contacts
and a set of movable contacts. The movable contacts are mounted on an insulated
cylinder to which a handle is attached.
When the motor is started, the handle is moved quickly in one direction. This
connects the motor to the autotransformer so that it is started on a reduced
voltage. After the motor accelerates, the handle is rapidly pulled in the opposite
direction. This disconnects the motor from the autotransformer and connects it
directly across the line.
On nearly all manual compensators, the handle can be moved in only one
direction at start, this direction being the one that starts the motor on a reduced
voltage. It is necessary that the handle be moved quickly from the start to the run
position; otherwise the motor will slow down as a result of the momentary open
caused by the movement of the contacts from start to run. Most compensators
have the contacts immersed in oil. This is done in order to extinguish quickly the
arc that develops when the handle is thrown from start to run and thereby prevent
the contacts from pitting.
Once the handle and contacts are in the run position, a holding coil connected
across two terminals of the motor becomes energized and holds the handle in
place. To stop the motor, a stop button is pressed that opens the circuit in the
holding coil, and this in turn releases the handle. Spring action returns the mova¬
ble contact to its normal off position. If the voltage should fail or be reduced, the
holding coil will be unable to hold the handle in the run position. If a prolonged
overload should occur, the overload relay contacts will open and deenergize the
holding coil. In order to restart the motor, it is necessary to reset the overload
relay by pressing a reset button. Figures 4-64 and 4-65 show the wiring dia¬
grams of a manually operated, three-phase compensator.
In operation, the handle is thrown first to the starting position, causing the
movable contacts to make contact with the stationary start contacts. This con¬
nects the motor through the autotransformer and starts it at a reduced voltage.
After the motor accelerates, the operator pulls the handle back to the running
position, and this connects the motor to the line. The holding, or undervoltage,
coil is connected across two leads of the motor with a stop button and overload
relay contacts in series with it. To stop the motor, the button is pressed and the
coil deenergized, causing the handle and movable contacts to spring back to the
off position.
Compensators are also made with two autotransformer coils instead of three.
Figure 4-66 shows a diagram of a two-coil compensator operating a three-phase
motor. Its operation is as follows: When the handle is thrown to the start posi¬
tion, L2 connects directly to the motor, and L\ and L3 connect directly to the
autotransformers. Taps on the transformers are connected to the two other motor
leads so that the motor starts on a reduced voltage. After it has accelerated, the
handle is quickly thrown to the run position and is held there by the holding, or
undervoltage, coil. Figure 4-67 shows the connection when the motor is starting.
This is known as an open-delta connection.
Magnetic Autotransformer Starter. Magnetic autotransformer compen¬

sators are essentially the same as the manually operated type just described,
except that the contactors are closed magnetically and are also equipped with a
timing device that connects the motor across the line after it has been running on
reduced voltage for several seconds. An advantage of a magnetic compensator is
that it can be controlled by just pressing a button, which can be located at a

convenient remote place. Figure 4-68 is a diagram of the motor and control
circuit.
The magnetic autotransformer type of reduced-voltage starter is much the
same in principle of operation as the magnetic primary resistor type, the differ¬
ence being that a transformer is used in place of a resistor for reducing the line
voltage to the motor during starting. This reduced-voltage starter has a three-coil
autotransformer; three sets of contactors for the start, run, and wye contacts; a
pneumatic timing relay; bimetallic overload relays (two or three); and an over¬
temperature unit to protect the autotransformer against overheating. The run and
wye contactors are mechanically interlocked.
The operation of this starter (see Figure 4-69) is as follows: Pressing the start
button energizes the start-and wye-contactor coils. The contactors for start and
wye close, placing the motor on reduced voltage. The wye contactors connect the
three coil ends of the autotransformers together to form the wye point. After a
preset time interval, the pneumatic timing relay opens the wye contactors, and
for a very short period of time the autotransformer acts as a reactor. The run
contactors are then closed, placing the motor directly across the line. The transi¬
tion from start to run is accomplished without opening the circuit to the motor;
hence it is called a closed-circuit transition autotransformer starter. The starter is
mechanically and electrically interlocked to secure the proper starting sequence.
Pressing the stop button or a sustained overload deenergizes all contactors and
disconnects the motor from the line. Figure 4-70 is a typical wiring diagram of an
Allen-Bradley autotransformer type of reduced-voltage starter. This is similar in
many respects to the previous diagram. The time is located on and triggered by
contactor 2S. Note that the run and 1S contacts are mechanically interlocked.
Wye-Delta Starters, This method of reduced-voltage starting applies only to

three-phase, delta-connected motors. If a delta-connected motor is connected
across a 208-volt, three-phase line, each phase will receive 208 volts, as shown
in Figure 4-71.
On the other hand, if the motor is reconnected in wye and the same line
voltage is applied, each phase will receive 58 percent of 208, as shown in Figure
4-72.
To apply this principle to a controller, it is necessary to bring both ends of each
phase out of the motor. The six leads can be interchanged when connecting from
wye starting to delta running.
Manual or pushbutton magnetic controllers can be used to effect the change.
Figure 4-73 shows a manual method of wye-delta starting by means of a three-
pole, double-throw switch.
In starting, the main switch is first closed, and then the double-throw switch is
closed for the starting position. Leads T4,T5, and T6 are connected together when
the switch is down, forming the wye point, and leads Tu T2, and T3 are con¬
nected to the line. The motor starts rotating as a wye-connected motor, and each
coil group receives approximately 58 percent of its rated voltage. After the motor
accelerates, the switch is closed in the running position, connecting T2 to T4, T3
to T5, and T6 to Tu which is a delta connection. The motor now runs normally.
Figure 4-74 shows a magnetic wye-delta starter of the open transition type.
This term refers to the momentary disconnection of the motor from the line
during the period of changeover from wye to delta connection. These starters are
also made with closed transition. The closed transition is accomplished by plac¬
ing the resistors at the disconnecting points during the transition, thereby keeping
the circuits closed. The operation of the open transition type of wye-delta starter
is as follows: Pressing the start button energizes contactors S, 1M, and time
delay TR. The S contactor connects motor terminals T4,T5, and T6, and contactor
1M connects the incoming power lines to motor terminals TX,T2, and T3, causing
the motor to start as a wye-connected motor. After the time-delay relay times
out, the timed-open (T.O.) contacts open, dropping out contactor S, and the
timed-close (T.C.) contacts close, energizing contactor 2M. The 2M contactor,
upon energizing, applies the line wires to terminals T4, T5, and T6, causing the
motor to run at full voltage. Pressing the stop button drops all contactors, stop¬
ping the motor. Contactors S and 2M are mechanically interlocked. Figure 4-75
shows another type of wye-delta starter.
Part-Winding Starters
Part-winding reduced-voltage starters are usually two-step accelerating starters
for use with wye or delta part-winding-start motors. These motors were de¬
scribed in Chapter 3. The controllers described here are for use with wye-con¬
nected, part-winding-start motors.
The starters for the part-winding-start motors are constructed and wired so that
part of the three-phase motor is energized first, and then the remainder of the
winding is energized in one or more steps. The purpose of the starter is to reduce
the initial inrush of current at the start. The motors used for part-winding starting
may be the standard nine-lead, dual-voltage motor or the six-lead motor made
especially for this purpose. If the standard nine-lead, wye-connected motor is
used for this purpose, leads T4, T5, and T6 should be wired together externally.
Only the lower voltage can be applied to a dual-voltage motor.
Figure 4-76 is a wiring diagram of a nine-lead, wye-connected motor con¬
nected to an automatic part-winding starter. Connecting T4, T5, and T6 together
produces two wyes in the stator winding. Connecting Tu T2, and T3 to Lu L2,
and L3 energizes half the winding. Connecting T7, T8, and T9 to Lu L2, and L3
completes the sequence, all windings being energized with both wyes in parallel.
The control circuit operates as follows: Depressing the start button energizes
the 1M contactor and the time-delay relay, TR, causing the motor to run on half
the winding, Tu T2, and T3. After the time-delay relay has timed out, contacts
TR close, causing the 2M contactors to close, connecting the power to the second
half of the winding, T7, T8, and T9. The total motor current of the wye-con-
nected, part-winding type of motor is divided equally between the two sets of
winding, with each winding handling half of full power.
Other wiring diagrams of a two-step accelerating starter for use with wye-
connected, part-winding-start motors is shown in Figure 4-77.
Figure 4-78 shows a diagram that can be used for various part-winding
schemes. This is a General Electric diagram for both wye and delta motors
having nine or six leads. The table on the right shows the lead connections for the
motors on the bottom of the drawing. Note the four and two-pole contactor
arrangement.
Drum Starters
A manual drum type of controller, which can be used for starting or reversing
small three-phase motors, is shown in Figures 4-79 and 4-80. This drum switch
can also be used for split-phase and capacitor motors, as shown in Figures 4-81
and 4-82. Figure 4-83 shows typical connection diagrams of drum switches.
A switch of this type is used if the motor is located close to the operator, as on
small lathes or other machine tools.
Figure 4-80 shows that when the handle is moved from one position to an¬
other, two line wires are interchanged, and the motor reverses. This switch can
be adapted to reverse any small motor whether it is ac or dc. A complete descrip¬
tion of this controller is given in Chapter 2.
Multispeed Starters
The speed of a three-phase motor can be changed by changing the number of
poles in the motor. This may be done by reconnecting the motor so that the
resulting number of poles is either twice or half the number of the original poles.
This is known as a consequent-pole connection.
Two-speed motors that do not have a two-to-one speed ratio have two separate
windings in the motor. When one or the other winding is connected to the line,
the motor will run at different speeds because of the different number of poles in
each winding.
Manual and magnetic starters are constructed in order to change the motor
connections for different speeds, as in the case of the consequent-pole motor, and
to change from one to another when two-winding motors are used.
All these starters employ overload protection in the form of thermal or mag¬
netic relays. Some applications require that the motor be first started on slow
speed and then, if so desired, raised to high speed. This is done by equipping the
controller with a relay that will permit this sequence.
Other applications require that the motor be started on low speed and then
automatically be connected on high speed only after a definite time has elapsed.
This is accomplished by equipping the starter with a definite time relay.
The following two-speed magnetic starters will be described and illustrated:
1. Two-speed starters for two separate-winding motors.

2. Two-speed starters for consequent-pole-winding motors.
Two-Speed Starter for Two Separate-Winding Motors. Figure 4-84 shows a

wiring diagram of a two-speed starter for operating a three-phase motor that has
two separate windings. When the high-speed button is pressed, coil hi is ener¬
gized, causing contacts hi to close and thereby connecting the high-speed wind¬
ing directly across the line. Auxiliary contact hi also closes and keeps coil hi
energized after the high-speed button is released. Pressing the stop button
causes the main contacts to open and stop the motor. The same result will be
produced if coil hi is deenergized when an extended overload occurs.
If the low-speed button is pressed while the motor is running at high speed,
coil hi will immediately become deenergized because of its interconnection with
the contacts of the low-speed button. Coil lo will then be energized, and the
low-speed winding is connected to the line.
Figure 4-85 shows a wiring diagram of a starter somewhat similar to that of
Figure 4-84. This is for a two-speed motor with separate windings for each
speed. Note that the slow-speed winding is marked Tx, T2, and T3 and the high¬
speed winding has terminal markings Tu, TX2, and T13. The operation of this
starter is practically the same as the previous starter. The motor can be started in
either fast or slow speeds. The change from slow to fast can be made without first
pressing the stop button. When changing from fast to slow, the stop button must
be pressed.
Two-Speed Starter for a Constant-Torque Motor. Figure 4-86 is a wiring dia¬

gram of a starter that is used to change the speed of a two-speed, consequent-
pole-winding motor with constant torque. Five contacts are used for high speed.
Eight main contacts are needed for this type of controller.
The operation is as follows: When the low-speed button is pressed, a circuit is
formed from Lx through the stop button, the normally closed high contacts (front
contacts of the high button), low contacts (when pressed), the normally closed
high interlocks, coil S, overload contacts, and to line 2. Coil S is energized, and
the motor starts and runs on low speed. The motor can be started at either the
high or low speeds. The stop button need not be pushed for changing speeds.
The motor is connected in series-delta-consequent for low speed. For high speed,
five main contacts are closed connecting the motor in two-circuit wye. (This
starter can also be used for two-speed, variable-torque motors.)
j,
Motor leads T T2, and T3 connect together, forming the wye point of the
two-circuit wye connection, and motor leads T4, T5, and T6 are connected to the
line. Figure 4-87 shows the control circuit for this motor.
Two-Speed Starter for a Constant-Horsepower Motor. This motor is connected

in two-circuit wye for low speed and in series-delta for high speed. Figure 4-88
shows a complete wiring connection for a two-speed, constant-horsepower motor
connected to. a multispeed starter. Figure 4-89 shows a multispeed, consequent-
pole starter.
Two-Speed Diagrams. Multispeed motor connections for two-speed motors are

Adjustable-Frequency Controllers. The speed controllers discussed so far have

varied the speed by varying the number of poles in the motor. As observed
earlier, the speed of a three-phase motor depends on the number of poles and the
frequency, or Hz. Adjustable-frequency controllers electronically adjust or deter¬
mine the frequency according to the load requirements.
The adjustable-frequency controller first changes three phases into dc, and
then, through electronic circuitry, changes dc back into three phases of any
frequency from 0 to 200 Hz. The voltage usually varies with the frequency. The
rule of inductive reactance applies in this case. Inductive reactance varies with
the rate of change. More Hz means higher inductive reactance, and less Hz
means less inductive reactance. Because inductive reactance is a form of resist¬
ance, the resistance of the motor will go up or down with the change in fre¬
quency. This makes it necessary to drop the voltage along with a drop in fre¬
quency. If the voltage is not dropped, the current can become excessive at a
lower frequency. Ventilation also becomes important to the motor at lower
speeds.
Many controllers are ordered from the manufacturer modified for a specific
load requirement. Among the modifications available are the following:
1. Adjustable Hz control.
2. Reversing feature.
3. Dynamic braking.
4. Jog feature.
5. Controlled acceleration.
6. Controlled deceleration.
7. Overcurrent protection.
8. Undervoltage protection.
9. Re versed-phase protection.
The field repair of these controllers consists of replacing the complete circuitry
boards. The manufacturer has a suggested list of replacement parts that should be
stocked. Repairing the components requires an extensive knowledge of electron¬
ics. Figure 4-91 is a picture of an adjustable-frequency controller, and Figure
4-92 is a picture of one of the circuitry boards.
Quick-Stop AC Starters
In many motor applications, it is necessary to have a method of quickly stopping
or braking the motor to ensure safe operation and to save time.
While a three-phase motor is coasting to a standstill, current is sent through it
in a direction that will cause it to tend to reverse its rotation. The power is then
immediately disconnected. This is called plugging and is accomplished by re¬
versing the current through two leads of a three-phase motor.
To effect plugging, the instant that the motor circuit is opened, a new circuit is
established that will reverse the motor. This will immediately stop it and cause it
to run in the opposite direction. If the line is disconnected at the instant the motor
comes to a full stop and is about to reverse its direction, then the motor will
remain at a standstill.
To accomplish this, a plugging relay is used. The relay is mounted on top of
the motor and is operated by a belt attached to the shaft of the motor. Contacts
located inside the relay close when the motor is running but prevent operation in
the reverse direction by opening as soon as the motor tries to reverse its direction.
There are various designs in the construction of these relays, but essentially the
operation of all of them is the same as that described.
A wiring diagram of a controller and plugging relay is shown in Figure 4-93.
A reversing type of across-the-line starter is used. The simplified diagram of
Figure 4-94 is traced in the following explanation of the circuit.
When the start button is pressed, coil F is energized and causes the three
main contacts F to close and connect the motor across the line. At the same time,
the normally open auxiliary contact Fx is closed, maintaining the current through
coil F. Also, the normally closed auxiliary contact F2 is opened, thereby prevent¬
ing current flow through the reverse coil R. The plugging relay contacts are
closed by the rotation of the motor.
If the stop button is pressed, coil F is deenergized, and it opens the line
contacts to the motor, and contacts F2 close, thereby completing a circuit through
the plugging relay to coil R. This coil is energized and closes main contacts R,
which cause current to flow through the motor in the reverse direction.
The motor immediately comes to a stop, and the instant it reverses its direc¬
tion, it opens the relay contacts, deenergizing coil R. The main contacts R open
and break the line circuit to the motor. This controller can be used for plugging in
either direction.
There are several other methods that can be used for quickly stopping a three-
phase motor. One of these is the application of low-voltage direct current to one
phase immediately after the line switch to the motor is opened.

In this section it is assumed that the motor and fuse are in good condition. To
make certain that the motor is not at fault, connect a voltmeter at the motor
terminals and determine whether voltage is available when the contacts of the
controller are closed. If there is no voltage, the trouble probably lies in the
controller.
Because there are many different kinds and makes of controllers, a general
procedure for locating the source of trouble is given.
1. If the motor does not start when the main contacts close, the trouble may be
a. Open overload heater coil or poor connection.
b. Main contacts not making. (It is not unusual for one or more contacts to wear
sufficiently so that they will not make when closed. This will also occur if
the contacts become dirty, gritty, or burned.)
c. Broken, loose, or dirty terminal connection.
d. Loose or broken pigtail connection.
e. Open resistance units or open autotransformer.
f. Obstruction on the magnet core, preventing the contacts from closing.
g. Mechanical trouble, such as mechanical interlocks, gummy pivots, and poor
spring tension.
2. If the contacts do not close when the start button is pressed, the trouble may be
a. Open holding coil. (This can be tested by connecting a voltmeter across the
coil terminals when the start button is pressed. If there is voltage when the
start button is pressed, but the coil does not become energized, the coil is
defective.)
b. Dirty START-button contacts or poor contact.
c. Open or dirty STOP-button contacts. (If more than one station is connected to
the same controller, each station should be checked. If forward-
reverse stations are used and they are interlocked, check all contacts.)
d. Loose or open terminal connections.
e. Open overload-relay contacts.
f. Low voltage.
g. Shorted coil.
h. Mechanical trouble.
3. If the contacts open when the start button is released, the trouble may be
a. Maintaining contacts that do not close completely or are dirty, pitted, or
loose.
b. Wrong connection of station to the controller.
4. If a fuse blows when the start button is pressed, the trouble may be
a. Grounded contacts.
b. Shorted coil.
c. Shorted contacts.
5. If the magnet is noisy in operation, the trouble may be
a. Broken shaded pole causing chattering.
b. Dirty core face.
6. If the magnet coil is burned or shorted, the trouble may be
a. Overvoltage.
b. Excessive current due to a large magnetic gap caused by dirt, grit, or me¬
chanical trouble.
c. Too-frequent operation.
TESTING COMPONENT CIRCUITS
By using a snap-around type volt ammeter-ohmmeter or individual instruments,

many of the tests needed to determine opens, shorts, grounds, continuity, and the
like may be conducted in a very short time. Shorted coils; open coils; grounded
coils; open resistances; shorted resistances; low voltages; high voltages; exces¬
sive amperes; broken, loose, or dirty connections; and many other malfunction¬
ing component circuits may be tested with comparative ease. This is true of all
motors, as well as starters. Figure 3-183 shows one method of using this instru¬
ment.
A systematic procedure should be followed when troubleshooting controls.
Extreme caution must be used when testing live components. When working on
anything that should have the power off, always shut the power off yourself.
Most disconnects have allowances for a padlock to be used to keep the power
from being turned back on. It is very important to take this precaution. Controls
with voltage above 240 volts should never be energized when troubleshooting.
The example used here will be a control operated by a remote switch, such as
a float switch. It will be assumed that the device being controlled (a three-phase
motor) is in good working order but is not receiving power. Figure 4-95 shows
such a circuit.
The first thing to check is the line voltage. This is done by removing the cover
of the control box and testing each line with a voltmeter. The volt readings
should be taken between Lx and L2, L2 and L3, and then between L3 and Lx. If
full voltage is found, the power circuit should be visually checked for loose
connections. These terminals include Lx, L2, A3, Tx, T2, and T3. Look for signs
of heating at these connections. When a connection becomes loose, the terminal
will become very hot, and the screw, wire, and terminal will become discolored
or charred. All terminals should be checked and tightened if necessary. This
should be done with the power off.
The control circuitry within the controller is checked next. Check this by
looking at the control circuits given in the illustrations of this book. The external
controls, the magnetic holding coil, and the normally closed overload contacts
are always located between line 1 and line 2. Unless the control has been altered,
line 3 is not part of the control circuit. Check also that the externally located
controlling switches, such as the pushbutton, float, pressure, or limit switches,
are connected between line 1 and the holding coil. The normally closed overload
contacts are always located between the holding coil and line 2. A wiring dia¬
gram can usually be found in the cover of the controller. Now it has been estab¬
lished that the motor and line voltage are in working order. This narrows the
problems to the control circuit and the chance that some component is open.
Opens can be located in the control circuit with a voltmeter. Connect one lead
of the voltmeter to line 1, and touch the other lead to first one terminal of the
holding coil and then the other terminal. There should be the same voltage
reading that is read between line 1 and line 2. If the control-circuit voltage is
supplied with a transformer, the voltage read should be that of the transformer
output. If there is no voltage on either side of the holding coil, the overload
contacts are open. Pushing the reset button should close the overload contacts.
If they do not close and have had time to cool, they may be defective. In this
case, they should be replaced.
If there is a voltage on one terminal of the holding coil but not the other, the
coil is open. The coil must then be replaced.
If there is a voltage on both terminals of the holding coil, the coil and the
overload contacts can be assumed to be in working order. To double-check these
components, line 1 and the terminal marked 3 can be shorted out with a piece of
wire. This will bypass the external control, and then the holding coil should close
the contacts. A current-limiting resistor may be used in place of a wire. If the
control functions, the problem will be in the external controlling device.
Solid-state controllers have very complicated circuitry, and so trouble¬
shooting these units requires a good background in electronics and electric mo¬
tors. These controllers will have repair instructions with them. Most of the repair
consists of replacing boards or modules that plug into the circuitry. There is also
a suggested list of parts that should be stocked for repairing purposes.
Chapter 5
DIRECT-CURRENT
ARMATURE WINDING
The complete process of armature winding requires a number of operations that
are performed in sequence: (1) taking data while stripping the armature,
(2) checking the commutator for shorts and grounds, (3) insulating the core,
(4) making and taping coils, (5) placing the coils in the slots, (6) connecting the
coil leads to the commutator, (7) soldering the leads to the commutator, (8) test¬
ing, (9) turning the commutator in the lathe, and (10) baking and varnishing. A
form for recording this data is shown below.
, DATA SHEET FOR D.C. ARMATURES

Make
When armatures such as those shown in Figure 5-la, b, and c require rewind¬
ing, sufficient information must be gathered in the process of stripping to enable
the mechanic to rewind it exactly as it was wound originally. Unless the different
types of windings and connections are familiar to the mechanic, it will be almost
impossible to record the necessary data. The different types of windings and
connections will be described, and directions given for rewinding the more im¬
portant ones.
167
TYPICAL WINDING FOR A SMALL ARMATURE

The simplest type of winding consists of a series of coils wound into the slots of
an armature and connected in succession to the commutator. Figure 5-2a shows a
diagram of this winding. The commutator is shown flattened for simplicity. A
circular schematic diagram of the same winding is given in Figure 5-2b.
Insulating the Core. Before an armature is wound, however, the slots must be
insulated to prevent the wires from touching the iron core and causing grounds.
As in the other types of motors, the same kind and thickness of insulation is
inserted as was removed. On a small armature, the insulation is cut so that it
protrudes approximately 1/8 in. on both ends of the armature slot and about
1/4 in. above the slot, as shown in Figure 5-3. It is also necessary to insulate the
shaft of the armature by placing several turns of insulating tape around it. Usu¬
ally the end lamination is made of fiber that protects the coils from grounding.
This is fitted over the shaft and extended outward to the bottom of the slots, as
Winding Procedure
Small armatures, such as those used in vacuum cleaners and drills, can be held in
one hand, as shown in Figure 5-5. Larger armatures are mounted between
horses, as shown in Figure 5-6, or an armature holder is used, as shown in
Figure 2-33b.
Assuming a nine-slot armature and data taken during the stripping process, the
winding procedure is as follows:
Insert insulation in the slots. Choose any slot and call it slot 7. Wind the
required number of turns into the slots of the proper pitch or span, in this case 1
and 5, and then make a loop, as shown in Figure 5-7. Use enough tension on the
wire to make a tight winding without breaking the wire. Make the loop at the end
of the first coil and the beginning of the second coil. Start the second coil in slot 2
and wind the coil with the same number of turns as coil 1. Be sure that the coil
span is the same as coil 7.
Make a loop when the second coil is finished, and then start winding in slot 3.
Continue in this manner until nine coils have been wound. Connect the end lead
of the last coil to the beginning lead of the first coil. After the entire armature is
wound, there will be two coil sides in each slot. Figure 5-8 shows a step-by-step
winding of an armature having nine slots. Note that all coils have the same pitch
and turns. This type of winding, in which a loop is made of the end of each coil,
is called a loop winding.
Placing Wedges in the Slot. After the armature has been wound, the next
operation is to close the slots so that the wires will not fly out while the armature
is rotating at full speed. The procedure is illustrated in Figure 5-9. Note the
Direct-Current Armature Winding 169
insulation between the coils in the slot. This may be a standard separator creased
for better protection.
Cut the insulation so that it extends out of the slot about 3/16 in. Use a piece of
fiber to press one side of the insulation into the slot and then the other side of the
insulating strip into the slot. Slide a wooden (or fiber) wedge of the proper size
into the slot over the insulation. On large armatures, the insulation is cut flush
with the top of the slot and then banded.
Lead Swing
One of the most important operations in winding an armature is placing the coil
leads in the proper commutator bars. Leads may be placed in the bars in any one
of three different positions, depending on the original location. If a slot in the
armature is viewed from the commutator end, the leads to the commutator may
swing to the right of the slot or to the left, or they may be aligned with it.
The following method is used in determining the position of the leads in the
commutator.
Stretch a piece of cord or string through the center of a slot, as shown in
Figure 5-10. Note whether it is in alignment with a commutator bar or with the
mica between the bars. If the data call for a lead swing of three bars to the right,
place the lead of the first coil three bars to the right, counting the bar that lines up
with the slot as No. 1. All the other leads follow in succession, as shown in
Figure 5-11. If the center of the slot is in line with the mica, consider the bar to
the right of the mica as bar No. 1.
Windings with More Than One Coil per Slot

In the armature so far discussed, the number of slots is equal to the number of
commutator bars. This is not true of all armatures. Some have twice as many bars
as slots, and it is not unusual for them to have three times as many bars as slots.
In an armature of this type, the number of coils is always equal to the number of
bars; therefore, an armature that has nine slots and 18 bars has 18 coils. The
procedure in winding an armature of this type is exactly the same as for the
simple loop winding, except that each slot has two loops.
Winding a Loop Armature with Twice as Many Commutator Bars as Slots.

Assume a nine-slot, 18-bar armature. The procedure for winding this two-coil-
per-slot armature is as follows: Wind the first coil into slots 1 and 5 in the same
manner as in the simple loop winding. Make a loop and wind the second coil into
the same slots. Make a loop and start the third coil in the slot 2. Continue in this
manner, winding two coils before going to the next slot. The windings should
appear like those shown in Figures 5-12 and 5-13. There should be two loops for
each slot. To distinguish between the first and second loops of each slot, sleeving
of different colors may be put on the loops, or the second loop of each slot may
be made longer than the first. This procedure enables the winder to place the
leads in the proper commutator bars without testing each lead.
LAP WINDINGS
Armature windings are classified in two main groups, lap and wave windings.
The difference between them is the manner in which the leads are connected to
the commutator bars. Lap windings may be classified in three ways: simplex lap
winding, duplex lap winding, and triplex lap winding.
The simplex lap winding is one in which the beginning and the end leads of a
coil are connected to adjacent commutator bars, as shown in Figure 5-14. Thus,
the end lead of the first coil connects to the same commutator bar as the begin¬
ning lead of the second coil, and so on.
The duplex lap winding is one in which the end lead of a coil is connected two
bars away from the beginning lead, as shown in Figure 5-15. Thus, the end lead
of the first coil is placed in the same commutator bar as the beginning lead of the
third coil, the end of the third in the same bar as the beginning of the fifth, and so
on.
The triplex lap winding is one in which the end lead of a coil is connected three
bars away from the beginning lead, as illustrated in Figure 5-16. Thus, the end of
the first coil is connected to the same commutator bar as that of the fourth coil,
the end of the fourth to the beginning of the seventh, and so on.
The simplex winding is most frequently used on small- and medium-sized
armatures. Duplex and triplex windings are not employed to any great extent, but
simplex windings can generally be reconnected as duplex or triplex windings
when it is desired to run a motor on a lower voltage. Brushes used on duplex-
wound armatures must contact at least two commutator bars, but brushes for
triplex-wound armatures must touch at least three commutator bars.
The statement that any winding in which the beginning and end leads of the
same coil are connected to adjacent bars is a simplex lap winding is true for any
number of poles that a motor may have. To illustrate the lap winding, several
types of armature windings will be described.
Lap Winding with Loops

A simple lap winding having one coil for each slot is shown in Figure 5-7. This
nine-slot armature has nine coils, one for each slot. In this armature, the number
of slots and commutator bars must be the same. The loops are connected to the
commutator bars in succession, as shown in Figure 5-17.
A lap winding with two coils for each slot is shown in Figure 5-18. A nine-slot
armature in this case has 18 coils. There must be twice as many commutator bars
as slots, because there are 18 loops, and each loop requires one commutator bar.
As illustrated, one loop is made short and the next one long, so that the leads may
be put in the bars in the proper rotation.
Loop windings may also have three coils for every slot. It is then necessary to
have three times as many commutator bars as slots.
Lap Winding without Loops

In a lap winding, it is possible to place the beginning lead in the proper commuta¬
tor bar as each coil is wound and to connect all the end leads to the proper bars
after the entire armature is wound. This requires the end lead of each coil to be
left free until all the coils are wound.
Armature with One Coil per Slot

The procedure for winding and connecting an armature having one coil per slot
follows:
Start in any slot and wind one complete coil in the slots of proper pitch. Place
the beginning of coil 1 into the proper commutator bar, and leave the end lead
free for connection after the armature is wound. Wind the entire armature in this
manner, leaving all the end leads disconnected, as shown in Figure 5-19. After
all coils are wound, connect all the top or end leads to the commutator. Place
each top lead in the bar adjacent to the bottom lead of the same coil to produce a
simplex lap winding like that given in Figure 5-20.
Armature with Two Coils per Slot

Simplex lap-wound armatures having two coils per slot are more common than
those having one coil per slot. The procedure for winding this type of armature is
as follows:
Start winding with two wires and place the beginning leads in the commutator
bars according to the data taken. Cut the wires when the proper number of turns
have been wound into the slots, and leave the end leads free, as shown in Fig¬
ure 5-21. Start the next coil one slot to the left of the first coil as viewed from the
commutator end. (When the coils proceed to the left, the winding is called
left-handed, and to the right, right-handed.) Follow this procedure until all coils
have been wound. Then place the top, or end, leads in the commutator bars in the
proper succession. This is shown in Figure 5-22.
If it is difficult to identify the leads after all the coils are wound, the following
method can be used to locate the proper top leads for correct connection. Use the
test lamp as shown in Figure 5-23, and place one test lead on a commutator bar.
Apply the other test lead to each free lead until one is found that causes the lamp
to light. This lead must be placed in the commutator bar adjacent to the begin¬
ning lead.
Sleeving of different colors is sometimes used to identify the leads. One color
is used for the beginning and end of the first coil, and another color for the
second coil in the same slot; the third coil uses the same color as the first, and so
on. It will be necessary to test the first top lead, and then the colors will identify
all the others.
Using short and long leads for the two coils in the same slot is another method
of identifying the leads so that they can be connected properly.
Armature with Three Coils per Slot

Lap-wound armatures with three coils per slot are wound in the same manner as
are armatures with two coils. Three bottom leads and three top leads are con¬
nected from each slot. These leads are placed in consecutive commutator bars, as
was done in the case of the two-coil-per-slot windings, and the leads are similarly
identified. Figure 5-24 shows three coils in one slot.
Coil Windings
The windings discussed thus far are hand windings in which the turns are wound
into the slot one by one. This method is used on the small armatures, but on large
armatures (and on a few small ones) the coils are wound on a form and then
placed in the slots as a complete unit. The leads of a coil-wound armature are
connected to the commutator in the same way as are those of a hand-wound
armature. Figure 5-25 shows several coils of a coil-wound armature with two
coils per slot.
WAVE WINDINGS
There are three groups of wave windings, namely, simplex wave winding, du¬
plex wave winding, and triplex wave winding.
The difference between a wave winding and a lap winding is in the position of
the armature leads on the commutator. In the simplex lap winding, the beginning
and end leads of the same coil are connected to adjacent bars. In the wave
winding, the beginning and end leads of a coil are connected to commutator bars
quite far apart. Thus, on a four-pole motor they are connected on opposite sides
of the commutator; on a six-pole they are connected one-third of the commutator
bars apart; and on an eight-pole motor, one-fourth the bars apart. A wave wind¬
ing is one in which the beginning and end leads of a coil are connected a definite
number of commutator bars apart, depending on the number of poles in the motor
and the number of bars on the commutator. In a lap winding, the leads face one
another, as shown in Figure 5-26. In wave winding, the leads face away from
one another, as shown in Figure 5-27.
In a wave winding for a four-pole motor, the current must travel through at
least two coils before reaching a bar adjacent to the starting point. For a six-pole
motor, the current will travel through three coils before reaching an adjacent bar.
Two-pole motors cannot be wave wound.
Commutator Pitch
The number of bars between the coil leads is called the commutator pitch, usu¬
ally written c.p. Thus,
no. of commutator bars ± 1

^ no. of pairs of poles
Assuming a four-pole, 49-bar armature,
49 ± 1
c.p. =-= 24 or 25 bars
F 2
Usually the number of bars is expressed as 1 and 25 or 1 and 26. Thus, if the
commutator pitch is 24 bars, the leads are placed in bars 1 and 25, as shown in
Figure 5-28. If the commutator pitch is 25 bars, the leads are placed in bars 1 and
26. It is important to remember at this point that all four-pole, wave-wound
armatures must have an odd number of commutator bars. Six-pole motors can
have an even or odd number, and eight-pole motors must have an odd number of
bars. All two-pole motors are lap wound. Read the section in Chapter 2 on
“Rewinding a Wave-wound Armature,” page 79.
Retrogressive and Progressive Windings. According to the formula, the com¬

mutator pitch may be either of two figures. If the smaller number is used, the
motor will run in one direction; if the larger number is used, the armature will
rotate in the opposite direction. These connections are known as retrogressive
and progressive windings, respectively, and they are used in both lap and wave
windings. A simplex progressive lap winding is one in which the current flowing
in a coil terminates one bar beyond the starting point. This type is shown in
Figures 5-29 and 5-31. A simplex retrogressive lap winding is one in which the
current flowing in a coil terminates one bar before the starting point. This type
appears in Figures 5-30 and 5-32.
If a progressive connection is changed to a retrogressive connection, the arma¬
ture will rotate in the opposite direction.
Assuming a four-pole motor, a simplex progressive wave winding is one in
which the current flowing through two coils in series terminates one bar beyond
the starting point. A four-pole, simplex progressive wave winding is shown in
Figures 5-33 and 5-35.
A simplex retrogressive wave winding is one in which the current flowing
through two coils in series terminates one bar before the starting point. This type
is shown in Figures 5-34 and 5-36.
Connections for a progressive lap winding with two coils per slot are shown
in Figure 5-37. Several coils of a retrogressive lap winding are shown in Figure
5-38.
Connections of both types of wave windings of 23-slot, 45-bar armatures with

two coils per slot are shown in Figures 5-39, 5-40, 5-41, 5-42, and 5-43a.
Connections for a circular diagram of a four-pole, wave-wound armature are
shown in Figure 5-43b. The stator poles are shown by the dotted lines. An X
marks each pole center of the armature. Figure 5-43c is a circular diagram of a
six-pole, wave-wound armature.
Equalizer Connection. Equalizer connections, also known as cross-connec¬

tions, are used in large dc armatures to minimize circulating currents. These
circulating currents are usually due to uneven air gaps between the field poles
and the armature and may be eliminated by connecting together commutator bars
of equal potential. The bars to be connected together depend on the number of
poles in the motor and the number of commutator bars. Because equalizer con¬
nections are used mostly on repulsion motors, this subject was discussed in more
detail in Chapter 2. It should be understood that equalizer connections are used
on lap windings only.
REWINDING PROCEDURE
Taking Data
During the process of stripping an armature, sufficient information should be
recorded to enable the winder to rewind it properly. The following procedure is
used in many shops:
Count the slots and commutator bars. Record the lead throw by marking the
slots and commutator bars of a coil, as shown in Figures 5-44, 5-45, and 5-46.
The marks shown in the diagrams are made with either a file or center punch.
These record both the coil pitch and the lead throw. This is an important opera¬
tion, as a wrong lead throw will cause sparking aneUpoor operation_-Take the coil
pitch at the same time. If the coil is wound in slots 1 and 8, record the pitch as
1 and 8. If the armature is form wound, several coils will have to be lifted.
Record the end room by measuring the distance that the coils extend beyond the
ends of the slots.
Determine the number of coils per slot and kind of winding, that is, hand,
form, loop, right-hand, left-hand, clockwise, and so on. Count the number of
turns in each coil. If this is too difficult, cut the coil and count the cut ends of the
wires.
If it is a one-coil-per-slot winding, it may be necessary to count all of the turns
in a slot and then divide by 2 in order to obtain the number of turns in each coil.
If it is a two-coil-per-slot winding, divide the total number of turns in a slot by 4
to obtain the number of turns per coil. On large armatures, preserve one coil in
order to have the size for the construction of a form for the new coils. Determine
the size of the wire by means of a wire gauge or micrometer. Also record the wire
covering, such as single-cotton-enamel, Formvar, or whatever has been used.

Record the kind of insulation in the slot.
Caution. Try not to disturb the laminations. Do not break the end-fiber insul¬
ators. Make sure that all the insulation is removed from the slots. Unsolder the
leads from the commutator, and if the ends break off at the bars, use a hacksaw
blade to force the broken particles of copper out of the bar. Use a blade that will
make a cut in the bar no larger in size than the diameter of the new wire. A tool
for this purpose is shown in Figure 5-47.
Stripping the Armature

Usually the wedges are tight in the slots, and so their removal is difficult. Place
the teeth of a hacksaw blade on the wedge, as shown in Figure 5-48, and tap it
with a hammer so that the teeth are embedded. The blade is next tapped on the
end to embed its teeth more deeply in the wedge and at the same time to drive the
wedge out of the slot. On large coil wound armatures, stripping is relatively
simple. Cut the bands and pry out the coils one by one after disconnecting all
leads from the commutator. On the smaller armature with semiclosed slots, and
especially if they are hard baked, it may be necessary to place this armature in a
bum-off oven to soften all of the insulation and varnish. If this is done, it will be
necessary to first remove the commutator from the shaft. Disconnect all wires
from the commutator by cutting them either with a hacksaw blade or with a
cutting tool in the lathe. It is presumed that all lead data have already been taken.
Also, cut the wires from the front of the armature slots, using the tools as above.
This should allow ample room to remove the commutator from the shaft using
either a pulley remover or a hydraulic press. It is important that exact measure¬
ments be taken of the distance from the commutator to the end of the shaft
(Figure 5-49). Alignment of commutator to slot must also be known (Fig¬
ure 5-10).
After the commutator is removed, the armature is heated sufficiently, using
the bum-off oven, to soften or char the insulation. If an oven is unavailable, it
may be possible, after cutting the wires on one end of the armature, to pull them
out from the other end. The commutator may be put back before or after winding
the armature, depending on the method of winding and connecting.
Caution. Press the commutator on the exact distance measured before re¬
moval. The commutator must fit firmly to prevent movement during rotation.
Use a press for reinstalling the commutator. Check the commutator for grounds
and shorts before winding the armature.
Soldering the Commutator

After reinsulating and rewinding the armature and placing the leads in the com¬
mutator, the next step is to solder the leads with either a gas or an electric
soldering iron. Electric irons are generally used on small armatures and gas irons
on the large ones. The size of the iron used depends on the size of the commuta¬
tor. Leads can also be welded to the commutator or soldered by means of a torch.
The procedure is as follows: Place soldering flux over each wire in the com¬
mutator bar. Place the tip of the soldering iron on the commutator, as shown in
Figure 5-50, and wait until the heat from the iron is transferred to the area of the
commutator bar that is to be soldered. This heat transfer occurs when the paste
starts bubbling.
Place solder on the commutator near the iron and allow it to melt and flow into
the commutator slot before removing the iron. Flow the solder entirely around
the leads. To prevent the solder from flowing down the back of the commutator
and causing short circuits, raise one end of the armature so that solder flows
forward. To prevent the solder from flowing from one bar to another, the iron is
held as shown in Figure 5-51. Wipe off all excess flux after the soldering is
completed.
Banding the Armature

Bands are used on armatures to hold the commutator leads in place. A cord band
is used on small armatures to prevent the leads from flying out of the slots while
the armature is rotating. Large armatures have steel bands for the same purpose.
For large armatures having open-type slots, use steel or tape bands to prevent the
coils from flying out of the slots.
Cord Bands. The procedure for placing a cord band on an armature is shown in
Figure 5-52, and the following directions should be observed: Use the proper size
of banding cord—heavy for larger armatures, light for small armatures. Start at
the end nearest the commutator and wind several turns in layers, allowing about
six inches of the beginning to be free. After winding several turns, loop the start,
as shown at 3 on the diagram, and wind several more turns over the loop. Bring
the end of the cord band through the loop and then pull on the free end. This will
pull the end under the cord band and secure it there, at which point the cord can
be cut off. Use enough pressure in winding so that the band will be tight.
Steel Bands. Some open-slot types of armature require steel bands to prevent
the coils from flying out of the slots while the armature is rotating. Steel bands
are placed on the front and back ends of the coils. These bands are put on the
armature in a different manner than are the cord bands. The procedure is illus¬
trated in Figure 5-53 and is as follows: Place the armature in a lathe and place
mica or paper insulation in the band slot around the entire armature to insulate the
band from the coil sides. Hold the insulation in place by tying a turn of cord
around it. Place small strips of tin or copper under the cord, equidistant around
the armature, in order to secure the band after it is wound. Use the same-gauge
steel-band wire as on the original band.
Steel bands must be put on the armature with much more pressure than is
needed for cord bands. It is therefore necessary to utilize a device called a wire
clamp to provide the required pressure. This device consists of two pieces of
fiber fastened together by means of two screws and two wing nuts. The steel-
band wire is fed through this clamp to the armature. Secure the clamp to a lathe
or bench so that it can be held stationary while the armature is being banded.
Feed the wire to the armature through the clamp while slowly turning the arma¬
ture. Take care not to put too much pressure on the wire; otherwise it will break.
After one band is placed on the coil, turn the copper or tin strips over and solder
the entire band. Proceed to the next band.
Tape Bands
Many shops are now using a woven glass tape treated with a polyester or epoxy
resin rather than a steel banding wire. The tape is applied to armatures or rotors at
about the same tension as with steel wire, using a tape tension device for apply¬
ing the tape. It is preferable that the armature be hot before applying the tape to
eliminate voids between layers. Approximately 50 lb. of tension can be used,
and as many as five layers can be applied in an overlapping manner. The tape is
held in place by smoothing it down with a hot soldering iron. It is sealed and
fused at the end while under tension before it is cut off. The iron is also used to
fuse layer to layer. After banding, the armature is dipped into a compatible
varnish and dried. It is then baked for several hours to cure. Figure 5-54 shows a
tension device for applying glass band tape.
Testing the New Winding

After the rewinding and connections are completed, it is important that both
winding and connections be tested for shorts, grounds, open circuits, and cor¬
rectness of connections. This must be done before varnishing the winding so that
any troubles that are found may be corrected more readily. Detailed instructions
for making these tests will be found later in the chapter under “Troubleshooting
and Repair.”
Baking and Varnishing

After the armature has been wound, soldered, banded, and tested, the next opera¬
tion is varnishing. This process makes it moistureproof and prevents vibration of
the coils of wire in the slots. Vibration has a tendency to impair the insulation on
the wires and cause shorts. Moisture also will cause the insulation on the wires to
deteriorate.
Armatures may be varnished with either baking varnish or air-drying varnish.
Air-drying varnish is applied to the armature when baking is undesirable or
inconvenient. Baking varnish is more effective because of the moisture that can
be eliminated only by baking.
When using baking varnish, tape the shaft and commutator to prevent the
varnish from adhering; otherwise, scraping will be necessary after the varnish
hardens. Follow the baking instructions for the varnish being used.
Balancing the Armature

Armatures should be tested for mechanical balance after they are varnished.
Undue vibration and unusual noises may be due to an imbalance in an armature
and should always be investigated immediately. Therefore, it is important that
the armature be balanced before it is installed in the motor. Balancing ways are
used for this purpose and may be of the type shown in Figure 5-55. These are
built in various sizes. The method of balancing an armature using this machine or
others similar to this is as follows: Place the armature on the balancing ways and
roll it gently. When it comes to a stop, the heavier point will be on the bottom.
To compensate for this heavy point, it is necessary to counterbalance it with
weights diagonally opposite the heavy point. This should be directly on top. The
top slot or slots should be marked. Make this test several times. If the marked
slot does not come out on top, the armature may be balanced. If the marked slot
always comes to rest at the top, then it is necessary to counterbalance the heavy
point on the bottom. This is accomplished by placing a lead, brass, or copper
strap under, above, or in place of the wedges in the marked slot or under the
bands of the armatures. Experience will determine the amount of metal necessary
to balance the armature. This method of balancing is called static balancing.
Another method is called dynamic balancing and requires a machine usually
complicated in design.
Testing
Before attempting to wind the armature, the usual procedure is to test the com¬
mutator. This is done to facilitate repairs in case the commutator is defective.
The commutator is tested for grounded bars and shorted bars.
Test for Grounded Commutator. A commutator is grounded when one or more

bars contact the iron core of the commutator. Use the test leads and lamp con¬
nected as shown in Figure 5-56. Attach one test lead permanently to the shaft of
the armature and the other test lead to a commutator bar. If the bar is properly
insulated, the lamp will not light. There should be no sparking or arcing between
the bar and the ground. Place a test lead on the next bar and test in the same
manner as before, continuing until all bars are tested. If the lamp lights when a
bar is touched, a ground is indicated.
Test for Shorted Commutator. The test illustrated in Figure 5-57 is made to
reveal defects in the mica between the bars. Place one test lead on a commutator
bar and the other test lead on an adjacent bar. No light should be visible on the
test lamp. If a light is observed, a short exists between the bars contacted by the
test leads. Move each lead one bar over, and test as before. Continue in this
manner until all bars have been tested.
Testing the Winding. After an armature is wound and the leads connected to the
commutator, tests should be made in order to reveal defects that may have oc¬
curred during winding. These tests are to determine grounds, shorts, opens, and
reverses in the windings and are made by using either a growler or mil-
livoltmeter.
Test for Grounds. After rewinding an armature, the first step is to determine
whether or not the winding is grounded. A simple test lamp is all that is neces¬
sary. This can be done as shown in Figure 5-58, before the leads are connected to
the commutator. If the test is to be made on an armature whose coils are con¬
nected to the commutator, the test circuit becomes that of Figure 5-59. If the
lamp lights and the coils are not connected to the commutator, a grounded wind¬
ing is indicated, and the condition should be remedied before further tests are
made. The exact position of the ground must be found in order to remove the
cause. The winding usually grounds at the comers of the slots, where there is a
sharp bend in the coil, or inside the slots, if there are sharp laminations out of
place. If the coils are connected to the armature and the lamp lights, either the
armature winding or the commutator may be grounded.
The procedure for locating the ground is as follows: Inspect the coils at the slot
ends and look to see whether the slot insulation has shifted and caused the coils to
touch the iron core, as shown in Figure 5-60. In a new winding, the insulation
may be shifted back to position. However, if this cannot be done, a new piece of
insulation should be inserted at the bad spot. If the ground cannot be located by
inspection, the growler or meter test should be made.
Bar-to-Bar Meter Test. The circuit of Figure 5-61 is used with a low-voltage
source of direct current, such as a battery or 115-volt line, with one or several
lamps in series with it, as shown in Figure 5-62. Tie several turns of cord around
the commutator and put the test leads under the cord, as shown in Figure 5-63.
Place one lead of a dc millivoltmeter on the shaft and the other lead on a commu¬
tator bar. The meter needle should deflect if there is a ground. Move the meter
lead from one bar to another until the meter shows little or no deflection. The coil
connected to this bar is the grounded one. Figures 5-64 and 5-65 show schematic
diagrams of this test circuit.
Caution. On a two-pole motor, the current leads may be placed on opposite

sides of the commutator or any fraction thereof. Meter readings are taken on bars
between these leads. On a four-pole motor, the leads should span one-fourth of
the number of bars; on a six-pole motor they should span one-sixth of the number
of bars; and so on. Allow only enough current to flow through the armature to
permit a deflection of approximately three-fourths of full scale. This is accom¬
plished by varying the number of lamps switched into the circuit or the battery
voltage used.
A Growler Test. A growler, shown in Figure 5-66, is a device that is used to

detect and locate grounded, shorted, and open coils in an armature. It consists of
a coil of wire wound around an iron core and is connected to a 120-volt ac line.
The core is generally H shaped and cut out on top so that the armature will fit on
it, as shown in Figure 5-67. When alternating current is applied to the growler
coil, voltage will be induced into the armature coils by transformer action.
The procedure for testing an armature for grounds by using the growler is as
follows:
Place the armature on the growler and turn on the current. Place one lead of an
ac millivoltmeter on the top commutator bar. Place the other meter lead on the
shaft, as shown in Figure 5-68. If a reading is noticed on the meter, turn the
armature so that the next commutator bar is on top, and test as before. Continue
in this manner until a bar is reached that gives no deflection, thus indicating that
the grounded coil is connected to this bar.
The Trial Test. A grounded coil may be located without using either the
growler or the bar-to-bar test. For lap windings the method is as follows: Discon¬
nect two leads from commutator bars on opposite sides of the commutator and
separate them, as shown in Figure 5-69. Use a test lamp and determine which
half of the winding is grounded. This is done by touching one test lead to the
shaft and the other to the disconnected leads. Whichever causes the lamp to light
is the grounded side of the winding, and so the other half is eliminated.
Disconnect one commutator lead from approximately the center of the
grounded side of the armature, as shown in Figure 5-70, and test as before. This
procedure immediately eliminates three-fourths of the winding. Continue in this
manner until the grounded coil is located by the process of elimination.
Repair of a Grounded Coil. After the grounded coil has been located, it
becomes necessary to determine its cause and to repair it if possible. The usual
cause is a breakdown in the slot insulation or a lamination pressing into the coil at
some point. If the source of trouble is visible, it may be possible to remedy the
trouble quickly by inserting new insulation where needed or by properly posi¬
tioning the lamination. If the trouble is not visible, it is necessary to rewind and
reinsulate part or all of the winding or to eliminate the offending coil from the
circuit. The first method is used if the entire winding is desired in the circuit.
Other factors, such as time, expense, and type of shop, will determine the use of
the second method.
The second method involves the following steps: Disconnect each lead of the
grounded coil from the two commutator bars. Connect a jumper between these
bars to short them. Figures 5-71 and 5-72 show how to remove a loop-wound coil
from the circuit. Figures 5-73 and 5-74 show, respectively, how to remove a lap
and a wave coil from the circuit.
Although this procedure allows the grounded coil to remain in the armature, it
results in electrical removal of the coil from the armature circuit. The discon¬
nected coil leads are taped and allowed to remain in their original position with¬
out touching the commutator. If the coil is grounded in two places, cut it through
to prevent induced currents. To determine whether or not there is a double
ground, place the armature on a growler and test for shorts.
Tests for Shorted Coils. Shorted coils in a new winding usually can be attrib¬
uted to excessive pounding on the coils, especially if a tight winding is made.
These shorts occur when two turns of one coil make electrical contact, when one
coil makes electrical contact with an adjacent coil, and when the coil sides in the
same slot are shorted (short on the half).
Growler Test. The procedure to test for short circuits in an armature is as

follows: Place the armature on the growler and turn on the current. Hold a thin
piece of metal, such as a hacksaw blade, over the top slot of the armature, as
shown in Figure 5-75. The blade should be held so that it is directly over the slot
and along the length of it. If the coil in this slot is shorted, the blade will vibrate
rapidly and create a growling noise. If the blade remains stationary, it is an
indication that no short exists in the coil under test. After several top slots have
been given the hacksaw blade test, turn the armature so that the next few slots are
on top. Test as before and continue this procedure for the entire armature.
If the armature is very large, the growler can be placed on top of it and tested
in the same manner as before. Some shops have the growler mounted sideways,
with a provision to move it up or down. The armature in this case is mounted on
horses adjacent to the growler during the test.
An internal growler such as used for stators may also be used for armatures.
These are made with or without a built-in feeler. The growler with the built-in
feeler has a flexible blade attached to the growler so that a hacksaw blade or
similar instrument is not necessary. This type is especially desirable in smaller
stators that have no room for a separate feeler. Figure 5-76 shows an internal
growler with a separate feeler used on a larger armature. A short circuit in the
coil under the growler will cause the hacksaw blade at the other side of the coil to
vibrate.
An armature having cross-connections or equalizers cannot be given the hack¬
saw blade test. This type of armature will cause the blade to vibrate at every slot,
which would seem to indicate that possibly every coil is shorted. This is not the
case, however, and it will be necessary to give this type of armature a meter test.
A shorted coil on either a lap- or wave-wound armature will cause the blade to
vibrate over two slots, thus identifying the slots in which the shorted coil slides
are located. These slots should be marked with a piece of chalk. If vibration
occurs over more than two slots, the possibility exists that more than one coil is
shorted. On a four-pole wave winding, the blade will vibrate at four spots if the
short is between two adjacent bars. On a six-pole wave winding, there will be six
points at which the blade will vibrate.
On a lap or wave winding, it is simple to trace the leads of the defective coil
and see where they are connected to the commutator. In the case of the wave
winding, it is a little more difficult, and therefore a meter must be used for
tracing. This is especially true if two commutator bars are shorted.
Figure 5-77 shows a growler with test prods and a meter for testing for
grounds, shorts, or opens. The test for shorts is described above.
Bar-to-Bar Meter Test. Direct current is generally used for this method of
finding the shorted coil. Directions are as follows: Place the armature on horses
and connect a source of direct current to the commutator, using the circuit of
Figure 5-78. Place the leads of a dc millivoltmeter on adjacent bars, beginning at
bars 1 and 2, and permit enough current to flow through the armature to give
about three-fourths of full-scale deflection on the meter. If the coil connected to
these bars is in good condition, a normal deflection will be observed on the
meter. Move the leads of the meter to the next two bars—2 and 3—and observe
the reading. The meter needle should deflect the same amount as before. If the
reading is less or zero, a shorted condition exists in the coil connected to these
bars.
Caution. A slightly lower reading will result if one coil has less wire than the
others do. In the loop winding and other windings that are put in the slots as a
unit, the meter readings will be slightly different, as the readings are taken
around the commutator. The reason for this is that the coils become larger as they
are put one on top of the other. To determine whether the lower reading indicates
a short, place the armature on the growler and test it for shorts. If it tests perfectly
on the growler, then the lower reading means less wire or a shorter coil. On a
four-pole wave winding, a shorted coil will be indicated by approximately one-
half the normal reading and will be revealed on opposite sides of the commu¬
tator.
Eliminating a Shorted Armature Coil. If there are more than one or two
shorted coils on an armature that has seen many years of service, the best proce¬
dure is to rewind the armature. This is advisable because the armature coils have
probably been heated to such a degree that the insulation is brittle and charred,
and handling on the bench would cause more shorts. If one or two coils are
shorted and the rest of the armature seems to be in good condition, these coils can
probably be cut out of the circuit without seriously impairing the motor’s effi-
ciency. The method employed for cutting out shorted coils depends on the type
of armature.
Cutting a Shorted Coil Out of a Loop-wound Armature. Assuming that the

shorted coil has been located, the next step is to cut the turns of the coil at the end
of the armature opposite the commutator. Be sure that every turn in the coil is cut
to prevent induced currents from circulating in the shorted coil and causing
damage to other coils.
Cutting the coil will cause an open circuit in the winding. Because the bars that
connect to the defective coil are known, the open can be repaired by connecting
these bars together with a jumper. Figures 5-79, 5-80, and 5-81 show the circuits
formed by this method for a loop, a lap, and a wave winding. Figure 5-82 is
another view of Figure 5-81.
Another method of cutting out a coil consists of cutting the coil, as was just
shown, and twisting together the turns of first one side and then the other. Make
sure that the wires do not have any insulation on them before they are twisted.
With this procedure it is not necessary to put a jumper on the commutator, nor is
it necessary to touch the commutator for any reason.
These methods of cutting out coils are not strongly recommended because the
coil may be located on the bottom of the slot and therefore very difficult to reach
for cutting purposes. In addition, damage may be done to other coils in the
process of cutting out the defective one.
Therefore, such methods are suggested only for extreme conditions when the
time element or the need for a temporary repair makes them useful.
Cutting Out a Shorted Coil on a Medium-sized Lap Winding. On this

type of armature it may be possible to reach the coil that must be cut, but it may
be impossible to cut out only the defective coil. The procedure is exactly the
same as in the case of the loop winding shown in Figure 5-79. In all these cutting
operations, experience determines the proper procedure to be used.
Cutting Out a Shorted Coil on a Wave-wound Armature. In a four-

pole, wave-wound armature, the leads of any coil are connected approximately
on opposite sides of the commutator. Therefore, if a shorted coil is cut open, it
will be necessary to place a jumper between the two bars that were joined to the
defective coil. This means that a jumper must be placed in bars on opposite sides
of the commutator, as shown in Figures 5-81 and 5-82.
When a four-pole, wave-wound armature is given a bar-to-bar meter test, a
shorted coil will be indicated on the meter on opposite sides of the commutator.
This does not mean that two coils are shorted but that the defective coil is in the
circuit twice, as in a four-pole wave winding, the current flows through two coils
in series reaching an adjacent bar.
Test for Open Circuits. Open circuits in an armature may be caused by a poor
connection of leads in the commutator bars or by a broken wire in an armature
coil. In either case, such a condition will cause sparking at the brushes. Poor
connections and broken wires can often be detected visually. When this is not
possible, other means must be used to locate the open.
Bar-to-Bar Test. Set up the armature and test with the millivoltmeter across
bars, as shown in Figure 5-83. No readings will be indicated on the meter until
the meter leads are bridging the two bars to which the open coil is connected. At
this point the meter needle will jump violently, and precautions must be taken to
prevent it from bending or breaking.
Repair of an Open Coil of a Lap Winding. The method of repair of an open

coil depends to a great extent on the time allotted for the repair, the type of
armature that is being repaired, and the kind of work in which the particular shop
specializes. Of course, if one or more coils are open, the proper procedure is
replacement. Usually rewinding of the armature is necessary. The next best
method is to jump the two commutator bars that test open by soldering a piece of
wire into the slots of the two bars. The circuit formed is shown in Figure 5-84.
This is the only method that can be used in many cases. Another way of jumping
two adjacent bars is to scrape away some of the mica between them and wedge a
piece of wire in the slot. The wire is then soldered to the bars.
Repairing an Open Coil of a Wave Winding. When a wave winding is

tested with the meter, the procedure is the same as that used for the lap winding.
Because each coil on a four-pole, wave-wound armature is connected to bars on
opposite sides of the commutator, an open coil is jumped, as illustrated in Fig¬
ure 5-85. A method that requires less effort and time but that necessitates the
removal of two coils instead of one, is often satisfactory. The procedure, shown
in Figure 5-86, is to jump the two adjacent bars that test open. This does away
with the long jumper from one side of the commutator to the other.
Growler Test for an Open Coil. To locate an open coil with a growler, set
up the armature on the growler in the usual manner. Test the top two adjacent
bars with an ac millivoltmeter. Rotate the armature and continue testing adjacent
bars. When the millivoltmeter bridges the two bars connected to the open coil,
the meter pointer will not be deflected. All other bars will give a deflection. This
test for an open coil can be made without the meter by shorting the top two bars
with a piece of wire, as shown in Figure 5-87. Absence of a spark indicates that
the coil is open. The open may be either at the commutator bar or in the coil
itself. This procedure may be used to determine the location of the leads of a
shorted coil. However, the hacksaw blade test is the most satisfactory method of
determining a shorted coil.
Test for Reversed Coils. Reversed coils occur only on armatures that have been
newly rewound and result from placing the leads in the wrong commutator bars.
The method of locating the reverses differs with the various types of windings.
Bar-to-Bar Test in a Loop Winding. Set up the armature for a bar-to-bar

test. When the meter leads are placed on the two bars that connect to a reversed
coil, as shown in Figure 5-88, a reversed reading will be indicated on the meter.
When the meter is placed on the two bars in front of the reversed coil and the two
bars behind the reversed coil, double readings will show up. As Figure 5-89
illustrates, if two loops are reversed in a loop winding, a double reading will be
obtained; next a reversed reading; and then a second double reading. All others
should be normal.
Bar-Magnet Test. To check for a reversed coil on other than loop windings, a
bar magnet is moved over each slot, inducing current in the coil lying in that slot.
If a meter is connected to the two bars of that coil, as shown in Figure 5-90, the
pointer will move. If there is a reversed coil on the armature, the induced current
will flow through the meter in the opposite direction and cause a reversed read¬
ing.
Another method is shown in Figure 5-91. If direct current is passed through
the winding and a compass is held alongside each coil in succession, the compass
needle will reverse when the compass reaches the reversed coil.
Commutator Repairs
The various parts of a commutator are shown in Figure 5-92. They include a
number of commutator bars, an equal number of mica segments, and an iron core
consisting of two end rings and a connecting shell on which the bars and mica
segments are placed.
The commutator bars are made of high-grade copper and are shaped as shown
in Figure 5-93. They are wedge shaped, the larger width being on top. Toward
the bottom, the bars are partly cut out on both sides in the shape of a V. Rings fit
these V cuts to hold the commutator together. Individual commutator bars are
seldom replaced because the job is impractical.
Mica segments are used between bars to prevent adjacent bars from touching,
and it is often necessary to replace them. The segments are cut from sheet mica
of the proper thickness and are placed between the bars. When these are re¬
placed, the segments must be the same thickness as the original mica; otherwise
the commutator will be either too loose or too tight.
The end rings are made of iron and are called V rings. These are insulated with
mica and are called mica V rings. The rings fit into the V cuts on the commutator
and hold all the bars together. On one type of commutator, the V rings are
tightened against the bars by means of a large nut that screws on the shell. The
nut may be on either end of the commutator. Details of commutator construction
are shown in Figures 5-92 through 5-98. Some commutators are tightened by
means of large screws that extend from one ring to another. Still other types of
commutators are riveted together and cannot be reinsulated.
When a commutator is disassembled, the holding nut is unscrewed, and the
bars are tapped lightly with a hammer. This will cause the front V ring to come
off the shell; at the same time the bars will loosen and separate. Usually the mica
segments will stick to the bars, and it will be necessary to loosen them with a
knife. Small particles of mica may have to be scraped from the bars, although
this may cause rough spots. If so, a medium grade of sandpaper is used to smooth
the sides of the bars. One complete mica segment must be preserved so that its
thickness can be measured with a micrometer. A segment of mica is usually from
0.020 to 0.040 in. thick. The mica comes in sheets about two feet wide by three
feet long and is called segment mica. The mica end rings must also be saved so
that they can be measured for thickness and used as templates for new mica
rings.
Cutting New Mica Segments. After the thickness of the mica has been deter¬
mined, cut the required number of segments by placing a commutator bar on a
sheet of mica and marking off rectangular strips, as shown in Figure 5-99. This
may also be done by measuring the length and width of one bar and then laying
off these measurements on the sheet of mica. As a safety measure, it is best to
make the dimensions about 1/32 in. more than the actual measurements. Next,
cut off the strips with a paper cutter or shears.
To cut the Vs in the mica segments, proceed as shown in Figure 5-100. Place
about six strips of mica between two bars, and place the combination in a vise,
being careful to line up both bars so that they lie in similar positions. Use a
hacksaw and cut out the mica along the dotted lines, as shown in the illustration.
Do not let the hacksaw blade touch the bars because it will cut too deeply into the
mica and at the same time weaken the bars. Reverse the position of the bars and
micas in the vise and cut out the other half. Do not disturb the position of the bars
and strips in turning them.
The hacksaw blade will leave a rough edge on the mica. Smooth this with a
knife file while the bars and strips are still in the vise. The mica should be filed
down to the same level as the Vs in the bars as shown in Figure 5-101; otherwise,
the commutator will not tighten sufficiently. Remove the segments and bars, and
place each mica segment face down on a piece of fine sandpaper and rub it lightly
to remove any remaining rough edges. Repeat this process with the bars. This is
just one method of cutting mica segments. Some mechanics cut one segment at
a time with shears. The method depends on the individual.
Making New Mica V Rings. Besides making new mica segments, it may also
be necessary to renew the mica V rings. The old rings may be used as a template
for this purpose, or the iron V ring may be used.
In the first method, as much of the old mica ring as possible must be pre¬
served. If the commutator has never been reinsulated, the ring will be in one
piece. The V ring is actually two separate rings, an outer and an inner ring, that
fit together as shown in Figure 5-102. To duplicate this ring, it is necessary to use
a molding machine and press. Because this equipment is not usually available in
the average repair shop, the outer and inner rings are made separately.
The method for making mica rings is as follows: Cut the original V ring along
the line indicated in Figure 5-102, thereby separating the inner from the outer
ring. Assume that the inner V ring is to be made. Cut the old ring, and then heat
it over a gas flame or with a torch to soften it and prevent it from cracking. (Do
not apply the flame directly to the mica.) The ring can then be laid flat and will
assume a shape like that shown in Figure 5-103.
The flattened V ring is placed on a piece of molding mica, and several outlines
of it are inscribed. These are then cut from the molding mica with a pair of
shears. It may be necessary to apply heat to the mica during this operation to
prevent it from peeling and cracking. (Molding mica that requires no heat is also
available.) Heat the mica very gently and then mold with the fingers to fit the
iron V ring. Make the thickness of the ring the same as the original. Several
pieces of mica may have to be used to make up the required thickness. The same
procedure is followed in making the outer ring.
A second method is to use the iron V ring as a template. Assuming that the
outer mica ring is to be made, place a clean piece of paper over the ring and press
on the paper, as shown in Figure 5-104, to form an outline whose dimensions
will provide the size of the mica strip to be molded.
A third method uses a formula. Figure 5-105 shows that a cut-apart V ring is
the top portion of a cone. A simple procedure in laying out a V ring is to find the
size of the cone that will contain the ring.
Make a diagram like that in Figure 5-105, showing a cone with the shaded part
representing the ring. If the cone is cut through, as indicated by the line, and
rolled flat, a sector of a ring will be found. If the distances x and y are determined
and the circles inscribed using these distances as radii, then the problem can be
solved.
The procedure for finding these distances follows: Measure the distances A
and B shown in Figure 5-106 on the iron V ring with a ruler. The cone can also be
resolved into two triangles, R and 5, which are alike except for size. A simple
formula can be obtained from this relationship.
In two similar triangles,
a b
— of triangle R = — of triangle S
x c
or
a b a x c
— = — or i = —;-
x c b
Using the distance x as a radius, draw a circle. Lay out another circle inside
this one using the distance y equal to x — c as the radius. The ring formed by
these two circles will represent the layout of the V ring.
Reassembling a Commutator. After the rings are made and the mica segments
cut, the next step is to assemble the commutator. This is done in the following
manner: Place the mica rings in position on the iron V ring and apply heat to
mold them to fit. Put a bar in position on the V ring. Alongside the bar, place a
mica segment, then a bar next to the segment, and so on. Make certain that there
is a mica segment between every two bars. Be careful that the mica rings stay in
position during the assembly. After all the bars and mica segments have been put
together, place the top V ring in position and tighten the nut or through bolts. The
tightening operation is performed while the commutator is being heated with a
torch, Bunsen burner, or other source of heat.
The commutator must be tight and all bars aligned when the job is completed.
If the bars are not in alignment, the commutator will have to be loosened and the
bars twisted to the proper position. Some shops have clamps that are placed
around the commutator while it is being tightened.
After the assembly, the commutator is given a ground and a short test. To
determine whether the commutator is tight enough, tap the bars with a light
hammer. A properly assembled commutator will produce a ringing sound, and a
loose commutator will cause a hollow sound.
Shorted Bars. If there are shorted bars in a newly insulated commutator that has
not yet been connected to the coils, it is a simple matter to reinsulate between the
bars. However, if they are connected to the winding, it will be more difficult.
When a shorted armature comes into the shop, determine whether or not the short
is in the winding or in the commutator by lifting the leads from the suspected
bars. These bars are then tested with test lamps to see whether they are shorted.
The usual procedure is to assume that there is a partial short due to carbonized
mica or dirt between bars. To eliminate this possibility, grind down a hacksaw
blade on the grindstone so that it has a hook end, as shown in Figure 5-107, and
scrape away some of the mica. Sometimes it may be necessary to scrape rather
deeply into the mica to remove the short. Carbonized mica is black and gritty,
and good mica is white when scraped. Scrape the mica until the white mica can
be seen. If this operation removes the short, then the hole that was made by the
scraping must be plugged. This is accomplished by inserting a filler called com¬
mutator cement, which consists of powder made of pulverized mica and glue
mixed to produce a paste. This filler is forced between the bars with a knife or
blade and allowed to harden.
If a hole has been gouged in the mica, plug it with a new piece of mica and
cover this with cement. This cement is a conductor while it is still wet and should
not be disturbed until it dries thoroughly.
Reinsulating a Shorted Commutator While It Is Connected to the

Winding. If the short cannot be eliminated by scraping the mica, remove
several bars and put new mica segments in place. This is done in the following
manner on a commutator that can be taken apart from the front end:
Unsolder the leads from the shorted bars. Unscrew the nut that holds the
commutator together. Tap the bars lightly with a hammer to loosen the end ring
and several bars. Remove the end ring and pull out the shorted bars with a pair of
pliers, as shown in Figure 5-108. Use these bars to cut out a new mica segment.
Replace the new mica and bars and reassemble.
If there is only one short and the commutator opens at the rear, an easy repair
is to lift the leads from one bar and make sure they are soldered together and
taped so that they cannot touch the commutator. Jump the two shorted bars. The
circuit of this operation is shown in Figure 5-109. Another method consists of
lifting the leads of the coil connected to the shorted bars and taping them individ¬
ually. The shorted bars are jumped. This eliminates one coil from the winding.
For other types of commutators, removal of the entire commutator from the shaft
may be necessary.
Grounded Bars. Usually the ground takes place at the front mica ring. This
occurs because part of the front ring is exposed, allowing oil, grit, or dirt to
accumulate on it. The ground is easily detected, as usually a large hole will have
developed, and part of the mica ring will have been burned away at the grounded
spot. The best way to clear this is to remove the front ring, cut off the defective
part of the mica ring, and replace it as indicated in Figure 5-110. New mica
segments may have to be installed at the same time. Make sure that the mica
pieces overlap one another to prevent the ground’s recurring. If the commutator
does not open at the front, it is removed by placing the armature in a mandrel or
hydraulic press and pressed out. When it is impossible to remove the commutator
without harming the winding, the old commutator is turned down completely in
the lathe. Commutator measurements must be recorded beforehand so that a new
commutator can be built. This is often done on smaller armatures. When the new
commutator is constructed, it is desirable to put a cord band on the front mica
ring and paint it with a good grade of insulating varnish or shellac. To a large
extent, this will keep oil and dirt from penetrating under the bars and causing
shorts and grounds.
High Bars. High bars, such as those shown in Figure 5-111, can be found by
running the fingers over the bars. This condition is caused by loosening of the
commutator due to excessive heat, shorted bars, poor assembly, and the like. To
remedy this condition, tap the bar lightly with a hammer until it assumes the
correct position, and then tighten the nut. Turn down the commutator in a lathe,
or stone it if it is in a motor.
Commutator Stones. Commutator stones, made in various grades of coarse¬

ness, are used to smooth a rough commutator. The coarser grades are used on
very rough commutators, and the finer grades for finishing purposes and on
commutators that are not extremely rough. For high commutator bars, a medium
grade should be used. While the armature is turning, the stone is held in the hand
and pressed against the commutator until a smooth surface is formed. Then a fine
grade of sandpaper is held against the commutator to finish the job.
Low Bars. A low bar, as shown in Figure 5-112, is also recognized by running
the fingers over the commutator. This condition may be caused by a blow from
some heavy object. The remedy is the same as before: Turn down in a lathe,
stone, and then sandpaper the commutator.
High Mica. If the mica segments are higher than the adjoining commutator
bars, a condition called high mica exists. This condition may be caused by the
commutator bars’ wearing faster than the mica segments or by the use of im¬
proper carbon brushes. Where the mica is flush with the bars, a hard grade of
brush should be used so that it will wear away the mica at the same rate as the
bar.
The remedy for this condition is to undercut the mica so that it is below the
surface of the bars. This operation can be performed by using a machine consist¬
ing of a small electric motor with a small saw wheel attached. While the armature
is in a lathe, a cut is taken on each mica segment so that it is about 1/32 in. below
the surface of the bar. The saw wheel must be the same thickness as the mica.
Undercutting can also be done by utilizing a small file especially made for the
purpose. Care must be taken to ensure that none of the mica is left on the sides of
the bars, as shown at the right of Figure 5-113. If there is mica at the sides, it
can easily be removed by cutting it away with a ground-down hacksaw blade.
Figure 5-114 illustrates how a mica undercutter is used for a fractional-horse-
power motor.
Chapter 6
DIRECT-CURRENT
MOTORS
A dc motor is a machine that, when supplied with electric current, can be used
for such mechanical work as driving pumps and running machine tools. Direct-
current motors are also widely used in applications that require control of speed.
Some of these are printing presses, electric trains, elevators, and drives. Direct-
current motors are made in sizes varying from 1/100 hp to thousands of horse¬
power. A typical dc motor is shown in Figure 6-1.
CONSTRUCTION
The main parts of the dc motor are the armature, field poles and frame, end plates
or brackets, and brush rigging. The armature is the rotating part of the motor and
consists of a laminated steel core with slots in which coils of wire are placed. The
core is pressed on a steel shaft that also holds the commutator. This latter con¬
ducts current from carbon brushes to the coils in the slots. Figure 6-2 shows an
armature with straight slots, and Figure 6-3 shows skewed slots.
The frame of the dc motor is made of steel or cast iron, generally circular in
form and machined so that the field pole can be mounted inside it, as shown in
Figure 6-4. Many motors are also made with a laminated steel frame. The field
pole is usually fastened inside the frame with screws or bolts, but on some small
motors the field poles are part of the frame. On large motors, the poles are
laminated as shown in Figure 6-5 and bolted to the frame. The field pole holds
the field coils or windings, consisting of coils of insulated wire that are taped
before being placed on the field pole.
Two end plates, fastened to the frame with bolts, bear the weight of the arma¬
ture and keep it equidistant from the pole pieces (see Figure 6-6). The end plates
contain the bearings in which the shaft of the armature revolves. These may be
either sleeve bearings, as shown in Figures 6-7 and 6-8, or ball bearings, as
On all dc motors, current must be conducted to the armature winding. This is
accomplished by connecting leads from the winding to the commutator and, in
191
turn, feeding the commutator with current. The commutator can be supplied with
current by allowing carbon brushes to ride on it and contact it while it is turning.
The brushes are held in a stationary position by brush holders, which are gener¬
ally mounted on the brush rigging shown in Figure 6-10. The rigging is usually
mounted on the front plate and so constructed that the brush position may be
changed. On small motors, the brush holders are usually cast as part of the plate.
The brush holders on all motors are insulated from the end plate to prevent
grounds and to prevent short-circuiting the brushes.
TYPES OF DC MOTORS
There are four types of dc motors: the permanent-magnet motor, the series
motor, the shunt motor, and the compound motor. The main difference in these
motors is in the construction of the field coils and in the connections between the
field coils and the armature. The permanent-magnet motor has permanent mag¬
net fields and an armature that is similar to any dc motor’s armature. These
motors are manufactured in fractional- to the low-integral horsepower sizes. In
the smaller sizes, the control for speed and converting ac to dc is built into the
motor’s end bell.
The series motor contains field coils composed of a few turns of wire con¬
nected in series with the armature, as shown in Figure 6-11. This motor has a
high starting torque and a variable-speed characteristic: the greater the load is,
the lower the speed will be. The series motor is generally used in cranes,
winches, trains, automobile starters, and the like. The shunt motor has wound
fields like those of the series motor and a similar armature. The fields are wound
with thousands of turns of fine wire. Both the fields and the armature are con¬
nected across the line (see Figure 6-12). This is a good motor for loads that need
a steady speed, such as a fan. The compound motor has both a series field and a
shunt field. The shunt field is connected across the line, and the series field is
connected in series with the armature (see Figure 6-13a). This motor has good
speed regulation, because of the shunt field, and good starting torque, because of
the series field.
OPERATION OF DC MOTORS
The operation of dc electric motors can be explained with two magnets. If the
like poles of two permanent magnets are held together and then released, they
will fly apart. If like poles of two electromagnets are placed together and voltage
is applied to them, they will fly apart. If the current is reversed in one of them,
they will pull together. Figure 6-13b shows this being done.
The simplest dc motor has a wound armature and permanent magnet fields.
Two permanent magnets are mounted in an iron shell so that one is north and one
Direct-Current Motors 193
is south with respect to the armature. The magnetic lines of force go from the
north pole through the armature to the south pole and then return to the north pole
through the iron shell. This shell is referred to as back iron. The armature is the
electromagnet. The coils of the armature all are soldered to segments of the
commutator. These segments act as a sliding switch, switching the current from
the line to certain windings of the armature. The brushes, which are the other
side of the sliding switch, carry the current from the line to the commutator
segments. The brushes are stationary and positioned so that they will energize the
coils of the armature in such a way that they create poles. But as the armature
turns, the position of these poles in relation to the brushes does not change. The
brushes are positioned so that the armature poles will repel the stationary field
poles producing torque and rotation. To understand what happens as the speed of
the armature increases, it is necessary to understand how voltage is generated in
a dc generator.
GENERATING FACTORS
A dc generator and a dc motor are identical in structure and are interchangeable.
Any dc motor can be used as a generator, and any dc generator can be used as a
motor with only a minor change in the connections. The change in connections
will be explained later. The following are factors that pertain to both.
When a conductor (wires of the armature) cuts the lines of force (magnetic
field of the stator), a voltage is generated in that conductor (wires of the arma¬
ture). There are three factors or rules that govern the amount of voltage gener¬
ated:
1. The number of lines of force being cut.

2. The speed at which the conductors are cutting the lines of force.
3. The number of conductors cutting the lines of force.
When voltage is generated in an armature, the current flows in the opposite

direction through the armature, as it would if the unit were being used as a motor.
When a dc generator is added to a dc power line, the output voltage of the
generator must be equal to the line voltage. If the generator cannot produce
enough voltage, it will become a motor and use power instead of generating it,
and the current will reverse in the armature. Likewise, if a motor is pulled faster
than its adjusted speed, it will generate power. When this happens, the current in
the armature will reverse and put power back on the line.
COUNTER ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

As soon as there is rotation of the armature in a motor, the lines of force from the
fields are cut by the windings of the armature, generating a voltage. This voltage
is the opposite polarity of line or applied voltage (the current flows in the oppo¬
site direction in the armature of a generator). The result of this is that the voltage
generated is subtracted from the applied, or line, voltage. This voltage is called
counter or back electromotive force (back e.m.f.). One volt of back e.m.f. can¬
cels the effect of one volt of line or applied voltage. As the armature turns faster,
more back e.m.f. or counter e.m.f. is generated. As more voltage or back e.m.f.
is generated, the applied voltage becomes less effective. The applied voltage at
the brushes does not change as the armature accelerates. Back e.m.f. occurs
within the turns of the armature. Each turn in the armature generates a portion of
the total back e.m.f. The turns near the center of the pole generate more than do
those at the outer edges. The turns are in series with one another, and because of
this, the voltage generated in each turn adds to the next in its ability to counter
the applied voltage.
Counter e.m.f. can be compared to an automobile battery being charged.
When the battery is low, the charging amps are high. This is because of the large
difference between the charging voltage and the low battery voltage. As the
battery becomes charged, the battery voltage goes up, becoming closer to that of
the charger. When this happens, the current flow goes down. If the battery
voltage equals that of the charger, no current will flow.
As back e.m.f. builds within the turns of the armature, less current will flow.
Less current will produce less magnetism and less torque. The armature will
reach a speed at which the generated back e.m.f. and the load will not let it go
any faster. If the load is decreased, the motor will speed up slightly. This in¬
crease in speed will generate more back e.m.f. The increase in back e.m.f. will
reduce the effect of the applied voltage, and the current will be reduced. The
speed will again stabilize. There is not much difference between full-load rpms
and no-load rpms. The voltage generated as back e.m.f. is always less than the
applied voltage. Without back e.m.f., the current would be excessive in the
armature circuit, and it would bum out.
When the applied voltage to the armature is reduced, the difference between
the applied voltage and the back e.m.f. is smaller, and the armature will slow
down. The amount of current in the armature will depend on the difference
between the back e.m.f. and the applied voltage. As the armature slows down,
fewer lines of force are cut and less back e.m.f. is generated. The speed will be
reduced until the back e.m.f. allows enough current to flow in the armature to
pull the load. The speed will then stabilize. There will be a decrease in the
amperes in the armature at this lower speed because of less applied voltage.
When a controller lowers the voltage to the shunt field, the current flow in the
shunt field will decrease. This will in turn decrease the lines of force. With fewer
lines of force, there will be less back e.m.f. When the back e.m.f. is reduced, the
applied voltage becomes more effective, and more current will flow in the arma¬
ture. More current in the armature will result in an increase in speed. The speed
will increase until enough back e.m.f. is generated to stabilize it. If the load is
not reduced, more amperes will be flowing in the armature at this higher speed.
The torque will remain the same, but the horsepower will be increased.
The speed of the permanent-magnet motor can now be explained. As the speed
of the permanent-magnet motor increases, the lines of force from the permanent
magnets are cut. This generates back e.m.f. in the armature. The top speed will
be determined by the load, the back e.m.f., and the applied voltage. The speed of
this type of motor is controlled by decreasing the applied voltage to the armature.
The speed range can be full voltage, full-load speed, and below. The speed and
the torque will vary with the voltage, and the amperes will be reduced with the
speed.
If the permanent magnets become weak, there will be fewer lines of force for
the armature to cut (Voltage Rule 1). With fewer lines of force to cut, the
armature will not generate as much back e.m.f. at its loaded or designed rpms.
The armature will speed up to generate the required back e.m.f. to stabilize the
speed. If the load increases with the increase in speed, the amperes of the arma¬
ture circuit will also increase. At this point, both the speed and the amperes are
excessive, and so the armature will bum out. The permanent magnets can be
remagnetized. Remagnetizing is necessary if a permanent-magnet motor speeds
is 10 percent above its nameplate rating. There will be a loss of magnetism if the
motor is reversed suddenly or stalled, or if the motor is disassembled without a
magnetic “keeper” placed in the bore. This keeper can be any piece of iron that
fits the bore with a minimum of air gap. This provides a path for the lines of force
to go from pole to pole and keep the magnets from weakening.
Shunt Motor. Shunt motors have wound fields instead of permanent magnets
(see Figure 6-12). These fields consist of thousands of feet of wire. When com¬
pared with the wire of the armature, the shunt-field wire is much finer. The
shunt-field poles are connected across the line and can also have a voltage control
connected in series to control the speed. With a voltage control, the number of
lines of force from the poles can be varied. Full voltage applied to both the
armature and the fields will produce the slowest speed at full load. When the
control reduces the voltage applied to the fields, the current flow is then reduced.
It is the current that produces the lines of force, and so the number of lines of
force are also reduced. The number of lines of force (Rule 1) being cut are
reduced, and so less back e.m.f. will be generated in the armature. This allows
more current to flow in the armature, increasing its magnetic power, and so it
will speed up. And more speed and current will increase the motor’s horsepower.
The armature is designed for this increase if kept within the nameplate limits. It
may be noted that when considering the total amperes of a dc motor, a very small
percentage of the operating amperes is needed to energize the shunt field. Most
of the current flows through the armature. The shunt-field controller is called the
over speed control or torque control.
A controller can also be placed in series with the armature to control the
voltage. Less-than-full voltage applied to the armature will decrease the motor’s
speed. The difference between the back e.m.f. and the voltage applied to the
armature is smaller. The effect of the applied voltage to the armature also be¬
comes smaller, and because of this, less current will flow through it, and the
torque will decrease. The load will slow the armature, and so fewer lines of force
will be cut per second (Rule 2). With fewer lines of force being cut, the back
e.m.f. decreases, allowing more current to flow in the armature and increasing
the torque until the speed is again stabilized. This is called underspeed or horse¬
power control. The motor’s ability to cool itself is reduced when running at a
slower speed, and ventilation can become a factor if the motor is run slowly for a
long time.
From no load to full load, the speed of a shunt motor will not change much,
which means that the shunt motor has good speed regulation. Intermittent over¬
loading, however, will slow the shunt motor considerably. There is a set amount
of magnetic power in the shunt fields, which does not vary with the load and does
not provide the extra power when an overload occurs. Because of this, the shunt
motor does not work well with varying loads.
Series Motor. The field poles of a series motor are connected in series with the
armature (see Figure 6-11). The current flow is the same throughout a series
circuit, and so the current of the series field is controlled by the back e.m.f. of
the armature. The series field has fewer turns of wire, and the wire is much larger
than that of a shunt field. Because of the back e.m.f. limiting the current, the
series field does not need as much resistance as the shunt field does.
As the speed of the series motor increases, the back e.m.f. also increases, but
the current flow decreases. The current flows through the field poles so that the
number of lines of force also decreases. When the lines of force decrease, so
does the amount of back e.m.f. The back e.m.f. of a series motor is never
enough to limit the speed; only the load can limit the speed of a series motor. In
small motors, the friction of the bearings and the cooling fan load is enough to
keep the speed at a safe level. Large motors cannot be run without a load because
they will accelerate until the armature flies apart. This motor does not have good
speed regulation, but it is popular for high-torque loads such as power tools,
automobile starters, and traction motors for locomotives. This type of motor is
small in size when compared with other types of motors of the same horsepower,
and this makes them ideal for the above applications.
Compound Motor. The compound motor is constructed in much the same way
as is the shunt motor, the difference being in the field poles. There is another
winding wound on top of the shunt field called the series field. This winding has
fewer turns and much larger wire than the shunt field does. It is connected like
that of the shunt field, with adjacent poles having opposite polarity. Instead of
being connected across the line as the shunt field is, it is connected in series with
the armature, as the series motor is, as shown in Figure 6-13a. The shunt field
gives this motor good speed regulation, as the shunt motor has, but the series
field gives it the ability to handle overloads well. The current through the series
field and armature increases when an overload decreases the speed of the arma¬
ture. This increases the motor’s power, and the overload does not reduce the
speed as drastically as it would with a shunt motor. The compound motor can
be controlled for overspeed and underspeed in the same way that the shunt
motor can.
Stabilized Shunt Motor. This motor is constructed in the same way as the
compound motor is, except that there are only a few turns of wire in the series
field. The number of lines of force provided by this winding is determined by the
armature’s current. As the motor is loaded, the lines of force are increased from
the stabilizing field because of the increased current in the armature. This in¬
creases the back e.m.f., slowing the motor. The added lines of force, which will
go up with the armature’s current, increase the torque. The overall result of this
winding’s influence is less fluctuation in rpm from no load to full load, a reduc¬
tion in the armature’s current, and more torque at full load when compared with
that of a shunt motor.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE FIELD COILS
Series field coils are wound with comparatively few turns of heavy wire whose
diameter depends on the motor’s amperes. The wire can be wound on a wooden
form that consists of a centerpiece the size of the coil and two sidepieces to hold
the coil in place. The construction of the form is given in Figure 6-14a. The
centerpiece is usually slightly tapered to facilitate removal of the coil from the
form. The proper shape of the coil is retained during its removal from the form if
strips of tape or cord are placed on the centerpiece before the coil is wound. It
can then be tied up easily after winding, as shown in Figure 6-15. The form is
placed in a lathe chuck or coil-winding machine and wound with the same num¬
ber of turns and the same size of wire as the original coil. The size of the form
may be obtained from the original coil or by measuring the dimensions of the
core and allowing for the thickness of the tape. Figure 6-16 shows a field after it
has been taped with a layer of cellulose acetate film tape. Field coils can also be
wound on a coil-winder head, as shown in Figure 6-14b.
Shunt fields consist of many turns of fine wire arranged as shown in the
cutaway view of Figure 6-17. Inasmuch as there may be thousands of turns on a
shunt-field coil, it is inadvisable to try to rewind this type of coil by counting the
number of turns. The usual method is to weigh the old coil and to wind the new
coil with the same weight and size of wire. The shunt coils are wound and taped
in the same manner as are the series fields. Figure 6-17 also shows a finished
coil.
The compound-field coil is a combination of a series field and a shunt field, as
illustrated in Figure 6-18. The same type of form is used for the compound-field
coils. First, the shunt-field portion is wound on the form. This must correspond
to the original coil in every detail. To form the layer of insulation shown in
Figure 6-19, several turns of acetate tape are placed around the coil while it is *
still in the form, or the coil is removed and taped with acetate tape. In the latter
case, the coil is replaced on the form after being taped. Next, the correct number
of turns of wire for the series coil is wound. The cord on top of the insulation or
tape is then tied, and flexible leads are soldered to the coil ends and taped. This is
an important operation and must be done carefully. Usually the shunt-field leads
are a smaller size of wire than are the series-field leads. The coil is taped with
acetate tape and then with polyester film/polyester mat. The completed winding
is shown in Figure 6-20. Figure 6-21 illustrates how a field coil is placed on the
field core. On large motors, the series field is usually wound and taped separately
and then placed alongside the finished shunt field. This type of construction is
shown in Figure 6-22. On very large motors, to conserve space, rectangular wire
is used on the series field.
An interpole field is used on many dc motors to prevent sparking at the
brushes. This field is smaller than the main fields and is attached to the frame
between them. Like the series field, it is wound on a form, usually fiber, with
comparatively few turns of heavy wire. Figure 6-23 shows an interpole field and
its core. The fiber form and coil are placed over the interpole core and fastened in
position by wedges.
Caution. The shunt field must be properly insulated from the series field to
prevent short circuits between fields.
While taping the field coil, tie down the flexible leads to prevent them from
being ripped from the coils. The tape on the coil must not tear or rip while it is
being placed on the core. Grounds may be caused by careless work.
Connecting Field Poles

In dc motors, the field coils are connected so that alternate polarity is formed.
Thus, in the two-pole motor of Figure 6-24, one of the poles is north and the
other is south; in a four-pole motor, the poles must alternate, as shown in Figure
6-25. The field poles are connected in series except on very large motors and on
motors that have been reconnected from a higher to a lower voltage.
To form alternate polarity in the field coils, the current should flow through the
first pole in a clockwise direction, through the second pole in a counterclockwise
direction, through the third clockwise, and so on. It is extremely difficult to
determine this direction if the fields are taped, and three methods may be used to
obtain correct field coil polarity: (1) trial and error, (2) compass, (3) use of iron
rod or nail.
The trial-and-error method should be used only on small two-pole motors. The
field coils are connected as shown at A in Figure 6-26 and the motor assembled.
If it does not rotate, reverse the two wires of one field coil, as shown at B, and
the motor will run. This method assumes that the armature and field coils are in
good condition. The shunt motor can be tested in the same manner.
The compass method may be used on any number of poles. If it is a compound

motor, test one field winding at a time. For testing the field coils of a four-pole
motor, the four fields are connected in series, as shown in Figure 6-27. Low-
voltage direct current is applied to the fields if the series fields are being tested;
otherwise, 115 volts can be used. A compass is placed near a pole on the inside
of the motor or alongside the field coil, as shown in the illustration. A notation is
made of which end of the needle points to the pole. When the compass is moved
to the next pole, the other end of the needle should be attracted. If the same end
of the needle is attracted, reverse the leads of this pole. This procedure is fol¬
lowed until all poles have been checked. The fields should alternate in polarity.
The procedure outlined above cannot be followed if the armature is in the
motor. In this case, one end of a piece of soft iron is held against the field pole,
with the other end extending outside the motor. To test for polarity, hold the
compass against the outside end of the soft iron. Before it is touched to the next
pole, the soft iron should be brought down sharply on the bench to disturb any
residual magnetism which might tend to upset the compass needle. Continue in
this manner until all poles are tested. As before, alternate polarity should be
obtained.
A third method of testing polarity is to use an iron rod or nail. The field coils
are connected in series and supplied with low-voltage direct current. The head of
a nail is placed against one pole, as shown in Figure 6-28. If the polarities are
correct, the other end of the nail will be attracted to the next pole; if incorrect, it
will be repelled.
CONNECTING DC MOTORS
Series Motor
The series motor is connected as shown in Figure 6-29. This is a two-pole series
motor. The fields are connected in series and then in series with the armature.
Three diagrams clarify this.
Shunt Motor
The shunt motor is connected as shown in Figure 6-30. The shunt fields are
connected in series for alternate polarity and across the line leads. The armature
leads are also connected to the line so that the armature and the fields are in
parallel.
Compound Motor
The compound motor is connected as shown in Figure 6-31. The shunt fields are
connected in series for proper polarity and then across the line. The series fields
are connected and tested for proper polarity. It is of the utmost importance that
the polarity of the series field corresponds to that of the shunt field on the same
pole. A method that accurately determines this condition is described on page
199. The armature connection completes the procedure.
The motor shown in Figure 6-31 is one of four different types of compound
motors. Although this connection is the one used most often and the one that
should be used unless otherwise specified, it is essential to be familiar with the
other types. The four types are long-shunt cumulative, long-shunt differential,
short-shunt cumulative, and short-shunt differential.
In a long-shunt cumulative motor, the current flows through the series-field
and shunt-field coils of a pole in the same direction, as indicated in Figure 6-32.
Such a motor is said to be cumulatively compounded. When the shunt field is
connected across the line, it is given the name of long shunt. The complete name
of the motor is a long-shunt cumulative motor.
If the shunt-field connection of a compound motor is reversed with respect to
the series field, the current will flow through it in the opposite direction, as
shown in Figure 6-33. This produces bucking fields, and the motor is known as
a differentially connected motor. Motors of this type are used infrequently and
only on special work.
A long-shunt differential motor is one in which the shunt field is connected
across the line so that the series and the shunt fields have opposite polarity in the
same pole.
When the shunt field of a compound motor is connected to the armature termi¬
nals instead of across the line, the motor is known as a short-shunt motor. This
motor can also be either cumulative or differential.
If the shunt field is connected across the armature so that the current flows
through it in the same direction as the series field, the motor is known as a
short-shunt cumulative motor. This type is shown in Figure 6-34.
If the shunt field is connected to the armature so that the current flows through
it in the opposite direction to the current in the series field, the motor is known as
a short-shunt differential. This type is shown in Figure 6-35.
Interpoles
Nearly all shunt and compound motors of one-half horsepower or more have
commutating poles or interpoles located between the main poles. These inter¬
poles have one winding of heavy wire and are connected in series with the
armature, as shown in Figure 6-36. The purpose of the interpole is to prevent
sparking.
There are usually as many interpoles as main poles, although half as many
may be used without causing inefficient operation. Although the interpoles are
connected for alternate polarity, just as the main poles are, they also have a
definite polarity with respect to the main poles. The polarity of the interpoles
depends on the polarity of the main poles and the direction of the motor’s rota¬
tion.
Rule for Interpole Polarity. The polarity of an interpole in a motor is the same
as the main pole behind it. This means that if a motor viewed from the commuta¬
tor end is rotating clockwise, the polarity of the interpole must be the same as
that of the main pole that precedes it in the direction opposite to rotation. Figures
6-37 to 6-39 show two- and four-pole interpole motors connected for counter¬
clockwise and clockwise rotation.
Figure 6-40 shows a schematic diagram of a compound-interpole motor.
A two-pole, compound-interpole motor connected for counterclockwise rota¬
tion is shown in Figure 6-41. The procedure for connecting this motor is as
follows: Connect the shunt-field coils in series for proper polarity and bring the
two lead wires out of the motor. Note the polarity of one pole. Perform the same
operation for the series-field coils, and bring two wires out. Connect the inter¬
poles in series for alternate polarity; then connect them in series with the arma¬
ture, bringing out one interpole lead and one armature lead. Six leads have been
brought out of the motor, two shunt-field leads, two series-field leads, and two
armature-interpole leads. (Sometimes one shunt-field and one series-field wire
are connected together inside the motor and one lead from the two brought out,
making a total of five out of the motor.) Connect the six leads as shown in Figure
6-41 so that a compound motor results.
Because the motor is to be connected for counterclockwise rotation, the inter¬
pole polarity should be the same as that of the main pole behind it. Therefore, in
testing the interpoles for polarity, make sure that not only is alternate polarity
formed but also that the polarity is correct with respect to the main pole. This is
the reason for noting the polarity of one main field.
If the motor runs in a clockwise direction, it will be necessary to reverse the
direction of rotation. This is done by reversing both the armature and the inter¬
pole as a unit in Figure 6-42. The polarities of all the fields remain the same. See
page 205, “Test for Correct Interpole Polarity.”
REVERSING DC MOTORS
Direct-current motors are reversed by changing the direction of current flow
through the armature or through the field. In series motors, the usual procedure is
to reverse the current through the armature. Figure 6-43 shows this method. All
that is necessary is to interchange the leads on the brush holders. Figure 6-44
shows the series motor reversed by changing the current in the field circuit. In
this case the field leads are interchanged.
A shunt motor has the direction of rotation changed in the same manner as a
series motor does. Figure 6-45 shows a two-pole shunt motor that is reversed by
interchanging the armature leads. To reverse a shunt-interpole motor, it is neces¬
sary to reverse the current flow through both the armature and the interpoles as a
unit. This method is shown in Figure 6-46. Reversing the armature leads without
the interpole will cause the motor to have incorrect interpole polarity, which will
make the motor run excessively hot and will produce sparking at the brushes.
Reversing a Two-Pole, Compound-Interpole Motor. Figure 6-47 shows a two-

pole, compound-interpole motor with six leads brought out of the motor. The
interpoles are connected in series with the armature, and two wires, Ax and A2,
are brought out from this as a unit. In the diagram, the armature is connected
between the interpoles. (The interpoles are sometimes connected in series and
then connected to the armature.) To reverse this motor, it is necessary to reverse
the interpole and armature circuit as a unit. Wires Al and A2 must be reversed, as
indicated in Figure 6-48.
Reversing a Four-Pole, Compound-Interpole Motor. A four-pole compound-

interpole motor is reversed in the same manner as a two-pole motor is. Figure
6-49 shows a four-pole motor that is reversed by interchanging leads A\ and A2.
Caution. If the leads at the brush holder are reversed, the brushes will spark,
and the armature will overheat. Under these conditions, the motor will not oper¬
ate properly. On all interpole motors, the armature circuit (armature and inter¬
pole) must be reversed as a unit for opposite rotation.

Testing
A new dc motor should be tested before it is installed, and the same tests can be
performed when the condition of a motor on the job is being determined and
when a repaired motor is being given a final check. Proceed as follows:
1. Test for grounds in the fields, armature, and brush holders.

2. Test for opens in the field circuit and in the armature circuit.
3. Test to identify the six leads of a compound motor.
4. Test for cumulative or differential connection.
5. Test for correct interpole polarity.
6. Test for correct position of the brush holders.
1. Ground Test. Before a motor can be given a ground test, all external leads
must be disconnected from it. This applies especially to a motor that is being
tested on the job. The following procedure applies to a compound motor, but any
type of dc motor is tested in the same manner: Use a test set with a lamp and
place one test lead on the frame of the motor; with the other test lead touch each
motor lead in succession, as shown in Figure 6-50. The test lamp should not
light. If it does, a ground is indicated. Determine whether the ground is in the
field circuit (the shunt or series field) or in the armature circuit.
If a ground is indicated on the series fields, the interpole, or the shunt fields, it
will be necessary to remove the fields from the frame and reinsulate them with
tape. Figure 6-51 shows positions where grounds are most likely to occur. A
grounded field coil may be burned and several wires broken, necessitating re¬
winding of the field. A grounded field circuit does not mean that all the field
coils are grounded; usually only one is defective. To locate the defective coil, the
connections between coils are broken, and each pole is tested alone, as shown in
Figure 6-52a.
Motors that are permanently installed are required by the Electrical Code regu¬
lations to have the frame grounded to a pipeline that connects to the earth. This is
a safety measure in case the windings ground. If the frame is not grounded, the
operator may receive a serious shock when touching the motor. With the frame
grounded, a fuse will bum out and indicate that something is wrong with the
motor.
A grounded coil can also be found by applying limited dc current from a test
panel to one of the leads of the grounded winding and the frame of the motor, as
shown in Figures 6-52b and 6-52c. The coils between the lead and the ground
will produce magnetism and attract a screwdriver blade, as shown. The coils
beyond the ground will have no current through them and so will not attract a
screwdriver blade. Next apply the limited dc to the other winding lead and the
motor frame, and check for magnetism. The lead nearest the grounded coil will
have the highest amp reading. Only the coils between the lead energized and the
ground will have magnetism.
A field coil will sometimes become grounded because it is loose on the pole
shoe. A small amount of vibration will cause the metal of the pole shoe to wear
through the insulation.
2. Test for Opens. Different tests are used for the series, shunt, and compound
motors.
Open Circuits in a Series Motor. On small series motors, only two wires are
brought out of the motor for connection to the line. The field and armature
connections are made internally. If the two wires are connected to the test leads,
as shown in Figure 6-53, the lamp should light and indicate a complete circuit. If
the lamp does not light, the trouble may be caused by (1) the brushes’ not making
contact with the commutator, (2) a broken wire in the field, (3) a broken connec¬
tion between fields, or (4) a wire disconnected or broken on the brush holder.
The same test may be used on large series motors with external leads to field and
armature.
Open Circuits in a Shunt Motor. There are two circuits in a shunt motor,
one through the shunt field and one through the armature. On small motors the
connections are made internally, and only two wires are brought out. Therefore,
to test such a motor for opens, it must be disassembled in order to reach the field
and armature wires.
If the wires are accessible, as indicated in Figure 6-54, test each circuit sepa¬
rately. The lamp should light brightly when the armature circuit is tested. The
shunt field should produce a dim light. If it is not known which of the four wires
is the shunt field and which is the armature, they can be determined by this test.
If the armature circuit shows an open, the trouble may be the brushes, the con¬
nections to the brushes, or the armature windings; if the field tests open, then the
trouble is either the field coil or its connections.
Open Circuits in a Compound Motor. For testing purposes, the compound

motor is considered as having three circuits, one through the shunt field, one
through the series field, and one through the armature. Figure 6-55 shows six
leads brought out of a compound motor, two from the shunt field, two from the
series field, and two from the armature. If the armature leads are tested with the
test lamp, the lamp should light, indicating a complete circuit. The same holds
true for the series-field circuit and the shunt-field circuit. Thus, three complete
circuits are formed. If the open is in the armature circuit, the trouble is in the
brushes or connections to the brushes or the interpole. If the trouble is in the
series or shunt field, test for a complete circuit from one coil to another, as
The following procedure is used to locate an open field coil on the four-pole
motor, as illustrated in Figure 6-56. This method can be applied to a motor with
any number of poles. Remove the insulation on the connections between the field
coils, and connect a test wire to one field lead. Move the other test wire succes¬
sively from one connection to the next until the lamp lights. In Figure 6-56, for
example, move the test lead from 1 to 2, to 3, and so on, until the lamp lights or
a spark is obtained. If the lamp lights or the test lead sparks at point 2, then coil
1 is open; if the lamp lights at point 3, then coil 2 is defective, and so on.
3. Test to Identify the Six Leads of a Compound Motor. The leads of a

compound motor are always marked before it is shipped from the factory. Typi¬
cal markings are shown in Figure 6-57. The armature leads are marked Ax and
A2, the shunt-field leads F\ and F2, and the series-field leads Si and S2. If the
lead markings have disappeared, it is necessary to test the six leads for remarking
before the motor can be properly connected. They can be identified in the follow¬
ing manner:
Use the test lamps, as shown in Figure 6-58, to determine the three circuits of
the armature, the series field, and the shunt field. Three pairs of leads are ob¬
tained from the procedure. One pair of leads will cause the test lamp to light
dimly. These connect to the shunt field. Both of the remaining pairs will cause
the lamp to light brightly.
Remove the carbon brushes, and the lamp will not light when applied to one
pair. These leads connect to the armature. The remaining pair are the series-field
leads. This procedure is illustrated in Figure 6-58.
This is but one way of identifying the leads. There are many other methods:
For example, the motor may be taken apart and the leads traced. This must be
done on a five-lead compound motor. Sometimes the shunt-field leads can be
immediately identified by the fact that they have a thinner lead wire than the
others do. The armature wires can occasionally be traced directly to the brush
holder, thus eliminating this circuit. Common sense and a knowledge of circuits
are essential to this kind of testing.
4. Test for Cumulative or Differential Connection. Compound motors are

almost always connected for cumulative operation. This connection is sometimes
impossible to determine unless the motor is tested when it is disconnected from
the load. Test in the following manner: Connect the leads to produce a compound
motor, as shown in Figure 6-59, and operate it from a dc source. Note the
direction of rotation. Stop the motor and disconnect one shunt-field lead, thereby
changing it to a series motor. Run the motor for an instant and note the direction
of rotation. If the direction of rotation is the same in both cases, the motor is
cumulatively connected. If it runs in the opposite direction after the shunt field is
disconnected, it is connected differentially. If it is desired to connect it cumula¬
tively and this test proves it to be connected differentially, reverse either the
shunt-field leads or the series-field leads. Quite often this test is performed by
connecting the leads to produce a compound motor, as described above, and
shorting out the series fields before running it to note the direction of rotation.
This is done to avoid an error in case of a large inrush of current. The rest of the
test is as explained above, except that the short is removed from the series field.
5. Test for Correct Interpole Polarity. The compass cannot often be used in
checking the interpoles on a job, especially if the armature cannot be removed
from the motor. The following method may be used on motors in which the brush
holder can be shifted from one position to another. No compass is needed, nor is
it necessary to remove the armature from the motor.
Connect the line leads to the armature and interpole circuit. Disconnect all
other wires. Mark the positions of the brushes and shift the brush holder so that
the brushes are halfway between the marks. This is shown in Figures 6-60 and
6-61. Turn on the current for an instant and note the direction of the armature’s
rotation. If the armature turns in the same direction as the brushes are shifted, the
polarity of the interpoles is right. If it rotates in the opposite direction, the
polarity is wrong, and the interpole connections must be reversed. To make this
test, the brushes can be shifted either clockwise or counterclockwise. After the
test has been made, shift the brushes back to their original position. The shunt-
field leads are then connected and the motor operated as a shunt-interpole motor
for the direction in which the motor is to run. If the motor rotates in the proper
direction, disconnect the shunt field and connect the series field in the circuit so
that it runs as a series-interpole motor in the same direction as before. A low
voltage must be applied. Now reconnect the shunt field. Remember that the
interpole and armature as a unit are used for reversing purposes.
6. Test for Correct Position of Brush Holder. The number of carbon brushes
riding on the commutator depends on the number of poles in the motor. A
two-pole motor has two brushes; a four-pole motor has four brushes; and so
forth. These brushes must be equally spaced around the commutator and must be
located in the correct position. Each brush must contact at least two bars at a
time. In doing so, the brush short-circuits the coil connected to these bars.
If an armature coil cuts magnetic lines of force, current will be induced into
the coil. If this coil is shorted by the brushes, the induced current will bum it out
or produce considerable sparking. There is one place on a motor where the coil
will cut comparatively few lines of force, and this point is between the main field
poles. If a coil is shorted by the brushes when it is at this point, the coil cannot
bum out because current is not being induced into it. Therefore, the brushes must
be placed in such a position as to short-circuit an armature coil while it is midway
between poles or at this neutral point.
To locate the brushes properly, proceed as follows: Assume a two-pole inter¬
pole motor, although the method applies to motors having any number of poles.
The entire procedure takes place while the motor is assembled. Mark one arma¬
ture coil slot with chalk and trace its leads to the commutator. Turn the armature
in the motor so that the marked slot is under the interpole. With the armature held
in this position, move the brush holder so that one brush is over the commutator
bars connected to the coil. Fix the brush holder in this position.
Run the motor for a short time with the brushes in this position. Then shift the
brushes back and forth very slowly and notice whether the motor runs more
quietly or without any sparking. The location of the brushes one bar away from
the determined position may cause better operation; if so, leave the brushes in the
new position. Practice and experience will enable the repairperson to locate the
exact position.
A popular method of determining the proper brush position consists in spacing
the leads of a low-reading voltmeter to contact adjacent commutator bars. The
motor is operated, and the leads are moved back and forth until no reading is
visible on the voltmeter. This position is the correct neutral point. The brush
holder is then moved so that a brush is in this position.
Several more ways to set brushes on neutral are:
1. To put normal current in the armature and interpole circuit without any field
current. When the brushes are in neutral, the armature will not turn.
2. To use a field kick; that is, put a voltmeter across the brushes; then apply current
to the field only, and note the kick on the voltmeter. In neutral position the kick
will be zero or minimum.
3. To run the motor (loaded) in both directions; in neutral position the speeds
should be identical.
Repairs
The symptoms encountered in defective dc motors are given below. Under each
symptom are listed the possible troubles. The numbers in parentheses after each
trouble indicate the correspondingly numbered remedies to be found in the fol¬
lowing pages.
1. If the motor fails to run when the switch is turned on, the trouble may be
a. Open fuse or protective device (1).
b. Dirty or clogged brushes (2).
c. Open armature circuit (3).
d. Open field circuit (4).
e. Shorted or grounded field (5).
f. Shorted armature or commutator (6).
g. Worn bearings (7).
h. Grounded brush holder (8).
i. Overload (9).
j. Defective controller (10).
2. If the motor runs slowly, the trouble may be
a. Shorted armature or commutator (6).
c. Open armature coils (11).
d. Brushes set off-neutral (12).
e. Overload (9).
f. Wrong voltage (13).
3. If the motor runs faster than nameplate speed, the trouble may be
a. Open shunt-field circuit (14).
b. Series motor running without a load (15).
c. Shorted or grounded field (5).
d. Differential connection in a compound motor (16).
4. If the motor sparks, the trouble may be
a. Poor brush contact on the commutator (17).
b. Dirty commutator (17).
c. Open circuit in the armature (3), (11).
d. Wrong interpole polarity (19).
e. Shorted or grounded field (5).
f. Reversed armature leads (22).
g. Wrong lead swing (18).
h. Brushes set off-neutral (12), (18).
i. Open field circuit (4).
j. High or low bars (20).
k. High mica (21).
l. Unbalanced armature (24).
5. If the motor is noisy in operation, the trouble may be
a. Worn bearings (7).
b. High or low bars (20).
c. Rough commutator (17).
d. Unbalanced armature (24).
6. If the motor runs hot, the trouble may be
a. Overload (9).
b. Sparking (17), (11), and Section 4 above.
c. Tight bearings (23).
d. Shorted coils (5), (6).
e. Too much brush pressure.
1. Open Fuse or Protective Device. Tests for a bumed-out fuse have been
described in previous chapters. The following notes will also be of value.
Some types of cartridge fuse can be taken apart and a new fuse wire inserted.
Plug fuses are constructed so that by looking at the mica window it can be easily
determined whether or not the fuse is good. The fuses can be tested without
removing them from their cutouts. This is done by first connecting a lamp across
the line before the current goes through the fuses. Next the test lamp is brought to
the other side of the fuses; if no light is obtained, one or both fuses are blown.
Breakers can be snapped back into the on position. Overload protectors on start¬
ers can be reset.
2. Dirty or Stuck Brushes. Carbon brushes should press against the commuta¬
tor with a pressure usually between 1 and 2 lb. per sq. in. of surface. This
pressure is applied by means of a spring, which is generally located behind the
brush. For the spring action to be effective, the brush must be free to move in the
brush holder. However, there must be as little space as possible between the
brush and the brush holder. If too much room is allowed, the brushes will chatter
while the armature is turning.
If the brush becomes so jammed in its mounting as to render the spring use¬
less, the brush will not press on the commutator. Current will therefore be kept
from flowing through the commutator and the winding and will produce, in
effect, an open in the armature circuit.
The brush holders should be no more than 1/16 in. above the commutator;
otherwise the brushes will chatter while the armature is turning. Figure 6-62
shows various positions of a brush. The proper distance can usually be regulated
by means of a setscrew. It is also important that the brushes fit the curvature of
the commutator. This is done by placing a strip of sandpaper over the commuta¬
tor with the rough side against the brush and moving the sandpaper back and
forth while pressure is applied to the brush.
3. Open Armature Circuit. An open armature circuit may result from numer¬
ous causes, such as (a) poor brush contact, (b) a broken wire leading to the brush
holder, (c) a defective connection between the interpole and the armature, (d) a
broken interpole wire, (e) two or more open coils in the armature, or (f) a dirty
commutator. These faults are located either by visual inspection or by means of
test lamps. Some of these troubles are illustrated in Figure 6-63. If there are open
coils in the armature, repair by rewinding or by bridging commutator bars.
A dirty commutator should be cleaned with a dry cloth and then sandpapered.
If the commutator is undercut, the dirt between the bars should be scraped out
with hacksaw blades ground to fit into the slot.
4. Open Field Circuit. Open circuits in the series fields will prevent the motor
from starting. If a shunt-field coil opens while the motor is running, it may cause
the motor to “run away” if the motor is not fully loaded. On compound fields,
there is often a short circuit between the series and the shunt coils, causing the
wires to bum and open-circuit. Figure 6-64 shows several places where opens
may occur. Sometimes the opens take place in the leads connecting to the fields.
These leads are broken off easily if they are not tied securely to the coil. The
open may also be in the lead extending out of the motor or be due to a poor
connection of the field poles. It is located either by inspection or by testing.
To repair an open field, remove it from the core and unwind or cut away the
tape covering. If the break is on the top layer of the coil, remove the few turns
and then attach the lead to this point. A few turns less on the coil will have no
harmful effect on the operation of the motor. If many turns must be removed,
splice new wire at the break and add the same number of turns to the coil as are
removed. Occasionally the break may be one in which the two ends of the wire
can be spliced without removing any turns. If the break cannot be located,
rewind the entire coil.
5. Shorted or Grounded Field. A shorted field coil will either cause a fuse to
bum out or produce a weak magnetic field that will not turn the armature. A
completely burned field can be found by visual inspection, but a shorted field can
be detected only by testing. Often a shorted field may cause the motor to run
faster than normal and spark badly if no load is applied.
Three ways to test for a shorted field are (a) resistance measurement test with
an ohmmeter, (b) drop-in-voltage test, and (c) transformer test.
Resistance Measurement Test with an Ohmmeter. Because all field coils

in a given motor are alike, the resistance should be the same for each. Figure
6-65 shows the test circuit. The resistance of each coil is checked with an ohm¬
meter, and if the reading is lower on one field than on the other, a short is
indicated. The shorted coil must be rewound.
Drop-in-Voltage Test. If the field coils of a four-pole motor are connected in

series to a 120-volt line, each coil will receive one-fourth of 120 volts, or 30
volts. Therefore, if the voltage across each coil is measured with a voltmeter, as
shown in Figure 6-66, the reading should be 30 volts. The usual method of
expressing this is to say that there is a 30-volt drop across the coil. If one field
coil has a lower voltage drop than the others, a short is indicated.
Transformer Test. Small field coils are tested as shown in Figure 6-67. The
transformer consists of a laminated iron core with a coil around one end. The
field coil is placed over the iron core so that it rests on the transformer coil, and
115 volts of alternating current is applied to the transformer. If the field coil is
shorted, current will be induced into it and cause it to be repelled from the
transformer coil. The field coil will jump upward if many turns are shorted.
Another method of detecting a shorted field coil is to connect the field-coil
circuit to the line for a few minutes. Normally, all the field coils should become
warm; if a coil feels cool, it is the shorted one.
One grounded coil will have no effect on the performance of a motor other
than to cause a shock if touched. Two separate grounds in the motor are equiva¬
lent to a short and may cause a fuse to burn out. If the frame of the motor is
grounded according to the Electrical Code, one grounded field may blow a fuse.
Repair of a grounded coil involves reinsulating and retaping the grounded part.
Care must be exercised in this operation, as some of the turns may have become
open or badly burned. Be sure to examine carefully the grounded area.
6. Shorted Armature or Commutator. If there are many shorted coils in an

armature or if more than one coil is grounded, the armature may not rotate. In
some motors, the armature will revolve a half-turn or turn over very slowly. To
test for shorted coils, place the armature on the growler and test with a hacksaw
blade. Before doing so, however, clean the mica between the bars of the commu¬
tator to eliminate this as the possible cause of the shorts.
A shorted armature coil manifests itself by heating and smoking. Smoke issu¬
ing from a motor is nearly always a sign of shorted or burned coils. Sometimes
the smoke is pronounced, but at other times it is hardly noticeable. The odor of
burning coils is quite evident. If this condition is allowed to exist for a short time,
the adjacent coils will be harmed. On the other hand, if it is caught in time, the
winding may be saved. Whenever smoke is seen issuing from a motor, turn off
the current and then locate the defective coil by feeling the armature for the hot
coil. Cut it out of the circuit, as explained in Chapter 5.
If the shorted coil is due to shorted bars, lift the wires from one of these bars,
solder the wires together, and tape them. Next solder across the top of the shorted
bars. If the motor runs without smoking, the coil need not be cut through. If the
coil smokes, this will be necessary. Shorted bars can nearly always be identified
by discoloration due to the heat.
7. Worn Bearings. If the bearings are so worn that the armature rests on the
field poles, the armature probably will not rotate. If it does, it will be noisy in
operation. Try to move the armature shaft up and down to detect this condition,
as explained in Chapter 1. Worn bearings are easily recognized by the noise
produced and by the presence of smooth worn spots on the rotor core. The only
remedy is to install new bearings.
8. Grounded Brush Holder. One grounded brush holder may cause the fuse to
burn out if the frame is grounded. This is especially true if the motor operates on
230 volts. Use a test-lamp set to test for grounded brush holders. All wires must
be disconnected from the brush holder and the brushes lifted from the commuta¬
tor before this test is made. One test lead is held on the end plate while the other
is touched to each brush holder in turn. A light indicates a grounded brush
holder. To remedy, remove the brush holder from the brush rigging and reinsu¬
late with fiber washers or mica at the grounded spot.
9. Overload. If an excessive load is placed on a motor, it may not turn over. A

very hot motor is a sign of overload. To determine whether a motor is over¬
heated, disconnect the belt or other connecting mechanism and try the motor. If
it operates perfectly, in all probability the trouble lies in the load. Either decrease
the load or install a larger motor. See Chapter 3 for a detailed description of this
fault.
Overload does not necessarily refer to the actual load. Any condition that will
cause the motor to run slowly is a form of overload; for example, tight bearings
will tend to slow down a motor and are considered an overload.
Check the current flow through the motor with an ammeter and compare the
reading with the nameplate current. If it is due to a heavy load, use a larger motor
or cut down the load. The overload may be due to defective windings, for
example, shorts, opens, or grounds. An ammeter or snap-around ammeter will
read higher than normal; this obviously indicates trouble in the motor if external
sources have been eliminated. In this case, the motor must be dismantled to
determine the malfunctioning part.
10. Defective Controller. A controller that does not function properly may be
the sole cause of burned-out fuses. The fault may lie in defective controller
circuitry or in faulty connections between the motor and the controller. In either
case, the repairperson should be familiar with controller operation and connec¬
tions before attempting to make repairs. See Chapter 7, Direct-Current Control¬
lers.
11. Open Armature Coils. An open armature coil will cause vicious sparking
at the commutator and will prevent the motor from running at nameplate speed.
Examination will reveal badly burned spots on the commutator bars to which the
open coil is connected. On a lap winding, one open coil will cause one burned
spot; on a four-pole wave winding, two spots will be produced. The open circuit
may be caused by loose leads in the commutator bars or by improperly soldered
leads. Remove the leads from the bar, clean them, and then replace and resolder
them. If the open is caused by a broken wire in the coil, jump the two bars on
either side of the burned spot. When more than one burned spot appears on the
commutator, jump the bars in only one place and run the motor. If the sparking is
eliminated, do not jump any more bars.
12. Brushes Set Off-Neutral. The brushes must short-circuit a coil while it is
in a neutral zone. If the setscrew that holds the brush rigging in place becomes
loose, it may cause the brushes to move away from the proper brush setting.
When this happens, the armature will spark badly and cause the motor to lose
speed. Place the brushes in the proper position.
This condition is similar to having a wrong lead swing. The remedy for it is
to shift the brushes so that there is no sparking when the motor is running at full
load. The correct position of the brushes in an interpole motor can be found by
turning the armature so that one coil lies midway between main poles or directly
under an interpole, as shown in Figure 6-68. Next, the leads of that coil are
traced to the commutator, and then the brushes shifted so that the commutator
bars are shorted. The voltmeter method can also be used. In a motor that has no
interpoles, the brush position, determined by the direction of rotation of the
motor, will be slightly different. If the motor is running clockwise, the brushes
must be moved counterclockwise several bars from the position they would oc¬
cupy if it were an interpole motor.
13. Wrong Voltage. Motors are designed to run at a specific voltage. If the
impressed voltage is less than the nameplate requirement, the motor will run at a
correspondingly lower speed. If a load is applied, the motor will undoubtedly
refuse to turn and may even bum out a fuse. Be certain that the nameplate voltage
corresponds to the impressed voltage.
If in doubt as to the value of the line voltage, measure it with a voltmeter.
14. Open Shunt-Field Circuit. If the field circuit of a shunt motor opens while
the motor is running without a load, the armature may rotate at such a high speed
that there is danger of the coils’ flying out of the armature. The motor is said to
be “running away” if a condition like this arises.
15. Series Motor Running without Load. The load should never be removed
from a series motor while it is running. If it is removed, the speed of the motor
will increase until it is dangerously high. Figure 6-69 shows that the same
amount of current flows through the fields as through the armature. Because a
motor consumes more current when pulling a load than when running without a
load, the strength of the field in a series motor will be low when there is no load
and high when there is a heavy load. To generate the required counter e.m.f. with
a weakened field, the armature must turn correspondingly faster.
16. Differential Connection in a Compound Motor. If a cumulatively con¬

nected motor is connected differentially by mistake, the motor will run at a
higher speed if it is not loaded. Inasmuch as differentially connected fields have
polarities that oppose each other, the resultant field strength will be weak. Previ¬
ous discussion has shown that a weakened field causes an increase in speed.
Differentially connected fields are detected by observing the direction of rota¬
tion with the motor connected first as a compound motor and then as a series
motor. If the direction is the same with both connections, it is connected cumula¬
tively; otherwise, it is connected differentially. To change a differentially con¬
nected motor to a cumulative connection, the polarities of either the series or the
shunt field are reversed.
17. Poor Brush Contact on the Commutator. Sparking at the commutator is a

common occurrence, and one of the chief causes is poor brush contact on the
commutator. This may be due to (a) worn brushes; (b) clogged brush holder;
(c) insufficient spring pressure; (d) loose pigtail connection; (e) brushes shaped
improperly; (f) a rough, grooved, or eccentric commutator; or (g) dirty commuta¬
tor.
Continual service will cause a brush to wear to such an extent that the spring
pressure is no longer effective. This condition is illustrated in Figure 6-70. Vi¬
cious sparking will result. Replace with new brushes. Quite often the heat pro¬
duced at the brushes will cause the spring to lose its tension. Inspection of the
spring will reveal this fault; a defective spring can be stretched without returning
to its original position.
If dirt and grease become lodged between the sides of the brush and the brush
holder, the brush cannot press tightly against the commutator, and sparking
results.
Many brushes are equipped with pigtails, as shown in Figure 6-71. These are
small flexible leads that connect to the brush holder and conduct current from the
brush holder to the brush. (In nonpigtail brushes this is done by means of the
spring.) If the pigtail connections become loose, sparking will result. To tighten
a pigtail in the brush, drop a piece of molten solder into the space between the
pigtail and the brush with a soldering iron. j
Failure to fit a brush properly against the commutator will also result in spark¬
ing. The brush is shaped by placing a piece of fine sandpaper on the commutator
with the rough side facing the brush and moving the sandpaper back and forth
while pressure is placed on the brush. After it has assumed the shape of the
commutator, remove the sandpaper and blow away the carbon particles.
A rough and eccentric commutator will cause a distinct knocking and may be
detected by placing a finger on it. The remedy is to turn down the commutator in
a lathe. A dirty commutator is another cause of sparking. The commutator must
be clean and free from foreign matter such as grease, oil, grit, and so on. The
best way to clean a commutator is to wipe it off with a cloth. On undercut
commutators, scrape out the dirt between the bars. Very often, small particles of
carbon dust lodge in the mica between bars and flash over while the armature is
turning. This may become so bad that a ring of fire forms around the entire
commutator. Cleaning the mica will remedy the condition.
18. Wrong Lead Swing. If the coil leads of an armature are incorrectly placed
several bars away from the right ones, excessive sparking will occur at the
brushes. An examination of a coil in a neutral position will reveal whether or not
its leads are being shorted by a brush. If the bars of this coil are not being so
shorted, the leads obviously were put in the wrong bars. The remedy is to shift
the brushes until no sparking results or to reconnect the leads if the motor brushes
cannot be moved.
19. Wrong Interpole Polarity. The purpose of the interpole is to prevent spark¬
ing that results from induction; however, this can be accomplished only if the
polarity of the interpole is correct. Because the reasons for sparking are so nu¬
merous, it is difficult to examine a motor that is sparking and conclude that the
cause is wrong interpole polarity. Testing is the only method of determining
conclusively that incorrect interpole polarity is responsible. The test for correct
polarity, which involves shifting of the brushes and noting the direction of rota¬
tion, was described earlier in this chapter. If the motor is so constructed that this
test cannot be applied, a compass polarity test will have to be made.
A motor with wrong interpole connections will draw more than the normal
current, and it thus will overheat. If the motor is allowed to run, the commutator
will become so hot that solder will be thrown from the commutator slots. Even
though the interpoles are not connected properly, the motor will often run with¬
out sparking, but the commutator will become abnormally hot.
20. High or Low Bars. High or low bars will cause excessive sparking at the
commutator. If the motor turns slowly, a spark is seen every time the high bar
passes the brush. If the motor turns rapidly, this condition will appear as a
continuous spark, accompanied by a blackening of the commutator and by chat¬
tering of the brushes. High and low bars can be found by running a finger over
the commutator. Tighten the commutator and turn it down in the lathe or use a
commutator stone and sandpaper.
21. High Mica. High mica may be due to a loose commutator or, more usu¬
ally, to faster wear of the copper bar than of the mica. Pronounced sparking
accompanies this condition. High mica is recognized by a blackening of the
entire commutator, and the mica will feel rough to the touch and higher than the
bars. The remedy is to turn the bars down on a lathe and undercut the mica. A
temporary repair is to hold a commutator stone against the bars while the motor is
turning.
22. Reversed Armature Leads. This defect can occur only in a rewound arma¬
ture and is manifested by sparking at the brushes. If everything else appears to be
in good condition, the only way definitely to determine reversed leads is to retest
the armature. A description of testing for reversed armature leads is given in
Chapter 5.
23. Tight Bearings. If the shaft of the armature fits tightly in sleeve bearings, it
will be difficult to turn the armature by hand. In this case the bearings should be
reamed so that they fit the shaft without binding. Often, however, the fault lies in
the assembly of the motor, that is, if the end plates are not put on the frame
properly.
24. Unbalanced Armature. The armature is placed on balancing ways and

tested for mechanical balance. If it is found to be unbalanced, use the method
described in Chapter 5, page 178 to balance the armature.
Chapter 7
DIRECT-CURRENT
MOTOR CONTROL
Direct-current motor control greatly changed with the introduction of electronic
drives. After years of declining demand, the dc motor, with its good speed-con¬
trol characteristics, has regained some of the industrial motor market because of
these drives. We shall not attempt to explain the circuitry of the electronic con¬
trols but will describe the function of these drives at the end of this chapter.
Chapter 10 is devoted to electronic circuitry and solid-state motor control. The
electronic controllers perform many of the same functions of the older starting
boxes. In some areas, there are still many of these older starting and controlling
units in service.
Chapter 4, Alternating-Current Motor Control, showed that an electric con¬
troller has many functions: starting and stopping a motor, limiting the starting
current or the speed, reversing rotation, providing undervoltage protection and/or
overload protection, and providing dynamic braking. Some controllers are de¬
signed simply to start and stop motors; others perform several of these opera¬
tions; and still others perform all of them.
Controllers are classified in many different types, but essentially they are
either manually or automatically operated, using full or reduced voltage. This
chapter will describe both manually and automatically operated dc controllers
and how they are connected in the motor circuit.
Small dc motors of less than one-half horsepower consume very little current
and therefore can be started by placing full voltage across the motor terminals.
Motors larger than one-half horsepower usually require a reduced voltage for
starting. However, dc motors up to two horsepower at 230 volts can be started
with full voltage, provided the voltage can be applied without damage to the
motor or machine. Large dc motors cause large initial currents to flow because
they have a low ohmic resistance and therefore use a reduced voltage for starting.
If full voltage is applied to a large motor while it is at a standstill, the excessive
current flow may damage the motor’s commutator, trip a breaker, or bum out the
fuse. To start a large motor, it is necessary to place a resistance unit in series with
the motor so that the starting current is reduced to a safe value. Such starters are
called reduced-voltage starters. As the motor accelerates, this resistance can be
215
gradually decreased. The resistance is not required after the motor has reached
the desired speed because the motor is then generating a voltage that is in opposi¬
tion to the impressed voltage, thereby preventing excessive current flow. This
opposing voltage is called counterelectromotive force (counter e.m.f.), and its
value will depend on the speed of the motor, which is greatest at full speed and
zero at standstill.
For example, if the armature of a 230-volt motor has a resistance of two ohms,
the current flow at standstill will be, according to Ohm’s law
E 230
/ = — = 115 amp
R 2
Amperes = /
Volts = E
Resistance = R
If the motor is running and thus is generating a counter e.m.f. of 100 volts, the
total voltage in the armature will be 230 - 100, or 130 volts. Therefore the
current is
E 130
/ = — = -y- = 65 amp
The flow of current has been reduced considerably by the counter e.m.f. If the
motor is running at full speed and is generating a counter e.m.f. of 200 volts,
then the current will be
E 230 - 200
/ = — ---=15 amp
R
In other words, this motor normally will pass 15 amp at full speed. However,
if the initial current is not restricted until the motor reaches full speed, 115 amp
will flow—enough to bum out the motor or do considerable damage. To prevent
the large initial current, resistance is inserted in the motor circuit and is gradually
decreased as the motor accelerates and generates the counter e.m.f. The resist¬
ance is mounted in a box, called a starting box, which is mounted near the motor.
A typical starting box or reduced-voltage manual starter as it is often called, is
illustrated in Figure 7-5.
MANUAL CONTROLLERS
Three-Point Starting Box Connected to a Shunt Motor

A three-point starting box consists essentially of a tapped resistance element that
limits a motor’s starting current to a safe value. This type of starter can be used
Direct-Current Motor Control 217
for starting either a shunt or a compound motor. The resistance unit is tapped at
various points, and the connections are brought to contacts on the face plate, as
shown in Figure 7-1. When the handle is moved from point to point, the resist¬
ance in the circuit is decreased. A coil located on the face plate acts as a magnetic
holding coil and keeps the handle in place after it has been moved to the last
contact. The starter derives its name from the fact that three terminals are located
on the face plate. These are marked L, A, and F, signifying, respectively, line,
armature, and field, and are connected internally to the handle, resistance, and
holding coil.
The operation of the starter shown in Figure 7-1, when connected to a motor,
is as follows: When the handle is brought to the first contact point, current will
flow from Li to terminal L and through the handle to the first contact point. From
this point the current has two paths, one through all the resistance to terminal A
and the other through the holding coil to terminal F. From the armature terminal,
the current flows through the armature to L2. From the field terminal, the current
flows through the shunt field also to L2, as can be seen from Figure 7-2. Because
all the resistance is in series with the armature at the starting position, the initial
current will be limited to a safe value. As the handle is moved up, the motor will
accelerate and produce a counter e.iii.f., which will also restrict the current flow.
It should be noticed that when the handle is moved to the last contact point, the
starting-box resistance is entirely removed from the armature circuit and that it
has been gradually placed in the field circuit. This will have no effect on the
motor’s performance because the resistance of the starting box has a very low
value in comparison with the resistance of the shunt field. Note also that the
holding coil is connected in series with the shunt field. Therefore, current will
flow through it when the field is excited, energizing it and causing it to become a
magnet. Thus the holding coil retains the handle in position.
Should the shunt field open for any reason, the current will stop flowing in the
holding coil. Spring action will cause the handle to fall back and open the circuit
to the armature. The holding coil therefore acts as a safety device, because under
ordinary conditions a shunt motor with an open field circuit will tend to “run
away.’’ Because of this safety measure, the holding coil is given the name of
no-field release.
Three-point starting boxes can also be connected to compound motors. Figures
7-3 and 7-4 illustrate this connection. The only difference between this connec¬
tion and the one for the shunt motor is the addition of the series field. A manual
reduced-voltage starter is shown in Figure 7-5.
Four-Point Starting Box Connected

to a Compound Motor
There is very little difference between the three-point and four-point starting
boxes. The main difference is that the holding coil is connected across the line in
series with a resistor in order to limit the current in the holding coil, as shown in
Figures 7-6 and 7-7, instead of being connected in the shunt-field circuit. The
four-point box has four terminals on the face plate instead of three. The line leads
are Lx and L2; the armature is A; and the field is F.
When the handle is brought to the first contact point, current will flow from Lx
to the handle and to the first contact point. From here the current has three paths,
which can be followed in Figure 7-7: One path is through the resistance to the
armature terminal, to the armature and series field, and out to L2. Another path is
from the field terminal to the shunt field and out to L2. A third circuit is through
the holding coil, the holding-coil resistor, and back to L2. Because the holding
coil is connected directly across the line and thus cannot hold the handle in place
should the voltage fail, it is given the name of no-voltage release.
An advantage of this box over the three-point box is that a variable resistance
can be placed in the shunt-field circuit in order to increase the motor speed. A
disadvantage is that the speed may increase to a dangerous degree if too much
resistance is added, because this is similar to running with the field circuit open.
A diagram of a four-point box with an additional resistance in the field circuit is
shown in Figure 7-8. In the diagrams, the terminals have been located at conven¬
ient points on the face plate in order to simplify the diagram. In actual starters the
terminals are generally placed in a row on either the bottom or the top of the face
plate.
Four-Point, Speed-regulating Rheostat

The four-point, speed-regulating rheostat is a device for regulating a motor’s
speed. The connections of a four-point rheostat are similar to the previous four-
point box, except that the field resistance is incorporated in the same box as the
armature resistance, as shown in Figure 7-9. The size of resistance wire in the
armature circuit must also be larger than the previous box, because the handle
has a ratchet that permits it to be held stationary on any contact point by the
holding coil. Because the resistance may be in the circuit at all times, it must be
heavy enough to pass the armature current without heating excessively.
In operation, when the handle is brought to the first contact point, the holding
coil becomes energized and attracts the pivoted arm so that it holds in the first
notch of the ratchet. This maintains the handle in place without the necessity of
holding it by hand. At the same time the current flows through all the armature
resistance to the armature and series field and back to the line. The current also
travels through the solid copper bar located above the armature resistance con¬
tacts to the shunt field and back to L2.
As the handle is moved up to point 5, all the armature resistance is cut out, and
the field resistance is about to be cut in. This will increase the motor’s speed until
the last contact point is reached. It should be remembered that the handle can be
left in any position desired.
Four-Point Starting-Box and Speed-regulating Rheostat

The four-point starting-box and speed-regulating rheostat is a combination start¬
ing box and speed regulator. This type of starter has a special handle (shown in
Figure 7-10)—actually two arms, one under the other. When the handle is
moved up, both arms are interlocked. After the handle is brought to the last
contact point, the holding coil maintains in position the arm that contacts the
armature resistance points. If it is desired to increase the speed above normal, the
handle is moved in a counterclockwise direction. This moves only the arm con¬
tacting the field resistance and cuts in resistance in the field circuit, as shown by
Figure 7-11.
When the arm is in the off position, the shunt-field resistance is shorted by
means of an auxiliary contact located on the face plate. This contact is movable,
so that when the handle is rotated to the uppermost position, the auxiliary contact
opens the shorted field resistance and allows it to be used in the field circuit. At
the same time, the holding coil is connected in the circuit. The object in shorting
the field resistance is to prevent its use until all the armature resistance has been
cut out.
In operation, the handle is moved to the first contact point, and a circuit is
formed from Lx to the handle, through all the resistance, through the armature
circuit, and back to L2. Also a circuit is completed from the first contact button
through the auxiliary contact to the field terminal, through the shunt field, and
back to the line. After the motor accelerates and the handle is brought to the last
contact, the auxiliary contact permits the field resistance to enter the circuit and
also closes the holding-coil circuit that holds the handle in position. If increased
speed is desired, the arm that contacts the field resistance is moved in a counter¬
clockwise direction, inserting resistance in the field circuit, and in turn causing
an increase in speed. When the main switch is opened, a coiled spring at the base
of the handle returns it to the off position.
Another combination starter and speed regulator that operates on the same
principle as the previous box does but whose construction is somewhat different
is shown in Figure 7-12. The handle of this starter consists of two arms, a main
arm, and an auxiliary arm. The main arm rides on two sets of contact buttons,
one set for the field resistance and the other for the armature resistance. Only the
armature resistance is in the circuit as the handle is moved upward. The auxiliary
arm during this operation is in such a position that it short-circuits the shunt-field
resistance, causing it to be inoperative during the period in which the armature
resistance is cut out.
When the main arm is brought to the last contact point, the auxiliary arm
connects the armature terminal directly to the line and also allows the field
resistance to be put into the circuit. The auxiliary arm is held in this position by
its holding coil. If the motor’s speed is to be increased above normal, the main
arm is moved in a counterclockwise direction, thereby inserting resistance in the
field circuit. If the main arm is brought back to the starting point, the holding coil
will be disconnected, the auxiliary arm released, and the entire motor discon¬
nected from the line.
Reversing Motors Connected to Three-

and Four-Point Starting Boxes
In Chapter 6, Direct-Current Motors, it was mentioned that there are two meth¬
ods of reversing the direction of rotation of a dc motor, namely, by reversing the
current through either the armature or the field. The conventional method is to
reverse the current through the armature. In the manually controlled starters, a
double-pole, double-throw switch, connected as shown in Figure 7-13, is used
for this purpose. Other devices are also used, but essentially they are alike in that
their primary purpose is to reverse the current in the armature circuit. Figures
7-14, 7-15, and 7-16 are diagrams of a series motor reversed by connecting a
double-pole, double-throw switch in the armature circuit.
A shunt motor is reversed in the same manner, that is, by connecting a revers¬
ing switch in the armature circuit, as shown in Figures 7-17 and 7-18.
The connection diagram for a compound motor is similar to that of the series
motor, with the addition of the shunt field which is connected across the line.
When a compound motor is to be connected to a reversing switch, it must first be
connected as a series motor and then connected with the shunt field across the
line, as illustrated in Figure 7-19. If six leads are brought out of the motor, care
must be taken to connect the motor for cumulative operation. If five leads are
brought out, the lead, which is the combination series- and shunt-field wire,
should be brought to one line. If an interpole motor is reversed, both the armature
and interpole must be reversed as a unit. A precaution to be observed when
reversing a motor is to allow it to come to a full stop before attempting to operate
it in the opposite direction.
Connecting a Reversing Switch in the Armature Circuit of a Shunt Motor

Connected to a Three-Point Box. A diagram of the connection of a double¬
pole, double-throw switch and a three-point box to a shunt motor is shown in
Figure 7-20. This is similar to the circuit of Figure 7-17, except that a three-point
box is in the circuit. To reverse this motor, the main switch is first opened. This
causes the motor to come to a complete stop and also allows the handle of the box
to drop to its off position. The reversing switch is then thrown, the main switch
closed, and the handle slowly raised.
Compound Motor—Three-Point Box. To connect a compound motor for re¬

versing, connect it exactly as shown in Figure 7-20, except for the addition of the
series field as shown in Figure 7-21. Note in this diagram that the armature and
interpole are reversed as a unit. If only the armature is reversed, sparking will
occur at the brushes, and the motor will overheat.
Shunt Motor—Four-Point Box. To connect a shunt motor to a four-point box

and reversing switch, it is necessary only to connect it, as shown in Figure 7-20
with a three-point box, and then to add the wire for the additional line terminal on
the four-point box, as shown in Figure 7-22.
Compound Motor—Four-Point Box. If a compound motor is to be connected

to a four-point box and reversing switch, it should be connected as shown in
Figure 7-23.
Reversing Small Motors by Means of a Drum-type Switch. In appearance, a

drum switch resembles the drum controllers used on cranes, but it is much
smaller in size. It is totally enclosed, with a handle on top, as shown in Figure
7-24, and it has an outlet on the bottom to permit conduit connections. When the
motor is not rotating, the handle is in the center position. When rotation is
desired, the handle is moved to the right. To reverse the motor, the handle is first
brought to the center until the motor stops and then is moved to the left.
Removing the switch cover will reveal the terminals to which the line and
motor connections are made. If the contacts are inspected, it will be found that
there are two stationary sets arranged as illustrated in Figure 7-25. These consist
of four contacts on both sides of the switch, attached to and insulated from its
frame. The movable contacts shown in Figure 7-26 are attached to an arm that
runs through the middle of the switch and are so placed as to contact the station¬
ary points when the handle is moved in either direction.
When the motor is at rest, the movable contacts do not touch the stationary
contacts. However, when the motor is running, one possible position of the
contacts is as shown in Figure 7-27. For reverse rotation, the contacts are as
shown in Figure 7-28. To connect this switch to a series motor, as shown in
Figure 7-29, the armature wires are connected to contacts 3 and 4 and the series
field to 5 and 7. The line wires are connected to 2 and 8. Figure 7-29 shows the
connection for counterclockwise rotation, and Figure 7-30, the connection for
clockwise rotation.
For a shunt motor, the armature is connected exactly as before. The shunt
field, however, is connected to contacts 1 and 7. Contacts 5 and 7 are connected
together. Figures 7-31 and 7-32 show the current paths for forward and reverse.
The compound motor is a combination series and shunt motor, and therefore
the connection diagrams of Figure 7-33a and b show both the series and shunt
fields connected as in the previous diagrams. The schematics in Figures 7-29,
7-30, 7-31, 7-32, 7-33a and b show the standard terminal marking combination
used for the given rotations.
Overload Relays
To protect the motor and line from accidental or prolonged overloads, the starting
box, the motor, or both can be equipped with a device that will automatically
disconnect the motor from the source of current when such a situation occurs. If
too large a current flows for too long a time, the motor will be damaged, or the
line will be disturbed. This necessary protection can be provided by fuses, by
magnetic or thermal circuit breakers, or by overload relays.
Fuses are often used in the line circuit supplying electric motors. Fusible-
power disconnect switches protect against short circuits. If there often are faulty
currents in the circuit, circuit breakers should be used. A circuit breaker can be
quickly reset after the fault has cleared.
Magnetic Circuit Breakers. A magnetic circuit breaker provides a quick and

effective means of opening the motor circuit if an excessive current flows. It
consists of a coil of wire sufficiently heavy to carry the motor current and is
connected in series with the line. It is located in a position close to the main
contact arms, as shown in Figure 7-34.
If an overload occurs, enough current will flow through the coil to energize it
and cause a plunger located in the center of the coil to rise and trip the main
contact arms, thus opening the circuit. These circuit breakers can be adjusted to
operate between certain ranges of current. Magnetic circuit breakers of many
different designs are used, but the principle of operation is the same for all. Some
circuit breakers are constructed so that breaking will occur only after the over¬
load has been sustained for a certain length of time. Breakers of this type use a
unit called a dashpot or employ thermal elements.
Thermal Circuit Breaker. A thermal circuit breaker operates on a principle

entirely different from that of the magnetic circuit breaker. Coils are not utilized
in this type of breaker, but rather a bimetallic or other thermal unit is used to
break the circuit. The principle of operation of the bimetallic unit depends on the
expansion rates of different types of metal when they are heated. When two
metals having different coefficients of expansion are welded together and heated,
the unit will deflect and trip two normally closed contacts, which in turn will
open a holding-coil circuit causing the main contacts to open.
Magnetic Overload Relay. Magnetic overload relays are used on both manual
and automatic starters. On some of the older manually controlled starters, such as
the three- and four-point starting boxes, the overload relay takes the form of a
magnetic coil that is connected in series with the main line, as in the case of the
circuit breaker. The circuit breaker is so designed that when a normal or slightly
above normal current is flowing, there will be no effect on the overload coil.
However, if there is an overload, causing an excessive current to flow, the coil
will become sufficiently energized to lift a small arm, which in turn will short-
circuit two contacts. If these contacts are connected directly to the terminals of
the holding coil of a three-point box, as shown in Figure 7-35, current that
normally flows through the holding coil will now bypass it. This causes the coil
to become deenergized, releasing the handle of the box and shutting off all
current to the motor.
A plunger type of overload relay is shown in Figure 7-36. When the current
through the coil reaches the value set by the adjustable screw, the plunger is
drawn up and opens two contacts. This type of relay can be used on both the
manual and automatic controllers. If it is used on manual starters, it is connected
as shown in Figure 7-39. Relays are equipped so that they may be reset either
automatically or manually. On automatic or semiautomatic starters, an overload
relay can be used to open the contacts of the magnetic switch or contactor shown
in Figure 7-37. The overload relay open-circuits the holding coil of the magnetic
contactor, causing the arm to fall back and open the line circuit. Contactors are
discussed in detail on page 224.
The magnetic switch or contactor is usually shown in one of the simple forms
illustrated in Figure 7-38 when it is included in a circuit diagram. Figure 7-39
shows a controller diagram using a magnetic contactor and overload relay.
The operation of this circuit is as follows: When the switch is turned on,
current will flow from Lx through the snap switch, the holding coil, the overload
coil contacts, and back to L2. The holding coil will be energized, closing the
contactor. If the overload is sustained, the overload coil plunger will rise and
open the relay contacts. This will open the holding-coil circuit, deenergizing the
coil and allowing the handle to drop. If the starting box handle is on the upper¬
most contact point at the time of overload, opening the magnetic switch will
cause the handle to drop. Note that a snap switch is used to close the magnetic
contactor in the diagram. A start-stop pushbutton station may also be used if
the contactor is supplied with an auxiliary contact for three-wire control.
Thermal Relays. Most overload relays used on modem controllers are ther¬
mally operated. One type of relay consists of two strips of metal having different
degrees of thermal expansion, welded together. If this bimetallic strip is heated,
it will deflect sufficiently to trip two normally closed contacts which in turn will
open-circuit the holding coil of a magnetic contactor, causing the main contacts
to open. The bimetallic unit is usually heated by placing it near a heating coil or
heating unit that is connected in series with the line. If an excessive current or
prolonged overload occurs in the motor circuit, the heating unit will become hot
and transfer its heat to the bimetallic unit, which in turn will bend and open the
contacts. An advantage of the thermal relay is that it provides a time delay that
prevents the circuit from being opened by momentary high starting currents and
short overloads. At the same time, it protects the motor from prolonged over¬
loading. These relays are manually reset or automatically. An illustration of one
type of bimetallic overload relay is shown in Chapter 4, page 147.
Another type of thermally operated overload relay is the solder-ratchet type.
They relay spindle is heated by motor current flowing through the heater element
surrounding the spindle. The overload relay trips when the melting (eutectic)
alloy has reached a fixed predetermined temperature. A sustained current,
greater than the rating of the heater element, will raise the temperature of the
spindle above the melting point of the eutectic solder that holds the ratchet wheel
to the spindle. The ratchet wheel is then free to turn, allowing the relay to trip
and open its contacts. About two minutes are required before manual resetting.
An illustration of this type of overload relay is shown in Chapter 4, page 147.
The usual method of denoting a thermal overload relay is to show a nor¬
mally closed contact next to an overload heater symbol, as illustrated in Figure
7-40. A diagram showing an application of a thermal relay is presented in Fig¬
ure 7-41.
DC Magnetic Contactor
Direct-current contactors are compact magnetic switches suitable for the remote
control of lighting circuits, power (motor) circuits that have separate overload
protection, battery-charging circuits, and other similar applications requiring a
safe and convenient means of interrupting such circuits. Contactors do not have
overload relays.
Magnetic contactors may be single, double, or triple pole in construction. In
any case, only one coil is necessary to close the contacts of the switch. Figure
7-42a shows the main parts of a single-pole magnetic contactor of the clapper
type which consist of a holding coil, movable arm, main contacts, and auxiliary
contacts. In addition, a blowout coil is located near the main contacts and is used
to quench the arc that usually occurs when the main contacts are broken. This
coil is wound of heavy wire and is connected in series with the main line. The
magnetic field that is produced by current flowing through it reacts against a
similar field surrounding the arc and causes the arc to move upward, thereby
breaking it.
It can be seen from Figure 7-42a that the main contacts will make if the
holding coil is energized. Only a small current is necessary to energize the coil
sufficiently to attract the arms. It is obvious, therefore, that any size of magnetic
contactor can be closed by sending just a small amount of current through the
coil. An advantage of the magnetic contactor is that it can be controlled by a
start-stop station located at a remote point. Figure 7-42b shows another
method of denoting a contactor. Another type of contactor utilizes a solenoid and
plunger for closing the contacts. Permanent-magnet blowouts are used on some
contactors and are usually mounted in the arc hood. Two-pole contactors usually
consist of two contacts connected in series for one pole and a single contact for
the other pole. These contactors generally do not have overload relays. A wiring
diagram of a typical double-pole contactor is shown in Figure 7-42c.
Pushbutton Stations. A magnetic contactor is usually controlled by means of a

pushbutton station. The common station consists of two buttons, a start and a
stop button. The construction is such that when the start button is pressed, two
normally open contacts are closed, and when the stop button is pressed, two
normally closed contacts are opened. Spring action returns either button to its
normal position when the pressure is removed. Figure 7-43 shows several ways
of illustrating a start-stop station.
To control a magnetic contactor by a pushbutton station, it is necessary only to

connect the holding coil to the stations so that when the start button is pressed,
current will flow through the coil, and when the stop button is pressed, the
circuit through the coil will be opened. The auxiliary contacts will maintain the
current through the coil when the start button is released. Figures 7-44 and 7-45
show a circuit diagram of a magnetic contactor connected to a start-stop push¬
button station.
In the circuit of Figure 7-46, when the start button is pressed, a circuit is
formed from Lx through the stop button, the start button, the holding coil Af,
and to L2. This energizes the holding coil and causes the main and auxiliary
contacts to close. The main contacts close the circuit to the motor, and the
auxiliary, or maintaining, contacts maintain the current through the holding coil
when the start button is released.
If the stop button is pressed, the circuit through the holding coil is opened,
causing the main contacts to open and thereby stopping the motor. Note that the
auxiliary contacts are connected across the start button.
Magnetic Starters (Full Voltage)

Magnetic starters differ from contactors mainly in that they are designed primar¬
ily for starting motors and consist of a contactor and an overload relay, usually of
the manual reset type. These starters can be used only on smaller motors, up to
approximately two horsepower, and when full voltage can be applied without
damage to motor or machine. On this type of starter, overload, under-voltage,
and no-voltage protection are provided. On a sustained overload, the relay will
trip and open the solenoid circuit, disconnecting the starter from the line. Voltage
failure or a severe voltage dip will also deenergize the solenoid circuit. This
starter is illustrated in Figure 7-47a and b.
Quite often it is necessary to control the motor from more than one location,
and this is easily accomplished by using several pushbutton stations. Figure 7-48
shows two start-stop stations controlling a magnetic switch.
Three start-stop pushbutton stations are connected as shown in Figures 7-49
and 7-50. It should be remembered that the stop buttons must always be in series
with one another and in series with the holding coil, so that in an emergency the
motor can be stopped from any station. Any number of start-stop stations can
be added to control a magnetic starter if they are connected properly in the
circuit. The important point to remember is that start buttons are connected in
parallel and stop buttons in series.
Reversing Starters (Full Voltage)

A dc motor can be reversed by reversing the current flow through the armature
circuit or the field circuit. In a compound motor, this entails reversing the current
through the shunt and series fields. It is therefore much simpler to reverse the
current in the armature circuit. Note in Figure 7-51 that the armature is connected
in such a manner that when contacts R are closed, current will flow through the
armature in one direction, and when contacts F are closed, current will flow
through the armature in the opposite direction, thereby reversing the direction of
rotation. A forward-reverse-stop station is used with this starter. It is impor¬
tant that the motor be brought to a full stop before the reverse button is pressed.
On this type of starter the contacts are mechanically interlocked so that it is
impossible for the R and F contacts to close at the same time.
Magnetic reversing starters are also constructed with electrical interlocks to
give additional protection against the R and F contacts’ closing at the same time.
Figure 7-52a shows the control circuit of an electrically interlocked magnetic
switch. Figure 7-52b shows a control circuit using front and rear contacts of the
forward and reverse buttons.
Magnetic reversing starters also come equipped with a timing relay that pre¬
vents the motor from being reversed before it comes to a full stop. In Figure 7-53
the timing relay TR opens the normally closed TR contacts. When the stop
button is pressed, the TR relay prevents them from closing until a specific inter¬
val of time has elapsed. The operation is as follows: When the reverse button is
pressed, current flows from Lu the stop button, reverse button, forward inter¬
lock, reverse coil, and to L2. All normally open R contacts close, including the
reverse holding contacts and the reverse timing contact. The normally closed R
interlock opens. When the reverse timing contacts close, coil TR is energized,
opening the normally closed TR contacts, thereby making both the forward and
reverse buttons inoperative, while the motor is running. When the stop button
is pressed, timing contacts TR remain open until the TR relay has timed out. This
prevents reversing the motor until it has come to a full stop.
Jogging. In the event that it is desired to run the motor for a very short interval
of time, an additional button is added to the station. With this button it is possible
to run the motor only while the button is depressed. When pressure is removed
from this button, the motor will stop automatically without pressing on the stop
button. With this arrangement the motor can be made to run momentarily. Just as
in other stations, the stop button must be in the holding-coil circuit in case it
should be necessary to use it. A circuit having a start-jog-stop station con¬
nected to a magnetic switch is shown in Figures 7-54 and 7-55.
The operation of the circuit of Figure 7-54 is as follows: Pressing the start
button completes a circuit from the positive line through the start, jog, and
stop buttons, the overload contacts, the holding coil, and to the negative line.
The holding coil becomes energized, the main contacts close, and the motor
starts. The auxiliary contacts also close, maintaining the current in the holding
coil after pressure is removed from the start button. Pressing the stop button
opens all contacts, and the motor stops. If the jog button is pressed, a circuit is
formed from positive through the jog contacts, the stop button, overload con¬
tacts, and coil to negative, closing the main and auxiliary contacts. The maintain-
ing contact circuit will open when the jog button is pressed and will thereby be
made inoperative. Thus, the maintaining circuit is broken when the jog button is
depressed.
Figures 7-56 and 7-57 show connections to a small dc motor using a jog
selector pushbutton station. The jog button has a sleeve that can be turned to run
or jog. When the sleeve is turned to the jog position, the front contacts are
opened, as shown by the dotted line, thereby disconnecting the maintaining or
sealing contacts. If the jog button is now depressed, the motor will run only
while pressure is held on the button. With the sleeve in the run position, the
front contacts of the jog button are closed, allowing the run button, when
depressed, to complete the control circuit. This energizes coil M, which in turn
closes the M contacts, sealing in coil M. jog relays, described in Chapter 4, are
also used in some starters and provide jogging by preventing the M coil from
sealing in by means of contacts across the start button.
REDUCED-VOLTAGE STARTERS
Motors larger than one-half horsepower usually require resistance in the circuit at
the start to limit the starting current to a safe value. As the motor accelerates, this
resistance is automatically removed from the circuit in one or more steps, de¬
pending on the size of the motor and the type of controller. There are many
methods of automatically removing the resistance from the motor circuit. The
ones listed below will be described in detail:
1. Counter e.m.f. starter.

2. Lockout starter.
3. Definite magnetic time starter.
4. Definite mechanical time starter.
5. Drum starter.
Counter E.M.F. Starter

When a motor’s armature increases in speed, the countervoltage generated in the
armature also increases, thereby reducing the current in the armature circuit.
Because of this reduction in current, the voltage becomes higher across the
armature terminals. Therefore, if a coil designed to operate at 50 volts is con¬
nected across the armature terminals, as shown in Figures 7-58 and 7-59, it will
become operative only when voltage across the armature is 50 volts or higher.
The coil can be made to operate a contactor that will shunt part or all of the
resistance connected in series with the armature, as illustrated by Figure 7-60.
This shows the position of the accelerating contact when the motor starts.
The operation of the circuit in Figure 7-58 is as follows: When the start
button is depressed, the holding coil is energized and the main contacts are
closed. This completes a circuit through the starting resistance and the armature.
The shunt field is also energized. As the motor accelerates, the voltage across the
armature will reach a value at which it is sufficient to energize the coil of the
accelerating contactor, thereby closing the accelerating contacts. This cuts the
resistance out of the armature circuit and connects the armature across the line.
Counter e.m.f. starters are also made with several steps of resistance and
several accelerating coils instead of one. A three-unit type is shown in Figure
7-61. Each coil operates at a different voltage. As the voltage across the armature
increases with acceleration, each coil is energized in succession, and its contacts
short a starting resistance until finally the armature is connected across the line.
On some controllers, the accelerating coil is placed in series with the holding
coil after the accelerating contacts have closed; on others, a resistance is inserted
in series with the accelerating coil to limit the current through it. Some counter
e.m.f. starters have one large coil that operates several accelerating contacts. On
this latter type, the accelerating contact arms are placed at varying distances from
the core of the magnet. Each arm is closed in succession as the voltage across the
coil increases, and the arms in turn cut out resistance from the armature circuit.
Figure 7-62 is a diagram of a counter e.m.f. starter using relays to activate the
shorting contactors across the resistors. The operation is as follows: Pressing the
start button energizes contactor coil M. This closes the main contacts and the
sealing contacts. The motor operates through resistors R{ and R2. Accelerating
coil 7, connected across the armature, is energized as soon as the armature
counter e.m.f. reaches a predetermined value and closes accelerating contacts 7
which in turn close the circuit through coil 1A. Coil 1A closes contacts 1A across
R\, eliminating this part of the resistor from the armature circuit. The armature
will now speed up, the counter e.m.f. will increase and energize accelerating coil
2, which will indirectly close 2A and place the armature circuit across the line.
Lockout Starter
The accelerating contactors that are used in this type of controller are called
series-lockout contactors because the accelerating coils are connected in series
with the armature and are so designed that the contacts will stay open if the
current through the motor is large, as at start, and will close after the motor
accelerates and the current decreases. Lockout contactors are designed with ei¬
ther one or two coils. In either case, the coils are connected in series with the
armature.
This type of controller is also known as a current-limit starter because the
motor’s acceleration is controlled by the amount of current flowing through it.
Two-Coil Lockout Contactor. Figure 7-63 illustrates one type of two-coil, se¬
ries-lockout contactor. The coils of this contactor are connected in series and in
series with the armature. The upper coil is the closing coil that tends to close the
contacts, and the bottom coil is the lockout coil that tends to hold the contacts
open. The coils are designed so that the magnetic field, or “pull,” of the lockout
coil will predominate if heavy current flows through the motor. For example,
when the motor starts, the contacts will be kept open by the initial current flow.
As the motor accelerates and the current decreases, the pull of the upper coil will
predominate and the contacts will close. This action is explained as follows:
Figures 7-64a, b, and c illustrate this type of controller with one step of
resistance. When the start button is pressed, the main contacts close, complet¬
ing a circuit through the closing coil, the lockout coil, the resistance, and the
armature circuit. The initial current energizes the lockout coil to such a degree
that the contacts are prevented from closing As the motor accelerates, the current
decreases to a value at which the pull of the closing coil will predominate over
the lockout coil and the contactor will close. This will short both the lockout coil
and the resistance. A simple diagram of this circuit is shown in Figure 7-65. The
shunt field is connected across the line throughout the controller’s operations.
Controllers of this type are also made with two and three steps of resistance
instead of one. One set of contacts is needed for each step. Figures 7-66 and 7-67
show a two-step controller.
If the motor is overloaded to any degree, the pull of the lockout coil may cause
the contacts to open and place the resistance in the circuit. The motor will run
this way until the overload is withdrawn or until the motor accelerates to the
point that the current value drops. On the other hand, if there is a light load on the
motor, the pull of the closing coil will close the contacts and cause the motor to
accelerate too quickly.
One-Coil Lockout Contactor. A one-coil contactor is similar to the two-coil

contactor in that two magnetic circuits are established when current flows
through the coil. When excessive current flows through the coil, a strong mag¬
netic field will be established that will tend to keep the contacts open. On the
other hand, when a normal current flows through the coil, the magnetic field will
close the contacts.
Figure 7-68 illustrates this type of contactor. Note the two magnetic paths, one
through the tailpiece B and the other through the metallic connection C around
which a copper sleeve is placed. If a heavy current flows through the coil, a
strong magnetic circuit is set up through the tailpiece, attracting it to the exten¬
sion of the coil base and thereby keeping the contacts open. When the current
flow drops, the magnetic path at C will become stronger and cause the contacts to
close. The copper sleeve limits the flux passing through C when a heavy current
is flowing, and consequently most of the flux passes through the tailpiece.
There are several other types of single-coil lockout contactors, but all operate
on the same principle of magnetic difference between two points.
From Figures 7-69a and b and 7-70 it can be seen that when the start button
is pressed, the main contacts close, and a circuit is formed from positive through
the lockout coil, resistance, and armature circuit to the negative line. After the
initial high current has decreased and the motor has accelerated, the current
through the coil will be such as to permit the accelerating contacts to close,
cutting out the resistance. The current path is then through the lockout coil and
armature circuit to negative.
Figures 7-71 and 7-72 show a series-lockout controller having two steps of
resistance. Its operation is as follows: Pressing the start button closes the main
contacts. A circuit is now formed from positive through Ru through lockout coil
A, to R2, the armature, and to negative. When the initial current drops low
enough, contacts A close, shorting Rj and placing lockout coil B in its place. The
circuit is now through B, A, R2, and the armature. After the armature has acceler¬
ated sufficiently, the current will fall off again, and contacts B will close, short¬
ing out R2 and placing only coil B in series with the armature.
Definite Magnetic Time Starter

Like other reduced-voltage starters, the definite magnetic time starter also must
cut out the starting resistance in steps so that the motor can accelerate gradually.
However, the accelerating contactors for this kind of starter operate on a princi¬
ple different from that of the others.
The coil of the contactor has an iron core surrounded by a copper sleeve.
When the coil is deenergized, the decaying flux will induce a current in the
copper sleeve and cause the core to lose its magnetism slowly. This action will
permit the core to retain its hold on the armature for several seconds or until the
motor has had time to accelerate. On these contactors, the contacts are normally
closed. When the coil is energized, the contacts open; when the coil is deener¬
gized, several seconds elapse before the contacts close. The amount of time that
the contacts remain open can be determined by adjusting the spring tension on
the contactor.
Figure 7-73 and 7-74 are wiring diagrams of a starter employing this type of
acceleration. An advantage of this starter over the others is that the acceleration
does not depend on the motor’s speed or current flow. Its operation, based on
Figure 7-73, is as follows:
Pressing the start button energizes the accelerating coil, causing the acceler¬
ating contacts A to open and the auxiliary accelerating contacts 7A to close. This
energizes the coil M, which closes the line contacts M and auxiliary contact 7M,
and opens the normally closed auxiliary contact 2M. Closing of the line contactor
establishes a circuit through the resistance and armature. Contact 1M provides
the holding effect of the line coil, and contact 2M, having been opened, deener¬
gizes the coil A of the accelerating contact, which drops back after a definite time
and thereby shorts the resistance from the circuit and places the motor across the
line.
Definite Magnetic Time Starter with Jogging. This controller can be used for
jogging by providing a jog button in the control circuit. Figure 7-75 shows the
same starter as in Figure 7-74 with the jog button added. When the jog button is
pressed, the accelerating coil is energized, and the accelerating contacts are kept
open. The auxiliary contacts close and supply current to the line coil only while
the jog button is depressed. The holding circuit for this coil is broken when the
jog button is released.
Definite Magnetic Time Starter with Two Steps of Resistance. For larger mo¬
tors, two steps of resistance are provided in the controller. Figure 7-76 shows a
magnetic time starter having two accelerating contactors. The operation is essen¬
tially the same as that of the magnetic time controller except that two accelerating
contactors are used instead of one. Contactor Ax shorts outRu and A2 shorts out
R2. When the start button is pressed, coil Ax is energized, and interlock Ax is
closed. This in turn energizes coil A2, which closes interlock A2. Coils Ax and A2
open contactors Ax and A2, and interlock A2 energizes coil M, which in turn
closes the main contacts. A circuit is now completed from positive through the
resistance, the armature circuit, and to negative. Coil M opens interlock M,
which in turn opens the circuit through coil A1? causing contactor A2 to close,
shorting out Rx. Interlock A x is opened when coil A! is deenergized; the circuit to
coil A2 is opened; and after a set time, R2 is shorted, and the motor is placed
across the line.
Definite Magnetic Time Starter with Dynamic Braking. It is important in

many instances that a motor be brought to a quick stop rather than be allowed to
keep running until it stops of its own accord. This can be accomplished by
mechanical braking, electrical braking, or both. Elevators, cranes, and trains are
equipped with a mechanical brake that will quickly stop the motor. To prevent
excessive wear on the brakes and also to help stop the motor quickly, the control¬
lers used for some of this machinery are designed to use the motor’s generating
action for braking purposes. This is called dynamic braking.
It was explained previously that a motor generates an e.m.f. opposite in direc¬
tion to the impressed voltage. If to stop a motor, the main switch is opened, the
motor will continue to rotate but will gradually slow down. While the motor is
coming to a stop, it will generate voltage if the shunt field remains energized. If
the armature is connected to a resistance during this period, the generated voltage
will drive a current through the resistance and back through the armature in a
direction that will tend to give the motor a torque in a direction opposite to its
rotation, thereby causing it to come to a quick stop.
To accomplish this, the main contactor on a controller equipped for dynamic
braking is constructed with two sets of contacts, one set of normally open con¬
tacts for the main line supply, the other set normally closed for dynamic braking.
When the start button is pressed, the holding coil is energized; the main line
contacts are closed; and the dynamic braking contacts are opened, as shown in
Figure 7-77. When the stop button is pressed, the main contacts open, and the
brake contacts close. The current generated by the motor now flows through the
resistance and into the armature, as shown in Figure 7-78. This will produce a
torque in the opposite direction and cause the motor to come to a quick stop.
Figure 7-79 shows a diagram of a definite magnetic time starter with dynamic
braking added. Note that the only differences between this and Figure 7-74 are
the addition of a resistance, connected across the armature, and the connection of
the shunt field directly across the line.
Definite Mechanical Time Starter

A dc motor can also be accelerated by mechanical definite time mechanisms.
This can be accomplished by dashpot-timing acceleration and geared-timing
acceleration.
Dashpot Acceleration. One type of dashpot mechanism consists of a solenoid

through which an iron plunger can be made to rise when the coil is energized.
Under ordinary conditions, the plunger will rise very quickly. However, if the
plunger is made to ascend slowly, it can be put to use in cutting out resistance
units from a motor circuit in a specified time and produce gradual acceleration.
To do this, the lower part of the plunger is attached to a piston that must rise in
a cylinder filled with oil or air. When the solenoid becomes energized, the piston
will be moved upward by the plunger. Its upward movement will be slow be¬
cause it must force the air or oil from one compartment to another in the dashpot
cylinder. This slow motion is used for shorting the starting resistance in steps, as
shown by Figure 7-80. Figure 7-81 shows a wiring diagram of a starter employ¬
ing this type of acceleration. Its operation is as follows:
Pressing the start button completes a circuit through the contactor coil M; the
main contacts close. Then a circuit is formed from positive through the main
contacts, all the resistance, the armature, series field, and to negative, with the
result that the motor starts slowly. An auxiliary contact on the main switch closes
and energizes the solenoid, which causes the plunger to rise slowly, closing
contacts 1 first because they are the shortest distance apart. All the others close in
succession, cutting out resistance and accelerating the motor gradually.
The reduced-voltage starters shown in Figures 7-82 and 7-83 use a fluid dash¬
pot-timing mechanism. These starters provide time-limit acceleration. The oper¬
ation is as follows: Pressing the start button energizes the line-contactor coil
and accelerating coil. The line contacts close, placing resistance in series with
the armature and limiting the inrush of current. At definite time intervals con¬
trolled by a time-limit dashpot device, one or more increments of resistance are
shorted by the closing of the accelerating contactor.
The starter shown in Figure 7-84 is intended for heavy duty in which starting
demands are frequent. Pneumatic timing mechanisms are used with this starter.
Pressing the start button energizes coil M, closing the main line contactor and
placing resistance in series with the armature. After definite time intervals, coils
1A and 2A become energized, closing contacts 1A and 2A and thereby eliminat¬
ing the starting resistance from the armature circuit. Figure 7-85 is another dia¬
gram showing timed acceleration.
Adjustable-speed motors are usually equipped with a field accelerating relay.

This relay provides full field during normal acceleration to base speed, and it also
limits the current drawn by the armature in going beyond the base speed under
field-weakened conditions. The coil of the relay is connected in series with the
armature, as shown in Figures 7-86 and 7-87. When the current drawn by the
armature during acceleration or under field-weakened conditions becomes exces¬
sive, the field-accelerating relay coil closes the contacts across the field rheostat,
thereby placing the shunt field directly across the line. The shunt field now has
full strength and prevents excessive armature current during acceleration. Figure
7-87 also has a field failure relay, which is connected in series with the shunt
field. The contacts of this relay are connected in series with the holding contacts
across the start button. Field failure will deenergize the relay coil, in turn
opening the FL contact and causing the main contact to open, thereby stopping
the motor. In operation (see Figure 7-87), pressing the start button energizes
coil Af, thus closing all M contacts. The armature receives current through the
resistance; the shunt field is energized; and the motor runs. In series with the
armature, FA receives full current and causes contacts FA to close, thus putting
the shunt field across the line during acceleration. Note also that the field-failure
relay is in series with the shunt field. Coil M also closes time-delay contact M, in
turn energizing accelerating coil 1A. This relay closes contact 7A, cutting out
part of the resistance in the armature circuit. Accelerating coil 1A also activates
time delay 1A, thus energizing accelerating coil 2A. This coil closes contact 2A,
eliminating the accelerating resistance.
Geared-Timing Acceleration. A geared timer is similar to a dashpot timer in

that it has a plunger that is moved upward when a solenoid coil is energized. The
timer is so constructed that several contact fingers will make in succession as the
plunger rises. However, the amount of time between the closing of each finger is
governed by a simple adjustable pendulum similar to the escapement of a clock.
When the plunger rises, the accelerating fingers try to close. This exerts a torque
on the mechanism’s gears and causes them to rotate. The escapement allows the
gears to turn only at a certain rate, so that the accelerating fingers will close at
definite time intervals and in sequence. This type of controller is shown in Figure
7-88a and b.
The upper half of the solenoid is energized through a normally closed interlock
when the start button is pressed. As the line contacts close, the interlock opens
and inserts the lower half of the coil in the holding circuit. The accelerating
fingers of the multifingered contactor close in sequence and connect the motor
across the line.
Geared Timer with Dynamic Braking. Another type of starter, similar in many
respects to the diagram of Figure 7-88, but with dynamic braking, is shown in
Figure 7-89. The dynamic-braking circuit uses the starting resistance for braking
purposes. When the start button is pressed, the solenoid coil is energized and
immediately closes the main contacts and opens the dynamic braking contacts 4.
This allows the current to flow from positive through contact 1, all the resistance,
through the motor, and to negative. Timing of the geared mechanism closes
contacts 2 and 3 in sequence and puts the motor across the line. When the stop
button is pressed, contacts 7,2, and 3 open, and contact 4 closes, putting the
starting resistance across the armature and stopping the motor. The dynamic¬
braking relay keeps the solenoid coil from closing until the motor has completely
stopped.
Drum Controller
Drum controllers are manual switches used for trains, hoists, cranes, machine
tools, and other applications in which it is necessary to cut out resistance from
the motor circuit. The general type of drum switch is usually made for reversing
and accelerating. However, these switches are also designed to include other
operations such as braking and field acceleration. In appearance, the drum con¬
troller is similar to the drum type of reversing switch described earlier in this
chapter, except that it is larger and contains more contacts. Inside the switch
there is a cylinder on which is located a series of contacts, each insulated from
one another and from the cylinder. These contacts are called the movable con¬
tacts. There is also a series of stationary contacts located inside the controller,
but not on the rotating cylinder, so arranged as to make contact with those on the
cylinder as it is rotated. On top of the controller is a handle that can be moved
clockwise or counterclockwise for either direction of rotation of the motor. The
handle may be held stationary in any desired position in either the forward or
reverse direction by means of a roller and a grooved wheel. At each successive
position of the handle the roller drops into the grooved wheel and keeps the
cylinder from moving either way until moved by the operator.
Arcing usually occurs when the contacts are moved from one position to
another. To reduce arcing, blowout coils are provided in many controllers.
Shields made of asbestos or other flame-resistant material are placed between
contacts to prevent arc-overs. These arc shields also prevent short circuits caused
by arcing. The shields are removable and easily replaced.
A simple type of drum controller having two steps of resistance is illustrated in
Figure 7-90. The diagram shows the controller rolled flat. There are two sets of
movable contacts and one set of stationary contacts. For forward direction, one
set of the movable contacts makes contact with the stationary set. For the reverse
direction, the other set of movable contacts is in the circuit. Note that there are
three forward positions and three reverse positions to which the handle can be
set.
The controller operation is as follows: In the first position, movable fingers a,
b, c, and d of Figure 7-90 contact the stationary contacts 7, 5, 4, and 3. The
current travels from 7 to a, to b, to 5, and through the armature to 4. From 4 the
current flows through c, and d to 3, through all the resistance, to the series field,
and to negative, giving the connections shown in Figure 7-91. On the second
position, part of the resistance is cut out. The third position removes all the
resistance from the circuit and places the motor across the line. The shunt field is
across the line at all times.
The procedure in locating trouble on dc controllers is similar to the procedure

used for ac controllers, and a review of Chapter 4, Alternating-Current Control¬
lers, will be found helpful in locating trouble on dc magnetic controllers. Typical
troubles that occur in manual dc controllers are given below.
1. If the motor does not start when the handle is moved several points, the trouble
may be:
a. Open fuse, breaker, or relay.
b. Open resistance unit; test by placing a 115-volt test lamp across adjacent
contact points; the lamp should light; if it does not, the resistance between
the two points is open.
c. Poor contact between the arm and the contact points; arcing may occur.
d. Wrong connection on starter. (This may occur on four-point boxes when the
starter is first connected; if the two line terminals are not connected properly,
the motor will not start, but the handle will hold if brought to the last point.)
e. Broken wires may cause open circuits in the armature or field circuits.
f. Low voltage.
g. Excessive load.
h. Loose or dirty terminal connections.
i. An open holding coil in a three-point box; this will cause an open field
circuit.
2. If the handle does not hold when it is brought to the last point, the trouble may
be:
a. An open holding coil, due to burn-out, broken leads, or poor contacts.
b. Low voltage.
c. Shorted coil.
d. Wrong connection.
e. Overload contacts open.
3. If the fuse blows when the handle is moved up, the trouble may be:
a. Grounded resistance units, contacts, or wires.
b. Handle brought up too quickly.
c. Open shunt-field circuit on starting box; in a three-point box, the trouble
may be in the holding coil.
d. Resistance shorted out.
4. If the starting box overheats, the trouble may be:
a. Overloaded motor.
b. Handle brought up too slowly.
c. Shorted resistance units or contacts.
5. If a magnetic switch is used in conjunction with the manual starter, consult the
troubles as listed at the end of Chapter 4.
Electronic Controls. The basic function of the dc electronic control is to con¬

vert ac to dc. Figure 7-92a shows a single-phase sine wave and b the way it looks
converted to dc. Figure 7-93a shows a three-phase sine wave and b shows the
way it looks converted to dc. Figure 7-94 shows how dc voltage from a battery
looks. Both the single-phase and the three-phase sine wave show an uneven
voltage when compared with the battery voltage. This is called the ripple effect
or the ac component of the converted voltage. As explained in Chapter 1, induc¬
tive reactance is the result when a change in voltage occurs across a coil of wire
in the winding of a motor. This ac effect causes some of the older dc motors to
overheat, because many of the older motors have solid-iron pole shoes. If the
pole shoes are laminated, the motor should perform satisfactorily.
Single-phase-powered dc controllers are designed to handle motors ranging
from one-half to five horsepower. The purpose of the device is to regulate the
motor’s armature voltage, the motor’s speed, and the motor’s current, which in
turn regulates the torque.
There are two types of circuitry in these controls. One is the power or the
armature circuitry. This circuitry is designed for the high current output that is
needed to start and pull the load. The second is the regulatory circuitry that
controls the power or armature circuitry. It is the regulatory circuitry that con¬
trols all the functions such as controlled starting and stopping, jogging, and
speed control. The various functions are built into module boards that can be
plugged into the main body of the control board. This same control circuitry is
used for the full range of horsepower. The size of the power circuitry is deter¬
mined by the horsepower. Figure 7-95 shows a single-phase-powered dc con¬
troller. The functions of some of the modules are as follows:
Jog-Speed Module. This module provides a momentary jog function at an

adjusted speed from zero to 50 percent of the motor’s base speed.
Preset-Speed Module. This module allows for a preset-speed adjustment for

continuous operation from zero to 100 percent of the motor’s base speed. The
armature current is automatically adjusted to the load.
Shunt-Field Supply Board. This module provides the shunt-field current

and control for dynamic braking.
Minimum-Speed Adjustment Module. This module is designed to control

the motor’s speed from zero to 50 percent of base speed and works with the
armature current control.
Acceleration/Deceleration Adjustment Module. This module can sepa¬

rately adjust the time required to go from zero to maximum speed and from
maximum speed to zero. If the motor stops sooner than the deceleration time
setting, the control will apply the required voltage needed to maintain speed until
the timing cycle is completed.
These controllers also have overcurrent protection for both the motor and the
controller. These are temperature sensors that protect the components of both the
motor and the controller. These controllers, and the older controllers, also pro¬
vide electronically for field-loss protection. Figure 7-96 shows how a module
plugs into a regulator circuitry board.
Three-Phase-powered DC Controllers. These controllers are available in sizes

from one-fourth to 1,500 horsepower. Three-phase controllers work better than
single-phase controllers do because they have less ripple effect, as shown in
Figure 7-94. Three-phase controllers are also produced to handle large motor
loads. Figure 7-97 shows a large controller.
The circuitry of three-phase controllers or drives is much the same as for the
single-phase controllers, in that there is a regulatory circuitry and a power cir¬
cuitry. They also have plug-in modules that control functions according to load
needs. Some of the modules’ functions are the following:
Tachometer-regulated Speed Control. (These are also available with sin¬

gle-phase-powered dc controllers.)
Dynamic Braking. This unit converts the motor to a generator and connects
the armature circuit to a resistor, slowing the load.
Regenerative Braking. This unit converts the motor to a generator under

certain load conditions and then changes the dc output to three-phase ac power.
This power is added to the three-phase power line and reduces the power’s cost.
Many features can be custom engineered for special types of loads.
Troubleshooting and Repair. Most controllers have manuals or bulletins de¬

signed to aid the repairperson, including a troubleshooting guide that poses prob¬
lems and suggests solutions. Also included in these bulletins are installation
instructions, schematic drawings, and a list of recommended spare parts. This
list includes complete circuitry boards, fuses, and contactors. Repairing the
boards requires a background in electronics; Figure 7-98 is an example of the
circuitry.
Chapter 8
UNIVERSAL,
SHADED-POLE,
AND FAN MOTORS
The motors discussed in this chapter are used in a variety of appliances that are in
common use today.
UNIVERSAL MOTORS
A universal motor is one that can be operated on either direct current or single¬
phase alternating current at approximately the same speed. This motor is most
popular in the fractional-horsepower size and is used on household appliances
sueh as vacuum cleaners, food mixers, drills, and power handsaws.
Universal motors are series wound and have a high starting torque and a
variable speed characteristic. They run at dangerously high speed without a load,
and because of this, they are usually built into the device they drive.
There are several types of universal motors in use today. The most popular
type is similar to the small two-pole series motor with two concentrated field
poles. Another type of universal motor has a field winding distributed in slots,
much the same as the split-phase motor. These motors are generally made in
sizes varying from 1/200 to 1/3 hp, but are obtainable in much larger sizes for
special applications.
Because the universal motor is similar in many respects to the dc series motor,
it is advisable that the student first review Chapter 5, Direct-Current Armature
Winding, and Chapter 6 , Direct-Current Motors, before studying this chapter.
Construction of Universal Motors

The main parts of the concentrated-field universal motor are the (1) frame,
(2) field core, (3) armature, and (4) end plates.
The frame is a rolled steel, aluminum, or cast-iron shell similar to that in
Figure 8-1 and large enough to hold the field core laminations snugly. The field
238
Universal, Shaded-Pole, and Fan Motors 239
poles are generally held in the frame by means of thru bolts. Very often the frame
is constructed to form an integral part of the machine it supports.
The field core, shown with other components of the motor in Figure 8-2, is
constructed of laminations that are tightly pressed together and held by rivets or
bolts. As shown in Figure 8-3, the laminations are designed to contain both field
poles of a two-pole motor.
The armature is similar to that of the small dc motor. It consists essentially of
a laminated core having either straight or skewed slots and a commutator to
which the leads of the armature winding are connected. Both the core and com¬
mutator are pressed on the shaft.
As in other motors, the end plates are located on the ends of the frame and held
in place by screws. The plates house the bearings, usually of the ball or sleeve
type, in which the armature shaft revolves. Many universal motors contain an
end plate that is cast as part of the frame. Only one plate can be removed from
this type of motor. Brush holders are usually bolted to the front end plate, as
illustrated in Figure 8-4.
Operation of Universal Motors

The universal motor is so constructed that when the armature and field coils are
connected in series and the current is applied, the magnetic lines of force created
by the fields will react to the lines of force created by the armature and cause
rotation. This is true regardless of whether the current is alternating or direct.
Rewinding the Field Coils

Nearly all universal motors are two-pole machines and therefore have two field
coils. Just as in the dc series motor, the field-pole windings consist of relatively
few turns of wire. Thus, there may be a few hundred turns on each coil, in
contrast with several thousand on a shunt-field coil.
If new field coils are to be made, proceed in the following manner:
Remove the old coils from the core. These are usually held in place by one or
two pins, as shown in Figure 8-5, which are forced through a small hole in the
field core and must be removed first. Some field coils are secured to the core by
a thin iron clamp that extends from one side of the coil to the other, as shown in
Figure 8-6. Sometimes a piece of fiber is wedged from one field coil to another,
as shown in Figure 8-7. The shape of the field coils is illustrated in Figure 8-8.
Remove the tape from the coils; then record the wire size and the number of
turns in each coil. Use the same size of wire with the same kind of insulation.
Flatten the coil to a rectangle, like that shown in Figure 8-9, to make a form
for the new coil. Before taking measurements for the form, remove all the tape
covering so that the new coil will be the same size as the old coil. If the coil is
made slightly smaller, there will be difficulty in putting the coil on the core. On
the other hand, if the coil is made large, it may take up too much room and
perhaps prevent assembly of the end plate on the frame.
Cut a piece of wood to the dimensions of the inside of the coil. This will be the
form on which the new coil will be wound. To facilitate removal of the coil after
it is wound, taper the sides slightly and place one turn of insulating paper around
it. To hold the coil in position while winding, bolt two sidepieces to the form, as
in the assembly shown in Figure 8-10. Place the form in the lathe or winding
machine and wind the proper number of turns of the right size of wire on the
form. Tie the coil before removing it, using the slits cut in the sidepieces as
guides. Field coils may also be wound on coil-winder heads, as shown in Figure
6-14b.
Splice flexible leads to the ends of the coil wire. Be sure to tie the leads to the
coil to prevent them from being pulled out accidentally. Tape the coil with one
layer of varnished cambric and one layer of cotton tape, wrapping the coil as
shown in Figure 8-11. Shape the coil so that it is like the original, and then paint
or varnish it. After it dries, place it on the core and secure it in the original
manner.
If the coil fits tightly, be careful not to scrape the comers on the core; other¬
wise the wires may ground or break. It is a good practice to place insulation at
the comers of the coils to eliminate this possibility. Do not pull on the leads
while putting the coils in place because this can loosen or break the connections.
Connecting the Field Coils and Armature

The field poles of a universal motor are connected in series for opposite polarity,
just like the poles of any dc motor. The methods of testing the field poles for
correct polarity are the same as those used on dc poles, namely, the nail test
shown in Figure 8-12 or the compass method. These are preferred, but another
way, as explained in Chapter 6, is to connect the two fields in series without
regard to polarity and then reverse the leads of one pole if the motor does not run.
As in the case of all two-pole series motors, both fields are connected in series,
as described above, and then in series with the armature, as shown in Figure
8-13. Figure 8-14 shows that one line wire is brought from the armature and the
other line wire from the field.
Another method of connecting the universal motor is to connect the armature
between the two field coils, as shown in Figure 8-15. The end of the first field
coil is connected to one side of the armature, and the other side of the armature is
connected to the next field pole. This connection is found in most power tools.
Reversing Universal Motors

In a universal motor of the concentrated-field type, the direction of the rotation is
changed by reversing the flow of current through either the armature or the field
coils. The usual method is to interchange the leads on the brush holders. Figure
8-16 shows this motor connected for clockwise rotation, and Figure 8-17, for
counterclockwise rotation.
On many universal motors, especially those in which the brush holders cannot
be shifted, reversing the rotation will cause severe arcing and sparking at the
brushes, because most of these motors are made for specific application and are
wound for operation in only one direction. Reversing the direction will force the
brushes off the required sparkless plane. The only way that these motors can be
reversed without causing sparking is to relocate the leads on the commutator.
This will be more fully discussed later.
Winding the Armature

Armatures for universal motors are wound in the same manner as those for small
dc motors. Just as in any armature or stator, the first step in rewinding is to
secure sufficient accurate information concerning the old winding to enable the
repairperson to rewind the armature with the correct turns, coil pitch, lead throw,
and size of wire.
Taking Data. Before data on an armature are taken, there are a few pertinent
facts about universal armatures that will help in gathering the necessary informa¬
tion.
All two-pole universal armatures are lap wound, with the beginning and end
leads of a coil connected to adjacent commutator bars, as in Figure 8-18. Most
universal armatures are also loop wound, as in Figure 8-19. After one coil is
wound, a loop is made, and then the next coil is wound. Nearly all universal
armatures contain two coils in each slot, and there are twice as many commutator
bars as slots. It also means that there are two loops for each slot. There are also
one- and three-coil-per-slot universal armatures, but in this section, our discus¬
sion will be confined to two-coil-per-slot armatures.
Proceed in the following manner in taking data on a universal armature: Count
and record on a data sheet the number of slots and commutator bars. Align the
center of a slot with a string or straightedge and see whether it lines up with a
bar or mica. Record this on the data sheet by making a drawing such as Figure
8-20. Find the pitch of the coils by counting the slots between the top completely
exposed coil, and record it on the data sheet as 1 and 6 or 1 and 5, as the case
may be. Figure 8-21 illustrates a l-and-6 pitch. The pitch of the armature coils is
always approximately one-half the total number of slots for a two-pole motor.
Lead Throw. All the data so far recorded have been obtained without removing
any wires from the armature. The remainder of the information is gathered dur¬
ing the process of stripping the armature. The lead throw is the information to be
secured next. This should be as exact as possible, although it may be difficult to
achieve accuracy because of the varnish on the windings. This information is
important if sparkless operation is desired.
The following method is used to determine the correct lead throw:
Carefully unwind several coils, starting with the top coil, and mark on the
commutator exactly where the beginning and end leads of at least two adjacent
coils are located. In order to unwind the top coil, it will be necessary to pick up
all of the leads over this coil. Thus as a coil is unwound to a loop, mark the slots
of the coil and the commutator bar lightly with a center punch. Record whether
this is the loop of the first or second of the two coils in the slot. Figure 8-22
illustrates this procedure. The leads of the coils to be taken out are still attached
to the bars and are removed as each coil is unwound. As coil 7 is removed, the
beginning lead of this coil can be seen attached to commutator bar 3. This is three
bars to the right of the slot in which coil 7 is wound. The commutator bar, as well
as the slots of coil 7, should be marked. This information should be recorded on
the data sheet accompanied by a diagram like that in Figure 8-22. In this method
it is assumed that the coils can be unwound. On some armatures, the varnish on
the coils may make this impossible.
When this armature is to be rewound, the first coil is started in the marked
slots, and the first lead is put in bar 3. All loops follow in sequence.
Figure 8-22 shows that the wires are unwound in a clockwise direction, indi¬
cating that the coils were wound in a counterclockwise direction. Also, it should
be noted that the coils progress to the left. This information, too, should be
recorded.
The number of turns per coil is obtained as the coils are unwound, and the size
of wire is measured with a wire gauge or micrometer.
Usually the armatures are varnished and baked to such an extent that it is
extremely difficult to unwind the coils. This is especially true of the topmost
coils. In this event the first four or five coils, or more, are cut off in order to
reach a coil that can be unwound. If the coils are burned or charred, unwinding is
usually a simple operation. It is necessary only to unwind a sufficient number of
coils to obtain the data; all other coils can be cut and pulled out. All wedges must
be removed before the coils are unwound.
Using the Growler to Obtain the Lead Throw. If the armature is not completely
shorted or open, a simpler method can be used to obtain the lead data. The
procedure is as follows:
Place the armature on a growler, as illustrated in Figure 8-23. If a coil is
shorted, a hacksaw blade will vibrate when placed over the slot in which the
shorted coil is located. If two bars are shorted, the same effect will be produced
over two slots. This is the principle used to obtain lead throw.
Short-circuit two bars with a piece of wire, and then with a hacksaw blade,
locate the slot that causes the blade to vibrate. Turn the armature so that this slot
is on top. Short-circuit the next two bars and see whether the hacksaw blade
vibrates on the same slot. If it does, mark the three bars that were used for this
test, and also mark the slots of the coils that caused the blade to vibrate.
Stripping the Armature. After recording all the data, the entire armature is
stripped, and all the old insulation is removed. This is done by either unwinding
all the coils or cutting the wire on both ends with a hacksaw and then pushing the
wire through the slots. New insulation of the same thickness is used, but it is cut
to extend above the slots about 1/4 in. and on both ends of the slot about 1/16 in.
It is important that the commutator be tested for shorts and grounds before the
new winding is put on and also that slots be cut in each bar to hold the loops. Be
sure that the width of the slots in the commutator is the same as the diameter of
the wire with which the armature is wound.
Winding Procedure. The method of rewinding the armature of a universal

motor is similar to that presented in Chapter 5. Briefly, the procedure is as
follows:
Start with any slot; wind the required number of turns into the slots of the
proper pitch; and make a loop. Wind the same number of turns into the same
slots as the first coil, and make another loop. Wind the next two coils into the
next slot. Vary the lengths of the loops so that the leads can be identified when
they are placed in the commutator bars. The leads also may be identified by using
sleeving of different colors on them.
Some slight differences will be found in different motors; for example, on
some armatures the coils are wound in a clockwise direction, and on others they
are wound counterclockwise. In addition, the coils may progress in a right-hand
direction or in a left-hand direction. In some armatures, the coil leads are on the
front of the winding, and on others, on the back or pulley side. Also, the leads on
some armatures are found on the left side of the coil, and on others they are
located on the right side. The best policy to follow is to rewind an armature
exactly as it was originally wound. If the armature coils were originally wound in
a clockwise direction, as in Figure 8-24, rewind them that way. If the coils were
wound counterclockwise, then rewind them in that direction, as shown in Figure
8-25. If the leads or loops were originally located on the right-hand side of the
coil, as illustrated in Figure 8-26, rewind them that way. This also applies to
loops placed on the left-hand side of the coil, as in Figure 8-27.
Sometimes, as shown in Figure 8-28, the armature leads are located at the
back of the armature, and in this case the leads are brought through the slots so
that they can be connected to the commutator.
Position of the Leads in the Commutator. It is important that the position of the
leads in the commutator be exactly the same as in the original winding. If the
leads are placed one or two bars from the correct position, severe sparking will
occur. The position of the leads is usually determined by the motor’s direction of
rotation and will be different for one direction of rotation from the position for
another. However, some universal motors are designed to operate equally well in
either direction, although most of them are made for operation in one direction.
If the motor is designed for clockwise rotation, the leads of a coil are usually
placed two or three commutator bars to the right of the coil, as shown in Figures
8-29 and 8-30. For counterclockwise rotation, the leads are usually connected
several bars to the left of the coil, as shown in Figures 8-31 and 8-32. For
rotation in either direction, the leads should be midway between those for clock¬
wise and counterclockwise rotation.
If the armature coils were originally wound in a clockwise direction but are
rewound counterclockwise, the motor will run in the opposite direction and spark
badly. Reversing the brush leads will reverse the motor and also stop the spark¬
ing.
Distributed-Field Compensated Motors

The distributed-field compensated motor, the essential parts of which are shown
in Figure 8-33, has a stator core similar to that of the split-phase motor and an
armature similar to that of the concentrated-field motor. There are two types of
distributed-field universal motors. One type is called the single-field compen¬
sated motor and has one stator winding. The other is called the two-field compen¬
sated motor and has two stator windings.
The two-pole, single-field compensated motor has a stator winding like the
main winding of a two-pole, split-phase motor. The fields are wound into the
slots of the stator in the same manner. The field poles must be of opposite
polarity and connected in series with the armature. Motors of this type are also
constructed with four or more poles. To reverse this motor, interchange either the
armature or field leads and shift the brushes against the direction in which the
motor will rotate. The extent of the brush shift ordinarily amounts to several
bars.
The two-field compensated motor has two windings in the stator, a main
winding and a compensating winding. These are like the running and starting
windings of a split-phase motor and are located 90 electrical degrees from each
other. The compensating winding is used to reduce the reactance voltage present
in the armature when it is operating on alternating current. This voltage is caused
by the alternating flux, and its effect is to reduce the voltage in the armature with
a consequent loss in speed and power.
Stripping and Winding. When a compensated universal motor is stripped, it is

essential that the slots be accurately marked so that the new winding will be
located pole for pole in the same slots as the original winding. If the new winding
is located one slot out of the way, severe sparking will occur. The only remedy
for this is to shift the brushes or rewind it.
When this motor is rewound, the main winding is usually placed in the slots
first, and the compensating winding is put over this 90 electrical degrees away.
Skein or form winding is generally used for the stator coils. A connection dia¬
gram of a two-pole compensated motor is shown in Figures 8-34 and 8-35. Note
that the main field, compensating field, and armature are in series.
Two poles are usually found in small motors, and four or six poles are used in
the larger universal motors. The main poles are usually wound with only one or
two coils per pole, and the compensating poles have three or four coils per pole.
A layout diagram of a 12-slot, two-pole motor is shown in Figure 8-36. To

reverse this motor, either the main winding leads or the compensating winding
and armature as a unit are interchanged. The brushes do not have to be shifted.
Speed Control of Universal Motors

The speed of a universal motor can be regulated by inserting resistance in series
with the motor, by using a tapped field, or by means of a centrifugal device.
Resistance Method. The speed of small universal motors such as those used on
sewing machines is varied by a small variable resistance connected in series with
the motor, as shown in Figure 8-37. The amount of resistance in the circuit is
varied by means of a foot pedal and may consist of a carbon pile or a resistance
wire.
Another type of speed control on small universal motors, which is illustrated
in Figure 8-38, consists of two carbon blocks that are manually pressed tightly
together for high-speed operation. As these blocks are slowly moved apart, they
allow less current to flow and consequently slow down the motor. These motors
start on very slow speed because the speed switch separates the carbons at start.
As the switch is moved, it causes the carbons to increase their pressure, thereby
allowing more current to flow. When the carbon blocks are separated entirely, a
fixed resistance remains in the circuit, as shown in Figure 8-38. The capacitor is
used to reduce arcing.
Tapped Field. The speed of some universal motors is controlled by tapping one
field pole at various points, as illustrated in Figure 8-39, thereby varying the field
strength and consequently the speed. The field pole is wound in several sections,
with different sizes of wire and taps brought out from each section. Another
method is to wind Nichrome resistance wire over one field pole and bring taps
out from this. The lowest speed is obtained when the entire winding is in the
circuit; medium speed, when part of the field is out of the circuit; and high speed,
when this winding is eliminated.
Centrifugal Device. Many universal motors, such as those used for home food
mixers, have a number of speeds. Selection is usually made by a centrifugal
mechanism located inside the motor and connected as shown in Figure 8-40. The
switch can be adjusted by means of an external lever. If the motor runs above the
speed set by the lever, the centrifugal mechanism will open two contacts and
insert resistance in the circuit, which will in turn cause the motor speed to
decrease. When the motor slows, the two contacts close and short the resistance
so that the motor runs faster. This process is repeated so rapidly that the variation
in speed is not noticeable.
The resistance is connected across the two governor contacts, as shown in
Figure 8-40. Because sparking will occur with the opening and closing of these
contacts, a small capacitor is connected across them in order to reduce the sparks
and prevent pitting of the contacts. As many as 16 different speeds can be
obtained in this manner.
Troubleshooting and Repair of Universal Motors

Testing. Both the field winding and the armature must be tested for defects
before and after assembly. The fields must be tested for grounds, shorts, opens,
and reverses in the same manner as dc fields are tested. All these tests are
described fully in Chapter 6, Direct-Current Motors. In the case of universal
motors with distributed-field windings, the method described in Chapter 1, Ca¬
pacitor Motors, is to be followed. Because the armature of the universal motor is
like the dc armature, the tests are the same. Refer to Chapter 5 for the methods
used in determining and locating defects in dc armatures and commutators. It
should be remembered that before an armature is rewound, the commutator
should be tested for shorts and grounds.
Repair. The troubles encountered in universal motors are the same as those
found in dc motors. All the troubles and their remedies listed below were dis¬
cussed in Chapters 5 and 6.
1. If the motor sparks badly, the trouble may be

a. Wrong lead position on the commutator.
b. Shorted field poles.
c. Open armature coils.
d. Shorted armature coils.
e. Reversed coil leads.
f. Worn bearings.
g. High mica.
h. Wrong direction of rotation.
2. If the motor runs hot, the trouble may be
a. Worn bearings.
b. Dry bearings.
c. Shorted coils.
d. Overload.
e. Shorted fields.
f. Brushes off-neutral.
3. If the motor smokes, the trouble may be
a. Shorted armature.
b. Shorted fields.
c. Worn bearings.
d. Wrong voltage.
e. Overload.
4. If the motor has poor torque, the trouble may be
a. Shorted coils.
b. Shorted field.
c. Wrong brush position.
d. Worn bearings.
SHADED-POLE MOTORS
The shaded-pole motor is a single-phase ac motor varying in size from approxi¬

mately 1/100 to 1/2 hp. It is used for applications requiring a very low starting
torque, such as fans and blowers. A typical shaded-pole motor is illustrated in
Figure 8-41.
Construction of Shaded-Pole Motors

The main parts of a shaded-pole motor are shown in Figure 8-42. These are a
stator or field frame, a rotor, and end plates.
The stator is usually of the concentrated-field type and has a laminated core
consisting of salient field poles on which a coil of wire is placed. The poles are
provided with a slot near one end in which a solid copper coil of one turn, called
the shading coil, is placed. Many shaded-pole motors have a slotted stator like
that of a split-phase motor, in which the winding is placed in the slots.
All shaded-pole motors have rotors of the squirrel-cage type, such as are used
on split-phase and three-phase motors.
On many of these motors only one end plate can be removed, the other being
cast as part of the frame. The end plates are fitted with either ball or sleeve
bearings.
Operation of Shaded-Pole Motors

All single-phase induction motors require an auxiliary winding to provide the
motor with a starting torque. On split-phase and capacitor motors, a start winding
located 90 electrical degrees from the run winding is used for this purpose. A
shaded-pole motor also requires a start winding, but in this case it usually con¬
sists of just one closed turn of heavy copper wire embedded in one side of each
stator pole.
On starting, a current is induced into the shaded poles from the main poles.
The shading coils establish a magnetic field that is out of phase with that estab¬
lished by the main fields, and a shifting field is produced sufficient to give the
desired starting torque. When the motor reaches speed, the effect of the shading
coils is negligible. When current is induced into the shading coils, a flux is built
up that opposes the flux that produced it. Because of the nature of the sine curve
and its changing instantaneous values during a cycle, the shading-coil flux will
tend to keep the main-pole flux in the unshaded part of the pole during the change
from zero to near maximum. From this point to a similar point as the current
drops, very little current is induced in the shaded coil, and as a result the main-
pole flux will be distributed over the entire pole face. So far the magnetic axis
has shifted from the unshaded part of the pole to the center of the pole. During
that part of the sine curve at which the current drops from near maximum to zero,
current will again be induced in the shaded coil, creating a strong flux, this time
in the same direction as the original unshaded-pole polarity. Consequently, in
one half-cycle the magnetic-axis flux has shifted from the unshaded part of the
pole to the shaded part. Actually, the shaded-pole flux has lagged behind main-
pole flux during the half-cycle. Because the flux has shifted from the unshaded
part of the pole to the shaded part of the pole, the motor’s rotation will also be
from the unshaded to the shaded part of the pole.
Shaded-Pole Windings
The ordinary shaded-pole motor has projecting field poles on which are placed
the shading turns, as shown in Figure 8-43. The coils that fit over the poles are
usually wound on forms like those used for winding dc field poles and universal-
motor fields of the concentrated type. Leads are connected to the coil ends, and
the entire coil is taped and placed over the pole. The field coils are usually held in
position by means of a metal wedge placed between poles. If the metal wedge is
made of iron or other magnetic material, the operation of the motor may be
improved.
In rewinding, be sure to put back the same number of turns of the same-sized
wire with the same insulation. Also, be certain that the new coils are the same
size as the old ones, otherwise it may be difficult to slip them over the poles. It
is a good practice to put insulating paper on the comers or around the core to
prevent the coil from grounding.
Shaded-pole motors are made for two, four, six, and eight poles, and adjacent
poles are connected for alternate polarity. A connection diagram of a concen¬
trated-field type, four-pole, shaded-pole motor is shown in Figure 8-44.
Shaded-pole motors are also constructed with a stator similar to that used in
split-phase motors. The stator has a distributed winding that is wound in the same
manner as that of the split-phase motor. Instead of the solid copper ring used in
the concentrated type, the shaded winding consists of coils of wire that are
wound into slots. A typical layout of the main and shaded winding of a four-pole,
12-slot motor is shown in Figure 8-45, and a wiring diagram is shown in Figure
8-46. Note that the shaded winding is connected for alternate polarity and closes
on itself. Note also that it occupies only about one-third of a pole side.
Reversing Shaded-Pole Motors

Some shaded-pole motors are constructed so that they can be reversed merely by
throwing a switch. Most of them, however, cannot be reversed unless they are
taken apart. To reverse this type of motor, disassemble the motor, reverse the
stator end for end, and reassemble. Because the direction of rotation of a shaded-
pole motor is from the main pole to the shaded pole, it can be seen in Figure 8-47
that the direction will be clockwise, and in Figure 8-48, counterclockwise. This
method of reversing must be used if the motor is not externally reversible.
One type of shaded-pole motor that can be reversed externally has one main
winding and two separate shaded windings. The stator of this motor has slots into
which the windings are placed. The main winding is usually distributed over
several slots but may have only one coil per pole.
Each of the two shaded-pole windings has as many poles as the main wind¬
ings, but only one shaded winding is used at a time. One shaded winding forms a
pole at one side of each main pole; the other forms a pole on the other side. This
is illustrated in Figure 8-49, in which a complete pole consists of one main coil
and two shaded coils. A typical layout of a 12-slot, four-pole motor is shown in
Figure 8-50. Figure 8-51 shows a diagram of the connections for this motor. The
main poles are connected in series for alternate polarity, and so are the shading
poles. When rotation is desired in a certain direction, the circuit of one shaded
winding is closed, and the other is left open, as shown in Figure 8-51.
To reverse the motor, it is necessary to open the closed shaded-winding circuit
and to close the other shaded-winding circuit. Thus the position of the shaded
poles is changed with reference to the main poles.
Another type of reversible shaded-pole motor has two main windings and one
shaded-pole winding. Figure 8-52 shows two poles of this winding, and Figure
8-53 presents a typical layout of a four-pole, 12-slot motor. The shaded-pole
winding on this motor may be of the wound type, or it may have a single closed
piece of copper. For clockwise direction, one main winding is used, and the
other main winding is open. For counterclockwise direction, the main windings
are reversed.
The procedure for testing and troubleshooting of these two motor types is the
same as for other types of motors.
FAN MOTORS: SPEED CONTROL
This section deals with the methods used for obtaining a variety of speeds from
different types of motors when used on fans and blowers. These motors have
been discussed in detail earlier in this chapter and in the chapters on split-phase,
capacitor, and three-phase motors. Only the methods of varying the speeds of
these fan motors will be discussed here.
Floor-Type Fans
Either split-phase or capacitor motors are used for floor fans. The split-phase,
two-speed motors are generally made with two run windings and either one or
two start windings, depending on the manufacturer. Schematic diagrams of two
of these motors are shown in Figures 8-54 and 8-55.
A three-speed, split-phase motor is shown in Figure 8-56. The three speeds are
obtained with only three windings: one run, one auxiliary, and one start winding.
The run and auxiliary windings are wound in the same slots, and the start wind¬
ing is located 90 electrical degrees away. For high speed, the run winding is
connected across the line, and the start winding is also connected across the line.
For medium speed, the run winding is connected in series with half the auxiliary
winding, and the start winding is connected in parallel with the high-speed wind¬
ing. For low speed, the run and auxiliary windings are in series across the line,
and the start winding remains connected across the high-speed winding. Actu¬
ally, a tap at the inside point of the auxiliary is brought out for medium speed. A
centrifugal switch is connected in series with the start winding.
In another type of split-phase fan motor with two speeds, only a run winding
and a start winding are necessary. A four-pole motor will be considered, al¬
though these motors are made for a variety of poles. For high-speed operation,
the four running poles are connected in two circuits to produce alternate polarity
in adjacent poles. For low-speed operation, the four poles are connected in series
to produce the same polarity in two adjacent poles. The latter is a consequent-
pole connection and will cause four additional poles to be formed between the
main poles. Therefore, the motor will rotate at the slower, eight-pole speed. In
both cases, the start winding is connected across the line. There are two salient
starting poles with consequent-pole connection, producing four poles for both
speeds. Four leads are usually brought out of the motor. A diagram of this motor
is shown in Figures 1-137 and 1-138.
Two-speed capacitor motors are also used for floor fans. One type is similar to
the split-phase motor of Figure 8-54, except that a capacitor is included in the
start-winding circuit, as illustrated in Figure 8-57.
Another type of capacitor motor used for two-speed floor fans is the tapped-
field (permanent-split) capacitor motor. This motor, illustrated in Figure 8-58,
does not use a centrifugal switch. For three speeds, the auxiliary winding is
tapped at the center point, and a lead is brought out for medium speed, as shown
in Figure 8-59. This motor is similar to the three-speed, split-phase motor, ex¬
cept that the centrifugal switch is removed and a capacitor substituted. This
motor is used extensively for blowers in air-conditioning systems.
Wall and Desk Fans

Wall and desk fans are of many types, and their motors range from universal
through split phase, capacitor, shaded pole, and three phase. All operate on
single-phase current.
The universal type has a resistance unit in the base to vary the speed and is
connected as shown in Figure 8-60. A lever that extends outside the base is used
to insert the resistance in the circuit.
Split-phase motors for use on wall fans are wound like the ordinary split-phase
motor, but many do not have a centrifugal switch. A special type of autotrans¬
former, located in the base of the fan, as shown in Figure 8-61, is used to change
the speed and also to produce an out-of-phase current in the start winding. The
primary of the transformer is tapped for different speeds and is connected in
series with the main winding. The start winding is connected across the trans¬
former secondary. These motors are usually wound for six poles.
A capacitor motor for a wall fan is shown in Figure 8-62. This contains a
capacitor of approximately 1 /xf in the start-winding circuit. To increase the
motor’s effective capacity and consequently its starting torque, the capacitor is
connected across an autotransformer. The taps on the transformer permit a choice
of speeds.
Fans for Unit Heaters

Unit heaters are usually suspended from the ceiling of large rooms and are
equipped with a fan or blower that distributes the heat generated in the heater.
The fan or blower motor is usually connected to an autotransformer for speed
variation and is controlled from a snap switch connected to the autotransformer
unit, as shown in Figure 8-63. The motors are generally of the single-value,
permanent-split capacitor type. To decrease the speed of this type of motor, the
voltage in the run and start windings is lowered by means of the autotransformer.
The lower the impressed voltage is, the more slowly the motor will run.
Different manufacturers use different methods for varying the speed. On some
motors only the run-winding voltage is varied, whereas the voltage in the start
winding is held constant. On other motors the run winding consists of two sec¬
tions connected in series across 230 volts for high speed. If a low speed is
desired, the two sections are connected to 115 volts through an auto transformer.
Usually, these unit-heater motors are connected for three speeds.
Many fans are made with a motor of the shaded-pole type. The speed of these
motors is varied by inserting a choke coil in series with the main winding, as
shown in Figure 8-64. Taps on the choke coil provide the different speeds.
Figures 8-65, 8-66, and 8-67 show the connection diagrams for a multispeed,
shaded-pole motor used for fans, small blowers, and unit heaters. Speed control
is obtained by means of tapped windings. Figure 8-65 and 8-66 show the internal
connections, and Figure 8-67 illustrates the external connection.
Some fan motors have a three-phase, wye-connected winding but are operated
on single phase. In this motor, one winding has several coils of Nichrome resist¬
ance wire, as shown in Figure 8-68, which causes the current in the winding to
be out of phase with the others. Another winding is connected in series with an
inductance located in the base of the fan and tapped to provide the various
speeds. The third phase is connected to the line. The resistance and inductance
produce the revolving field that causes the rotor to turn.
Single-Speed Fan Motors

Blower and large-fan motors are often wound and connected for three-phase
current and are generally single speed. One such type, shown in Figures 8-69 and
8-70, has 48 slots and 24 coils and is connected series-wye for eight poles. The
coils of this motor are placed in alternate slots, one coil occupying two complete
slots. If designed for two-voltage operation, it is connected series-delta for low
voltage and series-wye for high voltage. Six wires must be brought from this
motor for two-voltage operation.
Small-Motor Selector Guide

The small-motor selection guide shown in Figure 8-71 outlines the comparative
characteristics of the principal standard types of motors that meet the needs of the
majority of applications. The selection guide is reproduced by permission of the
Westinghouse Electric Company.
Chapter 9
DIRECT-CURRENT
GENERATORS;
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
AND GENERATORS;
SYNCHROS; AND
THREE-PHASE
WOUND-ROTOR
INDUCTION MOTORS
The difference between a motor and a generator should be clearly understood
before the subject of dc generators is studied. It was pointed out previously that a
motor is a machine that, when supplied with an electric current, can be used for
mechanical work, such as running an elevator or driving a pump. A generator, on
the other hand, is a machine that is driven by mechanical means, such as a steam
turbine, diesel engine, or electric motor, and produces an electric current. Direct-
current generators are rated in kilowatts and range in size from a fraction of a
kilowatt to several thousand kilowatts. Figure 9-1 illustrates a dc generator of
medium size.
DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS
Direct-current generators are similar to dc motors in appearance and construc¬

tion. They have the same type of armature and field poles and are generally
identical. For this reason, a dc generator can easily be converted into a motor;
likewise, a motor can easily be converted into a generator.
253
Operation of the DC Generator

If a conductor is moved across the lines of force in a magnetic field, as shown in
Figure 9-2, a voltage will be induced in the conductors. This voltage can be
measured by connecting a voltmeter across the terminals of the conductor. If
several conductors are connected in series (like turns of a coil), the value of the
voltage generated will be equal to the sum of the voltages generated in each
conductor. The value of the generated voltage also depends on the strength of the
magnetic field and the speed with which the conductors cut the magnetic field.
The stronger the magnetic field is, the greater the voltage will be; likewise, the
higher the speed of cutting is, the larger the voltage will be.
If the conductor shown in Figure 9-2 is moved downward, as shown in the
illustration, the current induced in the conductor will flow in the direction indi¬
cated by the arrows. When the conductor is moved upward, the current will flow
in the opposite direction. This observation shows that the direction of current
flow depends on the motion of the conductor. Similarly, a change in the direction
of the magnetic lines of force will also cause a change in the direction of the
induced current.
Figure 9-3 shows a conductor wound like an armature coil with leads con¬
nected to a two-bar commutator. If the armature is rotated, the conductor will cut
the lines of force, and direct current can be obtained from the brushes riding on
the commutator.
Thus, three factors are needed to generate electricity: (1) magnetic lines of
force (flux), (2) a conductor, and (3) the cutting of the flux lines by the con¬
ductor.
The three methods of producing the lines of force necessary in generating
electricity are
1. Use of permanent magnets.

2. Excitation of the generator field coils with direct current from a battery or small
generator (separate excitation).
3. Excitation of the field coils by current from the armature (self-excitation).
The Separately Excited Generator

When the field coils are connected to an outside source of electricity, the genera¬
tor is known as a separately excited generator. Figure 9-4 shows a two-pole shunt
generator with the field coils energized by a battery. When the armature rotates
in the magnetic field, current is supplied to the load.
The Self-excited Generator

Most generators use some of the current generated in the armature to supply
excitation current to the fields. This type is called a self-excited generator. Figure
9-5 shows the shunt field connected to the armature. At standstill, the magnetic
Direct-Current Generators 255
field is due only to residual magnetism of the field core and is very weak. When
the armature rotates, the conductors cut this weak flux and generate a very low
voltage that will excite the field coils slightly and create additional lines of force.
Because the armature now turns in a stronger magnetic flux, it will generate
higher voltage and cause more current to flow to the fields, which in turn will
produce more lines of force. This action continues until the field poles saturate
magnetically. This process in which the voltage increases in a generator is called
the building-up process.
There are three types of self-excited generators: the series generator, the shunt
generator, and the compound generator.
The Series Generator. The series generator was used at one time for street
lighting but is seldom encountered nowadays. The circuit of a series generator is
shown in Figure 9-6. The connections are like those of a series motor with the
load completing the circuit, and thus providing a current source. The armature,
fields, and load all are connected in series. If the load is disconnected from the
generator terminals, the circuit through the generator will be open, and conse¬
quently no current can flow through the field coils, and no voltage will be
generated. If a small load such as a lamp is connected, a small current will flow
through the generator. This will create a small magnetic flux, and a low voltage
will be generated. If a heavier load is put on the generator, a greater current will
flow, and consequently more lines of force will be produced and a higher voltage
generated. Thus, as the load on a series generator is increased, the lines of force
are increased, and these in turn increase the generated voltage. This is one of the
characteristics of a series generator: The voltage at no load is zero, and it in¬
creases to a maximum at full load.
The Shunt Generator. The field coils of the shunt generator are connected
across the armature terminals, as illustrated in Figure 9-5. The field strength,
therefore, is practically constant, regardless of load. However, as the load is
increased, the terminal voltage will decrease because of an increased voltage
drop within the armature. One characteristic of the shunt generator is therefore
that a slight drop in voltage occurs as the load is increased. The voltage at no load
is maximum and decreases slightly as the load is increased.
The Compound Generator. There are several types of compound generators,

the most common being the short-shunt cumulative generator. Like the dc motor
of the same name, this has the shunt field connected across the armature, and the
current flow in the shunt field is in the same direction as in the series field. This
generator can also be connected long shunt.
Diagrams of the short-shunt connection are shown in Figures 9-7 and 9-8. This
generator usually supplies constant voltage regardless of load, but its regulation
can be varied by changing the number of turns in the series-field winding or by
using a resistor across the series field to vary the current through it. This is called
a diverter. In general, the characteristic of a compound generator is a combina¬

tion of the characteristics of both the series and the shunt generators.
By changing the number of turns in the series field, it is possible to obtain
three types of compound generators: (1) an overcompounded generator, (2) a
flat-compounded generator, and (3) an undercompounded generator. These gen¬
erators are designed as such and have the desired series turns to obtain the
following characteristics:
1. If the turns on the series field are increased over the number necessary to
give the same voltage output at all loads, the generator will be overcompounded.
This means that as the load is increased, the generated voltage increases. At no
load, normal voltage is obtained, but as the load is increased to full load, the
voltage rises approximately 5 percent. This is desirable when the generator is
located some distance from the load. The rise in generated voltage compensates
for the voltage drop in the line.
2. If the number of turns is decreased, a flat-compounded generator will be
obtained. In this generator, the voltage produced at full load is the same value as
the voltage at no load. This generator is used when the load is nearby, such as in
the same building.
3. If the turns in the series winding are further decreased, an undercom¬
pounded generator will result. In this type, the voltage at no load is normal. As
the load is increased, the voltage drops considerably, until at full load it is
approximately 20 percent below normal. This generator is useful when a short
might occur, as in a welding machine.
Differentially Connected Generators

A diagram of a short-shunt differential generator is shown in Figure 9-9. Notice
in this illustration that the current in the series field is opposite to that in the shunt
field. Consequently, as the load increases, the series-field strength increases, but
because it is in opposition to the shunt field, the resultant flux drops rapidly. The
characteristic, therefore, is normal voltage at no load and a rapidly decreasing
voltage as the load increases.
Interpoles
On all of the generators mentioned, interpoles are generally used. These are
connected in series with the armature, as in dc motors. The polarity of the
interpoles in a generator is, however, opposite to that in a motor. The rule is that
the polarity of the interpoles in a generator is the same as the main pole ahead of
it in the direction of rotation. Just as in dc motors, the field poles are tested in the
same manner. Either five or six wires are brought out of the generator. Figure
9-10 shows a two-pole interpole generator.
Changing a Compound Motor to a Generator

Compound motors are generally connected long-shunt cumulative. To convert
this motor to a generator, it is necessary to change the long shunt to a short shunt
and reverse the series-field leads. The first change is readily understandable and
need not be made unless desired. The reversing of the field leads must be made
for the following reason. In a generator the voltage is supplied to the fields from
the armature terminals. Therefore, as shown in Figure 9-11, if the series field of
a motor is not reversed, a differential generator will be produced. A short-shunt
motor is shown for simplicity. In this change the direction of rotation remains the
same.
Regulating the Generated Voltage

To regulate the generated voltage, a field rheostat is inserted in the shunt-field
circuit, as in Figure 9-12. This arrangement makes it possible to vary the current
in the shunt field, which in turn varies the lines of force. With full current in the
field, the maximum voltage will be obtained. As resistance is added, the gener¬
ated voltage will fall.
Measuring Voltage and Current of a Generator

A voltmeter and ammeter are used to measure the voltage and current, respec¬
tively. As illustrated in Figure 9-13, the voltmeter is always connected across the
line, and the ammeter, in series with the line. The ammeter is really a mil-
livoltmeter with an internal shunt, and actually the meter measures the voltage
drop across the shunt. The shunt, however, is calibrated in such a manner that the
reading on the meter indicates current flow. Often the meter is supplied with an
external shunt; in this case it is connected as shown in Figure 9-14. These meters
are connected in the same way for a motor, that is, the voltmeter across the line
and the ammeter in series with the line.
Connecting Compound Generators in Parallel

When a load on a generator exceeds the generator’s capacity, it is necessary
either to decrease the load or to connect another generator in parallel with the
first one, thereby dividing the load between the machines. A parallel connection
of two generators is shown in Figure 9-15.
To connect two generators in parallel, the voltage of each generator must be
exactly the same. This can be regulated by means of the field resistance and is
measured by a voltmeter. Line wires of the same polarity must be connected
together. An equalizer connection, consisting of a wire that connects the series
field of both generators in parallel, is necessary. The reason for this equalizer
connection is that if generator 7, at the left of Figure 9-16, runs slightly faster
than does generator 2, it will generate more voltage; consequently, more current
will flow through the series field and cause the output of generator 1 to exceed
the output of generator 2. Generator 1 will therefore assume more of the load,
and generator 2, less. As the load on generator 2 decreases, more of the burden
will be placed on generator 1 until it has taken the full load and generator 2 is
running as a motor.
If an equalizer is used, the excess current of generator 1 is divided between the
series fields of both generators and prevents one from assuming more of the load
than the other does. This action is best described with reference to the circuit at
the right of Figure 9-16. Each generator now has equal flux and therefore gener¬
ates equal voltage. As a consequence they share the load equally. The shunt field
has been omitted in Figure 9-16 for simplicity.
Troubleshooting and Repair of a DC Generator

Testing dc generators is similar to testing dc motors. The faults and troubles that
occur in dc generators but not in dc motors are described below.
1. If it does not generate, the trouble may be

a. Loss of residual magnetism: If the field poles lose residual magnetism, it is
impossible for the armature to cut lines of force, and therefore no current can
be generated. To remedy this condition, the shunt field is connected to a
source of direct current for a few seconds.
b. Too much resistance in the field circuit: Because the building-up process of a
generator depends on the continued increase in the strength of the field, it is
obvious that the voltage cannot build up if a high resistance in the field
circuit prevents sufficient current from flowing in the field coils to increase
the flux. The high resistance may be due to the field rheostat, an open circuit
in the field, loose connections, poor brush contact, or broken brush pigtails.
c. Wrong field connection: The residual magnetism in a generator produces
lines of force from a north pole to a south pole. If the current in the field coils
is in the wrong direction, as shown in Figure 9-17, lines of force will be
produced opposite to the residual lines, and a cancellation of flux will result
that will prevent the generator from building up. To remedy this trouble,
reverse the shunt-field connections or reverse the direction of rotation of the
generator.
d. Wrong rotation: Wrong direction of rotation is similar to reversed field polar¬
ity because it causes the current in the shunt field to flow in the wrong
direction. To correct this situation, reverse the direction of rotation or inter¬
change the shunt-field leads.
e. Shorted armature or field: A shorted armature or field may allow only a low
voltage to build up. If completely shorted, the voltage will not increase, and
the armature will smoke. If all other faults are eliminated, test the armature
and field for shorts according to the method described for dc motors.
2. If the voltage drops considerably as the load is placed on the generator, the
trouble may be
a. Differential connection.
b. Shorted armature.
c. Overload.
3. If the voltage does not build up to a maximum, the trouble may be
a. Wrong brush position. (Check for the neutral position, as described in Chap¬
ter 6, Direct-Current Motors; for interpole generators, the neutral point is
directly under the center of the interpole.)
b. Shorted armature or field coils.
c. Resistance in the field circuit.
d. Speed of generator too low.
All the troubles listed above are in addition to those usually found in a dc
motor. For instance, sparking at the brushes of a generator may be due to the
same causes in a dc motor. A review of Chapter 6 is essential.
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS AND GENERATORS;

SYNCHROS
A synchronous motor is an ac motor in which the rotor revolves in step or in

synchronism with the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator winding.
This action means that if the magnetic field of a 60-cycle, four-pole motor re¬
volves at the rate of 1,800 rpm, the rotor will also turn at that speed.
In an ordinary induction motor, the rotor turns at a slightly lower speed than
does the revolving field. This is necessary in order that the squirrel-cage winding
be cut by the revolving field and thereby have a current induced in it. Because
slip is defined as the difference in speed between the rotor’s actual rpm and that
of the magnetic field, a synchronous motor has zero slip.
Synchronous motors of the type shown in Figure 9-18 are made in sizes vary¬
ing from approximately 20 to thousands of horsepower and are used wherever it
is necessary or desirable to obtain constant speed. In many cases, synchronous
motors are used to improve the power factor of the electrical system of a plant or
factory. Many small synchronous motors are also made but are constructed dif¬
ferently from the large ones. The motor shown in Figure 9-18 is a brushless
synchronous motor.
Synchronous Motors with Excited Rotor

Some synchronous motors have a rotor that is excited by direct current. Other
synchronous motors have a rotor that needs no excitation. The first type has a
stator core and winding like the stator of a three-phase induction motor. The rotor
of this type has salient field poles, shown in Figure 9-19, similar to the fields of
a dc motor. The field coils that fit over the poles are connected in series for
alternate polarity and have two leads brought out to two slip rings on the shaft.
The field coils are excited with direct current supplied by a small dc generator or
brushless exciter. On many synchronous motors, the dc generator is attached to
the shaft of the motor to supply the excitation to the rotor fields. A three-phase
power source is generally used for the motor stator.
A squirrel-cage or amortisseur winding is provided for starting purposes be¬
cause this type of motor is not self-starting. The squirrel-cage winding is located
around the rotor as it is in an induction motor.
Operation of the Synchronous Motor

When the main line switch to the stator winding of a synchronous motor is
closed, a rotating magnetic field is established in the motor, which cuts across
the squirrel-cage winding and causes an induced current to flow. The magnetic
field of the squirrel-cage winding reacts with the stator field in such a manner as
to cause rotation.
The motor will run and increase in speed to a point just below synchronism. At
this speed, the rotor field coils are energized with direct current, and definite
magnetic poles are formed on the rotor. These magnetic poles attempt to lock
with the revolving magnetic poles of the station and, in so doing, increase the
motor speed until the rotor is running in step with the revolving field.
When used for power factor correction of an ac line, the field windings are
overexcited and cause the motor to draw a large leading current. This tends to
correct a lagging power factor, because in a plant using many induction motors, a
large lagging current is drawn. The leading current of the synchronous motor
compensates for the lagging current of the induction motor. This machine, when
utilized for power factor correction, is called a synchronous condenser.
Windings
The stator winding of the synchronous motor is identical with the three-phase,
squirrel-cage motor’s stator winding. The synchronous stator windings consist of
a number of coils placed in stator slots and, as in a three-phase induction motor,
are connected either wye or delta for a definite number of poles. Three leads are
brought out of the stator winding for connection to the line, as shown by Figure
9-20.
The field coils, of which there must be as many as there are poles in the stator,
are wound in the same manner as those used in dc motors. The amortisseur
winding is embedded in the core of the field poles and connected on each side to
end rings. It is used only for starting.
The rotor winding consists of a number of field poles joined in series for
alternate polarity. Two leads are brought out and connected to two slip rings in
order that the winding can be supplied with direct current, as illustrated in Fig¬
ures 9-20 and 9-21.
Brushless Synchronous Motor

The brushless synchronous motor has no brushes, slip rings, or commutator. In
the previous paragraphs it was explained that a dc exciter was necessary to
supply the direct current for the motor’s field windings. This involved the use of
brushes and commutator in the exciter, as well as brushes and slip rings for the
synchronous motor. In the brushless type of synchronous motor, dc excitation is
also necessary, but it is obtained from an ac generator and rectified to direct
current by the use of high-current silicon rectifiers. The silicon rectifiers allow
current to flow in only one direction, thus providing rectification; they also
replace all sliding and mechanical contacts. These rectifiers are commonly
known as solid-state diodes and are usually arranged in a three-phase bridge
connection assembly. The motor’s rectifier assembly, exciter rotor, and rotating
field structure rotate with the motor’s shaft, thereby eliminating the need for
brushes, slip rings, and commutator.
Solid-state rectifiers and controls are explained in detail in Chapter 10. There¬
fore, only elementary diagrams will be shown here, and we shall not go into the
theory of rectification. Figure 9-22 illustrates a synchronous motor, showing
how direct current is produced for the motor field windings. The operation is as
follows: The exciter field receives a dc input through a rectifier and provides the
magnetic field that surrounds the rotor. The rotor generates a three-phase voltage
as it revolves in the magnetic field. The exciter’s output is connected to a three-
phase bridge rectifier and is converted to direct current which is fed to the rotor
field of the synchronous motor. The motor’s stator is connected to a three-phase
power source. All the components, with the exception of the exciter field and
motor stator, rotate with the motor’s shaft. The synchronous motor is brought up
to speed by means of the damper or squirrel-cage winding on the rotor, and as it
approaches synchronous speed, the rotor field coils are energized with the recti¬
fied current, causing the poles to lock in with the revolving field. Additional
solid-state components are required to apply the excitation at the proper speed
and to short the motor field during start-up. A rheostat in the exciter’s field
controls the exciter’s voltage output. This may also be accomplished by means of
solid-state components.
Synchronous Motors with Nonexcited Rotors

Nonexcited-rotor synchronous motors can be made for either single-phase or
three-phase operations. One type comprises a stator core similar to either a split-
phase or three-phase stator and a squirrel-cage rotor on which flat surfaces have
been cut, as in Figure 9-23, thereby producing salient poles.
The squirrel-cage winding provides the starting torque and brings the motor to
a speed at which the salient poles on the rotor can lock in synchronism with the
frequency of the field current. The salient poles must equal in number the poles
on the stator from which they obtain their magnetism by induction. When the
motor reaches speed, the squirrel-cage winding is useless, and rotation is then
caused by the rotor poles locking in step with the stator’s magnetic poles. On
some motors, the rotor poles are made of magnetized steel and retain their mag¬
netism at all times.
Synchronous Clock Motors

A common type of synchronous motor extensively employed is that used on
electric clocks. Most of these are self-starting, whereas some must be turned by
hand to give them a starting torque. Self-starting motors are given the starting
torque by means of shaded poles (shown in Figure 9-24), as in the case of
shaded-pole motors. Usually these motors have two salient field poles and there¬
fore should rotate at 3,600 rpm. However, the rotor is constructed so that is has
from eight to 16 or more salient poles besides a squirrel-cage winding. Figure
9-25 shows a rotor with 12 salient poles. The motor starts when the clock is
plugged in because a revolving field is set up that cuts across the squirrel-cage
winding and causes the rotor to turn. When the rotor reaches synchronous speed
(600 rpm for a 12-pole motor), the rotor poles, which have become polarized by
the stator field, lock in with the stator magnetic field and rotate at the synchro¬
nous speed.
Another type of clock motor employs a rotor consisting of several laminations
with the outer edge cut in a fashion to produce salient fields, as shown in Figure
9-26.
The stator consists of a two-pole frame with either one or two coils to produce
the magnetic field. The pole pieces are also cut to form salient poles of the same
size as the rotor poles.
These motors do not have shading poles and therefore are not self-starting.
When the clock is plugged in, a pulsating magnetic field is established that cuts
the rotor poles, magnetizing the poles on the rotor but producing no torque.
However, if the rotor is given a start manually, its poles will be attracted to the
stator poles and will lock in step with the pulsations of the current, thereby
keeping the motor running at a synchronous speed. The number of salient poles
on the stator will determine the speed, which may range from 450 rpm for 16
poles, 60-cycle current, to 225 rpm for 32 poles. Figure 9-26 shows a synchro¬
nous clock motor with 32 poles. There are other types of synchronous motors,
but on the whole they are similar to those described above.
Troubles of Synchronous Clock Motors. Usually the troubles encountered on

clock motors are lack of lubrication and worn bearings. Frequently a few drops
of oil on the rotor bearings will put the clock in operation, but if the bearings are
badly worn, the clock may operate for only a short time under this treatment. In
case the bearings are badly worn, it is necessary to have them replaced by a
watchmaker. If the winding is open or burnt, it must be replaced. Rewinding the
coil is difficult and expensive.
Synchronous Generators
A synchronous generator is similar in construction to the excited type of synchro¬
nous motor. It consists of a stator having a three-phase winding and a rotor with
salient field poles that are excited by direct current. Whether or not it has a
squirrel-cage winding depends on the use to which the generator is put.
As in the case of the dc generator, the synchronous generator may be turned
over by a motor, steam turbine, or diesel engine. Three wires are brought out of
the stator winding, which is usually wye connected. A fourth wire may be carried
from the wye point and used as a ground wire for lighting purposes.
In operation, the generator is first brought to speed and the field poles slowly
excited with direct current. As the rotor fields revolve, lines of force cut across
the stator winding and cause current to be induced therein. If the stator is con¬
nected for three phases then a three-phase current will be generated. For a single
phase, only two of the three wires are used, or, if wye connected, one phase wire
and a wye point.
A diagram of an ac generator, also called an alternator, is shown in Figure
9-27. Note that is is similar to the synchronous-motor circuit of Figure 9-21.
Because the frequency of an alternator depends on the machine’s speed and
number of poles, it is obvious that varying the exciting voltage will have no
effect on the frequency, although the generated voltage will be affected by the
exciting voltage. The generated voltage varies with the load, and therefore in
order to keep the voltage constant, it is necessary either to adjust the exciting
voltage manually or to use an electronic voltage regulator.
Brushless Synchronous Generator

The brushless synchronous generator is similar in construction to the brushless
motor. The revolving elements used to supply direct current to the generator’s
field winding are the exciter rotor, the solid-state rectifier assembly, and the field
pole windings on the generator’s rotor. There is no need for slip rings, brushes,
or commutator, as all these rotate with the generator’s shaft. The exciter’s sta¬
tionary field winding is connected to a rectified ac supply. Figure 9-28 shows an
elementary diagram of a brushless synchronous generator. In operation, a three-
phase exciter is converted to direct current by means of a solid-state (diodes)
bridge rectifier. The rectified current is fed to the generator’s rotor field. As the
rotor revolves, lines of force cut across the stator winding and cause current to be
induced therein. In addition to rectification, there may be static voltage regula¬
tion, voltage sensing, and compensation for parallel operation. It must be re-
membered that a prime mover such as a motor or diesel engine must be used to
turn over the generator.
Alternators in Parallel. Several conditions must be satisfied before alternators

can be paralleled.
1. The alternators’ output voltage must be equal, and the frequency must be
the same. Assuming that two alternators are to be paralleled, regulate the voltage
of each by adjusting the excitation voltage of the dc generator supplying current
to the alternator fields and the frequency by adjusting the speed of the prime
mover.
2. The polarities of the alternators must be synchronized. This operation is
called phasing out the alternators and is performed in the following manner:
Assume alternator A is to be phased out with alternator B, as in Figure 9-29.
Connect three sets of lamps across the paralleling switch, as shown in the illus¬
tration. If both alternators are running at the required speed and generating the
proper voltage, all three sets of lamps should go on and off at the same time, thus
indicating that the alternators are properly phased out. This is called the all-dark
method. The three-pole switch is closed when all lamps are dark. If each set of
lamps goes on and off alternately, it is an indication that the machines are not in
phase. To remedy such a condition, interchange any two leads from alternator B
at the parallel switch.
Another method of phasing out is to use three sets of lamps connected as

shown in Figure 9-30. This is known as the one-dark-and-two-bright method and
is a more desirable way of phasing out than is the all-dark system. With both
alternators running, the phasing-out switch is left open until one set of lamps is
dark and the other two sets are bright. The switch is then thrown to close the
circuit.
SYNCHROS
A synchro is a small rotating machine that is similar to a synchronous alternator.

However, the salient field winding of the synchronous alternator is excited with
direct current, whereas in the synchro, the field is excited with alternating cur¬
rent. Both machines have a three-phase winding. These machines are not used as
motors and therefore are not rated in horsepower but, rather, in the torque that
they exert. This is usually expressed in inch-ounces (in.-oz.). Synchros are used
for remote signaling, control, or indication and must be used in conjunction with
one or more similar machines. When one machine, the transmitter, is turned, the
other machine, the receiver, turns a like amount, whether the transmitter is
turned through a complete revolution or only one degree.
Construction of the Synchro

There are many types of synchros. The most common kind consists of a stator,
shown in Figure 9-31, like that in a split-phase or three-phase inductor motor. It
has a three-phase, wye-connected winding in the slots. Three wires are brought
out of the stator for connection to another synchro. The rotor usually consists of
a core having two salient poles, as shown in Figure 9-32. It has two field coils
connected for alternate polarity. The ends of this winding are connected to two
slip rings that contact brushes connected to alternating current. Synchros are also
designed with the three-phase winding on the rotor and a distributed two-pole
winding on the stator. Ball bearings are used to eliminate end play and provide
exceptionally smooth operation.
Operation of the Synchro

Each synchro may be thought of as a transformer. The field coil acts like the
primary and is connected to an ac source, and the stator’s three-phase winding
acts like the secondary. Because there are three windings in the synchro stator, a
voltage will be induced in each phase. These voltages differ, depending on the
position of the rotor with respect to the stator. If the rotor is turned slowly by
hand, different voltages will be induced in the three-phase winding. Figure 9-33
shows a diagram of a synchro machine. There are five external leads, three from
the three-phase winding and two from the rotor winding. Note that the rotor
winding is excited by 120 volts of alternating current.
One synchro is located at the sending point as a generator or transmitter, and
the other is operated at the receiving point as the receiver. The two machines are
connected as shown in Figure 9-34. Note that the three-phase windings are joined
to one another and that the primaries are connected in parallel to the same source
of excitation.
If the rotor is in the same position in both the transmitter and receiver, then the
voltages generated in the corresponding phase windings of both machines will be
equal. Because corresponding phases are connected to each other, the voltages
induced will oppose one another, and no current will flow.
If the rotor of the transmitter is moved from its initial position, the induced
voltages of both machines will be unequal and opposite, as in Figure 9-35, and
consequently current will flow from one stator to the other. This current will set
up a torque in the receiver and cause the rotor to turn until it is in a position
corresponding to that of the transmitter’s rotor. When both rotors are in the same
position, no more current will flow, and the receiver’s rotor will not turn.
If the receiver turns in the opposite direction to the transmitter, it is necessary
to reverse two wires of the three-phase winding. It is important that the primaries
of each machine be connected to the same source of supply, or they will be out of
phase and will not operate properly.
THREE-PHASE WOUND-ROTOR
INDUCTION MOTOR
The three-phase wound-rotor motor ranges in size from fractional to hundreds of

horsepower. They are designed for variable speed operation. Typical use for this
type of motor would be pumps, cranes, and large air compressors.
Construction of the Wound-Rotor Three-Phase Motor

The main parts of the wound-rotor three-phase motor are (1) stator, (2) rotor, and
(3) end plates.
The stator is constructed identically to the stator of the squirrel cage motor.
There are three single-phase windings placed in the slots, 120 electrical degrees
from each other. The stator windings are connected wye or delta and can be
single or dual voltage.
The rotor also has three single-phase windings placed in the slots of the rotor,
120 electrical degrees from each other. The windings of the rotor can be con¬
nected wye or delta and usually are one circuit. Three leads from this winding are
connected to three slip rings. Brushes ride on the slip rings and the brush leads
are connected to a controller. Figure 9-36 shows a wound rotor. Figure 9-37 is a
diagram of a one-wye connection used in a rotor. The rotor windings are laid out
the same as stator windings; the only difference is that they are constructed to
withstand the problems connected with rotation.
Operation of the Three-Phase Wound-Rotor Motor

When the stator of the wound-rotor motor is energized with three-phase power,
the lines of force from the rotating magnetic field cut the conductors of the rotor,
inducing or transforming a voltage into them. This voltage creates a current that
has a path to the slip rings, through the brushes, and the brush leads to a control¬
ler. Figure 9-38 shows the stator and rotor circuit of this controller. The resistors
of the controller complete the circuit of the wound rotor and there is a closed
circuit formed for the current to follow. The resistors of the controller limit the
amount of current in the rotor circuit. When contacts 1A, 2A, 3A, and 4A are
closed in timed sequence, each set of contacts shorts out some of the resistance in
the controller. This allows more current to flow in the rotor circuit. As resistance
is eliminated from the rotor circuit, the rotor will accelerate. The motor’s rated
speed will be reached when all the resistors are shorted out. Top speed, like that
of the squirrel-cage motor will be slightly under synchronous speed. Synchro¬
nous speed is determined by the line frequency and the number of poles in the
motor. The wound-rotor three-phase motor does not have good speed regulation.
If the load is removed at any step or sequence of the controller, the rotor will
accelerate to near synchronous speed. The speed is controlled by the load and the
amount of current allowed to flow in the rotor circuit. Speed is controlled by
varying the amount of slip. Regenerative electronic speed controllers are much
more efficient than controllers that use resistors. The electronic controller can
change the energy that is wasted as heat in resistors into three-phase power. This
power is syncronized with line power and put back on the line, thereby reducing
the power cost. The wound-rotor motor operates like the squirrel-cage motor
when all the resistance in the controller is shorted out. Unlike the squirrel-cage
motor, however, some wound-rotor motors will not start without some resistance
in its circuit. There is a low power factor in the rotor circuit at low rpm’s and the
phase angle between the rotor and stator circuit is too great.
When comparing the windings of a wound-rotor and a squirrel-cage rotor,
there is only one turn or conductor in the squirrel-cage rotor and there are many
turns or conductors in the wound rotor. Because of many turns in the wound
rotor, there is much more inductive reactance.
Low Power Factor. The delay in current flow in the wound-rotor circuit be¬
cause of the high inductive reactance will cause the rotor to reach peak magnet¬
ism after the stator poles have done so. This will weaken the interaction between
the rotor and stator poles and the motor will not start. Resistance will reduce
inductive reactance in the rotor circuit and improve the phase angle. An im¬
proved phase angle means that the peak magnetism of the two circuits will
happen at or almost at the same time. The result would be better interaction
between the two circuits creating a high starting torque.
Troubleshooting the Three-Phase Wound-Rotor Motor

The stator of the three-phase wound rotor is the same as the stator of the standard
squirrel-cage motor. The same test can be applied to these stators that is de¬
scribed in Chapter 3.
The rotor of the wound-rotor motor has the same type of windings as the
stator; therefore, many of the same test procedures can be used to determine the
problems described in Chapter 3. The rotor will have additional problems that are
caused by inertia. When connections are not secured properly, they will flex and
break. The leads that go to the slip rings are a place where openings can occur.
The slip rings will heat and expand causing a stress on the lead where it is
connected to the slip ring. Expanding and contracting will eventually break the
lead wire. When this happens, the rotor has only two-thirds of its windings in the
circuit. The motor will lose power and two-thirds of the rotor winding will bum
out. If the slip rings are dirty or uneven, the brushes do not have good contact
and the result is excessive heating. Many of the commutating problems found in
dc motors are present in the slip rings of the three-phase wound-rotor motor.
Chapter 10
SOLID-STATE
MOTOR CONTROL
The speed, position, acceleration, and deceleration of electric motors can be
controlled electronically by using solid-state circuits. Speed is controlled by
employing solid-state-phase circuits to limit the effective voltage supplied to
appropriate elements of the motor or by controlling the frequency of the supply.
Microprocessors and computers are used to control motors’ position, speed,
acceleration, and deceleration. These sophisticated digital circuits acting with or
without feedback, can start and stop motors smoothly, position them precisely,
and guide them through complicated sequences of motion. Motor-control circuits
exploit the characteristics of modem solid-state devices; to understand them we
must first understand these devices.
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Semiconductor materials lie between conductors and insulators in their ability to

conduct electric current. A one-centimeter cube of a good conductor, silver, for
example, has a resistance of 10“6 ohms. A one-centimeter cube of mica, a good
insulator, has a resistance of 1012 ohms. In contrast, a one-centimeter cube of
pure silicon, the most widely used semiconductor material, has a resistance of
50 to 60 kilohms.
Semiconductor materials (germanium and silicon, for example) are crystals.
Conduction in semiconductor crystals differs from conduction occurring in either
insulators or conductors. This characteristic is exploited by solid-state devices.
To understand semiconductor conduction, it is necessary to review the atomic
structure of crystals.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
All matter is composed of atoms. Atoms are complex dynamic structures con¬
taining a nucleus with a net positive charge surrounded by orbiting electrons that
exactly cancel this charge. But semiconductor action can be explained without
recourse to the atom’s actual physical structure, which is not yet entirely known.
268
Solid-State Motor Control 269
Instead, we use a simplified model called the Bohr model (Figures 10-1 and
10-2).
In the Bohr model, electrons with nearly the same energy are grouped into
shells. Each shell is represented by a single circular orbit containing one or more
electrons. The maximum number of electrons in any shell is fixed by physical
considerations. The outermost shell is called the valence shell. The electrons in
this shell are most easily lost or gained. Therefore this shell participates most
often in atomic interactions. When this shell is filled, the atom is stable.
Crystals are composed of atoms that join to form symmetrical and repetitive
patterns. These atoms complete their valence shells by sharing valence electrons
with their neighbors. Silicon requires four valence electrons and combines with
four neighboring atoms to achieve stability. Another less widely used material,
germanium, also requires four valence electrons and bonds in the same way. In
the presence of external energy (light or heat), semiconductor material is not
completely stable. The external energy frees some valence electrons, leaving
unfilled niches called holes.
A voltage applied across a slab of relatively pure semiconductor material will
produce a small electric current. This current flows in two modes, free electron
and hole flow. Free electron flow is similar to conduction in metal. Electrons
move through the semiconductor in erratic paths, colliding with atoms and other
electrons. In the aggregate they move steadily toward the positive voltage. Con¬
duction by holes is also a result of electron movement, though it is the valence
electrons that move. These electrons jump from atom to atom, filling existing
holes. These electrons also move toward the positive voltage, but the holes
appear to move in the opposite direction. Therefore it is convenient to think of
electrons as negative carriers and holes as positive carriers. In the pure state, free
electrons and holes are evenly divided and relatively few.
PROPERTIES OF DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS
The ratio of free electrons to holes in a semiconductor must be changed before it

can be used in a solid-state device. This is done by adding minute amounts of
impurities (doping). If the added impurity contains atoms with five valence elec¬
trons, one free electron will remain after they bond to the semiconductor atoms.
The added impurity is called a donor, and the semiconductor becomes N-type
material. Impurities containing atoms with three valence electrons will form
incomplete bonds with the semiconductor atoms, leaving holes. These impurities
are called acceptors, and the doped semiconductor becomes P-type material.
Figure 10-3 shows conduction in an N-type semiconductor.
P-N IUNCTION (DIODE)
When N- and P-type materials are brought into intimate contact, a P-N junction
(diode) forms (Figure 10-4). Upon contact, the free electrons from the N-type
material diffuse into the P-type region, and holes leave the P-type region and
enter the N-type region. The N region that loses electrons acquires a positive
charge, and the P region that loses holes acquires a negative charge. Electrons fill
holes around the junction, leaving a region devoid of carriers. This is called a
depletion region. A small potential difference will now exist across the junction.
This potential difference will prevent the further diffusion of electrons and holes,
and the junction will stabilize in this state (Figure 10-5). An external voltage
applied across the diode, as shown in Figure 10-6, will increase this barrier, and
no current will flow. The diode is now reverse biased. Making the P material
positive in respect to the N region (Figure 10-7), reduces this barrier and permits
a current to flow. The diode is now forward biased. The magnitude of the current
depends on the applied voltage.
Diode Characteristics
Diodes pass current more readily in one direction (forward bias) than in the other
(reverse bias). The circuit symbol defining this action and the circuit actions of a
diode are shown in Figures 10-8, 10-9, and 10-10. Forward-biased diodes may
carry large currents and dissipate power. If the maximum allowable junction
temperature is exceeded, the diode will be damaged. This temperature may be
held down by connecting the diode leads or case to a large, finned mass of metal
called a heat sink. Some commercial silicon diodes are shown in Figure 10-11.
Small diodes (glass cases) are mounted on heat sinks by their leads. Large diodes
(stud mounted) are thermally connected to heat sinks through their metal cases.
Figure 10-12 displays the voltage-versus-current characteristic of a typical
silicon diode. (Note that the region below the horizontal axis is expanded.) The
forward-bias characteristic is a nonlinear curve, but it can be approximated by a
straight line meeting the horizontal axis at 0.7 volts. The slope of the straight line
represents the forward or on resistance of the diode. This value is supplied by the
manufacturer. The reverse-bias curve is initially horizontal, showing that a small
constant current (microamps) flows when the diode is reverse biased. As the
reverse bias is increased, the curve begins to bend sharply toward the vertical.
This is the breakdown region. Rectifying diodes cannot operate here, but special
diodes, called zeners, can. For most applications, the diode can be considered as
a switch that closes when the voltage across it is zero in the forward-bias direc¬
tion and opens when the voltage across it is less than zero (reverse bias).
DIODE APPLICATIONS
Rectification
The diode can be used to convert ac to dc. This action, called rectification,
exploits the fact that the diode conducts most readily in one direction only.
Figure 10-13 shows a half-wave rectifier, and Figures 10-14 and 10-15 show that
the diode conducts only on the positive half-cycles and transforms the ac wave
into a unidirectional pulsating dc. For most applications, the output of Fig¬
ure 10-15 must be smoothed (filtered). A relatively large capacitor placed across
the load can accomplish this (Figure 10-16). On each positive half-cycle, the
capacitor will be charged to the peak value of the voltage across the transformer
secondary. When the supply voltage decreases, the diode will turn off, and the
capacitor will discharge into the load. If the circuit values are correctly chosen,
the much smoother output of Figure 10-17 will be obtained.
Full-wave rectification provides a smoother output than does half-wave rectifi¬
cation. Figures 10-18 and 10-19 show that the center-tapped, full-wave rectifier
is essentially two half-wave rectifiers working into the same load. The upper
diode, Du conducts on the positive half-cycle, and D2 conducts on the negative
half-cycle. Both send current through the load in the same direction, producing
the output shown in Figure 10-20. The pulsations in this wave occur at twice the
frequency of the half-wave rectifier. A capacitor placed across the load (Fig¬
ure 10-21), is charged twice as often, giving the smoother output shown in
Figure 10-20b.
Figure 10-22a shows a full-wave bridge rectifier. On the positive half-cycle,
electron current flows from B— through D2, the load, D3, and back to A + . On
the negative half-cycle, electron current flows from A + through Di, the load,
D4, and back to B—. In both cases the current flows through the load in the same
direction. The bridge rectifier uses the full output of the transformer and does not
require a center-tapped transformer. However, four diodes are required, and the
total volt-drop across the diodes is twice that of the full-wave rectifier of
Figure 10-18. Figure 10-22b is another representation of Figure 10-22a.
Zener Diodes
The zener diode is used whenever a constant voltage is required. Figure 10-23
shows its circuit symbols, and Figure 10-24 displays a typical characteristic. This
shows the voltage across the diode versus the current through it. When operated
beyond the zener breakdown point, this characteristic becomes an almost vertical
line. This means that in this region, the voltage across the zener is almost con¬
stant and independent of current. A load placed across the zener (Figure 10-25)
shares this constant voltage. R\ in Figure 10-25 limits the zener current and
restricts its operation to the zener region.
TRANSISTORS
The transistor is a three-terminal, solid-state device that provides current, volt¬
age, and power amplification. Typical body shapes are shown in Figure 10-26.
The three transistor terminals attach to the emitter, base, and collector. In an
NPN transistor, the base is an extremely thin, P-type slab sandwiched between
two N-type slabs (Figure 10-27). In a PNP, the base is N-type, and the emitter
and collector are P-type (Figure 10-28). Figure 10-29 shows the circuit symbols
of the transistor. The arrow on the emitter indicates the direction of the positive
current flow (opposite to the electron flow) when the base-emitter circuit is
forward biased.
Transistor amplification is illustrated in Figure 10-30. Figure 10-30a shows an
NPN transistor with the emitter grounded, the base connected either to the
ground or to a positive voltage, and the emitter positive. Figure 10-30b shows the
potential distribution from emitter to collector. This transistor may be viewed as
two joined diodes (Figure 10-31). Diode 1 comprises the emitter and base, and
diode 2 comprises the base and the collector.
With its base grounded, diode 1 is forward biased, but not completely, as a
residual voltage opposes the current flow. The depletion region of this diode lies
between c and d in the diagram. The upward sloping line between emitter and
base shows that internally the emitter is slightly more positive than the base.
(Upward motion means moving from positive to negative.) Free electrons are the
carriers of current in the emitter. When the base is made more positive, the
potential hill is lowered, and electrons enter the base. Only electrons above the
hill have sufficient energy to enter the base and create current. As the hill is
raised or lowered by a signal applied to it, fewer or greater number of electrons
can surmount the hill. Therefore the base current mimics the base signal.
Diode 2 is strongly forward biased from base to collector (reverse biased from
collector to base). This is shown by the long fall from e and d. Electrons that are
able to leave the emitter and enter the collector will gain energy by falling
through this voltage change. Because the base is always very thin, 98 percent or
more of the electrons entering the base will pass through it, enter the collector,
and descend the base collector slope. As a result, small current changes con¬
trolled by a weak signal at the base will generate large current changes out of the
collector. The transistor therefore functions as a current amplifier.
The PNP transistor acts in exactly the same way except that all voltages and
currents are reversed.
Transistor-Circuit Configurations
The three possible circuit configurations of transistor amplifiers are shown in
Figure 10-32. Each configuration has its own function. The common base (CB)
provides voltage and power gain but no current gain. It has a low input imped¬
ance and a high output impedance. Consequently, it is often used for matching a
low impedance source to a device requiring a high input impedance. The com¬
mon emitter (CE) provides current, voltage, and power gain and it is widely used
as an amplifier. The common collector (CC) provides current and power gain. It
has a high input impedance and a low output impedance and is widely used to
match devices. For all configurations, Rj limits the emitter-base current, and the
output is taken across R2.
THE SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

The silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) is a solid-state electronic switch. It is pri¬
marily and widely used to control high power and large currents. The circuit
symbol, typical appearance, and structure are shown in Figure 10-33. The SCR
is a three-terminal diode with anode, gate, and cathode terminals. The gate is
connected to the P region adjacent to the cathode (cathode gate). This is the most
sensitive position. In use, the anode-cathode circuit is placed in series with the
load and the power source and adjusted so that it will not turn on in the absence
of a voltage pulse across the gate-cathode circuit. By controlling the timing of
this pulse, the power delivered to the load can be controlled. Extensive develop¬
ment to meet the needs of industry has produced SCRs with current handling
capacities from 0.5 to 2,500 amps, operating at voltages up to 3,600 volts. These
are used to control motors of all sizes and to rectify and control heavy power.
Operating Characteristics
Figure 10-34 shows the operating characteristics of the SCR. Figure 10-34a
shows the SCR with zero volts from gate to cathode. In this state there is a
critical voltage called the forward breakover voltage. Below this voltage, a small
leakage current (forward blocking current) flows. At this voltage, the SCR turns
on abruptly and acts as a closed switch. It will not turn off until its current is
reduced below a level called the holding current. A reverse voltage below the
reverse breakdown voltage will produce a small reverse leakage current. A re¬
verse voltage at or above the reverse breakdown voltage will damage the SCR.
Figure 10-34b shows that the SCR’s breakover voltage is reduced by the gate
current. At a sufficiently high gate current, the entire blocking region is re¬
moved, and the SCR behaves like a conventional diode. Reducing the gate cur¬
rent will not turn off the SCR; however, it remains on (latched) until its anode
current is reduced below the holding current level. In practice, the SCR is turned
on by a brief, voltage pulse, which permits precise turn-on timing.
SCR Operation
The SCR’s four-layer, three-junction structure can be analyzed into the two-tran-
sistor model of Figure 10-35 and the circuit of Figure 10-36. The circuit contains
a PNP and an NPN transistor. The PNP conducts when its base-emitter voltage is
negative, and the NPN conducts when its base-emitter voltage is positive.
Assume that a positive pulse is applied to the base of the NPN transistor. The
base-emitter circuit is now forward biased; the NPN transistor begins to turn on;
and the collector current increases. The collector voltage drops. Because the PNP
base is tied to the NPN collector and the PNP emitter is at the anode voltage, the
PNP base emitter becomes lightly forward biased. This in turn increases the NPN
collector current which produces more forward bias in the PNP. A regenerative
feedback action ensues, ending with both transistors fully on. Removing the
initial gate pulse will have no effect because the PNP collector current will flow
into the NPN gate and keep it on. The circuit can be turned off by reducing the
PNP current to a value at which the NPN begins to turn off. The regenerative
feedback action then proceeds in reverse.
THE TRIAC
The triac is a three-terminal, semiconductor, bilateral switch. It operates very

much like two SCRs connected in parallel with one reversed, and therefore it can
be turned on by a gate pulse for both positive and negative anode voltages. At
present, triacs are available in current ratings up to 40 amps and for voltages up
to 600. Figure 10-37 shows the structure of a triac, and Figure 10-38 shows its ac
characteristic. The triac is used to control and deliver ac power. It has applica¬
tion, therefore, in the full-wave control of universal motors and for the control of
induction motors. Because time is required to turn it off between positive and
negative cycles, the triac is limited to an upper operating frequency of about
400 Hz.
TRIGGERING THE SCR AND THE TRIAC

SCRs are often triggered by lower-powered solid-state devices that can be more
easily and more precisely controlled. These devices, classified as triggers, in¬
clude the unijunction transistor (UJT), the programmable unijunction transistor
(PUT), and the silicon unilateral switch (SUS). The triac is often triggered by the
diac, which is discussed on page 275.
Unijunction (UJT)
The UJT is a three-terminal, single P-N junction device that can function as a
latching switch. Its structure, symbol, and appearance are shown in Figure
10-39. It consists of an N bar (N-type material) with a single P-type region on
one side of the bar about halfway down. The upper and lower ends of the N bar
are designated B2 and Bu respectively. The P region is called the emitter (E).
The UJT operates like a simple resistor when the emitter is grounded and a
positive voltage is applied across B2-Bx. However, when the emitter voltage is
raised to the UJT’s firing voltage (UF), the resistance of the E-Bu circuit ab¬
ruptly drops to a low level. This action is illustrated in Figure 10-40. A voltage
across B2-Bu sends current through the N bar, producing a resistive voltage
drop (Figure 10-40). The voltage adjacent to the P insert is raised as a result. As
long as the P-N junction is back biased, the resistance from emitter to B\, is
relatively large (two to six kilohms). When the emitter voltage becomes slightly
higher than the adjacent N region, carriers (holes) are injected into the N bar.
This current flow reduces the resistance between E and B\. The forward bias is
further increased, and more current flows, further reducing the resistance of the
E-B\ path. A regenerative flyaway action follows. This action ends when the
emitter current reaches a peak value determined by other elements in its circuit.
The UJT is now turned on. Removing the initial emitter voltage has no effect, as
a high current flows in the E—B\ circuit. The UJT can be turned off only by
reducing that current and returning the P-N junction to its reversed bias state.
Figure 10-41 shows a UJT relaxation oscillator circuit. This circuit is fre¬
quently used to turn on (fire) an SCR. The SCR gate-cathode circuit is connected
across R3. When the switch is open, the voltage across C1? is low, and the UJT
and SCR are off. Closing the switch causes the voltage across Cx to rise at a rate
determined by the supply voltage and R\. When the UJT firing voltage is
reached, the UJT turns on, and C\ discharges through R3, producing a pulse large
enough to fire the SCR.
The Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT)

The PUT is used whenever an SCR requires a higher voltage pulse than that
generated by a UJT. The PUT is a four-layer, three-terminal device with an
anode, cathode, and an anode gate (gate is connected to the region adjacent to the
anode). It resembles an SCR but is lower powered and has a different internal
structure. Figure 10-42 shows its circuit symbol and a PUT relaxation oscillator.
The PUT fires when its anode voltage exceeds the gate voltage by 0.5 to
0.7 volts. The gate voltage is set by Rx and R2. Therefore the anode-firing
voltages can be controlled or programmed. The on-resistance of the PUT is much
lower than that of the UJT. It can discharge a capacitor more rapidly and com¬
pletely and give higher pulse currents and voltages than the UJT can. Therefore it
can drive higher-powered SCRs.
The Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS)

The SUS is a four-layer diode with an anode gate. The SUS is turned on when the
anode voltage reaches a critical voltage called the switching voltage (V5). The
anode gate is much less sensitive than a cathode gate is and is usually used for
synchronization. When turned on, the SUS acts as a latching switch similar to the
UJT and PUT. The SUS has a higher switching current and voltage than the UJT.
Figure 10-43 shows the circuit symbol, equivalent circuit, and the characteristic.
The characteristic is similar to the SCRs with zero gate current, but the current
scale is smaller.
The Diac
The diac (bilateral trigger diode) is a five-layer, two-terminal device. It can be
viewed as two, four-layer diodes connected in inverse parallel. Lacking a gate,
the diac can be fired only by positive and negative anode voltages. Diacs are
designed to trigger any well-designed triac circuit. Figure 10-44 shows the circuit
symbol and characteristic of a diac.
SOLID-STATE PHASE CONTROL
Phase-control circuits deliver only a portion of the ac supply to a load. They

accomplish this by controlling the on-time of an SCR (or triac) in series with the
load. Figure 10-45 shows a half-wave phase control using an SCR. If the trigger
pulse fires the SCR at the beginning of each positive half-cycle, then the shaded
waveform shown in Figure 10-46 will be delivered to the load. This is half of the
available supply power. If the trigger pulse fires the SCR at exactly 90° into the
positive half-cycle, then the shaded waveform of Figure 10-47 (one-quarter sup¬
ply power) will be delivered to the load. Motors that respond to supply power
reduction with decreasing speed can be controlled by this circuit.
Half-wave Phase Control

The waveforms of Figures 10-46 and 10-47 illustrate half-wave phase control.
The maximum supply power available to the load is one-half the ac supply
power. Half-wave control is used for motors that can operate from these pulsat¬
ing dc supplies and change speed as supply power varies. Control ranges from
zero to one-half of the maximum supply power.
Full-wave Phase Control, DC and AC

Full-wave dc control is obtained by full-wave rectifying the supply voltage. Each
half-cycle becomes positive-going. The SCR can then supply the maximum to
one-half the maximum supply power to the load. Figure IQ-48 shows a bridge
rectifier supplying power to an SCR-controlled motor. This is a simplified circuit
that omits necessary refinements. Figure 10-49 shows the waveform delivered to
the motor.
Full-wave ac control is illustrated in Figure 10-50a, b, and c. Control ranges
from maximum to one-half maximum, and the waveform delivered to the load
contains no dc. In Figure 10-50a, SCRj acts as a controlled half-wave rectifier
for the positive half-cycle. SCR2 does the same for the negative half-cycle. The
bridge rectifier in Figure 10-50b causes the SCR to conduct on both positive and
negative half-cycles, and therefore controlled ac is supplied to the load. Fig¬
ure 10-50c replaces the two SCRs of Figure 10-50a with a triac. This is the
recommended circuit.
Trigger Circuits
SCRs (and triacs) can be directly or indirectly triggered by two basic circuits:
resistance and resistance-capacitor (RC) triggers. Direct triggers feed to the
SCR’s gate. Indirect triggers fire trigger devices that in turn fire SCRs. Both
methods use similar circuits, but indirect triggering is more precise.
Direct resistance triggering is illustrated in Figure 10-51. During the positive
half-cycle of the supply with Sx closed, the SCR’s anode and gate voltages rise in
step. Figure 10-36 shows the gate-cathode circuit to be similar to the base-emitter
circuit of a transistor. Therefore, the gate-cathode voltage is low, and the load
current is limited by the SCR’s anode voltage. When the current in the gate
reaches the critical level, it will fire the SCR. The SCR’s anode voltage then
drops abruptly and the load current increases. The gate current also drops. Dur¬
ing the negative half-cycle the SCR turns off. The gate-cathode circuit is pro¬
tected by D\ from excess negative voltage during this cycle. The magnitude of Ri
controls the SCR’s firing angle. Firing angles from zero to 90°C can be obtained.
Indirect RC triggering is illustrated in Figures 10-52 and 10-53. The trigger
voltage in both cases is the result of current flowing through Ri and charging C\.
Until the UJT fires, its emitter circuit can be considered an open circuit. There¬
i,
fore the voltage across C (Vc) depends only on Rx, C and the voltage across the
RC branch. The time (T) required to charge the capacitor to 63.2 percent of the
branch voltage is
^charge (seconds) = R\ (ohms) x Ci (farads)
Similarly, the time (T) required to discharge the capacitor to 36.8 percent of its
maximum voltage is
^discharge (seconds) = R (ohms) x Cx (farads)
where R equals the resistance in the capacitor’s discharge path (the emitter-5]
circuit and R2 in Figures 10-52 and 10-53). R is made as small as possible to give
a brief high current pulse to trigger the SCR. Rx is usually made variable. The
time in the positive half-cycle when Vc reaches the UJT’s firing voltage can then
be controlled. Firing angles from zero to 180° can be obtained. Figure 10-52 uses
a half-wave dc supply, and Figure 10-53 uses a full-wave ac supply.
Figure 10-54 shows a circuit with Rx replaced by a PNP transistor (Qx) in
series with R3. The current through Qx is the capacitor-charging current. This
current is controlled by the current into the base of Qx. This permits sophisticated
electronic feedback control (discussed later). A full-wave dc supply is required
for reliable transistor operation.
Figure 10-55 shows a transistor-controlled UJT pulse circuit that corrects a
deficiency in Figure 10-54. In the former circuit, the voltage across the transistor
and the UJT depends on the SCR’s state. It is highest when the SCR is off and
lowest when the SCR is on. This complicates control. In Figure 10-55 a zener
diode voltage regulator is used to stabilize this voltage. As long as zener current
is sufficient to keep it on, its voltage remains constant. The zener voltage also
supplies the transistor and the UJT.
PHASE CONTROL OF MOTOR SPEED
Electronic phase control is used to control motor speed, to start and stop motors,
to reverse rotation, to provide overload protection, to provide braking, and to
limit starting current. Here we shall concentrate on speed control.
It is always risky to operate a device outside its ratings for the following
reasons: (1) Doing so generally nullifies all of the manufacturer’s guarantees.
(2) Most motors are rated for operation at a single speed, and at lower speeds
their cooling means may be inadequate. The lubrication of their bearings may
also be inadequate at lower-than-rated speeds. (3) Motors designed to work on
pure ac may respond erratically to the phase-control waveform. Finally,
(4) Phase control of motor speed may depend on motor characteristics not guar¬
anteed by the vendor.
For example, some controls for a universal series motor depend on a residual
magnetism in its magnetic structures. This residual magnetism is unwanted in
normal operation, and so the manufacturer may well be working to eliminate this
characteristic. Potential problems of this type can be avoided by consulting the
motor vendor beforehand when an unorthodox use is anticipated.
Reference and Feedback Signals

A circuit using feedback to govern a motor’s speed must, in some way, sense the
motor speed. In brush-type motors, the back e.m.f. generated by the motor while
the controlling SCR is off provides a good indication of motor speed. For sepa¬
rately excited shunt-field-wound and permanent-magnet field motors, this
e.m.f. is proportional to the field. However, the field of a series-wound motor is
not energized when the controlling SCR is off. Residual magnetism must be used
to gauge motor speed. Residual magnetism also depends on past current as well
as motor speed and is not, therefore, strictly reliable.
Feedback motor controls usually compare the fedback voltage with a reference
voltage. Motor speed is changed until the difference between the two voltages is
less than some specified amount. Figure 10-56 shows a circuit in which a refer¬
ence and feedback voltage are compared. The difference (V ref—Vc emf) is the
SCR’s gate-cathode voltage. Figure 10-56 illustrates this effect using two voltage
sources. For Vref = 20 V and Vfeedback = 15 V, 5 V appears across the load
(input of the firing device).
UNIVERSAL SERIES MOTOR CONTROL

The Universal series motor is a brush-type motor. Therefore the back e.m.f.
generated during the SCR off-cycle can be used to measure motor speed. This
e.m.f. depends on the residual magnetism of the field poles, and consequently
the precautions noted previously should be observed.
Half-wave Control with Feedback

Figure 10-57a shows a half-wave feedback circuit advanced by Momberg and
Taylor.1^ In this circuit the SCR is inserted between the field winding and the
armature. The SCR cathode is therefore lifted above the ground by the armature
voltage. The reference voltage (VG) is derived from a potentiometer connected
across the ac line. The reference voltage is an attenuated sine wave in phase with
the anode voltage of the blocked SCR. When the motor is stationary, the arma¬
ture voltage is zero, and the SCR’s gate current is maximum. Therefore the SCR
fires early in the cycle, providing maximum power to the motor. As the motor
speed increases, a voltage proportional to speed develops across the armature.
The SCR’s gate-cathode voltage is consequently reduced, thus decreasing the
gate current (SCR off) and delaying the firing time. Less power is delivered to
the motor, allowing it to smoothly slow down to a stable speed.
An increase in load tends to reduce the motor speed. The armature voltage will
decrease; the SCR’s gate current will increase; and the firing angle will be ad¬
vanced. More power will be delivered to the motor, restoring its speed. The
motor will then stabilize at a speed reflecting an equilibrium among the armature
voltage, the gate current, and the motor power. Essentially the motor will main¬
tain a fixed speed over a range of loads. The specific speed depends on the
position of the potentiometer arm.
Figure 10-57b shows the circuit waveforms when VG is relatively high. The
SCR is fired early in the cycle, and the motor runs at a high speed. Figure 10-57c
illustrates the case for a lower VG. The firing is delayed, and the motor runs at a
lower constant speed.
The circuit has some disadvantages. The total resistance in the R\P\ branch
must be low enough to provide sufficient gate current to trigger the SCR. There¬
fore the branch may dissipate considerable energy. The SCR cannot be fired at
angles greater than 90° (one-quarter-cycle operation). At low speeds, the motor
may need less than one-quarter cycle to reach a stable speed. The SCR may not
fire for several cycles, which causes a hunting or “cogging” effect accompanied
by an objectionable mechanical noise.
Figure 10-58 shows a half-wave control circuit that permits a stable low-speed
operation by allowing less than a one-quarter-cycle conduction. The key ele¬
ments are the zener diode (CR3) and capacitor Cv The zener diode clips the
supply voltage at a low level. The voltage across it is practically constant for the
entire positive half-cycle. C\ therefore charges at an almost constant rate
throughout the positive half-cycle. During the negative half-cycle, the zener is
forward biased at virtually zero volts. C\ discharge to almost zero.
The charging rate depends on the P i setting and the value of C\. With a proper
choice of C\ and P\, the SCR can be made to fire anywhere from zero to 180°.
* Adapted from General Electric Co., Semiconductor Products Dept.

tU.S. Patent No. 2,939,064, J. W. Momberg et al., “Motor Control Systems,” May 31, 1960,
assigned to the Singer Manufacturing Co.
Figure 10-58d shows the zener voltage. Figure 10-58b shows the motor voltage
and the voltage across C\ (VCi) at high speed, and Figure 10-58c shows the
slow-speed case. Feedback control operates as in Figure 10-57.
The other circuit components act to protect and stabilize the circuit. If C\ does
not discharge to exactly the same level in each cycle, the SCR’s firing will be
erratic. CR2 provides a low resistance path to discharge C\. CR\ permits C\ to
fire the SCR during the positive half-cycle but protects the SCR’s gate from
excessive negative voltage during the negative half-cycle. The one-kilohm resist¬
ance and C2 bypass the commutator hash and extraneous signals that can fire the
SCR prematurely.
Both circuits (Figures 10-57 and 10-58) require separating the motor’s field
and armature. This is necessary to keep the feedback uncontaminated by the
voltage induced in the field by the rotating armature. If the field were not sepa¬
rated, a small voltage would be induced in it by transformer action. This would
modify the feedback signal. In both circuits these slight changes in the level of
the firing voltage cause unacceptable shifts in firing time. This is a result of the
flat gate voltage of Figure 10-56 and the slowly rising gate voltage of Figure
10-57. Figure 10-59 shows how steeper SCR gate-cathode voltage slopes im¬
prove firing stability: a and b show the decreased time shift (A0 for linear volt¬
ages equally displaced, and c shows the effect for a phase-shifted sine wave.
The circuit of Figure 10-60a reduces the SCR’s sensitivity to gate-cathode
voltage changes by increasing the steepness of the gate-cathode voltage wave¬
form. The SCR is fired by a steeply rising sine-wave gate signal instead of by a
flat or slowly rising one. The motor speed is controlled by shifting the phase of
this sine wave, as in Figure 10-60b and c. This eliminates the need for separate
field and armature connections.
The circuit operates as follows: During the positive half-cycle, CR2 turns on,
developing a small constant reference voltage at its anode (top). A sine-wave
voltage in phase with the supply is developed between the P\ and the anode of
CR2. C\ shifts the phase of this voltage. This sine wave sits on the diode refer¬
ence pedestal. Both the phase shift and amplitude of the SCR’s gate voltage
depend on the position of the P\ arm and the value of C\. When these are
properly chosen, almost 180° control is obtained. CR\ and R2 serve the same
function as in Figure 10-58. Different-sized motors require different component
values (Figure 10-60d). Sometimes the motor hunts when P\ is at minimum
setting, though this depends on the minimum resistance of Px. However, a small
trimpot added between Px and CR2 can be adjusted to eliminate this hunting.
The R\-Pi resistance in Figure 10-60 must be low enough to deliver the
required gate current to the SCR. At low-speed operation, firing occurs when the
instantaneous value of the supply voltage is low. Therefore Ru P\ must be small
and may be required to furnish high currents and dissipate high wattages. In
many cases the required wattages are impractical. The circuit of Figure 10-61
eliminates this problem by interposing an SUS between the SCR’s gate and the
R\, P\ circuit. The SUS fires when its breakover voltage (eight to ten volts) is
exceeded. It then acts as a very low resistance, rapidly discharging C\ and deliv¬
ering a strong pulse to the SCR gate. The Rx, P\ network is independent of the
SCR’s gate-current requirements. High-value, low-wattage resistors can be used.
Using a PUT as a trigger device also acts to isolate the SCR gate from the Rx,
Pi circuit. In addition it offers additional advantages over the SUS. Design is
made more flexible and operation more precise, as the breakover voltage is
adjustable. Also, the PUT can trigger higher-powered SCRs than the SUS can.
Figure 10-62 shows a PUT-triggered control circuit. The section of the figure
outside the dashed box is similar to the SUS circuit. However, the circuit within
the box is different. The PUT’s breakover voltage depends on its gate voltage.
This voltage is derived from a voltage-regulated source (the zener diode D\)
divided by R6 and R7. R4 and R5 form the adjustable pedestal on which the trigger
ramp sits. R2 and R3 control the charging rate of C\.
The system operates as follows: At the beginning of each positive half-cycle of
the supply voltage, the voltage across the zener rises until it turns on at 22 volts.
C2 is charged through R6 and R7 to the zener voltage, which is also the PUT’s
gate voltage. At the same time, Ci is charging through R2 and R3, starting from a
pedestal voltage determined by R4 and R5. The PUT will fire when its anode
voltage (Vci) exceeds its gate voltage by 0.5 to 0.7 volts. When the back e.m.f.
is greater than Vc2, VC2 will remain at 22 volts. When the back e.m.f. is less than
Vc2i D3 wiH conduct and clamp VC2 at the back e.m.f. This will decrease the
PUT’s gate voltage, and if the PUT’s anode voltage is high enough, it will fire
and trigger the SCR through pulse transformer T\. Whenever the back e.m.f.
becomes greater than 22 volts, D3 will turn off. The PUT’s gate voltage will rise
to 22 volts, delaying firing. Adjusting the speed control (R5) raises and lowers
the starting voltage of the C\ charging ramp.
Full-wave Universal AC Series Motor Control

Diacs and triacs are well suited for full-wave motor control. Figure 10-63 shows
a basic full-wave ac control without feedback. C\ is alternately charged positive
and negative through Rx, Pi by the supply voltage. When VC\ reaches the diac’s
breakover voltage (positive or negative), the diac fires, generating a pulse that
fires the triac. The phase angle at which the firing takes place is controlled by the
Ri, Pi, Ci circuit. Control for this circuit ranges from zero to 90° for both
positive and negative cycles.
Triacs require a short interval to turn off (commutate) when their anode volt¬
ages are reversed. To maintain control for both positive and negative cycles, the
triac must turn off whenever its anode voltage reverses. An abrupt current turn¬
off in a circuit containing an inductance (motor field) generates a high rapidly
changing voltage spike of opposite polarity to the supply voltage. If this spike

rises too rapidly (rapid dv/dt), the triac will be unable to commutate, and control
will be lost for the next half-cycle. The R2, C2 circuit retards the dv/dt of the
spike by attenuating high-frequency components so that the triac can turn off and
retain control.
Full-wave DC Control with Feedback*

Figure 10-64 shows a full-wave dc control circuit with feedback. This circuit
requires separate field and armature connections. The full-wave bridge converts
the ac supply to periodic positive half-cycles. The position of the P\ arm deter¬
mines the SCR’s firing angle. CR6 is a free-wheeling diode used to maintain
field current when the SCR is off. Circuit operation is similar to that of Fig¬
ure 10-57.
The circuit has several disadvantages: Its firing angle ranges from zero to 90°.
Ru Pi must supply gate current to the SCR. Also, because the SCR’s anode
voltage does not reverse, at low speeds the back e.m.f. may be insufficient to
turn off the SCR. This can cause hunting.
Full-wave Control with Precise Triggering

All phase-control circuits triggered directly or indirectly by a charging capacitor
face the same problem. Unless the capacitor discharges to the same level each
time that the SCR is fired, the timing will be erratic and possibly troublesome.
Figure 10-65 shows a full-wave UJT control circuit that corrects this problem.
The UJT fires whenever its emitter voltage is 0.7 volts higher than the adjacent
N-bar voltage. This voltage depends on the B2 voltage. At the end of each
half-cycle VB2 is zero. Therefore the UJT acts like a diode and clamps VC1 to
0.7 volts. The maximum voltage across C\ is also held constant by the zener
diode. Therefore the C\ waveform is duplicated each half-cycle. Within the
cycle, the UJT will fire in the normal way and trigger the SCR.
SHUNT OR P-M FIELD MOTOR CONTROL

The shunt-wound dc (or permanent-magnet field) motor readily adapts to solid-
state speed-control circuits. Its speed is controlled by the voltage across its arma¬
ture and remains approximately constant despite changes in torque. If required,
its speed can be made virtually independent of the torque by adding a small
compound-series winding or introducing feedback into the armature voltage sup-
ply.*

Half-wave Control without Feedback

Figure 10-66 shows a simplified half-wave control circuit without feedback.
During the positive half-cycle, C\ supplies a phase-shifted voltage to the trigger
device. The triggering time is controlled by P\. The trigger device may be a diac,
SUS, UJT, or other. The shunt field is energized through D\ while Lx-L2 is
negative (solid arrows). During the next half-cycle, Dx cuts off, but the inductive
field of the field coil collapses slowly. This action maintains a current circulating
through the field coil and D\ in the desired direction (dotted arrows). D\ is called
a back ox free-wheeling rectifier. The armature in series with the charging circuit
has an insignificant effect on the phase of VC1, and therefore the circuit provides
no feedback.
Half-wave Control with Precise Triggering

and Feedback
Shunt motors are often designed for half-wave operation from a 117-volt, ac
supply. They can be precisely controlled by the circuit of Figure 10-67. In this
circuit, Ci is charged through the motor armature and Z)4, while the SCR is off.
This arrangement provides the feedback required for constant speed. If the motor
slows down, its back e.m.f. will decrease, and Ci will reach the firing voltage
sooner. This speeds up the motor. If the motor speeds up, its back e.m.f. will
increase, and the charging current into C\ will decrease. This delays the SCR’s
firing point and returns the motor to its previous speed.
Precise triggering is obtained by discharging Cj through D2 and the motor
field during each negative half-cycle. During this period, both D3 and D2 are on.
Therefore Cj discharges to 1.4 volts and begins to charge from this voltage at the
start of the next positive cycle. The firing time is adjusted by Rx. A diac triggers
the SCR, but an SUS, UJT, or PUT can be used as well.
Using a Neon-Bulb Trigger

Neon bulbs can also be used as triggers. They have characteristics similar to
diacs, with switching voltages about 90 volts and switching currents below
1 fxA. However, their switching time is long compared with that of solid-state
devices. Their only advantage is their low cost. Figure 10-68 shows a simple,
low-cost, half-wave motor control using a neon bulb. An ac voltage appears
across C\. Therefore Vc is a phase-shifted voltage rather than a capacitor-charg¬
ing voltage. The neon bulb is triggered by both positive and negative half-cycles,
but the SCR responds only to the positive ones. Although the armature is in
series with Ru Pu and Ci, feedback is not provided because the armature’s back
e.m.f. has little effect on the phase of V). The dotted box shows the circuit for a
dc shunt motor. The circuit also works for a series-field universal motor, as
shown.

Full-wave Speed Controls for Shunt Motors

Figure 10-69 shows a simple yet excellent full-wave speed control for dc shunt
motors. This circuit embodies both precision firing and feedback.
Precision firing is accomplished at the end of each half-cycle, by triggering the
SUS. Normally the SUS is triggered when the anode to cathode voltage is be¬
tween six to eight volts. However, it also triggers when the gate voltage is much
lower than the anode. At the end of each half-cycle, the gate voltage falls to zero
(R\, R2 voltage divider). This discharges C\ completely.
Feedback occurs in two ways. Vcl depends on the armature’s back e.m.f. At
high speeds, this is high and reduces the C\ charging current. At low speeds, the
opposite effect takes place. Also, collapsing energy stored in the armature’s
inductive field will keep D3 on for a short time at the start of each half-cycle.
When D3 is on, the armature is shorted, and its back e.m.f. cannot affect VC}.
The C\ charging rate is increased. Armature current increases with torque.
Therefore higher torque will keep D3 on longer and decrease the firing angle.
Otherwise, circuit operation is similar to that of other full-wave control cir¬
cuits. The bridge rectifier converts ac to periodic positive half-cycles. The SUS
fires when VC\ reaches six to eight volts. R3 controls the charging rate of C\ and,
consequently, motor speed.
Full-wave, single-SCR motor controls often face a turnoff problem. After each
positive half-cycle, the SCR must turn off to regain control in the next cycle.
Under full-wave drive, the turnoff time may be insufficient for this to happen.
Figure 10-70 shows a full-wave motor-control circuit that solves this potential
problem. Here SCRj and SCR2 conduct on alternate half-cycles, although they
are triggered by the same circuit. With A—, electron current flows through Du
through the armature, through SCR2 (when it fires), and returns to B. SCRj is off
during this period. With B —, electron current flows through Z)2, through the
armature, through SCRj (when fired), and returns to A. Current flows through
D1, the field, and Z)4 with A—. With B —, current flows through Z)2, the field,
and D3. The direction of current flow is the same in both cases.*
The circuit of Figure 10-70 is also economical. D3 and Z)4 carry only field
current, and therefore they can be small lead-mounted diodes without heat sinks.
Each SCR carries half the total armature current. They can therefore be smaller
than the SCR in an equivalent single SCR circuit. This simplifies heat sinking.
INDUCTION MOTOR CONTROLS*

Induction motor speeds are not easily controlled by phase-control circuits. These
motors are primarily frequency sensitive, and consequently they respond more
readily to variable-frequency drives than to voltage control. Much depends on
the motor’s specific characteristics, but in general, when phase control is used,
motors should be as voltage sensitive as possible. The variable-voltage drive of
Adapted from General Electric Co., Semiconductor Products Dept.

induction motors is a compromise usually dictated by economics, though control

can be satisfactory when properly implemented.
Split-phase and capacitor-start induction motors require a switched start wind¬
ing to supply the starting torque. Motor speed cannot be controlled until the start
winding is switched out, and so the switching point must be lower than the
speed-controlled speed range.
Figure 10-71 shows how the voltage (phase) control of induction motors de¬
pends on their speed-torque characteristics. Curves showing the speed-torque
characteristics of a fan and those of a low rotor-resistance, permanent-split ca¬
pacitor motor are shown. The motor characteristics are shown at two supply
voltages. The motor speed in each case is given by the intersection of the fan and
motor characteristic. Figure 10-7la shows very little speed variation in supply
voltage, and Figure 10-7lb illustrates the case for a high rotor resistance. Here
the speed variation with supply voltage is greater.
Information on the speed of the induction motor cannot be derived from any
inherent motor parameter, and so it is usually necessary to use a small tachometer
generator for this purpose. The tachometer’s output does not have to be precise,
but it should be repeatable. Sometimes speed information can be indirectly de¬
rived. For example, in a furnace-blower system, the air temperature can be used
to measure the blower speed. Figure 10-72 shows a furnace-blower control. The
air temperature controls the resistance of thermistor R3 which controls the triac’s
firing angle.
Figure 10-73 shows a block diagram of an induction motor’s speed control
using a tachometer. The tachometer’s voltage output is compared with a refer¬
ence voltage. The result is used to control the motor speed. A negative output
(reference voltage lower than the tachometer’s) will decrease the motor speed. A
positive result (reference voltage higher than the tachometer’s) will increase the
motor speed. Motor speeds are set by adjusting the reference voltage.
Figure 10-74 shows a practical induction motor’s speed control. The tachome¬
ter generates an ac voltage proportional to the motor speed. Each time the ac
tachometer’s output swings positive, C\ and C2 are charged. On the negative
swing, Ci is discharged. The speed-control potentiometer controls the discharge
of C2. Vc2 is filtered by the ten-kilohm resistance and the 5 julF capacitor. The dc
voltage generated is the feedback signal. The integrated circuit (IC), PA436, is a
sophisticated solid-state phase-control package that delivers a trigger pulse. The
timing of this pulse depends on the difference between VC\ and the filtered VC2.
The motor speed is adjusted until this difference is very small. (The PA436 has
now been replaced by more advanced packages.)
SCR PROTECTION*
SCRs must be protected against excessive negative anode-cathode voltages, or
they will break down. Figure 10-75 illustrates a protection scheme using diodes,
*Courtesy of Square D Co.

fuses, and surge protectors. Diode 3 Rec limits reverse SCR voltage to about
0.7 volts, the diode on voltage. Diode 2 Rec blocks the negative half of the
supply voltage. The two diodes keep the SCR’s reverse voltage to a low and safe
value. The fuse (1FU) and the surge protector (ISP) protect the SCR from exces¬
sive currents. The fuse provides protection from prolonged current overloads.
The surge protector, a low resistance for normal currents, becomes a very high
resistance when large current transients are present.
USING TRANSISTORS IN MOTOR-CONTROL

CIRCUITS
Transistors can be used to increase the sensitivity and enhance the control of
trigger circuits. They are used to amplify the error signal in feedback circuits,
provide constant current sources for charging capacitors, and discharge trigger
capacitors for precise timing.
Figure 10-76 illustrates the use of the transistor as an amplifier and a constant
current source. Here the current into the base of Q2 consists of an electron flow
through Rx from right to left, due to the setting of Px, and an electron flow from
left to right, due to feedback. Therefore the base current depends on the differ¬
ence between the reference and the feedback voltages. This error signal controls
the amplified and reversed emitter-collector current that charges C2. Thus the
sensitivity of the control circuit is considerably increased. Also the emitter-col¬
lector current is independent of the emitter-collector voltage and depends only on
the base current. Therefore a constant-error, negative base current will charge Cx
with a constant, amplified, positive emitter-collector current. This will generate
a straight-line ramp voltage across Cx rather than the flattening exponential curve
produced by conventional charging circuits. The straight-line ramp results in
more precise firing.
The circuit operates as follows: When the motor speed corresponds to the
setting of Pu the error signal is small and negative. This will become more
negative if the motor speed decreases. The base electron current increases, and
the emitter-collector current increases in the opposite direction. This charges Cx
more rapidly and increases the motor speed. The reverse occurs if the motor
speeds up. A dc supply voltage is required for the transistor, which is provided
by the half-wave rectifier Dx and is filtered by Cx. The full-wave dc supply
(Figure 10-77) will provide a more constant dc and improve performance.
Figure 10-78 shows how a transistor is used to discharge the trigger capacitor
for precise triggering. Q3 parallels C2. Whenever Q3 is fully turned on, C2 will
discharge completely through Q3. Q3 can be turned on by a surge of positive base
current. When the ac supply voltage is not close to zero, current flows through
either Dx or Z)2, through Z)3, and through R6. D3 is kept on. Current from R4
flows through D3, and Q3 is kept off. At the beginning and end of each positive
cycle, the ac supply voltage is momentarily too low to keep Z)3 on. The R4
current now flows into the base of g3, turning it on momentarily and discharging
C2. The dc supply is constant. Therefore C2 immediately begins to recharge.
This provides precise full-wave control.
SOLID-STATE SWITCHING
A solid-state switch can replace the centrifugal starting switch in split-phase and
capacitor-start motors. The start winding is usually switched off when the motor
attains 75 percent of the base speed. In some applications, the arcing accompany¬
ing mechanical switching is undesirable. Solid-state switching is then suitable.
Figure 10-79 shows a solid-state-switched, capacitor-start motor. Current
through the start winding (S.W.) is controlled by the solid-state switch. During
startup, the current through the run winding (R.W.) is high. This current sensed
by the current transformer keeps the solid-state switch on. As the motor speeds
up, the transformer current decreases. At some predetermined point, the solid-
state switch turns off, and only the run winding remains energized.
THREE-PHASE DRIVES
Three-phase motors are usually large, integral-horsepower motors. Three-phase
speed-control drives are available. There are several types of drives: magnetic
drives, motor-generator sets, and static drives. Magnetic and motor-generator
drives are mechanical-electrical drives. The static drive is purely electronic.
Magnetic Drives
Figure 10-80 shows the mechanical structure of a magnetic drive. The field
assembly (stationary field) is bolted to the machine housing and remains station¬
ary. The input assembly is a metal drum mounted on the motor shaft. It is
concentric with the field winding and affected by its magnetic field. The output
assembly is mounted on the output shaft, and its speed is determined by the
control circuitry.
The drive operates as follows: With zero field current, the input assembly is
unaffected by the stationary assembly field and rotates freely at motor speed. It
has no affect on the output assembly, which remains stationary. When the sta¬
tionary field is excited and the motor is turning, eddy currents are induced in the
input assembly by the stationary field. These eddy currents establish a magnetic
field around the input assembly. This magnetic field rotates at motor speed and
exerts a torque on the output assembly. The speed of the output assembly de¬
pends on its load and the strength of the induced magnetic field in the input
assembly. The strength of the field in the input assembly is controlled by the
SCR’s firing angle in the circuit of Figure 10-81. The firing angle is determined
by a feedback, reference-controlled trigger circuit, similar to those already stud¬

ied. The feedback signal is usually obtained from a tachometer.
Motor-Generator Drives
Figure 10-82 shows a simplified motor-generator drive. The motor-generator set
is part of the control unit, and the dc motors is the controlled motor. The dc
voltage output of the generator depends on the speed of the three-phase motor
driving it and on its own field excitation. The speed of the dc motor depends on
this dc voltage impressed across its armature. The excitation of the generator
field depends on the SCR’s firing angle. The SCR is controlled by a usually
sophisticated feedback-reference trigger circuit.
Static Drives
The static drive shown in Figure 10-83 rectifies three-phase power and drives a
dc motor. The motor speed depends on the SCRs’ firing angle. Each SCR fires at
angles displaced by 120° from one another. Rectified three-phase ac produces a
satisfactory dc without filtering, and so the current through the motor armature is
rectified but unfiltered. The triggering circuits used here are complicated but use
the principles already discussed.
CHOPPER DRIVES
Speed control is often required for dc motors operating from a dc source, for
example, golf carts, fork-lift trucks, and other battery-operated electric vehicles.
The chopper controller or voltage chopper is widely used in these applications.
The chopper controller chops the dc-source voltage into constant amplitude
pulses. Power delivered to the motor is controlled in one of two modes: constant
frequency-variable pulse width or variable frequency-constant pulse width.
In the constant frequency-variable pulse-width mode, the chopper operates at
a constant frequency. The motor speed is controlled by varying the width (dura¬
tion) of the pulses. In SCR-controlled circuits, the pulse width is determined by
controlling the firing times. Power-transistor drives are also used in chopper-con¬
trolled drives. The motor power is then determined by controlling the transistors’
turnoff time.
In the variable frequency-constant pulse-width mode, the pulse duration is
constant. The motor speed is controlled by adjusting the pulses’ repetition rate.
SCR and power-transistor circuits are widely used in this application.
Figure 10-84 shows a Jones chopper circuit. This is a popular circuit widely
used in fork-lift truck drives. The circuit operates by supplying load current when
Si is gated on and by blocking load current when S2 goes on. When Sj is gated
on, the load current flows through Si, L2, and the load. At the same time, C is
charged by transformer action through Dx with its lower plate positive. When S2
is gated on, the capacitor voltage appears across S\. Si is reversed biased and
turns off. The pulse duration and repetition rate are determined by the firing
signals at the SCR’s gate.
INVERTERS
Inverters convert dc to variable-frequency ac. The speed of inductance and reluc¬
tance motors depends most strongly on the frequency of the supply. Therefore
inverters are suitable for the speed control of these motors. This same technique
can be used to control the speed of ac motors driven by an ac supply. The ac
supply is rectified. The output of the rectifier drives an inverter that supplies the
ac motor.
Figure 10-85 shows a series inverter. Series inverters are primarily used for
fixed-frequency applications, but they are also used as variable-speed control¬
lers. This controller has been successfully used in blower and pump systems.
The frequency of the circuit of Figure 10-85a is controlled by alternate firings
of Si and S2. When Si is gated on, current flows through C and the load. This
provides the positive half-cycle. L, C, and R act to make the current sinusoidal.
During this period, C is charged to peak values. When S2 is gated on, the anode
voltage of Si drops to ground, and Si turns off. C discharges through S2 and
provides the negative half-cycle. S3 is turned on between cycles to return excess
charge to the dc supply.
Three-phase inverters are used to drive and control ac motors. The circuit
(Figure 10-86), although more complex, operates like the series inverter of Fig¬
ure 10-85. The three-phase bridge rectifier supplies dc to the inverter. Si and S4
are fired alternately to invert the load current for one phase. S2 and S5, and S3 and
S6 are fired for the other phases. The diodes in antiparallel with the SCRs provide
a path for the reactive current when the SCR turns off. Rigid control of SCR
firing is required. An incorrect firing sequence, caused perhaps by noise, can
turn on two opposed SCRs at the same time, thereby causing a short across the dc
supply.
CYCLOCONVERTERS*
Cycloconverters convert the ac supply voltage to a lower, variable frequency.
The cycloconverter is an alternative to a rectifier-inverter system for changing
the supply frequency.
Figure 10-87 shows a single-phase cycloconverter. It is a full-wave rectifier
with antiparallel SCRs replacing the usual diodes. The SCRs are fired in pairs:

SCRi and SCR2 or SCR3 and SCR4. SCRj and SCR2 provide the positive half¬
cycle of the output, and SCR3 and SCR4 provide the negative half-cycle. The
output frequency is always less than the supply frequency. This frequency is
determined by the length of time that the alternate SCR pairs are fired. The
amplitude and shape of the output waveform depend on the pattern of firing.
Figure 10-88 shows the firing pattern required to generate a sine wave of about
one-third line frequency. The sine wave of Figure 10-88 has been filtered to
remove the line frequency components. Cycloconverters are widely used to con¬
trol three-phase induction motors.
MICROPROCESSOR-CONTROLLED MOTOR DRIVES

The advent of the microprocessor and computer has significantly extended the
scope of motor control. Motors can be precisely controlled not only in speed but
also in acceleration, deceleration, and end position. Motors can also be con¬
trolled by programs consisting of many separate commands and made to respond
to external conditions.
Microprocessors- and computer-controlled motors are used in automated ma¬
chine tools and in robots. In both applications they are used to position an
element of the machine and then to control some process. This process can be
welding, turning, milling, lifting, tightening, and the like. In both cases, precise
control of motor speed, position, acceleration, and deceleration are needed.
Stepper and servo motors are both used in these applications.
THE STEPPER MOTOR
The stepper motor is a brushless dc motor with an armature that can be positioned
by energizing pairs of field coils. Figure 10-89 shows a stepper motor with four
stator windings and a permanent-magnet armature. The armature will rotate so
that its magnetic field lines up with the energized pair of stator coils. In Figure
10-89b, Step 1 shows the case for A and C energized. Deenergizing A and C and
energizing B and D will rotate the armature 90° counterclockwise (Step 2). Ener¬
gizing C and A in reverse polarity rotates the armature another 90° counterclock¬
wise. By successively energizing and deenergizing the stator pairs, the armature
may be made to rotate in steps through any number of complete revolutions.
With proper commutation of the stator fields, the armature can be made to rotate
smoothly and continuously at speeds controlled precisely by the switching rate.
The stepper motor is usually driven by pulsing all the stator coils in a desired
sequence. Figure 10-89c shows the timing of pulses required to rotate the stator
counterclockwise in 90° steps. Positive pulses represent current leaving the stator
coil; negative pulses, current entering the stator coil. A pair of coils are energized
when one is made positive and the other, negative. During Step 1, A and C are
energized; during Step 2, B and C; and so on.
The rotor in Figure 10-89a can be rotated in 45° steps by overlapping pulses.
This is shown in Figure 10-89d. During Step 1, A and C are energized, and the
rotor rotates into the 0° position shown before. During Step 2, A and C, and B
and D are energized. The armature now rotates 45° counterclockwise.
Figure 10-90 shows a variable-reluctance stepper motor with a multipole ar¬
mature and three pairs of stator coils. In Step 1, A and D are energized, and the
armature aligns its two opposite poles with the stator pair. Energizing A and D
and F and C rotates the armature 30° clockwise.
The stepper motor can be used as a high-precision positioning device. It is
available for angular displacements from 0.9 to 180°. It can also function as a
precise speed and acceleration-deceleration device, as it will exactly follow a
pulse-train pattern. Because of its inherent precision, feedback is not required.
Stepper-Motor Controllers
Intelligent microprocessor- or computer-controlled stepper-motor controllers are
now available. These control step rate, acceleration and deceleration, number of
steps, and step direction. In addition, an internal memory can be used to store
commands and repeat complex motions. Secondary control lines allow these
motions to be synchronized with external events. Using these secondary control
lines, an external computer can control several motors and integrate their opera¬
tion while an intelligent controller runs each motor.
The CY512 intelligent positioning stepper-motor controller manufactured by
Cybernetic Micro Systems is a good example. It is supplied in a standard five-
volt, 40-pin package and will control any four-phase stepper motor in either
full- or half-step modes. It will interface with any computer using parallel input
and provides numerous inputs and outputs for auxiliary control. Sequences of
commands written in an English-like, high-level language may be programmed
into its memory from a standard (ASCII) keyboard. It can output 8,000 steps per
second in either direction. Figure 10-91 shows the CY12 pin-out diagram.
A Welding-Machine Application
A welding machine must make six equally spaced welds on a metal piece. The
system must position the welder for each weld and turn it on when correctly
positioned. After six welds, it must rapidly reposition itself for the next piece.
The preliminary steps required to enter the program and the program itself are as
follows:
*Courtesy of Cybernetic Micro Systems.

Preliminaries
Command Meaning
R 180 Define step rate.
S 35 Set acceleration and deceleration rate.
F 9 Further define step rate.
A Declare current position as home.
E Enter and save the following program.
Program
N 20 Take 20 steps between welds.
+ —in clockwise direction.
W Wait until workpiece is ready.
G Go 20 steps.
C Activate welder.
XI000 Delay 1,000 ms to weld.
B Turn off welder.
L 6, 5 Repeat 6 times from G command.
P O Return to home position after 6 welds.
T Repeat program until no more pieces.
O Stop program, return to command mode.
Termination Commands
Q Exit program mode.
D Begin executing program.
SERVO SYSTEMS
Servo systems are electromechanical systems that rely on feedback for precise
motor control. Figure 10-92 shows a basic closed-loop servo system designed to
position a motor precisely. The system consists of an input reference, a servo
amplifier, a motor, an integrator, and a feedback network. A tachometer con¬
nected to the motor generates a voltage proportional to the velocity. This signal is
integrated in the integrator (1/S box) to give the motor’s position relative to a
starting point (home). The feedback box returns this signal to the input summing
point (circle with X). The reference and feedback voltage are compared at the
summing point. If there is no position error, the output of the summing box is
zero, and no power is delivered to the motor. If there is an error, the summing
box outputs a positive or negative voltage. The output’s polarity depends on the
direction of the position error. This output is amplified by the servo amplifier,
which delivers power to the motor until it is correctly positioned.
This simple system has some problems, however. Motor and load inertia make
it impossible to stop the motor abruptly, and so the motor may overshoot the
desired position. Attempts to reposition it correctly can result in hunting or
excessive overshoot. Usually, an analog compensation network (Figure 10-93) is
installed between the summing point and the amplifier. This network transforms
the signal so that the motor is appropriately slowed down before stopping. This
fixed compensation, however, cannot take into account any variations in loading
conditions and can at best be only a compromise.
Figure 10-94 shows the modem solution to this problem. The passive analog
compensation network is replaced by a microcontroller and a digital-to-analog
converter (D/A). The controller is provided with a complete description of the
state of the system (present and previous position error and the present and
previous amplifier output). It computes the optimal control equation and outputs
this as a digital signal to the D/A, which then transforms this into an appropriate
control voltage. The computations are carried out in real time so that the motor is
controlled almost continuously until it is brought to a smooth stop in the shortest
time.
The FPC-1800 Precision Digital Controller* is shown schematically in Fig¬
ure 10-95. Information from the motor shaft provides present data while previous
data is retained by the controller. The controller contains a decoder, a microcom¬
puter, a reference, and a DAC (D/A). Provision is made for external control by a
host computer. The FPC-1800 can be interfaced with a host computer and pro¬
grammed with an English-like, high-level language. It can then be operated
under the control of the host.
Programming affords control over the motor’s velocity and position. Position
instructions can be relative either to the previous position or to an established
HOME position. The system can be moved directly to any position relative to
HOME. Positioning steps can be programmed for any desired increment. The
servo system can be unlocked to allow external repositioning. Relative position
commands permit the system to move at a controlled velocity until an internal or
external stop instruction is received.
The FPC-1800 has a learn mode. When the system is unlocked and externally
moved through a sequence of positions, the position at each step is monitored
and learned. These steps can then be repeated under system control. This capa¬
bility is especially important for instructing robots.
Servo Motors
All types of motors are used as servo motors. Initially, dc motors driven by the
controlled dc output of the servo amplifier were used. Now, however, because of
widespread interest in servo systems, many new motors, both ac and dc, are
being designed specifically for servo systems. These new developments have
provided higher torque-weight ratios, greater efficiencies, and more precise con¬
trol.
The Analine linear dc motor1 is an example of the new servo motors. The
motor has two elements: a fixed-coil assembly and a movable permanent-magnet
*Finnel Systems.
Anorad Corp-, Hauppage, N.Y.
assembly attached to the positioning assembly. Contact between the two ele¬
ments is limited to a set of brushes. The positioning assembly is available in
lengths from one-half inch to five feet. Assemblies can be joined to give greater
lengths. Accelerations up to four g’s and speeds from 0.0001 to 60 inches per
seconds are available. The attractive force is 120 pounds. The manufacturers
claim the motor to be smoother and more precise than a rotating motor driving a
ball screw because there are no gears in the system.
A disc armature* is the key to a high torque-to-inertia ratio design. Nineteen
ounce-inch to 17 pound-feet with 1/17 to ten horsepowers are available. The disc
armature has a much larger diameter than does a comparable iron-core motor,
and so it provides significantly more torque. The ironless disc armature is also
much lighter and has less inertia than does the traditional iron-core motor. There¬
fore it can be operated at higher speeds and accelerations.
Several manufacturers market servo systems using ac servomotors. Toshiba
International Corporation supplies two such systems for automated machine tools
and robots. Rated speeds are 1,500, 3,000, and 4,500 rpm. Torques range from
0.32 to 64 kg-cm. for one type and from 25 to 241 kg-cm. for another. General
Electric offers a closed-loop control system using an ac induction motor. Allen-
Bradley sells a programmable position controller that uses a standard squirrel-
cage induction motor; ac motors eliminate the brush-caused problems found in dc
motors.
Servo Motor Drives

Servo amplifiers control motor speed in several ways: dc motors are controlled
by varying the dc supply power. Motor speed may be controlled by a power
amplifier supplying dc power. In this case the servo amplifier need only be a
power amplifier capable of abruptly changing its output voltage. Pulse-width
modulation (PWM) is another popular technique. Here a dc power source is
chopped into pulses at high frequencies. The widths of these pulses are modu¬
lated by the error signal. This output supplies the motor directly. In addition, ac
motors can also be controlled by PWM. Phase control is also used to control dc
and ac motors.
Dynamic stiffness is an important measure of servo performance. This is de¬
fined as the ratio of an abrupt change in thrust to the resulting change in load
position. Good performance requires a high and constant dynamic stiffness. A
typical dynamic stiffness for a three-phase, phase-controlled system is 13.8
x 106 lb/in. For a PWM servo system, it is 49 x 106 lb/in.
The future of microprocessor- and computer-controlled servo mechanisms is

promising. Individual controls will become more intelligent and adaptive. They
*Kolmorgen’s PMI Motors, Syosset, N.Y.

will be sophisticated enough to sense the system’s response and adjust automati¬
cally for optimal damping. For robotics this means that the central computer can
be relieved of this task and concentrate on target positions, as humans do. Servo
systems that communicate over a network already exist and will lead to auto¬
mated factories directed by a central library. But because of the longevity and
cost of machine tools, these new developments will evolve slowly. Ultimately,
however, motors and motor controls will reach new levels of sophistication.
APPENDIX
TABLE 1 Table for Bare Copper Wire
Diameter, Circular Pounds Ohms at 68°F
■mm
AWG Inches Mils per 1000 ft per 1000 ft
0000 211,600.0 640.5 0.0490
■EM
000 167,800.0 507.9 0.0618
00 133,100.0 402.8 0.0779
0 0.3249 105,500.0 319.5 0.0982
1 0.2893 83,694.0 253.3 0.124
2 0.2576 66,370.0 200.9 0.156
3 0.2294 52,630.0 159.3 0.197
4 0.2043 41,740.0 126.4 0.248
5 0.1819 33,100.0 100.2 0.313
6 0.1620 26,250.0 79.46 0.395
7 0.1443 20,820.0 63.02 0.498
8 0.1285 16,510.0 49.98 0.628
9 0.1144 13,090.0 39.63 0.792
10 0.1019 10,380.0 31.43 0.998
11 0.09074 8,230.0 24.92 1.260
12 0.08081 6,530.0 19.77 1.588
13 0.07196 5,170.0 15.68 2.003
14 0.06408 4,107.0 12.43 2.525
15 0.05707 3,257.0 9.858 3.184
16 0.05082 2,583.0 7.818 4.016
17 0.04526 2,048.0 6.200 5.064
18 0.04030 1,624.0 4.917 6.385
19 0.03589 1,288.0 3.899 8.051
20 0.03196 1,022.0 3.092 10.15
21 0.02846 810.1 2.452 12.80
22 0.02535 642.4 1.945 16.14
23 0.02257 509.5 1.542 20.36
24 0.02010 404.0 1.223 25.67
25 0.01790 320.4 0.9699 32.37
26 0.01594 245.1 0.7692 40.81
27 0.01420 201.5 0.6100 51.47
28 0.01264 159.8 0.4837 64.90
29 0.01126 126.7 0.3836 81.83
30 0.01003 100.5 0.3042 103.2
31 0.00892 79.70 0.2413 130.1
32 0.00795 63.21 0.1913 164.1
33 0.00708 50.13 0.1517 206.9
34 0.00630 39.75 0.1203 260.9
35 0.00561 31.52 0.09542 329.0
36 0.00500 25.00 0.07568 414.8
37 0.00445 19.83 0.0601 523.1
38 0.00396 15.72 0.04759 659.6
39 0.00353 12.47 0.03774 831.8
40 0.00314 9.888 0.02990 1,049.0
296
Appendix 297
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON COPPER WIRE

This wire table can be remembered very easily if a few simple points are kept in
mind:
1. A wire three sizes smaller than another wire has half the area of the larger wire.
For instance, No. 20 AWG copper wire has half the area of No. 17 AWG.
Therefore, two No. 20 wires in parallel have the equivalent area of one No. 17.
2. A wire three sizes smaller than another wire has twice the resistance of the
larger wire.
3. A wire three sizes smaller than another wire has half the weight of the larger
wire.
4. A No. 10 AWG copper wire is approximately 0.10 inch in diameter, has an area
of approximately 10,000 circular mils and has a resistance of 1 ohm per 1000
feet.
Although it is much better to use the same size wire in rewinding a motor as
was used in the original winding, sometimes circumstances make it necessary to
substitute another size. Table II shows equivalent wire sizes:
TABLE II Wire-size Equivalents

Wires Not Wires Not
Available Use Available Use
No. 10 Two No. 13 Two No. 28 One No. 25
TABLE III Motor Full Load Currents

Direct Current
(Running at Base Speed)
HP 90V 180V 240V 500V
Va 4.0 2.0 1.6

Vs 5.2 2.6 2.0
Vi 6.8 3.4 2.7
3A 9.6 4.8 3.8
1 12.2 6.1 4.7
continued
continued
Direct Current
(Running at Base Speed)
HP 90V 180V 240V 500V
V/2 8.3 6.6

2 10.8 8.5
3 16.0 12.2
5 27.0 20.0
IVi 29 13.6
10 38 18
15 55 27
20 72 34
25 89 43
30 106 51
40 140 67
50 173 83
60 206 99
75 255 123
100 341 164
125 425 205
150 506 246
200 675 330
Over 200 HP
Approx.
Amps/HP
3.4 1.65
National Electrical Code® and NEC® are Registered Trademarks of the National Fire Protection
Association, Inc., Quincy, MA.
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 70-1984, National Electrical Code®, Copyright© 1984,
National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts 02269. This reprinted material is not
the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only
by the standard in its entirety.
TABLE IV Motor Full Load Currents

Single Phase
HP 115V 230V
Ve 4.4 2.2
Va 5.8 2.9
v?> 7.2 3.6
Vi 9.8 4.9
Va 13.8 6.9
1 16 8
IVi 20 10
2 24 12
3 34 17
continued
Appendix 299
continued
Single Phase
HP 115V 230V
5 56 28
IVi 80 40
10 100 50
TABLE V Maximum Locked Rotor Currents

3—Phase Motors
Voltage
HP 200 220/230 440/460 550/575 2300 4160
Vi 23 20 10 8
3/4 29 25 12.5 10
1 34.5 30 15 12
IVi 46 40 20 16
2 57.5 50 25 20
3 73.5 64 32 25
5 106 92 46 37
IVi 146 127 63 51
10 186 162 81 65
15 267 232 116 93
20 334 290 145 116
25 420 365 182 146 35 19
30 500 435 217 174 41 23
40 667 580 290 232 55 30
50 834 725 362 290 69 38
60 1000 870 435 348 83 46
75 1250 1085 592 435 104 57
100 1670 1450 725 580 139 76
125 2085 1815 907 726 173 96
150 2500 2170 1085 870 208 115
200 3340 2900 1450 1160 278 153
250 4200 3650 1825 1460 349 193
300 5050 4400 2200 1760 420 232
350 5860 5100 2550 2040 488 270
400 6670 5800 2900 2320 555 306
450 7470 6500 3250 2600 620 344
500 8340 7250 3625 2900 693 383
Based on NEMA Standards MGI—12.34 January 1984
TABLE VI Motor Full Load Currents

3 Phase A.C. Induction Type'—Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor
HP 115V 200V 230V 460V 575V 2300V 4160V
Vi 4 2.3 2 1 .8
3/4 5.6 3.2 2.8 1.4 1.1
1 7.2 4.15 3.6 1.8 1.4
V/2 10.4 6 5.2 2.6 2.1
2 13.6 7.8 6.8 3.4 2.7
3 11 9.6 4.8 3.9
5 17.5 15.2 7.6 6.1
IVi 25 22 11 9
10 32 28 14 11
15 48 42 21 17
20 62 54 27 22
25 78 68 34 27
30 92 80 40 32
40 120 104 52 41
50 150 130 65 52
60 111 154 77 62 16 8.9
75 221 192 96 77 20 11
100 285 248 124 99 26 14.4
125 358 312 156 125 31 17
150 415 360 180 144 37 20.5
200 550 480 240 192 49 27
Over 200 HP
Approx.
Amperes/HP 2.75 2.40 1.20 . 96 .24 .133
TABLE VII Possible Synchronous Speeds

Poles 60 Cycles 50 Cycles 40 Cycles 25 Cycles
2 3600 3000 2400 1500
4 1800 1500 1200 750
6 1200 1000 800 500
8 900 750 600 375
10 720 600 480 300
12 600 500 400 250
14 514.2 428.6 343 214.3
16 450 375 300 187.5
18 400 333.3 266.6 166.6
20 360 300 240 150
22 327.2 272.7 218.1 136.3
24 300 250 200 125
continued
Appendix 301
continued
Poles 60 Cycles 50 Cycles 40 Cycles 25 Cycles

26 277 230.8 184.5 115.4
28 257.1 214.2 171.5 107.1
30 240 200 160 100
32 225 187.5 150 93.7
34 212 176.5 141.1 88.2
36 200 166.6 133.3 83.3
38 189.5 157.9 126.3 78.9
40 180 150 120 75
42 171.5 142.8 114.2 71.4
44 163.5 136.3 109
46 156.6 130.5 104.3
48 150 125 100
50 144 120 96
52 138.5 115.4 92.3
54 133.3 111.1 88.9
TABLE VIII Chord Factor for Slots per Pole

Span Slots/Pole
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1-3 .50 .43 .38 .34
1-4 .71 .62 .55 .50
1-5 .87 .78 .71 .64 .59
1-6 .97 .90 .83 .77 .71 .65 .61
1-7 1.00 .97 .92 .87 .81 .76 .71 .66 .62
1-8 .97 1.00 .98 .94 .89 .84 .79 .75 .71
1-9 .97 1.00 .98 .95 .91 .87 .82 .78
1-10 .98 1.00 .99 .96 .92 .89 .85
1-11 .98 1.00 .99 .97 .94 .90
1-12 .99 1.00 .99 .97 .94
1-13 .99 1.00 .99 .97
1-14 .99 1.00 .99
1-15 .99 1.00
1-16 .99
TABLE IX NEMA Code Letters

NEMA Code Locked Rotor NEMA Code Locked Rotor
Letter KVA Per HP Letter KVA per HP
A 0-3.15 L 9.0-10.0
B 3.15-3.55 M 10.0-11.2
C 3.55-4.0 N 11.2-12.5
D 4.0-4.5 P 12.5-14.0
E 4.5-5.0 R 14.0-16.0
F 5.0-5.6 S 16.0-18.0
G 5.6-6.3 T 18.0-20.0
H 6.3-7.1 U 20.0-22.4
J 7.1-8.0 V 22.4 and up
K 8.0-9.0
NEMA Standards MG 1-10.36, January 1984
Code Letters Usually Applied to Ratings of Motors

Normally Started on Full Voltage _
Code Letters F G H i K L
Horse¬ 3-phase 15 up 10-7 5 3 2-11/2 1
power 1-phase — 5 3 2-1 Vi VA Vi
NEMA Standards MG 1-10.36, January, 1984
CHAPTER 1 STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Give a description of a capacitor motor.
2. What is the difference between a capacitor-start motor and a permanent-
split capacitor motor?
3. Name the main parts of a capacitor-start motor.
4. (a) Draw a schematic diagram of a capacitor-start motor, (b) Draw a sche¬
matic diagram of a permanent-split capacitor motor.
5. Draw a schematic of a two-value capacitor motor.
6. Name the parts of a squirrel-cage rotor.
7. What are the symptoms of an open rotor?
8. When a capacitor-start motor starts, (a) How many windings are energized?
(b) What happens after the motor reaches 75 percent of its loaded speed?
9. Explain the action of the centrifugal switch system.
10. Explain what happens when a capacitor-start motor is energized.
11. Name the parts of an electrolytic capacitor.
12. What two components determine the capacitor’s rating?
13. (a) What happens when the foil area is increased? (b) when the dielectric
thickness is increased?
14. What happens to the current when the microfarad rating is increased?
15. What is the purpose of the paper in an electrolytic capacitor?
Study Questions 303
16. What is the purpose of the aluminum oxide?

17. What is the purpose of the electrolyte?
18. What is the main difference between an electrolytic capacitor and an oil-
filled capacitor?
19. Explain the sine wave.
20. Explain the difference between electrical degrees and mechanical degrees.
21. What two measurements does the horizontal line of the sine wave repre¬
sent?
22. Explain the difference between cycle and Hertz (Hz).
23. How is one cycle generated?
24. Draw a sine wave that includes the current in an inductive circuit.
25. Name three conditions that create inductive reactance in a circuit.
26. What effect does inductive reactance have on the current?
27. What effect does capacitive reactance have on the current?
28. What creates the rotating magnetic field in a two-phase stator? (a) the
voltage (b) the current (c) the 90° separation of the current flow of the two windings
29. How much time does 90° represent in a sixty-cycle per second (Hz) circuit?
30. What happens within the windings of a rotor when the stator is energized?
31. Why is it important to place the start and run winding 90 electrical degrees
apart in the stator?
32. In motors of the same size, what is the difference between the run winding
of a capacitor motor and a split-phase run winding?
33. What is the difference between the start winding of a split-phase and the
start winding of a capacitor-start motor?
34. Give two reasons why a split-phase motor does not have the starting power
that the capacitor-start motor has.
35. Describe what happens when a split-phase motor is energized.
36. What are the steps used for analyzing the repairs a motor needs?
37. What is the most common problem that develops in a capacitor-start or a
split-phase motor?
38. Describe “dead spot” and its cause.
39. When installing thrust washers, what two components must be kept in
alignment?
40. What will cause a terminal bolt to become charred?
41. Where is the most common place for an open to occur in a winding?
42. What is the first thing that is done to the end plate and the stator before
disassembling the motor?
43. Name the information that should be documented before a motor is
stripped.
44. What will the number of poles determine in a motor?
45. Name the data that is destroyed when the wires are stripped from the stator.
46. Why is it important to record the end room for the coil groups?
47. If 30 turns are counted in a coil that is wound two in hand or two in parallel,
how many actual turns are in the coil?
48. What terminal numbers are used for a dual-voltage run winding?
49. What are the terminal numbers used for a dual-voltage start winding?
50. What numbers are used for (a) a single-voltage run winding and (b) a
single-voltage start winding?
51. Define standard rotation.

52. What terminal numbers are combined to obtain standard rotation?
53. Draw (a) a pole group as it would appear before it is placed in the stator and
(b) a pole group as it appears on a straight-line diagram including the arrow that
indicates current flowing in the left side and exiting the right side of the group.
54. Draw a one-circuit, four-pole, run-winding diagram, indicating with ar¬
rows the direction of current flow through each group. Assume the current is going in
T1 and out T4.
55. Draw a two-circuit, four-pole run winding and show the direction of cur¬
rent flow.
56. How many circuits are possible in a four-pole run winding that is wound
with single-circuit coil groups?
57. Name all the circuits possible for an eight-pole run winding with single¬
circuit pole groups.
58. Why are multiples of small wires used instead of one large wire?
59. In a dual-voltage one- and two-circuit run winding, how many circuits
would there be if the motor is connected (a) high voltage? (b) low voltage?
60. In a dual voltage two- and four-circuit motor, how many circuits would
there be if the motor were connected (a) high voltage? (b) low voltage?
61. What numbers go together for the low-voltage connection?
62. What numbers go together for high voltage?
63. What is a two-circuit coil group?
64. Name all the circuits possible in a six-pole run winding that has two-circuit
coil groups.
65. How many circuits do most start windings have?
66. What is the difference between long jumper and short jumper?
67. Give all the terms that mean short jumper.
68. Give all the terms that mean long jumper.
69. What happens to the insulation when a motor is operated at a temperature
higher than the insulation’s class?
70. What is the temperature classification based on?
71. Why must slot liners fit as exactly as possible?
72. What must be checked before slot liners are inserted?
73. What determines the class of insulation that is selected for a motor?
74. What is the accepted voltage limit between magnet wires without using
additional insulation?
75. Why should the connection sequence be started at 6 o’clock position and
proceed counterclockwise around the stator?
76. What is the rule for connecting adjacent poles in a winding?
77. Draw a four-pole, one-circuit (series-connected) run winding using the
straight-line method with rectangular blocks. Connect it short jumper.
78. Draw a four-pole, one-circuit start winding with one capacitor and one
switch. Connect it short jumper.
79. Draw a straight-line diagram of a complete four-pole capacitor-start motor.
Connect both the start- and run-winding one circuit, short jumper. Use the proper
numbers for both windings.
80. Draw a circular diagram of the motor in question 79.
81. What numbers are together for clockwise rotation facing the shaft?
Study Questions 305
82. What numbers are together for counterclockwise rotation facing the shaft?
83. Name the five steps used when making connections.
84. What are the requirements for a good connection?
85. What welding methods are used to make connections?
86. Why must aluminum wire be sealed from air exposure?
87. What should be checked before a stator is varnished?
88. What are the reasons for varnishing a winding?
89. Describe the function of a thermal-overload device.
90. (a) When is terminal P2 not used? (b) Does the current through P2 affect
the function of the device?
91. Which terminal is always connected to the line by itself?
92. The current through which terminal will cause the device to open?
93. What can happen if T3 is shorted?
94. If the motor is dual voltage, which ampere rating is the element of the
protective device designed for? (High or low voltage?)
95. Draw a schematic diagram of a single voltage motor with a thermal protec¬
tor.
96. Draw a schematic diagram of a dual-voltage motor with a thermal protector
and connect it for low voltage.
97. Draw a schematic of the motor in question 96 connected for high voltage.
98. How is a capacitor-start motor reversed?
99. Would an eight-pole have higher speed than a two-pole motor?
100. Draw a straight-line diagram of a four-pole, short-jumper, single-circuit
start and single-circuit run capacitor-start motor.
101. Draw a straight-line diagram of the same motor as in question 100 with a
two-circuit run winding.
102. Does single voltage mean high voltage or low voltage?
103. Draw a diagram of a single-voltage, four-pole, short-jumper, nonrever-
sable capacitor-start motor.
104. Draw the same motor as in question 103 but connect the start winding so
that it will receive one half of applied voltage.
105. Would the motor in question 104 be used on high or low voltage?
106. Draw a single-voltage four-pole motor with an overload device, connected
short jumper.
107. Why is P2 not used in a single-voltage motor?
108. List the colors that go with Tl, T2, T3, T4, T5, and T8.
109. Draw a straight-line diagram of a dual-voltage, four-pole, short-jumper,
capacitor-start motor with a thermal overload and connect it for low voltage.
110. Draw the same motor as above and connect it for high voltage.
111. Draw a straight-line diagram of a dual-voltage, four-pole, short-jumper,
capacitor-start motor with a dual-voltage start winding that has one set of start-switch
contacts.
112. Draw the same motor as in question 111 with two sets of start-switch
contacts.
113. What is the voltage rating of the capacitors used with a dual-voltage start
winding?
114. Describe the layered run winding.
115. What is the advantage of winding both sections together?
116. How many circuits are possible in a four-pole layered winding?

117. Why is P2 used when a dual-voltage motor is connected low voltage?
118. What is the function of a current relay when used in a capacitor-start
motor?
119. What is the “at rest” position of the current relay contacts?
120. Describe what happens when a motor using a current relay is energized.
121. What happens if the motor is too large for the current relay? Too small?
122. Draw a schematic of a capacitor-start motor with a current relay.
123. Why is the current relay connected in series with one section of the run
winding in a dual-voltage motor?
124. What determines the wire size for the coil of a current relay?
125. What is the at rest position of the contacts in a potential relay?
126. How is the coil of the potential relay connected in relation to the start
winding?
127. What makes the coil function at 75 percent of full speed?
128. Why does the coil continue to function after the start contacts are open?
129. What percent of the line voltage will make the coil open the contacts?
130. Draw a schematic of a motor using a potential relay.
131. What will happen if the capacitor is in the relay coil and start-winding
circuit?
132. What factors must be considered when replacing a centrifugal device and
stationary switch with a potential relay?
133. What voltage rating should a potential relay have when used on a dual-volt¬
age motor?
134. How can the voltage rating of an unmarked voltage relay be determined?
135. Draw a straight-line diagram of a four-pole, short-jumper, capacitor-start
motor with three leads and number the leads (single-circuit, start, and run).
136. When a motor has a centrifugal device, why is it necessary to stop it before
it can be reversed?
137. Name two devices that will allow instant reversal of a capacitor-start
motor.
138. Draw a schematic of a two-speed motor with two run windings and one
start winding. Include an external selector switch.
139. Which run winding is always connected to the normally open contacts?
140. Why is it necessary to use a centrifugal device that functions at a speed
lower than 75 percent of the high speed?
141. When all the poles of a consequent pole two-speed, capacitor-start motor
have the same polarity, will the speed be high or low?
142. Which of the following speeds found on a name plate would indicate a
consequent-pole motor? (a) 1750/1140 (b) 1800/900 (c) 1750/1460.
143. Why are permanent split-capacitor run motors good for fan duty?
144. Draw a schematic of a four-pole, single-voltage, permanent split-capacitor
run motor.
145. Why does the capacitor determine which winding becomes the start wind¬
ing in the motor described as special-duty, reversable-capacitor motor?
146. What is the rule for determining rotation when the polarity of the start poles
and the run poles is known?
Study Questions 307
147. Draw a straight-line diagram of a four-pole, short-jumper, dual-voltage,

permanent split-capacitor motor.
148. (a) Why does the speed decrease when a lower speed is selected on a loaded
two-speed, permanent split-capacitor motor? (b) What happens to the speed when the
load is removed?
149. Why would the low-speed winding immediately bum if it is connected to
the line voltage?
150. Draw a straight-line diagram of a four-pole, short jumper, three-speed,
permanent split-capacitor motor with an external speed selector switch. Connect the
start winding in parallel with the high-run winding. Trace the current flow when high
speed is selected with a red color. Do the same with medium speed in blue and low
speed with green. Why are there less amperes at low speed than at high speed?
151. In a two-value capacitor motor, what effect does the oil-filled capacitor
have on the line amperes? The run-winding amperes?
152. Where are oil-filled capacitors always connected in two-value capacitor
start motors?
153. Oil-filled capacitors are always connected (a) parallel with (b) in series
with each other.
154. Draw a straight-line diagram of a one-circuit, four-pole, short-jumper, start
winding with two electrolytic capacitors in parallel.
155. Why are two small electrolytic capacitors used in place of one large one?
156. Draw a start winding like the one in question 154 and connect two electro¬
lytic capacitors in series.
157. What voltage is used when two electrolytic capacitors are connected in
series?
158. Why must the mfd rating of electrolytic capacitors in series be the same?
159. Draw a straight-line diagram of a four-pole, short-jumper, one- and two-
circuit (dual-voltage) start winding with two capacitors and two switch contacts.
160. Explain in detail the steps and calculations necessary in rewinding a capaci¬
tor-start motor for a change in voltage.
161. What is the difference between actual turns and effective turns?
162. What condition can cause excessively high voltage across a capacitor?
163. What test result would indicate that a capacitor has no moisture content?
164. How would a capacitor-start motor be effected by (a) a capacitor that is too
small for it? (b) a capacitor that is too large for it?
165. What is the recommended operating temperature limit for an electrolytic
capacitor?
166. What percent of difference between the voltage across the start winding and
the capacitor indicates that the mfd is right for the motor?
167. What two effects will a capacitor that is too small have on a motor?
168. What is wrong with a capacitor that does not spark when using the charge-
discharge test?
169. Will an ohmmeter show the mfd value of a capacitor?
170. Describe how an ohmmeter reacts to (a) a shorted capacitor, (b) an open
capacitor, (c) a capacitor that is normal.
171. What would be the multiplier for finding a capacitor’s value if the test
voltage is 130 volts?
172. Name four reasons for premature capacitor failure.

173. (a) What will happen to a loaded motor if, when started, the start contacts
open too soon? (b) Name three conditions that could cause this.
174. Draw a schematic of the start winding for a two-value, capacitor-start
motor that has one electrolytic capacitor and three oil-filled capacitors.
175. What is the purpose of an oil-filled capacitor?
176. Describe how the oil-filled capacitor is connected in the circuit and how
they are connected in relation to each other.
177. What happens when an oil-filled capacitor is shorted? Draw a schematic
diagram showing the current flow with this condition.
178. Why should a motor with unknown problems be tested with limited cur¬
rent?
179. Name three reasons why a start winding could test open.
180. (a) Why should the two sections of a dual-voltage run winding have the
same ampere reading? (b) What would indicate that one section has a few turns
shorted together?
181. What test would show that a motor is grounded?
182. If one circuit in a dual-voltage, reversible capacitor-start motor has a
ground, describe how to locate the circuit with the ground.
183. Name two defects that can be found in a thermal device.
184. If the rotor is not aligned with the stator, what effect will this condition
have on the amperes?
185. Give five reasons why a motor will not start when it is energized.
186. What is the symptom of an open rotor?
187. How can open rotor bars be located?
1. Name the different types of repulsion motors and give the characteristics and
applications of each.
2. (a) What construction features are common to each type of repulsion motor?
(b) Describe the different types of commutators used on repulsion motors.
3. (a) Name and describe the main parts of the repulsion-start induction motor,
(b) Why is this motor so named?
4. Explain in detail the principle of operation of a repulsion-start induction
motor.
5. Describe the construction and operation of two types of centrifugal short-
circuiting mechanisms used on repulsion-start induction motors.
6. (a) What is the function of the short-circuiting device on repulsion-start
motors? (b) How will the operation of the motor be affected if the device does not
function?
7. (a) Name the different parts of the brush-lifting type of centrifugal mecha¬
nism and prepare a diagram showing the order in which they are placed on the
armature, (b) What function does the governor spring have? (c) How is the pressure
of the spring varied?
8. What troubles are likely to occur (a) when the short-circuiting necklace
Study Questions 309
becomes dirty and does not make good contact with the commutator? (b) when the
brushes do not lift off the commutator?
9. (a) Why are brushes necessary for the operation of a repulsion-start induc¬
tion motor? (b) What would happen if one brush was broken and did not contact the
commutator?
10. Describe the construction of the stator core and the stator winding of a
repulsion-start induction motor.
11. (a) In making the internal connections how would you make sure that the
polarity is correct? (b) Why are four leads brought out of most repulsion motors?
12. In winding the stator, why is it important that each pole be in exactly the
same slots as in the original winding?
13. (a) Explain how to take and record data for the stator winding of a repulsion-
start motor, (b) Show a sample data chart.
14. (a) What precautions should be taken when replacing commutators on repul¬
sion motors? (b) What information is needed when ordering a new commutator?
15. (a) Explain the difference between a lap and wave winding, and show a
simple diagram of each, (b) What advantage has one winding over the other? Ex¬
plain.
16. After rewinding a stator explain the tests you would give it in order to detect
any defects.
17. (a) What data should be taken while stripping an armature of a repulsion-
start motor? (b) Show a data chart with sample data, (c) Why is it necessary to record
the name-plate data?
18. (a) Describe a step-by-step procedure for winding an armature for a repul¬
sion-start motor, (b) What advantage is there in putting bottom leads into the com¬
mutator as each coil is wound, rather than waiting until the entire armature is wound?
19. (a) Diagram and explain the difference between a one-, two- and three-coil-
per-slot armature winding, (b) How does the number of commutator bars compare
with the number of slots in these different windings?
20. (a) Show a diagram of six coils of a two-coil-per-slot lap-wound armature
connected to a commutator, (b) Repeat for a wave-wound armature.
21. (a) What are equalizer connections? (b) What purpose do they serve?
(c) What would be the effect on the operation of a motor if the equalizer or cross
connections were left out?
22. (a) How are armatures with cross-connections tested for short circuits?
(b) Explain why a growler short-circuit test cannot be used, (c) Where are short
circuits likely to occur in this armature and what steps would you take to eliminate
them in each case?
23. (a) Explain the formula for determining the commutator pitch for a wave-
wound armature, (b) Give several examples of how to find pitch, (c) Why don’t
wave-wound armatures have cross connections?
24. (a) Show by diagram why the rotation of a repulsion-start motor can be
reversed by shifting the brushes, (b) How do you determine the amount of shift
necessary?
25. Describe the construction of carbon brushes used on repulsion motors.
26. (a) What is meant by the neutral point in a repulsion-start motor? (b) How is
this point located? (c) Why is it necessary sometimes to locate the neutral point?
(d) What is the soft neutral point and how is it recognized?
27. (a) What would happen if there were an open between brush connections?
(b) Will the operation of the motor be affected if the brush holders are grounded in
a repulsion-start motor? Why?
28. (a) How does the repulsion motor differ from the repulsion-start induction
motor? (b) How can you recognize the difference by inspection?
29. (a) What is a compensating winding and how is it connected in the circuit?
Illustrate in a diagram, (b) Why do some repulsion motors have a compensating
winding?
30. (a) Show a diagram of a four-pole compensated-repulsion motor; a two-pole
motor; a six-pole motor, (b) What factors regulate the speed of these motors?
31. (a) How can the repulsion-induction motor be distinguished from the other
types of repulsion motors? (b) Is this possible just by inspection? Why?
32. Explain the operation of an electrically reversible repulsion motor.
33. By means of an example describe how you would rewind a repulsion motor
stator for a change in voltage.
34. (a) What are some of the reasons why a repulsion motor will refuse to start
when the switch is closed? (b) Explain how current will flow in the motor if the
brushes are not connected to the line.
35. How many line wires are used (a) for a repulsion motor? (b) for a single¬
phase motor?
36. (a) Explain why the wrong brush-holder position may prevent a repulsion-
type motor from starting, (b) How do you determine the correct position of the
brushes? (c) What will happen if the brushes are not moved sufficiently?
37. (a) What effect will worn bearings have on the operation of a repulsion-type
motor? (b) How are worn bearings detected? (c) Explain how they are removed and
replaced.
38. (a) How will a dirty commutator affect the operation of a repulsion-start
induction-run motor? (b) How will it affect the other types of repulsion motors?
39. (a) Describe the operation of a repulsion-start induction motor that has a
defective governor spring, (b) How do you determine the correct spring tension?
40. Of all the single-phase motors that you have studied, which in your opinion
has the highest starting torque? the lowest starting torque? Explain your answer.
41. What are some possible troubles if a repulsion-type motor blows a fuse when
the switch is put on?
42. (a) List several causes of sparking at the commutator in a repulsion-start
induction motor, (b) What procedure would you follow to determine the exact cause
of sparking?
43. (a) Draw a diagram of a dual-voltage eight-pole stator of a repulsion-
induction motor. Show connections for both voltages, (b) How do you identify the
four leads coming out of the motor in order to make the right connection?
44. If you were called upon to repair a repulsion-start induction motor which has
stopped running, list the steps you would take in order to put the motor into running
condition.

1. Name the parts of a three-phase motor.
2. How is each phase of a three-phase motor similar to the run winding of a
capacitor-start motor?
Study Questions 311
3. Why are the three windings placed in the stator exactly 120 electrical de¬
grees apart?
4. What creates the rotating magnetic field in a three-phase stator?
5. What determines where the center of the magnetic pole is formed in a coil
group?
6. Why is there a voltage and current present in the rotor when the stator is
energized?
7. How are the poles formed in the rotor?
8. What is synchronous speed?
9. Why is there very little torque produced when the rotor reaches synchro¬
nous speed?
10. What is slip?
11. Why is slip necessary?
12. Name the four variations in the construction of the winding in a squirrel-
cage rotor that can vary the current that flows in it.
13. Will the amount of current that flows in the rotor winding affect the amount
of current that flows in the stator?
14. What does the code letter on the nameplate signify?
15. What is the highest temperature a stator should reach when it is burned for
stripping?
16. What can happen if the stator gets too hot?
17. What does the design letter signify?
18. What does the code letter mean?
19. What is meant by rating or duty?
20. Explain service factor.
21. Why should the connection side of a stator be marked?
22. What data will be destroyed when a motor is stripped?
23. What is the difference between the lap and the concentric winding?
24. What are the two types of lap windings?
25. Describe the mush or random-wound coil.
26. What is a group or gang-wound coil group?
27. Why is it necessary to insulate one group from the other?
28. What is the rule used to find the number of coils per phase in a lap-wound
stator?
29. How many groups are there in each pole of a three-phase motor?
30. Each group is a pole of one phase. What two terms are used when referring
to them?
31. How is the number of groups in a stator determined?
32. How is the number of coils per group determined?
33. Describe how the pole groups of each phase are connected.
34. Why is it recommended to skip the first pole group of the B phase when
connecting a three-phase winding?
35. Draw each phase of a four-pole, short-jumper, three-phase motor sepa¬
rately. Draw the A phase in red, the B phase in blue, and the C phase in green.
36. Draw a straight-line diagram of a four-pole, short-jumper, three-phase
winding connected one Y. Color each phase as in question 35. Number the groups
1-12 and show the direction of current flow.
37. Draw a circular diagram of the same winding described in question 36.
Number the groups and show the direction of current flow.
38. What is the main purpose of a schematic diagram?

39. Give the number of poles and identify this connection: Six-pole groups,
one connection containing wires from three pole groups, and three line leads, each
fastened to a pole group.
40. How many poles would a motor have if there are (a) 6-pole groups? (b) 12-
pole groups? (c) 18-pole groups?
41. Given the following data what is the connection and the number of poles:
Twelve-pole groups and two group wires connected to each of three-line leads?
42. What is the connection and number of poles for these data: Eighteen-pole
groups, three wires connected to each of three-line leads and three connections, each
containing three-group leads?
43. What is the connection and number of poles for these data: Twelve-pole
groups, four wires connected to each of three-line leads and four connections con¬
taining the ends of three-pole groups?
44. Does the voltage per coil become higher when a dual-voltage motor is
connected for high voltage?
45. How many leads are on most dual-voltage three-phase motors?
46. Draw a schematic for a dual-voltage one- and two-wye motor.
47. Draw a schematic showing the spiral method for identifying the lead num¬
bers of a dual-voltage wye and a dual-voltage delta motor.
48. True or false: The high-voltage connection has more groups connected in
series than the low-voltage connection in a dual-voltage motor.
49. Draw a straight-line diagram of a four-pole, one- and two-delta, dual-volt¬
age, nine-lead motor connected short jumper.
50. Draw the same diagram as in question 49 and connect it one and two wye.
51. Give the number combinations for both high and low voltage for a dual¬
voltage wye-connected motor.
52. Give the number combinations for both high- and low-voltage for a dual¬
voltage delta connected motor.
53. Explain the voltage change with the wye-delta connection.
54. What would happen if a wye-connected motor was connected delta by
mistake?
55. What would happen if a delta-connected motor was connected wye by
mistake?
56. What is the difference between the diagram in Figure 3-84 and the diagram
in Figure 3-89c?
57. Draw a straight-line diagram of a two-pole, one- and two-delta motor.
58. Name five rules for connecting a three-phase winding.
59. Adjacent coil groups in a three-phase motor are (a) coil groups that are next
to each other, (b) every other coil group, (c) the next coil group that is of the same
phase.
60. Give five names that are used to signify short jumper.
61. Describe long jumper.
62. Is there any advantage in long jumper over short jumper?
63. When is it not possible to use long jumper?
64. Why do motor manufacturers prefer the concentric winding design over the
lap method?
65. How is phase B located when connecting a concentric winding?
Study Questions 313
66. Assuming the motor has no nameplate, there are nine leads coming out of
the motor, three of the line leaders are connected four pole groups and two coil
groups are connected to each of the remaining six leads, what is the connection?
67. If a two-wye motor has two B-phase ends with one A-phase end connected
in one wye and two C-phase ends with one A-phase end connected in the other,
would this motor run? Draw a schematic of this connection.
68. How would a repairperson know if a motor is wound using odd-pole group¬
ing?
69. What is the advantage of a 12-lead connection?
70. What lead numbers would identify a motor as part winding start?
71. Are the part-winding start numbers the same as wye-delta?
72. Name three other connections that use six leads.
73. What is the difference between the six-pole groups of a two-pole winding
and the six-pole groups of a four-pole consequent pole winding?
74. How many circuits are there in a nine-lead, dual-voltage, wye-connected
motor?
75. What is the first test that should be given to an old winding before identify¬
ing unmarked leads?
76. How many circuits are in a nine-lead, dual-voltage, delta-connected motor?
77. How does the consequent-pole, two-speed motor get two speeds?
78. Why is the high speed twice that of the low speed?
79. What is the rule for the coil span of consequent-pole motors?
80. Name three consequent-pole connections.
81. (a) Draw the A phase of a one-delta, long-jumper winding showing the
polarity, (b) Draw the A phase of a four- and eight-pole constant-torque winding.
Show the polarity in one color connected one delta and in another color connected
two wye.
82. Explain why the torque remains the same at both high and low speeds.
83. Define one horsepower.
84. When the speed is changed on a constant-torque motor, what happens to
the horsepower? Why?
85. Is it possible to make a short-jumper, four- and eight-pole, consequent-pole
connection?
86. Draw a straight-line diagram of a constant-torque, four- and eight-pole
winding. Use red for the A phase, blue for the B phase, and green for the C phase.
87. Draw the A phase of a constant-horsepower, four- and eight-pole motor.
Show the polarity in one color when connected one delta. Show the polarity in
another color if connected two wye.
88. What happens to the torque when the speed is changed from high to low?
Why?
89. What happens to the horsepower when the speed is changed from high to
low? Why?
90. Why does the torque remain constant in a constant-torque motor and the
horsepower remain constant in a constant-horsepower motor?
91. Draw a straight-line diagram of a constant-horsepower winding using the
colors as in question 86.
92. (a) Draw the A-phase, four-pole, one-delta, long-jumper motor showing
the polarity, (b) Draw the A phase of a four- and eight-pole constant torque showing
the polarity if connected one delta, (c) Draw the A phase of a four- and eight-pole
constant-horsepower motor showing the polarity if connected one delta. Which two-
speed drawing resembles the delta connection?
93. What spot in each phase of the two-speed consequent-pole windings deter¬
mines if it will be constant torque or constant horsepower?
94. How can the line-lead connections show the difference between constant
torque or constant horsepower?
95. If a two-speed consequent-pole winding is used with another winding in the
same stator, why should it be open when the other winding is energized?
96. Draw the A phase of a variable-torque motor.
97. What makes this connection different than that of a constant torque?
98. What is the advantage of winding a one-speed motor consequent-pole?
99. When is odd-pole grouping necessary?
100. Why must each phase have the same number of coils and turns?
101. What connections can have long jumper or short jumper when odd-pole
grouping is used?
102. When are dead coils necessary?
103. Why is it necessary to install the dead coils? Why must the ends of the dead
coils be insulated?
104. If a motor is connected 440 volts one wye, can it be reconnected for 220
volts?
105. If a motor is connected one wye, 220 volts, can it be reconnected to run on
440 volts?
106. If a 230-volt one delta is reconnected to one wye, what voltage would be
needed to keep the volts per group the same as with one wye?
107. If a 440-volt, one-wye-connected motor is changed to one delta, what
would be the right voltage for it?
108. Change a 230-volt, one-wye winding with 30 turns of No. 18 wire to a
460-volt, one-wye winding.
109. Will a 50 Hz motor run faster on 60 Hz?
110. Explain chord factor.
111. How many electrical degrees are in one pole?
112. What does each tooth within a pole have to do with chord factor?
113. What are the advantages of ball bearings over sleeve bearings?
114. What is the difference between a seal and a shield in a ball bearing?
115. Name the conditions that can shorten the life of a ball bearing.
116. When should a ball bearing be replaced?
117. What are some things that should be considered when choosing a replace¬
ment ball bearing?
118. What will happen to a ball bearing when there is misalignment of the end
plates?
119. Name several methods used to install a ball bearing.
120. What can happen if too much grease is forced into a ball bearing?
121. How is a three-phase motor reversed?
122. What is a ground?
123. Why does the lead that is closer to the grounded coil show less resistance to
the frame than the other leads?
124. Describe how to locate a ground.
Study Questions 315
125. Describe how to locate an open.

126. Define a short.
127. Describe how to locate the shorted circuit in a nine-lead, dual-voltage
motor connected one wye.
128. What are the symptoms when a motor has a reversed coil group?
129. How does a test rotor show which group is reversed?
130. How does a test rotor show that a complete phase is reversed?
131. What are the symptoms of a motor that is single phasing?
132. (a) List and explain the troubles that may cause a three-phase motor to run
excessively hot. (b) What effect will excessive heat have on the life of the insulation?

1. (a) What is the function of a starter or controller? (b) Why is it necessary to
have starters in most installations? (c) Name the main types of starters used for a-c
motors.
2. (a) Explain what is meant by an “across-the-line” starter, (b) Name several
applications for this type of starter, (c) What characteristics of the motors make it
possible to use “across-the-line” starters?
3. (a) Why is it necessary to have reduced-voltage starters for some motors?
(b) Give several specific applications where this type of starter would be necessary.
4. What is the difference between a line diagram and a wiring diagram?
5. (a) Show a simple diagram of a pushbutton switch starter and explain its
operation, (b) For approximately what size motors are these starters used and why?
6. Explain the operation of (a) the solder pot overload relay, (b) the bimetallic
overload relay, (c) What is meant by “trip free”?
7. How many overload relays are used on a three-phase full voltage starter?
8. (a) Explain the construction of the holding coil on a magnetic across-the-line
starter, (b) Why is the shading coil needed?
9. What are the advantages of a magnetic across-the-line starter over a manual
across-the-line starter?
10. (a) Describe the construction of a simple start-stop pushbutton station,
(b) Explain the operation of a station having four contacts.
11. (a) Explain how a start-stop pushbutton station should be connected to a
magnetic switch, (b) Show a diagram of this connection, (c) How many wires should
there be between station and starter?
12. (a) Show by a diagram the connection for a start-stop station to a magnetic
switch to control a three-phase motor, (b) Explain the operation and trace out the
circuit, (c) Where are the overload contacts located?
13. Show a diagram of a three-phase full-voltage starter with a step down trans¬
former in the control circuit.
14. Explain the reaction of the starter if the maintaining contacts do not close
when the start button is pressed.
15. (a) Connect two start-stop stations to control a three-phase magnetic
switch, (b) How are the maintaining contacts always connected? (c) How should the
stop buttons be connected? (d) How should the start buttons be connected?
16. (a) What is meant by jogging or inching a motor? (b) Give several applica¬
tions where jogging is used.
17. (a) Draw a diagram of a three-phase magnetic starter connected to a station
having a jog button, (b) Explain the operation of the starter when the jog button is
pressed.
18. (a) What is the purpose of a pilot or indicating lamp on a start-stop station?
(b) Show where it is connected in the circuit.
19. (a) What is a reversing magnetic starter? (b) Give some applications for
which a starter of this type is used.
20. (a) Explain the construction and operation of a reversing magnetic starter,
(b) Show a diagram of this starter. Label all parts.
21. (a) Connect a magnetic-reversing, three-phase starter to a forward-
reverse-stop station, and explain the circuits when each button is pressed, (b) What
is likely to happen if the reverse button is pressed while the forward contacts are
in?
22.Give a specific example of how a mechanical interlock is used to prevent the
forward and reverse contacts from operating at the same instant.
23. (a) Draw a diagram of a reversing magnetic starter connected to
forward-reverse-stop station having an electrical interlock, (b) Trace each circuit
and explain how the interlock operates.
24. Give the names of several starters that start motors at a reduced voltage.
25. (a) What is a primary-resistance starter? (b) Describe the construction and
operation of a primary-resistance starter of the manual type.
26. (a) Describe the construction and operation of a magnetic primary-resistance
starter, (b) Connect this starter to a three-phase motor and explain the circuit when
the start button is pressed.
27. (a) What is the purpose of the definite-time mechanism used on the magnetic
primary-resistance starter? (b) How does it operate? (c) How is the time interval
changed on these devices?
28. (a) Draw a diagram of a secondary-resistance starter and label all parts,
(b) Explain its principle of operation.
29. (a) Show a three-phase slip-ring motor connected to a secondary-resistance
starter, (b) Explain the circuit and operation, (c) Describe the construction of a
three-phase slip-ring motor and its principle of operation.
30. (a) Show by diagram how a magnetic secondary-resistance starter is con¬
nected to a three-phase slip-ring motor, (b) Explain how the timing mechanism
operates.
31. How does a solid-state, reduced-voltage starter control the current of the
motor?
32. What two methods are used to control the time that current is limited before
full current is applied?
33. Explain how the breakaway torque adjustment starts the motor.
34. What protective features are available with this control?
35. (a) What is a three-phase autotransformer starter? (b) What advantage does
this starter have over a resistance starter?
36. (a) Diagram the construction and principle of operation of a three-phase
compensator, (b) Why are three transformers used?
37. (a) Show a diagram of a three-phase compensator connected to a three-phase
Study Questions 317
motor, (b) Explain the sequence of operation, (c) What would happen if one trans¬
former should open while the motor is running?
38. (a) Describe briefly a magnetic compensator, and explain its advantage over
the manual type, (b) What is meant by closed transition?
39. (a) Explain the wye-delta method of reduced-voltage starting, (b) How many
wires must be brought out of a motor started in this way? (c) What are these wires
connected to inside the motor?
40. (a) Connect a three-phase motor so that it can be started wye and run delta.
Use a three-pole double-throw switch, (b) Trace out and explain the circuit.
41. (a) Show a schematic diagram of an automatic wye-delta starter, (b) Explain
its operation, (c) Where is this type of starter used?
42. (a) What is a part-winding starter? (b) Show a diagram of a part-winding
starter connected to a nine-lead wye connected motor, (c) Describe the sequence of
operation.
43. Show diagrams of a small drum switch operating a three-phase motor and a
capacitor motor.
44. What connection features of the motor permit it to operate at different
speeds?
45. (a) Connect a two-speed starter to a three-phase motor having two sets of
windings, (b) Explain in detail the sequence of operation.
46. (a) Connect a two-speed starter to a three-phase motor having a consequent-
pole winding.
47. Explain how the adjustable frequency controller changes the frequency.
48. Why should the voltage be changed when the frequency is changed?
49. Name and explain the features that these controllers can have.
50. (a) What is meant by “plugging” a three-phase motor? (b) How is this
accomplished? (c) Why is plugging necessary in some applications?
51. (a) Show a diagram of a starter that uses a plugging relay, (b) Explain the
operation of the relay and the entire circuit.
52. What procedure would you follow in locating the source of trouble if a motor
does not start when the main contacts of an across-the-line starter close?
53. (a) What may be the trouble if the main contacts of a magnetic starter do not
close when the start button is pressed? (b) Explain how you would remedy each
problem.
54. What usually causes a fuse to blow or the overload relays to operate when
the start button is pressed?
55. (a) List some other problems, besides those listed above, which may be
encountered in automatic starters, (b) How would you remedy these faults?
56. What precaution should be taken before working on controls?
57. What is a symptom of a loose connection?
58. Where are overload contacts located in relation to the holding coil?
59. Where are the control devices located in relation to the holding coil?

1. (a) Show by diagram the construction of a typical armature. Label all the
parts, (b) How are the commutator and the laminations placed on the shaft?
2. (a) Name the operations involved in the process of armature winding,

(b) Which operations in your opinion are more important than others?
3. (a) By means of simple schematic diagrams show how the coils in an arma¬
ture are connected to the commutator, (b) How many commutator bars are necessary
for an armature with nine coils? Why?
4. (a) Why is it necessary to insulate an armature before winding? (b) Where is
the insulation placed? (c) Explain how the insulation should be cut so that the arma¬
ture will be properly insulated.
5. (a) What is meant by pitch of a coil? loop winding? coil throw? (b) Diagram
each.
6. Assume a small seven-slot armature and describe in detail the steps to be
taken in winding this armature after it has been stripped.
7. (a) What is meant by lead swing? (b) Show the methods used in determining
the position of the leads in the commutator, (c) Why is it necessary to put leads into
the correct commutator bars? (d) What effect would an incorrect lead swing have on
the operation of a motor?
8. (a) Explain why wedges are placed in each slot after the armature is wound,
(b) Show by diagram how this is done, (c) What would happen if wedges were not
placed in the slots?
9. (a) What is meant by a two-coil-per-slot winding? Show in a diagram, (b) In
an armature of this type how many slots will there be if the commutator has 18 bars?
30 bars? (c) How many bars should the commutator have if there are 11 slots in the
armature?
10. (a) Diagram and explain how you would wind a nine-slot, two-coil-per-slot
armature, (b) How many loops will this winding have?
11. (a) Give the names of the two main types of armature windings, (b) In what
way do they differ?
12. Define a simplex lap winding and draw a simple diagram of it.
13. (a) Explain how duplex and triplex lap windings differ from the simplex
winding, (b) Show diagrams of these windings, (c) Which of these windings are most
frequently used on small armatures? Why?
14. (a) What methods are used to identify adjacent loops in a two-coil-per-slot
winding? (b) What is the reason for marking the leads?
15. Show by diagrams several coils of a simplex lap winding that does not have
loops and explain how the leads are placed into the commutator bars.
16. (a) Show by diagram several coils of a two-in-hand simplex lap winding and
explain how the leads are tested to determine their correct location in the commutator
bars, (b) Do the same for a three-in-hand lap winding.
17. (a) What is the difference between a coil winding and a hand winding?
(b) Why are these two types of winding used? (c) Can all armatures be hand wound?
18. What is the difference between a lap and a wave winding? Show diagrams of
each. Why are some armatures lap wound and others wave wound?
19. Show a circular diagram of a one-coil-per-slot wave winding having 23 slots
and a pitch of 1 and 7. Trace the winding through half the coils.
20. (a) What is meant by commutator pitch? (b) Give the formula for determin¬
ing commutator pitch for a wave-wound armature, (c) Determine the pitch for a
59-bar four-pole armature.
Study Questions 319
21. (a) Explain the difference between a progressive and retrogressive winding,
(b) What happens if progressive is changed to retrogressive?
22. (a) Explain what equalizer connections are and why all motors do not have
them, (b) How do you determine the span of an equalizer connection?
23. What information should be recorded before an armature is rewound?
24. Show a typical data sheet.
25. (a) Describe how the position of the leads on the commutator may be re¬
corded by marking the commutator and the slots of the armature, (b) Diagram this for
a loop, lap, and wave winding.
26. (a) What precautions should be observed in stripping an armature? (b) Why
should at least one coil of a coil-wound armature be saved during the stripping
process?
27. (a) Explain how the leads are soldered in the commutator bars, (b) What
precautions should be taken to prevent solder from flowing behind the commutator?
28. (a) What is the purpose of cord, tape, and wire bands on armatures?
(b) Describe how cord, tape, and steel bands are placed on armatures.
29. (a) What is meant by a shorted commutator? (b) How is a commutator tested
for short circuits? (c) At what point during the winding process should the commuta¬
tor be tested for shorts?
30. (a) Give some of the causes of grounds in a winding, (b) Where do the
grounds usually occur? (c) How is the winding tested for grounds?
31. (a) What is a growler? (b) How is a grounded coil located by means of a
growler? (c) Explain the construction and operation of a growler.
32. (a) What is meant by a bar-to-bar meter test? (b) How is the winding con¬
nected to the line wires for such a test? (c) How is the amount of current flow to the
winding controlled?
33. Explain how a grounded coil is removed from the circuit of a loop-, lap-, and
wave-wound armature, (b) Why is it necessary to remove a grounded coil from the
circuit? (c) Is it always possible to do this? (d) If not, what must be done?
34. (a) Explain why armatures should be balanced, (b) How is this done?
35. (a) Explain the purpose of baking and varnishing an armature, (b) When and
how is this done?
36. (a) Show by diagram the growler hack-saw blade test for a shorted armature,
(b) Why can’t this test be used on an armature having equalizer connections?
37. (a) Show by diagram the bar-to-bar meter test for locating a shorted coil,
(b) Describe how an armature can be tested for shorts by means of the growler-meter
method.
38. (a) Under what conditions is it advisable to eliminate shorted coils from the
armature circuit? (b) When is it not advisable? (c) Why is it not always possible to cut
out a shorted coil?
39. (a) How does a shorted coil show itself in the operation of a motor? (b) Why
is it not advisable to run a motor with a shorted coil for any length of time?
40. (a) In testing an armature for shorts how can you tell whether the short is in
a coil or in the commutator? (b) How can you tell whether there is more than one
short?
41. (a) Describe and show by a diagram the bar-to-bar meter test for locating an
open in an armature, (b) What precautions must be taken with the meter in this test?
42. (a) How is an open coil located by means of a growler test? (b) In what way
is this test different from that in question 41?
43. (a) Show by diagram the method of jumping out an open coil in a lap and
wave winding, (b) Explain how you would jump out an open coil on six-pole wave
winding.
44. (a) Describe the bar-to-bar test for a reversed coil in a loop winding, (b) How
would you make this test using a growler?
45. (a) Describe how to test for reversed coils in a two-in-hand lap winding and
wave winding, (b) How would you remedy this condition when it has been found?
46. Name the various parts of a commutator.
47. (a) Describe the construction and function of the commutator, (b) What
material is the commutator bar made of? (c) Why must the bars be insulated from the
rings?
48. (a) Explain how a commutator is disassembled preparatory to insulating it.
(b) What information must be taken while it is being disassembled?
49. (a) What is a mica V ring? (b) Explain the three methods that can be used to
make these rings, (c) Why must heat be used to shape the rings? (d) Can this be done
without heating the mica?
50. (a) How can you eliminate a short between commutator bars that is due to
carbonized mica? (b) What must be done if much scraping is necessary?
51. (a) Explain how two shorted bars can be reinsulated without disassembling
the entire commutator, (b) How could you quickly make a repair if the bars could not
be reinsulated?
52. Assuming that the entire commutator has to be reinsulated, how would you
go about it when the commutator is connected to a good winding?
53. (a) What is meant by high bars? low bars? (b) What is their cause and how is
it remedied?
54. (a) What is a commutator stone? (b) When is it used? (c) What precautions
must be observed in using it? (d) Why can’t sandpaper be used as a substitute?
55. (a) What is meant by high mica? (b) How is it caused and what is the
remedy? (c) What effect will it have on the operation of a motor?
56. (a) What is meant by undercutting? (b) How is this done? (c) Why must this
be done on certain commutators?
1. (a) Name the main parts of a dc motor, (b) Describe the construction of each
part and give the function of each.
2. What is the purpose of bearings in a motor?
3. (a) Show a simple drawing of a sleeve bearing and an oil ring, (b) What is
the purpose of the oil ring? (c) How is oil conducted along the shaft resting in the
bearing?
4. (a) What is meant by brush rigging? (b) Why is this movable on some motors
and not on others? (c) Why are the brushes insulated from the end brackets?
5. Name four types of dc motors.
Study Questions 321
6. Describe the construction of the permanent-magnet motor.

7. What is the difference between the field windings of a series motor and a
shunt motor?
8. Describe the path of magnetic lines of force in a dc stator.
9. What is the purpose of a commutator?
10. What is the purposes of the brushes?
11. What are three factors that govern the amount of voltage generated?
12. What direction does generated current flow compared to current being used
as power in a motor?
13. When a generator is adding power to a line, what would happen if the
generator-output voltage fell below that of the line voltage?
14. What would happen if a motor were pulled faster than its loaded speed?
15. What is counter electromotive force (e.m.f.)?
16. What effect does counter e.m.f. in an armature have on the current supplied
by the line?
17. How does counter e.m.f. compare with a battery being charged?
18. How does counter e.m.f. control the speed of an armature?
19. What would happen to an armature if counter e.m.f. were eliminated?
20. Explain what happens when the voltage supplying the armature is reduced.
21. What happens when the voltage applied to the shunt field is reduced?
22. How is the speed of a permanent magnet motor controlled?
23. What happens to the speed of a permanent-magnet motor when the magnet
becomes weak? What will happen to the armature?
24. What can cause the permanent magnet to become weak?
25. (a) Draw a schematic of a shunt motor, (b) How can the speed of a shunt
motor be varied? (c) What will cause the speed to increase?
26. Where is the most power used in all dc motors?
27. In which circuit should the overspeed or torque control be located?
28. In which circuit is the underspeed or horsepower control located?
29. What is the danger in operating a motor too slowly for a long time?
30. Why doesn’t a shunt motor work very well with a varying load?
31. Draw a schematic of a series motor.
32. What limits the current of the series field when a series motor is running?
33. What happens to the lines of force from the series field when a series motor
accelerates?
34. What limits the speed of a series motor?
35. Why doesn’t the back e.m.f. limit the speed of a series motor?
36. Draw a schematic of a compound motor.
37. Describe the construction of a compound motor.
38. How does the series field strengthen the motor when the load slows the
armature?
39. What is the difference between a stabilized shunt motor and a compound
motor?
40. (a) Describe the method used for winding series-field coils, (b) What is the
general construction of the series-field coil?
41. (a) Describe in detail how a compound-field coil is wound, (b) Make a
diagram of this coil, (c) What precautions must be taken when winding it?
42. (a) What is an interpole field? (b) How i$ it wound? (c) Why is heavy wire
used in its construction?
43. (a) What is the rule for connecting field poles for proper polarity? (b) What
effect would improper polarity have on the operation of a motor? Diagram the field-
coil connection of a two-pole motor having correct polarity.
44. Describe three methods for testing coils to determine if they have correct
polarity.
45. How would you test for correct field-coil polarity while the motor is com¬
pletely assembled?
46. Show a diagram of the connections of a series motor, (b) Trace out and
explain the circuit, (c) What characteristics of the series motor make it dangerous to
run this motor without a load?
47. (a) Make a diagram of a shunt motor, (b) Explain the circuit and trace out the
connections.
48. \ (a) Draw a diagram of a two-pole compound motor, (b) Show arrows on all
connecting wires to indicate the direction of current flow in the field poles.
49. Name four different types of compound motors in general use.
50. Define the following: (a) cumulative; (b) differential; (c) long shunt;
(d) short shunt.
51. Draw the following diagrams: (a) two-pole, long-shunt cumulative motor;
(b) two-pole, long-shunt differential motor; (c) two-pole, short-shunt cumulative
motor; (d) two-pole, short-shunt differential motor.
52. What is an interpole? What purpose does it serve in a motor? How many
interpoles are there in a four-pole motor?
53. (a) What is the rule for interpole polarity? (b) What two factors govern
interpole polarity?
54. Draw the poles of a two-pole interpole motor showing the polarity of all the
poles, assuming main pole polarity and counterclockwise rotation.
55. Draw a simple diagram showing how interpoles are connected in a motor.
56. Draw the same diagram as in question 54 for a four-pole interpole motor.
57. (a) Describe the procedure for connecting a two-pole, cumulatively con¬
nected, compound-interpole motor for a proper polarity, assuming main pole polarity
and counterclockwise rotation, (b) Diagram to show the direction of current in each
field coil.
58. (a) How is the direction of rotation of any dc motor reversed? (b) How is a
series motor reversed? (c) Diagram to show how a series motor is reversed.
59. (a) Show by diagram how an interpole motor is reversed (b) What precau¬
tions must be taken in reversing an interpole motor?
60. Draw a diagram of a six-pole compound-interpole machine showing the
polarity of all the poles and show how this motor is reversed.
61. List some of the tests that should be given to a motor before it is installed.
62. Explain and diagram the procedure for making a ground test on a motor.
What can cause a field coil to ground?
63. Explain and draw a diagram showing how a shunt motor is reversed.
64. (a) Show by means of a diagram where grounds in a field coil are most likely
to occur, (b) When a ground is indicated in the field of an eight-pole motor, show
Study Questions 323
how to find the coil in which the ground is located, (c) What would happen if the
series and shunt field of a compound motor were grounded?
65. (a) What is meant by an open circuit in a motor? (b) Explain by diagram how
series motors are tested for open circuits, (c) What may be the causes for open
circuits in this motor?
66. (a) How are shunt motors tested for open circuits? Where are these opens
usually located? (b) What would happen if the field should open while the motor is
running? when the motor is started?
67. (a) What markings are usually put on the leads of a compound motor?
(b) Why are these markings necessary?
68. (a) How are the six leads of a compound motor identified when the markings
are missing? (b) Give the procedure in making this test.
69. (a) How are the leads of a compound motor identified when only five wires
are brought out of the motor? (b) Will it be necessary to open the motor for this test?
70. (a) Give the steps in testing a compound motor to determine whether it is
connected cumulatively or differentially, (b) What difference will it make in the
operation of a motor?
71. (a) Describe a practical test to determine correct interpole polarity, (b) How
would wrong interpole polarity show up in the operation of a motor?
72. (a) Describe one method of properly locating the brush holders in the neutral
position for an interpole motor and a noninterpole motor, (b) Why will the wrong
location cause the armature to spark?
73. (a) Describe three other methods for setting the brushes on netural.
(b) Which of these methods would you use? Why?
74. (a) With what pressure should carbon brushes press against the commutator?
(b) How is this pressure measured? (c) What effect will improper pressure have on
the operation of the motor?
75. (a) How are the brushes made to fit the curvature of the commutator?
(b) Why are different grades of brushes used on different motors?
76. (a) What are some of the causes of open circuits in the armature circuit of a
dc motor? (b) Explain how to locate the open.
77. (a) What is meant by a motor “running away”? (b) What is the usual cause
of this and how can it be prevented?
78. (a) What are some of the symptoms of a shorted armature in the operation of
a motor? (b) What will the consequences be if a motor is allowed to run this way?
79. (a) Assuming that a motor with one or two shorted coils had to be put into
operation very quickly, what would you do? (b) What would you do if two or more
commutator bars were shorted?
80. (a) How does an open armature coil manifest itself while the motor is run¬
ning? (b) How can you locate the open by inspecting the commutator?
81. (a) Name some of the conditions that may cause armature opens and explain
how you would effect a repair, (b) How would you know that the open is repaired?
82. What is the importance of the nameplate data on a motor?
83. Explain in detail why a shunt motor will tend to race when the shunt field is
opened.
84. Explain why a series motor must always run with a load.
85. (a) What are some of the reasons for sparking at the commutator?
(b) Explain why each of these causes produces sparking and give the remedy for
each.
86. (a) Why will incorrect lead swing cause sparking at the brush? (b) What
other effect will this have on the motor?
87. (a) What are the symptoms of a motor running with wrong interpole polar¬
ity? (b) How can you tell that these symptoms are due to wrong interpole polarity?
88. (a) What is meant by high bars? low bars? (b) To what are these conditions
due and how are they remedied?
89. Describe some of the defects that may cause a motor to run noisily.
1. (a) Name some of the functions of a starting box and controller, (b) What is
the difference between the two? (c) Why is it necessary to use these devices?
2. Explain why a small motor can be started by placing full voltage across it
while large motors must be started with reduced voltage. What will be damaged in a
large motor?
3. (a) Describe the construction and operation of a three-point starting box.
(b) Draw a diagram of all its internal connections and label all parts, (c) Why is it
called a three-point box?
4. (a) Why is the holding coil of a three-point box called a no-field release?
(b) What is the function of the holding coil? (c) How are the terminals of the box
marked?
5. (a) Show a diagram of a three-point starting box connected to a compound
motor, (b) Explain this circuit.
6. (a) Describe the construction and operation of a four-point starting box.
(b) Draw a diagram of the internal connections of this box. Label all parts.
7. (a) Why is the starting box in question 6 called a four-point starting box?
(b) What are some of the essential differences between a three-point and a four-point
starting box? (c) What are the reasons for using a three-point box on some applica¬
tions and a four-point box on others?
8. (a) What is the function of the holding coil on a four-point box? (b) Why is
this coil called a no-voltage release coil?
9. (a) Draw a diagram of a four-point starting box connected to a shunt motor;
to a compound motor, (b) Explain the circuit.
10. (a) What is a speed-regulating rheostat? (b) Make a connection diagram of a
four-point, speed-regulating rheostat, (c) Describe its operation, (d) Where would
you use a rheostat of this kind?
11. (a) What is meant by a combination four-point starting box and speed¬
regulating rheostat? (b) Show by means of a diagram the internal wiring of this
device and explain fully how it operates. Label and describe its various parts.
12. Connect the box in question 11 to a compound motor and describe in detail
all of the circuits involved.
Study Questions 325
13. (a) How is the direction of rotation of a dc motor changed? (b) Name several
applications where the motor reverses periodically.
14. Connect a double-pole, double-throw switch in (a) the armature circuit of a
shunt motor and (b) in the field circuit of a shunt motor. In both instances explain the
circuits.
15. (a) Draw a diagram of a two-pole, compound-interpole motor with a double¬
pole, double-throw switch connected in the armature circuit for reversing, (b) What
precaution must be taken in reversing this motor?
16. By means of a double-pole, double-throw switch, reverse a shunt motor
connected to a three-point starting box. Explain exactly how you would start and stop
this motor.
17. Draw a diagram of a four-point starting box connected (a) to a shunt motor
and use a double-pole, double-throw switch for reversing; (b) to a compound motor
and use a double-pole, double-throw switch for reversing.
18. (a) Show a sketch of the external appearance and internal construction of a
small drum-type switch, (b) Show all contacts, label all parts, and explain the opera¬
tion. (c) What is this switch used for?
19. (a) Show by diagram the connection of a series motor to a drum switch and
the contacts for forward rotation, (b) Explain the circuit, (c) Show another diagram
for reverse rotation.
20. (a) What is an overload relay? (b) What are several devices that can be used
to protect a motor from overloads, (c) How can you tell that a motor is overloaded?
21. (a) Show a simple sketch of a magnetic circuit breaker and explain its con¬
struction and operation, (b) Why is this device used?
22. (a) Explain the construction and operation of a thermal relay, (b) What is the
difference between a thermal relay and an overload relay? (c) What troubles can
develop on a thermal relay?
23. Explain what is meant by a pushbutton station and show a sketch of a station
having a start-stop button.
24. (a) Draw a diagram of a magnetic switch and small dc motor connected to a
start-stop pushbutton station, (b) Show an elementary diagram of this connection.
25. (a) Show the same diagram as in question 24, but with two start-stop
stations, (b) Show the connection with three stations, (c) How should the stop button
always be connected?
26. (a) What may be the source of the trouble when the magnetic switch does not
operate after pressing the start button? (b) Explain.
27. Explain what may be the trouble when the magnetic switch does not stay
closed when the finger is removed from the start button.
28. What is the purpose of using several start-stop stations to operate one
magnetic switch?
29. (a) Explain the use of a jog or inch button in a pushbutton station, (b) Show
all the contacts in a station having a start, a jog, and a stop button.
30. (a) Draw a diagram of a start-jog-stop station connected to a magnetic
switch to operate a small motor, (b) Explain the circuits when each button is pressed,
(c) Show one elementary diagram of this connection.
31. (a) What may be the trouble if the magnetic switch does not operate when
the jog button is pressed?
32. (a) Why is resistance needed in the motor circuit in order to start a medium¬
sized or large-sized motor? (b) What will happen if the motor is started without
resistance?
33. List five different types of automatic controllers generally used for the con¬
trol of medium-sized and large-sized dc motors.
34. (a) Explain the principle of the counter electromotive force controller,
(b) Give an application of this controller.
35. (a) Show a diagram of a counter electromotive force controller with one step
of resistance connected to a compound motor, (b) Explain the operation of this
circuit.
36. (a) What is a lockout controller? (b) Why is it called by this name? (c) Why
is it also known as current-limit starter? (d) Where would this type of controller be
used?
37. (a) Connect a two-coil lockout controller with one step of resistance to a
compound motor, (b) Explain the operation of the circuit.
38. Show in a diagram a two-coil lockout controller with two steps of resistance
connected to a compound motor. Show the complete circuit with magnetic switch
and start-stop station.
39. (a) Diagram a single-coil lockout contactor, (b) Explain the principle bf
operation of this contactor, (c) What is the difference between this and the two-coil
lockout contactor?
40. (a) Draw a wiring diagram of a single-coil lockout controller with one step of
resistance connected to a compound motor, (b) Explain the operation.
41. (a) What is meant by a definite magnetic time controller? (b) Explain the
principle of operation of this type of controller, (c) Diagram one of these controllers
and label the parts.
42. (a) Draw a diagram and explain the circuit of a definite magnetic time starter
connected to a compound motor, (b) Show also an elementary diagram of this starter.
43. (a) What advantages does this starter have over the lockout type of starter?
(b) Why do you consider these advantages?
44. (a) Show a simplified diagram of a definite magnetic time starter having two
steps of resistance, (b) For what applications would this starter be used?
45. (a) Show in a diagram what is meant by dynamic braking, (b) Why is dy¬
namic braking needed in many instances? (c) Give several instances where it is
necessary.
46. Draw a diagram of a definite magnetic time controller equipped with dy¬
namic braking.
47. List and explain as many troubles as you can which may cause a definite
magnetic time starter to function improperly.
48. Explain the difference between a definite magnetic time starter and a definite
mechanical time starter.
49. (a) Describe by means of a diagram a definite mechanical time controller
using dashpot acceleration and explain the operation, (b) Explain the operation of a
dashpot.
50. (a) What are some of the things that may go wrong with the controller of
question 49? (b) Explain each trouble and the remedy for it.
51. Show a typical diagram of a simple type of drum controller and describe the
Study Questions 327
circuit when the handle is at the first point of acceleration. Assume this controller is
used with a compound motor.
52. Draw a straight-line diagram of a reduced voltage starter with time limit
acceleration. Explain its operation.
53. Draw a straight-line diagram of an adjustable speed starter using a field
accelerating relay. Explain the operation of the field accelerating relay.
54. What is ripple effect?
55. What are the two types of circuitry in an electronic controller?
56. Name five of the functions the control or regulatory circuit can perform.
57. Why does the three-phase controller develop a smoother dc than a single¬
phase controller?

1. What is a universal motor? Name some of its characteristics and applica¬
tions.
2. (a) Name and describe the main parts of a universal motor, (b) Show simple
sketches of each part.
3. (a) Explain the operation of a universal motor, (b) What characteristics of
construction make it possible to operate on either alternating or direct current?
4. What procedure should be followed when it is necessary to rewind the field
coils of a universal motor?
5. (a) Explain how to make a form for winding field coils, (b) How are the right
measurements for making the form obtained? (c) What would happen if the form
were made too small? too large?
6. (a) Prepare a diagram to show how the field coils are connected and tested
for correct polarity, (b) Why wouldn’t a universal motor run if both fields of a
two-pole motor were connected for like polarity?
7. (a) Show in a diagram how the field coils and armature are connected in a
two-pole universal motor, (b) Is this the only way they can be connected?
8. (a) Show by diagram how to reverse the direction of rotation of a universal
motor, (b) Is it always necessary to take the motor apart to reverse it? Explain.
9. (a) Why does severe sparking generally occur when the rotation is reversed
on some types of universal motors? (b) How can the sparking be eliminated?
10. Name and explain some important features that are common to all universal
motors.
11. (a) What information must be recorded before an armature can be rewound?
(b) Draw a chart with a sample recording, (c) What might be the result if the wrong
information is recorded?
12. (a) Describe in detail how to determine the correct lead throw on a small
armature, (b) What would happen if the armature was rewound with wrong lead
throw?
13. (a) Describe how to determine correct lead throw by using a growler,
(b) What are some other functions of a growler?
14. (a) How must an armature be prepared before it is ready for winding?
(b) Describe briefly the method of rewinding the armature of a universal motor.
15. (a) What differences will sometimes be found in the windings on the arma¬
ture of a universal motor? (b) Show some of these differences by means of sketches.
(c) How do these differences affect the operation of the motor?
16. (a) What precautions should be taken with respect to the position of the leads
in the commutator? (b) What would happen if the leads are placed one or more bars
out of the way?
17. (a) What is meant by a compensated universal motor? (b) Describe the sin¬
gle-field compensated universal motor.
18. (a) Describe the two-field compensated universal motor, (b) What function
does the compensating field serve in this motor?
19. (a) What precautions should be taken when stripping the stator of a compen¬
sated universal motor? (b) List all the information that should be recorded.
20. (a) Describe briefly how the stator of a compensated universal motor is
rewound, (b) Why is the compensating winding located 90 electrical degrees from
the main winding?
21. (a) List and explain as many methods as you can to show how the speed of
a universal motor can be varied and regulated, (b) What applications do you know of
for universal motors that can be varied in speed.
22. Diagram and explain the layout of the coils of a two-field compensated
universal stator having 4 poles and 24 slots.
23. Show by diagram how the speed of a universal motor may be regulated by
using a variable resistance in the motor circuit.
24. (a) How may different speeds be obtained by tapping one field of a universal
motor? (b) Explain the principle of operation of this type of speed control.
25. Explain how speed may be controlled by means of a centrifugal device.
26. (a) What are some of the troubles that may cause a universal motor to spark
excessively? (b) Explain and give a remedy for each trouble.
27. List as many troubles as you can that may cause the universal motor to
(a) run hot; (b) to smoke; (c) to have poor torque.
28. When a universal motor runs slower than it should, it is an almost certain
sign that it is defective. Explain how you would diagnose the trouble of such a motor
and repair it.
29. (a) Give a simple definition of a shaded-pole motor, (b) List some of its
characteristics and applications.
30. Name and illustrate the main parts of a shaded-pole motor and explain the
function of each.
31. (a) Explain the principle of operation of a shaded-pole motor, (b) What is the
purpose of the shaded coil? What will happen to the operation if the shading coil
opens?
32. (a) Show a connection diagram of a six-pole shaded-pole motor, (b) How do
you test for correct polarity? (c) Why isn’t it necessary for the shaded coils to be
insulated from ground?
33. (a) What precautions should be taken in rewinding the field coils of shaded-
pole motors? (b) Some shaded-pole motors have an iron bridge between pole pieces.
What is this for?
34. (a) Show by diagram how a shaded-pole motor is reversed, (b) How can you
tell just by looking at the stator in which direction the motor will rotate?
Study Questions 329
35. (a) Describe and make a diagram of a shaded-pole motor that can be reversed
by means of external leads, (b) Explain the operation of this motor.
36. (a) Describe and make a diagram of a reversible shaded-pole motor that has
two main windings and one shaded-coil winding, (b) How many leads are brought
out of this motor?
37. (a) What may be some of the reasons for a shaded-pole motor failing to start?
(b) Why is it particularly important that the bearings of a shaded-pole motor be in
perfect condition?
38. (a) Explain how a shaded-pole motor is tested for grounds, short circuits,
opens, (b) Describe how you locate and eliminate all of these defects.
39. List the possible troubles of a shaded-pole motor when it runs too hot; when
it has very poor starting torque.
40. (a) Make a connection diagram of a two-speed, split-phase fan motor having
two running windings and one starting winding, (b) How many leads are brought out
of this motor? (c) How can you tell which is the correct lead for connecting?
41. (a) Explain and show a diagram of a three-speed split-phase fan motor hav¬
ing one running, one starting, and one auxiliary winding, (b) Explain the principle
involved in the speed control of this motor.
42. (a) Show by diagram the connections of a two-speed split-phase motor hav¬
ing one running and one starting winding, (b) Explain how two different speeds are
obtained from this motor, (c) Explain the principle of consequent connections.
43. (a) How is a universal motor controlled for changes in speed? (b) What
would happen if a field coil on this motor should open while the motor is running?
44. Many split-phase fan motors have a transformer in the base of the stand to
control the speed. Show by means of a diagram how this transformer is connected to
the motor.
45. Many fans are driven by capacitor motors and are controlled for speed by
means of a transformer, as in the case of the motor in question 44. Show how three
different speeds can be obtained from this connection.
46. (a) With a diagram show how a fan motor used on unit heaters is connected
for different speeds, (b) Explain the principle involved in its operation.
47. Explain with a diagram how the speed of a shaded-pole motor is varied.

1. What is the difference between a motor and a generator?
2. How are dc generators rated?
3. (a) Describe the construction of a dc generator, (b) How does it differ from
that of a dc motor?
4. What happens when a conductor cuts magnetic lines of force?
5. What factors will cause a change in the amounts of voltage generated in a dc
generator?
6. Explain how the direction of the generated voltage can be changed.
7. What are the three essentials necessary to cause a voltage to be generated?
8. Name three ways of producing the flux necessary in the generation of elec¬
tricity.
9. What is meant by a separately excited generator? a self-excited generator?

10. (a) Explain in detail the operation of a self-excited generator, (b) Explain
what is meant by the “building-up process.”
11. (a) Explain with a diagram the connection and operation of a self-excited
series generator, (b) What happens to the generated voltage when load is added or
taken away?
12. (a) Show a diagram of a self-excited, shunt generator and explain its opera¬
tion. (b) What are the characteristics of this generator?
13. (a) Describe the most common type of compound generator, (b) Show a
diagram of this generator and describe its operation.
14. (a) What is meant by an over-compounded generator? flat-compounded gen¬
erator? under-compounded generator? (b) Describe the characteristics and uses of
each.
15. (a) How does the polarity rule of interpoles in a dc generator differ from that
of a dc motor? (b) Show simple illustrations of each.
16. Diagram to show the connection of a four-pole compound-interpole genera¬
tor.
17. Explain how reversed interpole polarity would affect the operation of an
interpole generator.
18. How does direction of rotation affect the operation of a dc generator?
19. It is necessary sometimes to change a compound motor to a compound gen¬
erator. Show with a diagram how this is accomplished.
20. (a) What kind of device is used to regulate the voltage generated? (b) How is
it connected in the circuit? Explain how it is used in the circuit.
21. (a) Show by diagram how an ammeter and a voltmeter are connected in a
generator circuit, (b) What is an ammeter shunt?
22. What is meant by paralleling generators and why is it done?
23. In order to connect two generators in parallel, what three conditions are
necessary?
24. (a) What is an equalizer connection? (b) What is the reason for having this
when two generators are paralleled?
25. Draw a diagram of two compound generators in parallel.
26. (a) If a generator refused to generate, what troubles would you suspect?
(b) How would you remedy them?
27. Why would wrong field-pole connections prevent a generator from building
up?
28. What would cause the generated voltage to drop if a load is added to a
generator?
29. (a) What may be some of the troubles if the voltage does not build up
completely? (b) How do you proceed to locate the fault?
30. (a) How is the neutral point of the brushes located in a compound-interpole
generator? (b) How would you know that you have the correct position?
31. (a) What would cause the armature to spark while the generator is operating?
(b) Give remedies for each of the troubles.
32. How would you define a synchronous motor?
33. What are some of the characteristics and uses of a synchronous motor?
34. (a) Describe and diagram the construction of a synchronous motor, (b) What
methods are used to excite it?
Study Questions 331
35. (a) What is an amortisseur winding? (b) What purpose does it serve? (c) In
what type of motor is it used?
36. (a) Explain how you would start a synchronous motor, (b) Explain how the
magnetic poles on the motor lock in with the rotating magnetic field.
37. Explain how the stator of a synchronous motor is wound and how the rotor is
wound.
38. Show a complete connection diagram of a synchronous motor having exter¬
nal excitation.
39. (a) Describe the construction of a synchronous motor with a rotor that is not
externally excited, (b) Explain its operation, (c) What happens if you overexcite or
underexcite the rotor field?
40. (a) Draw a diagram showing the internal connections of a brushless synchro¬
nous motor, (b) Explain its operation.
41. (a) What types of motors do electric clocks use? (b) Describe two of these
types and explain their operation.
42. What problems are usually encountered on clock motors and how are these
troubles remedied?
43. How does a synchronous generator differ from a synchronous motor?
44. Show a complete wiring diagram of a synchronous generator and explain its
operation.
45. What effect will varying the exciting currents have on a synchronous genera¬
tor?
46. Name and explain the conditions that must be satisfied when alternators are
paralleled.
47. Draw an elementary diagram of a brushless synchronous generator and ex¬
plain its operation.
48. Explain with diagram the “all dark” and “one dark and two bright” meth¬
ods of synchronizing two alternators.
49. What would happen if the synchronizing switch is closed when the lamps of
the “all dark” method are not entirely dark?
50. (a) Explain what is meant by a “synchro.’’ (b) Explain its use and character¬
istics.
51. (a) In what way does a synchro resemble a synchronous generator? (b) How
do they differ? (c) Describe the construction of the synchro and show a simple
diagram of the windings.
52. (a) How does a synchro operate? (b) Draw a diagram of two synchros, one of
which is the transmitter and one the receiver, (c) Trace out and describe in detail the
function of each.
53. What effects would two reversed-phase wires have on the operation of the
synchros?
54. Describe the stator and rotor windings of a wound-rotor, three-phase motor.
55. Name the connections that are found on the rotor of a wound-rotor, three-
phase motor.
56. Where does the rotor voltage come from?
57. What is the purpose of the slip rings?
58. What effect does a reduction of rotor amps have on the shaft speed?
59. What is meant by poor speed regulation?
60. What actually controls the speed of the shaft?
61. Can all wound-rotor motors be started without resistance in the rotor circuit?
62. Why is there more inductive reactance in a wound rotor than in a squirrel-
cage rotor?
63. What is the result of a good phase angle?
64. What is the advantage of a regenerative electronic controller?
65. What are some of the problems that can occur in a wound rotor?
1. How are all substances classified in terms of electrical conductivity?

2. What elements are mainly used in the manufacture of semiconductor de¬
vices?
3. (a) Describe the Bohr model of an atom, (b) What charges do the atomic
particles carry?
4. How does the Bohr model differ from the real atom?
5. What is meant by a valence electron?
6. Describe the modes of current flow in semiconductors.
7. (a) Why are impurities added to pure silicon or germanium? (b) Define
doping.
8. (a) What is meant by covalent bonding? (b) Define N-type and P-type semi¬
conductors.
9. Define hole as applied to the crystal structure of a semiconductor.
10. (a) Describe a P-N diode using an illustration, (b) Label all parts and de¬
scribe the depletion region.
11. What is meant by reverse and forward bias?
12. Show a symbol of a diode, and label its parts.
13. (a) Define a diode rectifier, (b) Show current flow when a diode rectifier is
connected to a dc source.
14. By means of a characteristic curve, explain the operation of a diode.
15. Describe the operation of a half-wave rectifier.
16. (a) What is meant by filtered dc? (b) Show a diagram using a capacitor for
filtering purposes.
17. (a) In what way does full-wave rectification differ from half-wave rectifica¬
tion? (b) Show a full-wave rectifier using a center-tapped transformer and (c) using a
bridge rectifier, (d) How would you filter these circuits?
18. (a) What is a zener diode? (b) Show the symbol for this diode and its charac¬
teristic curve.
19. Show a circuit in which a zener diode is used for voltage regulation.
20. Illustrate the operation of a transistor amplifier.
21. Illustrate the NPN and PNP transistors and label the terminals.
22. (a) What is the function of each element in the transistor? (b) Why is the
emitter-base circuit forward biased? (c) Why is the collector circuit reverse-biased?
23. Describe the function of each transistor configuration. Draw the circuit of
each.
24. Explain how the common emitter amplifier gives both current and voltage
gain.
Study Questions 333
25. (a) What is an SCR? (b) Show a symbol for the SCR and label the terminals,
(c) Describe its construction and function.
26. (a) By means of a curve, describe the characteristics of an SCR. (b) Define
holding current, blocking state, forward breakover voltage, and reverse breakdown
voltage.
27. Explain the operation of an SCR, assuming the SCR as two transistors, a
PNP and NPN. Illustrate.
28. List at least six important factors in the operation of SCRs.
29. What is meant by a control or trigger signal?
30. Describe the structure of a triac and explain its operation.
31. What limits the triac’s upper operating frequency?
32. What is the function of a trigger circuit?
33. (a) Describe the construction and operation of the unijunction transistor,
(b) Show the symbol for the UJT and label all its parts.
34. Show a diagram of a UJT used in a relaxation oscillator circuit arrangement
and trace its circuit.
35. Describe the structure and operation of the PUT.
36. What are the advantages of the PUT over the UJT?
37. Describe the structure and operation of the SUS.
38. Compare the output capabilities of the UJT, PUT, and SUS.
39. Describe the structure and operation of the diac.
40. (a) Explain the meaning of phase control, (b) Illustrate half-wave phase
control.
41. By means of illustrations, discuss full-wave phase control.
42. (a) Explain the term resistance triggering, (b) Show how this type of trigger¬
ing is used with a constant resistance and a variable resistance.
43. Draw a diagram in which a capacitor is used in conjunction with a variable
resistor in order to trigger the SCR.
44. In indirect RC triggering how are the capacitor charging and discharging
times computed.
45. Show diagrams and explain the operation of half-wave and full-wave circuits
using the unijunction transistor for triggering purposes.
46. Draw a diagram and explain how a transistor can be used in place of a
variable resistor in order to charge a capacitor.
47. Explain the function of the zener diode in Figure 10-55.
48. What precautions must be observed in applying phase control to motors?
49. (a) Define reference signals and feedback signals, (b) Show a circuit ex¬
plaining reference and feedback voltages.
50. (a) What is meant by counter electromotive force? (b) How is counter e.m.f.
used as a feedback signal?
51. (a) Draw an elementary diagram of a universal motor connected for half¬
wave control with feedback. Explain its operation, (b) What are some of the disad¬
vantages of this circuit?
52. How may the circuit of question 51 be improved in terms of a shorter con¬
duction time for the SCR? Show this diagram.
53. Show a half-wave control circuit with feedback in which a zener diode is
used for supplying a constant potential.
54. Draw a diagram of a half-wave universal motor control in which the field
and armature do not have separate connections. Explain its operation and why this
circuit is an improvement over that of question 51.
55. Why is it unnecessary to separate the field and the armature in the circuit of
question 54?
56. Describe the effects of the slope of the trigger voltage on an SCR’s firing
stability.
57. What are the advantages of indirect triggering over direct triggering?
58. (a) Diagram a full-wave dc control circuit that has separate connections for
the series field and armature, (b) In what way is the circuit an improvement over the
half-wave circuit?
59. Define precise triggering. How is it obtained?
60. (a) Draw an elementary diagram of a half-wave control for a shunt motor,
(b) Explain how the shunt field is supplied with a continuous unidirectional current.
61. (a) Explain what is meant by a commutating diode, (b) What is its function?
62. (a) Show a diagram of a full-wave, speed-controlled, shunt-wound, dc
motor. Label each component and explain its function.
63. Explain why the speed of induction motors is more readily controlled by
variable-frequency drives than by voltage control.
64. Why must a tachometer be used to obtain feedback data for an induction
motor?
65. Draw a block diagram of a system using an induction motor to move a fluid
at a constant speed.
66. How are SCRs protected against reverse voltages?
67. Describe the operation of the protective devices in Figure 10-75.
68. Explain why the transistor is a constant current source. Draw the voltage
across a capacitor charged by such a source.
69. (a) How may the centrifugal switch of a split-phase or capacitor motor be
replaced by a solid-state switch? (b) Explain how such a circuit operates.
70. Name and briefly explain several types of drives used for a three-phase
supply.
71. Show an elementary power circuit of a magnetic drive, and describe its
operation.
72. Show how pulse-width modulation determines a dc output.
73. Describe the operation of a Jones chopper.
74. What is the difference between a chopper and an inverter?
75. Why are inverters required to drive an ac motor?
76. Describe the operation of Figure 10-85.
77. Describe the operation of a cycloconverter. Why must its output frequency
be less than its supply frequency?
78. What is a microprocessor? What is a microcomputer? How do the two dif¬
fer?
79. Design a stepper motor to provide 15° steps.
80. Design a mechanical system using a stepper motor, to position a device at
one-inch increments.
81. Change the welding machine program so that eight equally-spaced welds are
made instead of six.
82. Explain the function of each box in Figure 10-92.
83. What is the function of a digital-to-analog converter?
84. How is pulse-width modulation used in a dc servo system?
INDEX
Acceleration time, 156 Armature construction, repulsion-
Acceptors, 269 start induction run, 76
Actual turns, 18, 49, 133 Armature repair, 178
Adjacent poles, 94, 114 grounded coil, 180
Adjustable frequency controller, 162 open, 89, 184, 211
Angle of coil, 48 open, lap winding, 184
Alternating current, 5, 95 wave winding, 184
Alternating current starters, 144 shorted coil, 181
across the line, 144 Armature winding, 76, 168
autotransformer type, 156 baking and varnishing, 177
drum type, 160 balancing, 178
full voltage, 144, 145, 146 banding, 176
magnetic, 146 commutator pitch, 79, 173
overload relays, 147 data for, 174
part-winding start, 159 dc, 167
plugging, 163 duplex lap wound, 170
push button switch type, 145 equalizer connection, 78, 79, 174
quick stop, 163 form wound coils, 172
reduced voltage, 144, 153 identifying leads, 171
reversing full voltage, 144, 151 insulation, 168
testing, 165 lap wound, 170
troubleshooting and repairs, 163 duplex, 170
two-speed, 160-162 with loops, 170
Alternators (ac generators), 263 simplex, 170
brushless (synchronous), 263 triplex, 170
paralleling, 264 lead position, 169
condition for, 264 lead swing, 169
method of, 264 left handed, 171
phasing out, 264 loop wound, 169
synchronizing, 264 one coil per slot, 168
synchronous, 263 placing wedges in slot, 168
American Wire Gauge (A.W.G.), position for holding armatures,
44, 45, Chart, 296 168
Ammeter, 165 procedure for, 168
Amortisseur winding, 260 progressive connections, 173
Anode, 273 reversed leads, 214
335
336 Index
Armature winding (cont.) Breakaway torque, 156

repulsion-type motors, 76-81 Braking effect, 56
one, two, and three coils per Bridge rectifier, 271
slot, 77 Brush holder, 72-74, 192, 205, 206,
retrogressive connections, 173 208, 210
right handed, 171 off neutral, 211
simplex, duplex, and triplex, 172 Brushes, 82
simplex progressive, 173 function, 193
simplex retrogressive, 173 poor contact, 212, 213
sleeving for, 171 stuck, 208
soldering leads, 175 Building up, process, 255
steel banding, 176 Bum off, oven, 14
stripping, 175 temperature, 97
testing, 177, 178
three coils per slot, 172 Capacitor motors, 1-70
troubleshooting and repair, 178 analyzing motor troubles, 9-11
two coils per slot, 171 calculations, 44
unbalance, 214 capacitors, 3
universal motor, 241 capacitor start, 1
wave winding, 172 centrifugal switch, 2
winding sequence, 167 data, 11, 13
Armatures in repulsion type motors, end plates, 1
76 grounds, 60
Atom, 268 open circuits, 61
Autotransformer starters, 157 permanent split, 38-41
Automatic reset, 147 dual voltage, 39
single voltage, 38-41
Back iron, 193 terminal markings, 41
Baking and varnishing three-speed, 40
dc and repulsion armatures, 177 two-speed, 40
polyphase, and capacitor start, 26 repair, 63
Balancing, 178 rotors, 1
Ball bearings, 133-135 short circuits, 62
Banding, 176 stators, 1
Bar magnet test, 185 testing, 60
Bar to bar meter test, 179, 182, 184, troubleshooting and repair, 60
185 two-value, 41-44
Barrier, 270 single-voltage, 42-44
Base, 273 two-voltage, 43
Bearing troubles, 65, 133, 210, 214 separate winding for oil-filled
Bias, forward and reverse, 272 capacitor, 44
Bimetallic overload device, 27, 30, with potential relay, 44
32, 60, 147, 221 windings test, 60
Bohr model, 269 Capacitor-start motors, 1-70
Index 337
analyzing motor troubles, 9-11 two-speed, 36, 37

connections, 17-20, 29-38, two-voltage, 31, 34
41-44 Capacitative reactance, 6
making connections, 24 dc, 6
single-voltage, current relay, 32 ac, 7
single-voltage, instantly Capacitors, 3, 4
reversible, 30 braking effect, 56
single-voltage, non reversible, connections, 53, 54
30 construction, 3, 4
single-voltage, potential relay, dielectric, 4
33 electrolytic, 4
single-voltage, reversible with function, 4, 7
overload protection, 30 formulas, 53, 54
single-voltage, three lead oil-filled, 4
reversible, 34 right size, 53
single-voltage, two speed, 36 test for capacity, 55, 56
single-voltage, two speed troubleshooting and repair, 54-57
consequent pole, 37 values, 53, 54
two-voltage with potential relay, Centigrade rise, 100
34 Centrifugal short-circuiting device,
two-voltage reversible, 31 73
two-voltage with overload Centrifugal switch system, 2, 3, 9,
protection, 32 10
construction, 1-3 adjustment, 10, 11
consequent pole, 37 function, 2, 3, 9
current relay, 32 replacement, 10, 11
instantly reversible, 35 two speed, 37
NEMA, 1, 15 Chopper drives, 288
operation, 5 Chord factor, 48-50, 95, 132
polarity, 23 table, 301
potential relay, 33, 34, 44 Circular diagrams, 108, 109, 116,
testing a potential rely, 34 117
predetermined rotation, 19, 39 Circuits possible, 18, 20
reversing, 8, 35 Circuitry rules, 107, 108
rewinding, 11-15 Class, 20, 100
run winding, 2, 3, 8, 9 Code, 97, 99, 302
series connection, 18, 23 Commutator, 73, 76-81, 90-93
single voltage, 30, 32-35 Commutator assembly, 185-189
starting efficiency, 8 construction, 185
start winding, 9, 42-44 cutting mica segments, 186
start winding connections, 41-44 end rings, 185, 186
terminal markings (NEMA), 15 making mica V rings, 187
three-lead reversible, 34 mica in, 185-186
two-circuit, 30 carbonized, 188
338 Index
Commutator assembly (cont.) Connecting field coils, 198

parts, 185 Connecting rules, 24, 114
repulsion type motors, 73 Connecting windings
shorted bars, 188 capacitor motors, 23-25
undercutting, 190 repulsion-type, 74
Commutator function, 193 three-phase motors, 107-119
Commutator pitch, 79, 80, 173 circuitry rules, 108, 114
Commutator repairs, 185-189 circular diagrams, 108, 109,
cement, 188 116, 117
grounded bars, 189 delta, 108, 115
high bars, 189 delta, circular diagrams, 109
high mica, 93, 190 delta, two-voltage, 113, 115
low bars, 190 how to recognize, 110, 117,
shorted bars, 188 118
Commutator removal, 175 long jumper, 114, 115
Commutator stone, 189 skip group, 107
Commutator V rings, 186, 187 spiral method, 112
Compass test, 62, 139 wye, 107
Compensating winding connection, 83 wye-delta, 113
repulsion motors, 83 Concentric windings, 17, 95, 102,
repulsion induction motors, 84 115-118
Compensator, 156 changing concentric to lap,
magnetic, 157 131-133
manual, 156 connecting, 117
Compound generators, 255-258 consequent pole, 116, 118
characteristics, 255 data, 116
types of, 256 part-winding start, 117
Compound motors, 192, 196, 197, Consequent pole connection, 37,
199, 200, 202, 204, 205, 212 122-126
bucking fields, 200 capacitor start, 37
connections, 198 polyphase, 116, 122-126
cumulative or differential test, constant horsepower, 124
204, 212 constant torque, 123
field coils, 197 two-winding, 125
load characteristics, 196 variable torque, 125
long-shunt cumulative, 200 span of, 123
long-shunt differential, 200 fan motor, 250
short-shunt cumulative, 200 Controllers, ac. See Alternating
short-shunt differential, 200 current starters
test to identify leads, 204 Controllers, dc. See Direct current
grounds, 202 starters
opens, 204 Counter e.m.f., 193, 194
types of, 192 Counter e.m.f. starter, 227
troubles, 204, 205-214 Cross connections, 78, 79, 174, 181
Index 339
dc armatures, 174, 181 differentially connected, 256

Current, full load tables diverter, 255, 256
dc motors, 297, 298 equalizer, 257, 258
single-phase motors, 298, 299 flat compound, 256
three-phase motors, 299, 300 interpoles, 256
Current limit starter, 228 loss of residual magnetism, 258
Current limiting test, 57-60, measuring voltage and current,
136-138 257
Cycle, 5 not generating, 258
Cyclone converter, 289 operation, 254
over compound, 256
regulating voltage, 257
Dashpot, 232 resistance in field circuit, 259
Dead coils, 128 self-excited, 254
Dead spots, 10 separately excited, 254
Definite mechanical time starter, 232 series, 255
with dashpot acceleration, 232 shunt, 255
Definite magnetic time starter, 230 testing, 258
with dynamic braking, 231 under compound, 256
with jogging, 230 voltage drop, 259
with two steps of resistance, 231 voltage not building up, 259
Degrees, electrical. See Electrical wrong field connection, 258
degrees wrong rotation, 258
Delta connection, 106, 108, 109 Direct current motors, 191-214
Depletion region, 270 armature, 191
Design, 99 bearings, 191
Diac, 275 brush, 82
Diamond shaped coil, 103 brush function, 193
Dielectric, 3, 4 brush holder, 191, 192
Diode, 269, 270 brush holder position, 206
barrier, 270 brushes off neutral, 206
depletion region, 270 characteristics, 191, 192
forward and reverse, bias, 270 compound, 196
junction, 270 connecting field poles, 198
P-N, 270 construction, 191
rectifier, 270, 271 counter e.m.f., 193, 194
zener, 270, 271 cumulative, 200
Direct current generators, 253 differential connections, 200
change from motor to generator, dirty brushes, 208
257 end plates, 191
characteristics, 254, 256 failure to run, 207
compound, 255 field coils, 197
connecting in parallel, 257 field connections, 198
construction, 253 frame, 191
340 Index
Direct current motors (cont.) definite mechanical time, 232

ground test, 209, 210 drum type, 234
grounded brush holder, 210 four-point speed-regulating
high or low bars, 214 rheostat, 218
high mica, 214 four-point starter, 217
interpole, 200 full voltage, 225
interpole polarity, 201 lockout type, 228
interpole test, 205 magnetic circuit breakers, 221
neutral point, 205, 206 magnetic contactor, 224
noisy operation, 207 magnetic starter, 225
open armature, 208 overload relay, 221
open armature coils, 211 pneumatic relay, 232
open shunt field, 212 pushbutton stations, 225
open test, 203 reduced voltage, 227
overload, 211 reversing, 225
parts, 191 thermal circuit breakers, 222
polarity test, 198, 199 thermal relays, 223
poor brush contact, 212 three-point starters, 216
repairs, 202 troubleshooting and repairs, 235
reversed armature leads, 214 Diverter, 256
reversing, 201, 202 Doping, 269
rule for interpole polarity, 201 Drives, 287-290
running away, 208 magnetic, 287
running hot, 207 microprocessor, 290
running to fast, 207, 208 motor generator, 288
series, 196 static, 288
short shunt, 200 three-phase, 287
shorted armature, 210 Drum controller, 234
shorted field, 209 Drum switch, 221
shunt, 195 Duplex winding, 170
sparking, 207
test for differential or cumulative
connection, 205 Eddy current, 21
test to identify leads, 204 Effective turns, 132
testing, 202 Efficiency, 8, 100
tight bearings, 214 Electrical degrees, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11,
troubleshooting and repair, 202 12, 48, 95
worn bearings, 210 in time, 5, 95
wrong interpole polarity, 213 per tooth, 132
wrong lead swing, 213 mechanical, 5, 95
wrong voltage applied, 212 timing, 95
Direct current starters, 215-237 Electrical interlock, 151
counter e.m.f., 227 Electrolyte, 4
definite magnetic time, 230 Electrolytic capacitor, 4
Index 341
Electronic control of motors, 162, Free electron, 269

267, 278 Free wheeling, 283
Elementary diagram, 145 Frequency, 6, 7
e.m.f. (counter), 193, 194 Frequency change, 7, 162
Emitter, 272 Frequency, reconnecting for change,
End plates (shields, brackets), 1 131
End play, 10 Frequency, rewinding for change,
End rings, 96 131
End room, capacitor start, 13 Full span, 111
End room, three-phase, 103 Full wave control, 281, 282, 284
Equalizer connection dc with feedback, 282
dc armatures, 173, 174, 181 precise triggering, 282
dc generators, 253 shunt motor, 282
repulsion, 78, 79 universal motor, 281
Exciter for synchronous motors and
generators, 259, 260 Gate, 273
Generating factors, 193, 254
Fan motors, 249-251 Germanium, 268
Feedback signal, 278-281 Ground test, 10, 59, 60, 64, 69, 86,
Field coils, compound, 197, 198 92, 136, 143, 178, 179, 189
connecting, 198 Groups, 12, 104, 106, 126
construction, 197 Growler, 68, 79, 86, 180, 181
form, 197 test dc armature, 181
polarity, 198
series, 197 Half-wave rectification, 271
shunt, 192, 195, 197 Hand winding, 168
synchronous motor rotor, 259, 260 Hard neutral, 82
test for, drop voltage, 209 Heat sink, 270
ohmmeter test, 209 Hertz (Hz), 5
open, 208, 212 Holding coil, 146, 217, 224
shorted or grounded, 209 Holding current, 273
transformer test, 209 Hole, 269
universal motor connecting, 240 Hot spots, 21
construction, 238 Hunting, 282
distributed compensated, 244
frame, 238 Identifying unmarked leads, 120
polarity, 240 Induction motor, 1, 71, 94
Filtered dc, 271 repulsion, 71
Firing (triggering), 275 Inductive reactance, 5
Formed coils, 102 Inductive series, 83
Forward blocking, 273 Insulation, 20, 21, 100, 102
Forward breakover, 273 class, 20, 100
Four-point starting box, 217 Interlock, electrical, 151
Frame, 94, 100 mechanical, 151
342 Index
Internal growler, 138 Loop winding, 168

Interpoles, dc generators, 256
dc motors, 200 Magnet wire, 21, 44, 45
function, 198 table, 296
polarity, 200, 256 Magnetic circuit, 37, 193
field, 5
Jogging (inching), 149, 226 interlock, 151
Jogging relay, 149 keeper, 195
Jumpers, 19, 20, 113, 114, 115 opposing action, 139
long, 19, 20, 114 rotating field, 7, 9, 95
advantage of, 115 Magnetic field, dc generator, 254
short, 19, 113 method of producing in dc
Junction, 269 generator, 254
Magnetic switch, 144, 148, 224
blowout coil, 224
Kick, field, 206
overload contacts, 147, 222, 223
Mechanical balance, 178
Ladder diagram, 145 Mechanical degrees, 5, 12
Laminated core, 2, 94 Metalizing, 66
Laminations, 2, 21, 236 Meter test, dc armature, 179
Lap winding, ac, 18, 95, 102, 115 Mica undercutting, 190
dc armatures, 170 segments, 186
duplex, lap, 170 V rings, 186
simplex, lap, 170 Microfarads, 3, 4, 53-55
triplex, lap, 170 Microprocessor control, 290
with loops, 170 Momentary contacts, 152
repulsion motors, 76, 77 Motor generator drive, 288
Layered winding, 19, 116 Motor troubles, analyzing, 9, 136,
polyphase, 116 206
single-phase, 19 Motors, capacitor, 1
Lead swing, 169 compound, 196
Limit switch, 152 permanent magnet, 195
Line diagram, 145 polyphase, 94
Locked rotor KVA, 97, 299 repulsion, 71
Lockout starter series, 196
one-coil, 229 shaded pole, 247
two-coil, 228 shunt, 195
Long jumper, 19, 20, 114, 115, split phase, 8
120, 128 synchronous, 259
compared to short jumper, 115, universal, 238
120 Mush coil, 102, 103
Long shunt, 200 Multispeed, polyphase, 122-126
cumulative, 200 single-phase, 36, 37, 40, 41
differential, 200 starters, 160-162
Index 343
N-type, 269 Paralleling, alternators, 264

Nail test, 63, 198 dc generators, 253
Name plate data, 99 Part-winding motor, 115, 117, 119,
NEMA, 1, 15, 71, 85, 99, 302 120
Neon bulb triggering, 283 starter, 159
Neutral point, dc motors, 206 Permanent magnet motor, 192, 195
repulsion, 82 Permanent split-capacitor motors,
Number of circuits per phase, 95 38-41
coils per group, 107 Phase, coils per, 105
groups, 106, 111 control, 276, 278
poles, 108, 110, 111 Pitch of coils, 13, 101, 111
poles-speed chart, 300, 301 Plugging, 163
Plugging relay, 163
Odd-pole grouping, 126-128 capacitor start motors, 23
connecting sequence, 128 Polarity of, dc motor poles, 198,
dead coils, 128 199
distribution of groups, 126, 127 interpoles, 200
rules, 126 polyphase motors, 105
Open, ac motors, 63, 65, 68, 89, Pole, 12, 13, 17
137, 140, 141, 143 center, 13
bars, 68, 142 group or pole phase group, 106,
dc motors, 203, 204 110
delta control, 157 Polyphase motors, 94-143
fuse, 208 Power factor, 41, 57, 84, 100, 101,
slots, 102 267
transition, 159 correcting, 101
Oscillator (relaxation), 275 Predeteimined rotation, 19, 39
Overload device, 27, 147 Primary resistance, starter, 153
Overload protection, 27 rheostat, 153
Overload relay, ac motors, 27 magnetic, 154
bimetallic, 27 Progressive winding, dc armatures,
dc motors, 223 173
heater coil, 147 Programmable unijunction transistors
thermal, 147 (PUT), 275
Overspeed control, 195 Pulsating dc, 236, 271
Pushbutton stations, 145, 148, 149
PCB, 4 connections, 148, 149
P-N junction, 269 FORWARD-REVERSE-STOP,
P-type, 269 151
Parallel connection, capacitors, 43,
51, 53 Rating, 100
capacitor-start motors, 20 Random wound, 103
repulsion, 74 RC trigger, 276
three-phase, 109, 110 Reamer, 66
344 Index
Rectifier, diode, 270, 271 hand and form winding, 77, 78

full-wave, 271 insulation, 78
half-wave, 270 lap winding, 77
silicon controlled, 273 neutral point, 82
Reference signal, 278 parallel connection, 74
Remagnetizing permanent magnet progressive and retrogressive
motors, 195 winding, 80-82
Repulsion-induction motor, 71-83 repairs, 87
armature, 76 reversing, 81
squirrel cage winding, in, 84 series connection, 74
starting torque, 84 starting torque, 72
two-voltage, 74 stationary brush holder, 81
winding for change in voltage, 85 stator windings, 74
Repulsion motor, 71, 83 stripping, 75
armature, 76-80 troubleshooting, 86-89, 92
compensating winding, 83 wave winding, 79
connections, 74 wave wound armature, 79
construction, 72, 76 winding armatures, 76
electrically reversible, 84 Repulsion-type motors, 71-93
reversing, 81-83 blown fuse, 87
stator, 74, 75 brushes, 82
two-voltage, 74 troubleshooting and repair, 86-93
winding, 75-81 Residual magnetism, 255, 278
Repulsion start-induction motor, 71, Retrogressive winding, dc armatures,
72 173
armature construction, 76 repulsion motors, 80
winding, 76 Reverses, coil, 184
brush holders, 72-74 Reversing, capacitor motors, 8
brush lifting, 73 compound motors, 202
centrifugal device, 73 repulsion motors, 81, 84
operation, 73 series motor, 201
brush riding, 74 shunt, 201
cartridge brush holder, 81, 82 split-phase, 8
centrifugal short-circuiting device, three-phase, 135
73 universal motors, 240
commutator for, 72 Reset button, 147
commutator pitch, 80 Ripple effect, 236
connections, 74 Rotating magnetic field of, capacitor
cross connections, 78 motor, 7
data recording, 75 synchronous motor, 259
dual voltage, 74 Rotation, predetermined, 19, 39
equalizer connections, 78 Rotor, bars, 97
form wound coils, 78 open, 2, 68
growler testing, 86 slip ring, 94, 260, 266
Index 345
split phase, 2 Servo, drives, 294

squirrel cage, 1, 7, 68, 84, 96, motors, 293
97, 260 systems, 292
synchronous motor, 259-262 Shaded pole motors, 247-249
test rotor, 139 direction of rotation, 248
three-phase, 94, 96 Shading coil, magnetic contactor,
wound rotor, 94, 266, 267 146
Run-winding capacitor start motor, motor, 247, 248
2, 12, 23, 29-41 Shells, 269
split-phase motor, 8 Short-circuiting necklace, 73
Run away, 208, 212 Short jumper, 19, 113, 114, 115,
128
SCR (silicon-controlled rectifier), comparison to long jumper, 115
273 Short shunt, 200
anode, 273 cumulative, 200
application, 276, 277 differential, 200
cathode, 273 Shorts, test for, 64, 67, 69, 86, 89,
characteristics, 273 138, 142, 181, 209, 210
forward blocking, 273 armature, 181, 183, 210
forward breakover, 273 capacitor motor, 64, 67, 69
gate, 273 commutator, 179
gate current, 273 three-phase, 138, 142
operation, 273 Short throw, 113
protection, 285 Shunt motor, 192, 195, 196, 199,
reverse breakdown, 273 201, 203
triggering, 274 characteristics, 195
Schematic diagram, 145 load, 196
Secondary resistance starter, 154 connections, 199
Self-excited generator, 254 fields, 198
Semiconductor, 268 reversing, 201
Separately excited generator, 254 stabilized, 197
Separator insulation, 21, 22, 104 Silicon, 268
Series connections, 23, 107, 108, Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR),
198 273
Series generator, 255 Simplex winding, 172, 173
Series motor, 192, 196, 199, 201, progressive lap, 173
212 retrogressive lap, 173
connections, 199 Sine wave, 5, 95
characteristics, 199 Single-phase motors, 1-70
field coils, 199 Six-lead connection, 118
load characteristics, 196 Skewed slots, 72, 76, 191
reversing, 201 Skip group, 107, 109
running without load, 212 Sleeve bearings, 2, 65, 66
Service factor, 100 Slip, 96
346 Index
Slip rings, 94, 155, 260, 266 Starters, ac, 144-163

Slot, insulation, 21, 102 across the line, full voltage, 144
open, 102 magnetic, 146
semiclosed, 103 manual, 145
Soldering, armature, 175 autotransformer type, 156
rotor, 2 combination, 149
Solid state control, 268-295 magnetic reduced voltage, 153
diodes, 269 part-winding, 159
firing circuits, 275 primary resistance, 153
phase control, 276 solid-state control, 268
half-wave, 276 two-speed, 161
full-wave, 276 wye-delta (star-delta), 158, 159
rectification, 270, 271 Starters, dc, 215
SCR, 273 full voltage, 225
semiconductor, 268 reduced voltage, 227
shunt or permanent magnet motor Starting efficiency, 9, 71
control, 282 Starting torque
three-phase drives, 287 capacitor motors, 8
transistors, 271 repulsion motors, 72
triggering, 274 split-phase motors, 8
universal motor control, 278 three-phase motors, 94, 96, 99,
Soft neutral, 83 115
Solid-state, reduced-voltage starter, Static drives, 288
155 Stator
Span, 13, 101, 111, 123, 131, 132 capacitor motor, 2, 3
for consequent pole, 123 repulsion motor, 72
full, 111, 132 three-phase, 94
how to find, 111 Stepper motor, 290
Sparking, 207, 212 controller, 291
Speed, chart, 300, 301 welder application, 291
rewinding for change, 48, 130 Straight line diagram, 12, 18, 107
Speed control for universal motors, Stripping motors, 11, 14, 77, 97,
278 102, 175
Spiral method, 112 Switching voltage, 275
Splicing leads, 24 Synchronous alternators, 263
welding leads, 25, 26 Synchronous generators, 263
Split-phase motor, 8 brushless, 263
Squirrel-cage rotor, 1, 96 construction, 263
Stabilized shunt motor, 197 exciter for, 263
Standard rotation, 15 operation, 263
Star-connected motor, 107 paralleling, 264
Start-winding connections, 23, 24, Synchronous motors, 259
41-44 brushless, 261
order of breakdown, 56 for clocks, 262
Index 347
with excited rotor, 259 cumulative or differential

operation, 260 connections, 212
power factor, 260 grounds, 210
rotating magnetic field, 260 identify leads of compound
rotor coil polarity, 260 motor, 204
squirrel cage winding (amortisseur opens for, 204
winding), 260 repulsion motor, 88
stator winding, 260 three-phase motor, 136
Synchronous speed, 96 universal motor, 246
table, 300 Thermal overload device, 60, 147
Synchros, 264 Thermal relays, 147
operation, 264 Thermal units, 27-29, 60
receiver, 265 Three-phase drives, 287
rotor, 265 magnetic, 287
stator, 265 Three-phase motors, 94-143
stator connection, 265 baking and varnishing, 26, 177
transmitter, 265 balance test, 59, 138
coil connections, 24-26
Temperature, 100 coil taping, 102
Terminal markings, single phase, connecting, 105
NEMA, 15-17 connection rules, 114
color, 16 consequent pole connections,
Test panel, 57-60, 136-138 122-126
Test rotor, 139 construction, 94
Testing, capacitor motors, 26, 54-70 data, 98
dc armatures, 178-185 delta, connected, 106, 108
bar to bar meter test, 179, 182, diamond coil, 103
184 dual voltage, 111
grounded commutator, 178, 189 end plates, 94
grounded windings, 179 end room, 103
grounds, with growler, 180 gang (group) winding, 104, 106
grounds, trial test, 180 ground test, 136, 143
grounds, visual inspection, 178, groups, 104, 106
180 rotor, 68
growler, 180, 181 how to recognize a connection,
open circuits, bar to bar, 182 110
shorted between adjacent bars, identifying unmarked leads,
188 120-122
dc generators, 258 insulating coils, 102
dc motors, 206 internal growler test, 138
correct brush holder position, insulating stator, 102, 104
211 jumpers, long, 114
correct interpole polarity, 201, short, 113
213 comparison, 115
348 Index
Three-phase motors (cont.) Three-point starter connected to

magnetic field, 95 compound motor, 220
name plate, 99 no-field release, 217
odd-pole grouping, 126-128 operation, 217
open-circuit test, 137 reversing switch, connected to,
operation, 94, 95 221
parallel connection, 109 Three point starter connected to
part-winding-start motor, 119 shunt motor, 220
phases, 94, 95 Thrust washers, 10
placing coils in slots, 104 Time constant, 277
polarity, 109 Timing mechanism, 154, 156
polarity test, 138, 139, 142, 143 Top-to-top connection, 113
poles, 106 Torque, 8, 72, 94, 96, 99, 115
pole phase group, 106 Torque control, 195
reconnecting or rewinding for Transistor, 271, 272
change, frequency, 131 base, 271
speed, 130 circuit arrangements, 272
voltage, 129, 130 collector, 272
reversed connections, coils, 138 emitter, 272
groups, 139 forward biased, 272
phases, 139 in motor control circuits, 286
reversing, 135 NPN type, 271
rotor, 96, 97 PNP type, 272
schematic diagram, 108, 145 reversed bias, 272
series connection, 107, 108 unijunction, 274
single phasing, 140 Trigger circuits, 276
skip group connecting method, 107 Triggering, 276
slots, open, 102 neon bulb triggering, 283
semiclosed, 103 Trip-free overload relay, 147
spiral method for tagging leads, Triplex winding, 170, 172
112 Troubleshooting and repair
stator, 94 ac starters, 163-166
stripping, 102 capacitor start motors, 60-70
terminal markings, 112 dc armatures, 178-190
top-to-bottom connections, 115 dc generators, 258-259
top-to-top connections, 113 dc motors, 202-214
troubleshooting and repair, dc starters, 235
136-143 polyphase motors, 136-143
two-speed, 122-126 repulsion motors, 86-93
two-voltage, 111-113 universal motors, 246
winding the coils, 103, 104 Twelve-lead connection, 118
winding procedure, 98 Two-pole connections, single phase,
wound rotor, 266 70
wye connection, 107 three-phase, 110, 114
Index 349
Two-speed motors, 36, 37, 40, 41, rewinding for, 130

122-126 Voltage and current measurement,
capacitor start, 36, 37 257
consequent pole single phase, 37 Voltage regulation, 257
constant horsepower, 124
constant torque, 123 Wave winding, dc armature, 172
two-winding, 125, 126 duplex wave, 172
variable torque, 125 simplex wave, 172
controllers, 160-162 triplex wave, 172
Two-value capacitor motors, 41-44 repulsion motor armature, 79, 80
operation, 57 Welding connections, 25, 26
Two-voltage motors, 31, 39, 43, 44, Winding, capacitor motors, 11-15
74, 75, 85, 111, 113, 251 dc armatures and fields, 167-177
Type, 12 repulsion-type motors, 74, 76-81
three-phase motors, 98-119
Undercutting, 190 universal motors, 239, 240
Underspeed, 196 Winding head, 22
Unijunction transistor (UJT), 274, Wire table, 296
275 Wire size, 15, 44, 45, 101, 296
Universal motor, 238-246 one-half size, 101
operation, 239 Wires in hand (in parallel), 14, 18
reversing, 240 Wiring diagram, 144
speed control, 245, 278 Wound rotor motor, 155, 266, 267
troubleshooting and repair, 246 Wye, 107
circular diagrams, 108
VPI varnishing method, 26 one and two wye, 114
Variable torque, 125 parallel connection, 109
Valance shell, 269 short jumper, 113
V rings, 186, 187 two voltage, 112
Voltage between coils without Wye-delta, 113
insulation, 21 starter, 158
Voltage change Wye point, 108, 110
single-phase, 45-47
reconnecting, 47 Y connection, 107
rewinding, 45-47
three-phase, 129, 130 Zener, 270
reconnecting for, 129 Zener diode, 271
ELECTRIC
MOTOR REPAIR
THIRD EDITION
TEXT
APPENDIX
STUDY QUESTIONS
three-phase motors has been extensively revised and includes

numerous new diagrams and information. The solid state chapter
has been revised to include modem solid state material, as well as
numerous types of semiconductors such as diodes, transistors,
triacs, and SCRs. All chapters, including study questions, have
been updated. In addition, ac and dc theories have been simplified
and single-speed and, in particular, two-speed diagrams have
been clarified.
Study questions for each chapter are arranged to follow the
text material and sequence of information*. These questions are
valuable for the instructor, as well as for the student.
The last but by no means least feature of the book is its physi¬
cal design—a design that permits text and related illustrations to
be exposed simultaneously, that enables the reader to locate any
desired illustration instantly, that allows the open book to be flat
on the bench or desk, and that utilizes type large enough to be
easily readable from the bench while the repair technician is
working on a motor. Even the cover material and the special paper
inside the book were selected for their unusual sturdiness and
resistance to soiling under workshop conditions.
We welcome this opportunity to express our sincere thanks to
our colleagues and associates for their suggestions and help, and
to the many companies who have supplied much of the material,
diagrams, and photographs used in this book.
Robert Rosenberg
August Hand
ELECTRIC
MOTOR REPAIR
THIRD EDITION
ILLUSTRATIONS
Preface
For many years there has been a need for an intensely practical
nontheoretical book on electric motor repair and control that could
be used by people with little background of electrical knowledge.
This has been only too evident in our contacts with workers over a
period of many years in motor repair shops and with students
during our years as instructors in motor repair and control in voca¬
tional, trade, and technical schools. It is with the hope of satisfy¬
ing this pressing need that this book has been written. Inclusion of
more than 900 illustrative drawings should make it particularly
valuable as a direct working guide not only to the student, but to
the repair technician at the bench as well.
Because the troubleshooter and repair technician must learn to
do satisfactory work in the shortest possible time, we have tried to
point out the best and quickest methods for testing and repairing.
The heading Troubleshooting and Repair at the end of each chap¬
ter should be especially helpful.
Both alternating and direct current motors are treated thor¬
oughly, and extensive consideration is given to the connections
and troubles in controllers.
The contents of the third edition reflect to some degree re¬
quests and suggestions from students, electric motor repair techni¬
cians, and teachers who have used the second edition of ELEC¬
TRIC MOTOR REPAIR. Although numerous changes and
additions of subject matter and illustrations have been made in the
third edition, every effort has been made to preserve the character
and objectives of the second edition. The chapters on the split-
phase motors and the capacitor motors have been combined be¬
cause of their similarity. More information on sine wave and in¬
ductive and capacitive reactance has been added. The chapter on
ELECTRIC
MOTOR REPAIR
THIRD EDITION
Robert Rosenberg • August Hand
With contributions by
Milton Rosenstein, Ph.D.
New York Institute of Technology
Fort Worth Chicago San Francisco Philadelphia

Tokyo Montreal Toronto London Sydney
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Rosenberg, Robert, 1904-

Electric motor repair.
' Includes index.

1. Electric motors—Maintenance and repair.
I. Hand, August. II. Title.
TK4057.R6 1986 621.467 85-24776
ISBN □-□3-DSc1SfiM-3
Copyright ©1987, 1970 by Saunders College Publishing, a division of Holt, Rinehart
and Winston.
Copyright 1946, 1951, 1960 by Robert Rosenberg.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording
or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publisher.
Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed
to: Permissions, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., Orlando, Florida 32887.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published simultaneously in Canada

9 000 9 8 7 6 5 4
Saunders College Publishing

Holt, Rinehart and Winston
The Dryden Press
CHAPTER 1
Capacitor Motors
Fig. 1-1. Capacitor-start motor. (Baldor Electric Co.)
/
n TN
Fig. 1-2. Capacitor-start motor

showing the approximate location of
the windings and components.
Figures 1-1; 1-2

2 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Figures 1-3; 1-4; 1-5

ILLUSTRATIONS—CHAPTER 1 3
Fig. 1-7. Stator of a capacitor-start motor.

(Baldor Electric Co.)
S.W. El. Cap.

h St. Sw. ' 8
-)h- N
Line Line
\T,
R.W.
\SlSlSiSU- J
t4
Fig. 1-8. Schematic of the stator in Fig. 1-7.
Figures 1-6; 1-7; 1-8

CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-10. Stationary switch of a single¬

phase motor. (General Electric Co.) Terminal block
Figures 1-9; 1-10

Fig. 1-12. Stationary switch mounted in an end plate. (Baldor Electric Co.)
Fig. 1-13. Centrifugal device mounted on the rotor shaft. (Baldor Electric Co.)
Figures 1-11; 1-12; 1-13

6 CAPACITOR MOTORS
a) Current flow when starting
b) Current flow when motor is at full speed
Fig. 1-14. Schematic of a capacitor-start motor when it is in the off position or dur¬
ing the start (a). When the motor is at full speed (b), the current flows only through the
run winding. The stationary switch contacts open at 75 percent of full speed.
Fig. 1-15. Two variations of the stationary switch. (Delco Products and General
Electric Co.)
Figures 1-14; 1-15; 1-16

Fig. 1-17. Oil capacitors. (Sprague Electric)
Maximum volts
360°
o 0C
> Time
Maximum volts
Fig. l-18a. The shape of the sine wave as seen on an oscilloscope.
Volts or amps +
360°
Time in
270°
degrees
Volts or amps
Fig. l-18b. The single-phase sine wave as it will be drawn for illustrative purposes in
this book.
Figures 1-17; l-18a;b

8 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-19. The two-pole winding illustrating

360° 180°* how electrical degrees compare with mechanical
degrees.
North pole
Fig. 1-20. A four-pole winding

illustrating how 360 electrical degrees com¬
pare with 360 mechanical degrees.
North pole
Fig. 1-21. The single-phase sine wave with both volts and amperes.
Figures 1-19; 1-20; 1-21

ILLUSTRATIONS—CHAPTER 1
Figures 1-22; 1-23; 1-24

10 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-25. The magnetic field around one con¬

ductor (a) and the combined magnetic fields of two
conductors (b). The conductors of both (a) and (b)
are carrying the same amount of amps.
(a) (b)
Amperes
Fig. 1-26. The delay in current

flow because of inductive reactance in
a coil of wire.
Fig. 1-27. Current flow main¬

tained briefly because of inductive
reactance in the same coil of wire
when the voltage is shut off. The
length of time that the current is
delayed matches exactly the length of
time that the current is maintained.
Fig. 1-28. The delay in current flow in an ac circuit caused by inductive reactance in
a coil of wire.
Figures 1-25; 1-26; 1-27; 1-28

Figures 1-29; 1-30; 1-31

12 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Figures l-32a; l-32b; l-32c

Phase 2
Fig. l-32d. Phase 2 energized, as shown on sine wave V240 of a second later.
Fig. 1-33. A split-phase motor.

(Westinghouse Electric Co.)
Ts
s.w. St. sw.
\MSLr
Line ^ Line
R.W.
\SISISISU-
T,
a) Split-phase motor
cuu c. El. cap,,

t5 ovv- St. sw.
-•—K. ?-•—)|—
Line ^ Line
R.W.
V \Sl£SlSLs
Ty
b) Capacitor-start motor
Fig. 1-34. Schematic of (a) a split-phase motor and (b) a capacitor-start motor.
Figures l-32d; 1-33; 1-34

14 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Current flow
a) Split-phase motor in start position
b) Split-phase motor in run position
Fig. 1-35. Schematic of a split-phase motor in (a) start and (b) run positions.
Fig. 1-36. Split-phase start-winding and run-winding amps 50° apart.
Fig. 1-37. Capacitor-start, start-winding, and run-winding amps 90° apart.
Figures 1-35; 1-36; 1-37

r-r'
Fig. 1-38. AC capacitors with mounting hardware and accessories. (P.R. Mallory &
Motor
ijJM
Fig. 1-39. The bearings are tested by
trying to move the shaft vertically.
Fig. 1-40. A motor showing end plates

not mounted properly. This prevents the
rotor from turning. Use a mallet to tap
plates into position.
Rotor core Bent shaft
*111 ii tiff — -_
Fig. 1-41. The bent shaft of a rotor.

umiiH
Figures 1-38; 1-39; 1-40; 1-41

16 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-42.To determine whether winding is grounded, connect one test lead to the
winding and the other test lead to the core. The lighted lamp indicates a ground.
Chisel marks
Fig. 1-43. End plates and frame marked before disassembling.
Figures 1-42; 1-43

Fig. 1-45. A diagram of the stator in Fig. 1-44 with slots and windings shown as
they would look if rolled flat. The start winding poles are located between two running
winding poles.
Start-winding coil groups
Pole center
Fig. 1-46. The center of a pole forms in the teeth between two coil sides that have
their currents flowing in opposite directions. This determines where the start-winding coils
are placed.
Figures 1-44; 1-45; 1-46

18 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-47. Each pole consists of three coils,

and each coil is wound in two slots separated by
other slots.
Fig. 1-48. The pitch, or span, of the

three coils forming one pole.
Outer coil Pitch 1 and 8
Fig. 1-49.The method of recording the pitch of the coils in a 32-slot, four-pole
motor. The number of turns in each coil can be recorded alongside each coil in the
diagram if so desired.
Figures 1-47; 1-48; 1-49

Figures 1-50; 1-51; 1-52

20 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-53. Lap winding.
One pole
group
One pole group
One pole group

n
Fig. l-54a. A pole group as it would appear in a stator (left), laid flat (center), and
in a straight-line diagram (right).
Fig. l-54b. A four-pole, one-circuit, short jumper connection, showing the polarity
of each coil. Figs. 1-74 through 1-77 explain this illustration of run-winding poles.
Figures 1-53; l-54a; l-54b

Figures 1-55; 1-56; 1-57; 1-58

22 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-59. A one- and two-circuit short jumper connection connected in series for
high voltage.
Fig. 1-60. A one- and two-circuit short jumper connection connected in parallel for
low voltage.
Fig. 1-61. A two- and four-circuit short jumper connection.
Fig. 1-62. Two-circuit coil groups wound

two in hand, as they would appear in a motor.
Figures 1-5^; 1-60; 1-61; 1-62

Figures 1-63; 1-64; 1-65

CAPACITOR MOTORS
Figures 1-66; 1-67; 1-68

Fig. 1-70. Sketch of stator as done by the repairperson to show where the leads
should be brought out of the stator when the rewind is completed and the leads are tied
down. The start switch is on the left side, and so a start-winding lead is tied down at that
spot. One start lead goes to the capacitor, and the run leads go out the right side of the
motor.
Figures 1-69; 1-70

26 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-72.A three-lead predetermined rotation connection found in sealed refrigera¬

tion compressors and submersible pumps. The switch and capacitors can be located
separately from the motor.
Fig. 1-73. A two-lead motor with the start winding connected internally.
Figures 1-71; 1-72; 1-73

R.W.
To line
Fig. 1-74. The connections of a six-

pole split-phase motor.
S.W.,
R.W.
Sec. 1
230 volts
R.W.
Sec. 2
St. sw\
S.W.
Fig. l-75a. Four-pole dual-voltage split-ph
230 volts
^St. sw.
Fig. l-75b. Four-pole dual-voltage split-phase

for 230 volts.
Figures 1-74; l-75a; l-75b

CAPACITOR MOTORS
a) One-circuit, short jumper connection b) Two-circuit, short jumper connection
Fig. 1-77. (a) One-circuit and (b) two-circuit, short jumper connection.
St. sw.
Fig. 1-78.A four-pole two-voltage

motor diagram with short jumpers in the
running winding.
Figures 1-76; 1-77; 1-78

30 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-84. One-step slot-liner former (Lenni Products)
Figures 1-83; 1-84

Figures 1-85; 1-86
32 CAPACITOR MOTORS
2. - Slip separator over bottom coil
3. - Place top coil over separator 4. - Slip wedge in place
Fig. 1-88. Placement of slot separators and wedges.
Figures 1-87; 1-88; 1-89

CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-95. Several poles of com¬

pleted winding.
Figures 1-93; 1-94; 1-95

Figures 1-96; 1-97; 1-98; 1-99

36 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Pole 2 Pole 4
Pole 1 counter¬ Pole 3 counter¬
clockwise clockwise clockwise clockwise
Pole 1 Pole 2
current flows current flows
from left to from right to
right left
Fig. 1-101. A block diagram of the

circuit in Fig. 1-98.
Fig. 1-102. (Continued from Fig.

1-101). The beginning or left of Pole 2
connects to the beginning or left of Pole
3.
Fig. 1-103.The end or right of Pole 3 connects to the end or right of Pole 4.
The line is connected to the beginning or left of Pole 1 (7j) and the beginning or
left of Pole 4 (7J).
Figures 1-100; 1-101; 1-102; 1-103

Run winding
4 pole motor
Beginning lead
Beginning' Beginning Beginning

Line leads
Fig. 1-104. Four poles of the run or main winding. The poles are connected so that
the current through Pole 1 is from left to right in Pole 1, right to left in Pole 2, left to
right in Pole 3, and right to left in Pole 4.
XS///////A Wmm V///////A MSI
R.W. or Main
Fig. 1-105. A four-pole capacitor-start motor connection.
El. cap.
St. sw. Start winding
Run winding
Fig. 1-106. A four-pole capacitor-start motor showing the stationary switch and
capacitor connected in the center of the start winding.
Figures 1-104; 1-105; 1-106

38 CAPACITOR MOTORS
To line
7S.W. ^
El. cap.
Fig. 1-107. A four-pole capacitor-start motor connection shown in a circular

diagram.
R.W.
>_
rQ ✓—0\
To line
8,0 3
St. sw. cap.
Fig. 1-108. A capacitor-start motor

with four leads brought outside the
frame for reversing.
R.W. S.W. R.W. S.W.

^ ^ ^8 Ti T4 Tb Te
C.C.W.
Fig. 1-109. Terminal connection for clockwise
and counterclockwise rotation.
Figures 1-107; 1-108; 1-109

Figures 1-110; 1-111

40 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Step 5
The large piece of sleeving
is then moved over the splice
Fig. 1-112a. A method of connecting leads together.
Cover sleeve
„„jL
Sleeving over welded joint and wire
Fig. l-112b. Welded joint with sleeving of insulation.
Figures 1—112a; 1—112b

Cord
L spliced to the beginning and

end of each circuit and brought
out of the motor
Fig. 1-113. The lead is tied to the winding with cord so that it cannot be broken off.
The windings are also tied to one another to prevent vibration of the wires.
Fig. 1-114. Manual application of solventless resin. (3M Company)
.Metals with
—Mm /different ex-

/
pansion rates
Normal position of bimetal
Fig. 1-115. Bimetal overload protector.
Figures 1-113; 1-114; 1-115

42 CAPACITOR MOTORS
T7
Position due to overload
Fig. 1-116. Bimetal overload protector.
Closed’position Open position
Fig. 1-117. Three-terminal overload protector with heater.
Fig. 1-118. A single-voltage motor with P3 connected internally to 7j\ T{ is accessible

to Tt, T, Tv and F\.
Figures 1-116; 1-117; 1-118

a) Low-voltage connection
b) High-voltage connection
Fig. 1-119. Dual-voltage motor showing (a) the low-voltage connection and (b) the
high-voltage connection. T{ is connected to P3 internally. All leads except and P3 are
accessible.
Fig. 1-120. Bimetal type thermotron (Delcro Products).
Figures 1-119; 1-120

44 CAPACITOR MOTORS
MG 1-2.48 Schematic Diagram* (or Capacitor-Start Motor*—Reversible

NOTE*—Motor *Urtiog twitch ikovo in ruuiDi pootloa All dirsruoae of roUttoa ibowa at* Iki*| tM nd oppwla tM dnv*
Sia|la Valtt|»-WI(b«ut Tbarnul Protector Uagl* Voiff With TMtmI Proltctar
Um Leads TvbIhI Sow* j
1 __»
Tl
1- ni 1
T8 m i
oc (-0-^
01
To obtain clockwise rotation, m-

interchange leads T6 and T8 To obtain clockwise rotation, in¬
LI La LI La Join terchange leads T5 and T8
Counter-clockwise Counter¬
rotation Tl, T8 T4, T5 clockwise
rotation pi T4, T5 Tl, T8
Clockwise rotation Tl, T5 T4, T8

LJr ClodcwiM
rotation pi T4, T8 Tl, T5
©C^
To obtain clockwise rotation in¬
terchange leads T1 and T4
To obtain clockwise rotation in¬

terchange leads T! and T4
NOTE—When terminal boards are

shown they are viewed from the
front Dotted lines indicate perman¬
ent connection NOTE—When terminal boards are
shown they are viewed from the
front Dotted lines indicate perman¬
ent connection
Fig. l-121a Schematic diagrams for capacitor-start motors—reversible.
MG 1-2.48 Schematic Diagram* (or Capacitor-Start Motor*—Reversible—(Continued)

NOTB—Meter lUrtlas twitch ehewe le rutaloi perilloe All dtrectioae of rotatioe ahowe rrr Itdoi tM red opporftt tM dnvi
P
Douilb Voltac*—Without Thermal Protector
*
Line Leads 1 Tvmlul Raw* Terminal Board with Link*
t
1 B
z
Higher Nameplate Voltage Higher Nameplate Voltage
2
□ I—r
—
L
OC H©- E
To obtain clockwise rotation, interchange leads To obtain clockwise rotation interchange leads
LI La Jofn T5 and T8
T6 and T8
Counter
Higher clockwise Tl T4, TS T2, T3
name¬ rotation ud T8
plate
Lower Nameplate Voltage Lower Nameplate Voltage
voltage Clockwise T2, T3
rotation Tl T4, T8 and T6
Lower
Counter¬
clockwise Tl, T3 T8 T3. T4. TS
1Uw'»1Jiivvvrj
—
Isn
rotation
©U-©— T4 lS
name¬
plate
voltage Clockwise
rotation Tl T3 TS T2 T4 T8
To obtain clockwise rotation interchange leads
To obtain clockwise rotation interchange leads T5 and T8
T6 and T8
NOTE—When terminal boards are shown, they

NOTB—When terminal boards ore shown, they are viewed from the front Dotted hues indicate
are viewed from the front Dotted lines indicate
permanent connection
Fig. l-121b. Schematic diagrams for capacitor-start motors—reversible {continued).
Figures l-121a; l-121b

MG 1-2.48 Schematic Diagram* (or Capacitor-Start Motor*—Reversible—(Continued)

NOTE I—TM design proportion* for 4ual vol(t|«, rcvcrabtc, capacitor start motor* are turb that three different group* of diagram* are asccsasry to ••bow the memos for obt ttoiog adequate protection
for the** motors These three groups of diagrams (I. II, and III) insert the thermal protector at different point* m the circuit, therefore, different currents arc provided t>> actuate the thermal protector
NOTE II — Motor starting switch shown in running position All direction* of rotation shown are facing the end opposite the drive
Group 1 -Double Voltage- With Thermal Protector
Lion Ua4i Terminal Board Tnrmlnal Board with Links
_re
Jl
Lie
JB
Jl
Jl
J!

LI Ll Join Jala 1 To obtain clockwise rotation interchange leads
T5 and T8
T5 and T8
Counter¬ 1
clockwise pi T4 P2, T8 T2 T3
Higher Lower Nameplate Voltage
name¬ rotation T5
Lower Nameplate Voltage
plate
voltage Clockwise T2 T3,
rotation pi T4 P2, T5 T8 ,
Counter¬ 1
Lower clockwise T2 T4 P2 T3
name¬ rotation pi T5 T8
plate - -
voltage Clockwise T2 T4 P2 T3
rotation pi T8 T5 !
T5 and T8
TiemNAL MAaaiNC*
To obtain clockwise rotation, interchange leads
T5 and T8
NOTE 111—When terminal boards are shown, they
NOTE IV —Proper connection depends upon design NOTE—When terminal boards are shown they
of motor and thermal protector, refer to motor are viewed from the front Dotted lines indicate
manufacturers information for proper diagram permanent connection
Fig. l-121c. Schematic diagram for capacitor-start motors—reversible (continued)
t**minai. ma**ihg»
MG 1-2.48 Schematic Diagram* for Capacitor-Start Motor* Reveralble—(Continued)
hOTa-MsUr stortlsa switch shows Is rsssisg psBhi At Bsrtlw sf Wlis> shows m Isrfsf tht ss4 np»srilt lbs drive
Group II—Double Voltage—With Thermal Protector
| permanent connection I are viewed from the front Dotted lutes indicate
NOTE II—Proper connection depends upon design permanent connect km
of motor and thermal protector, refer to motor I
1 manufacturers information for proper diagram I
Fig. 1-12 Id. Schematic diagram for capacitor-start motors—reversible {continued).
Figures l-121c; l-121d

46 CAPACITOR MOTORS
MG 1-2.48 Schematic Diagram* for Capacitor-Start Motor*—Reversible—(Continued)

NOTi-MaUr Martial Mriicb afcowa la raaotag poaMk* AH HoctUa of rautloa iteaa or* hrtii iM *ad opporiu tho flirt
Croup III—Doublb Voltacr—With Thrrmal Protbctor
tin* L—4* Tor ml Mai l«N Terminal Board aiih Link*

iMehu T5 and T* To obtain clockwise rotation, interchange leads
LI LI J«4d »* par* fly T5 and T8
Counter¬
clockwise FI T4. T5 T2. T3. n Lower Nameplate Voltage
Higher
name- rotation T8 Lower Nameplate Voltage
plate
voltage Clockwise T2 T3,
rotation pi T4 18 TS Pi
Counter¬
-r
(-
clockwise pi P2, T3,

Lower
rotation T8
name-
plate
voltage CJockwite T2 11 P2 13
rotation pi T8 T!> To obtain clockwise rotation interchange leads
T5 and T8
To obtain clockwise rotation, interchange leads
T5and T8
NOTE I—When terminal boards are shown, they

permanent connection NO IE —When terminal boards are shown they
NOTE II — Proper connection depends upon design are viewed from the front Dotted lines indicate
of motor and thermal protector refer lo motor permanent connection
manufacturers' information for proper diagram
NfcMA Standard II 16 1967
Fig. l-121e. Schematic diagram for capacitor-start motors—reversible {continued).
Fig. 1-122.
Schematic diagram showing the connection for clockwise rotation, facing
the end opposite the shaft. All numbered leads are accessible or come out of the motor.
Current flow El. cap.

St. sw. '8
X SUlSb' -)h
s.w. N
To line
To line s
r,
<-
— kJLQSULt
r.w.
Fig. 1-123.
Schematic diagram showing the connection for counterclockwise rotation.
All numbered leads are accessible or come out of the motor.
Figures l-121e; 1-122; 1-123

Fig. 1-126. Straight-line diagram of a four-pole, two-circuit, short jumper, capacitor-
start motor.
Figures 1-124; 1-125; 1-126

48 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-128. Nonreversible single-voltage motor. Rotation will be from a start-winding

pole group to the nearest like-polarity pole group of the run winding.
Fig. 1-129. Nonreversible high-voltage motor with a low-voltage-rated start winding,

connected to the center of the run winding.
Figures 1-127; 1-128; 1-129

Fig. 1-131. Two-voltage capacitor-start motor connected for low voltage. This is a
short jumper connection.
El. cap. T
St. sw. to
R.W. Sec. 1 R.W. Sec. 2
Figures 1-130; 1-131; 1-132

50 CAPACITOR MOTORS
s.w. El. cap.

St. sw. h
\J2_QJL/ -)b
To line

To line ^~i
-•-
Fig. 1-133. Schematic of a two-voltage motor connected for high voltage.
Black
a) High voltage connection
b) Low-voltage connection
Fig. 1-134. High- and low-voltage connections using colored wires instead of
numbers.
Figures 1-133; 1-134

^6 T9 St. sw. 10
2ll El. cap. El. cap.

S.W. Sec. 1 S.W. Sec. 2
_ _
mm mm
Tn

_ _
Fig. 1-135. Two-voltage capacitor-start motor-connection with two capacitors and one
switch. This motor is connected for low voltage. T9 and 7^ are connected to both sides of
the centrifugal switch and brought out of the motor.
Fig. 1-136. Two-voltage capacitor-start motor connection with two capacitors and one
switch. This motor is connected for high voltage. T9 and 7^ keep the start winding and
the capacitors in series with the centrifugal switch.
Figures 1-135; 1-136

52 CAPACITOR MOTORS
St. sw.
St. sw.
El. cap. El. cap.
S.W. Sec. 2
Fig. 1-137. Two-voltage capacitor-start motor connection with two capacitors and two
switches. This motor is connected for low voltage.
St. sw. St. sw. Tn
El. cap. El. cap.

S.W. Sec ,T S.W. Sec. 2
Fig. 1-138. Two-voltage capacitor-start motor connection with two capacitors and two
switches. This motor is connected for high voltage.
Figures 1-137; 1-138

Figures 1-139; 1-140
54 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-141. Schematic of a two-voltage motor with overload, showing the path of the
run current. Only half of the run current flows through the heat element of the thermal
protector when the motor is connected for low voltage.
Fig. 1-142. Schematic of a two-voltage motor with an overload device, connected for
high voltage. P2 is not used with this connection. The nameplate amperes of a high-
voltage connection will be half that of the low-voltage connection.
Current
relay
coil
Normally open
contacts
Fig. 1-143. Schematic of a single-voltage capacitor-start motor using a current relay

to control the start winding.
Figures 1-141; 1-142; 1-143

Normally open
contacts
Fig. 1-144. Schematic of a single-voltage, capacitor-start motor with a thermal pro¬

tector, using a current relay to control the start winding.
N.O. contacts
a) low-voltage connection
N.O. contacts
b) high-voltage connection
Fig. 1-145. Schematic of a two-voltage capacitor-start motor with a current relay

controlling the start winding, (a) connected for low voltage and (b) connected for high
voltage. The amperes through the coil of the relay is the same for both connections.
Figures 1-144; 1-145

56 CAPACITOR MOTORS
7-8
Fig. 1-146. Schematic of a capacitor-start motor with a potential relay controlling the
start winding.
Ty R.W. r4
7-8
Fig. 1-147. Schematic showing the induced current flow in the start-winding relay-coil
circuit of a capacitor-start motor with a potential-relay-controlled start winding.
Figures 1-146; 1-147

R.W. Line
Relay
contacts
Fig. 1-148. A capacitor-start motor with a potential relay using a three-pole switch to
isolate the start winding, preventing contact flutter.
[tiii'I*] [•ItTl]
Relay
contacts
Fig. 1-149. Dual-voltage capacitor-start motor with a potential relay. The relay is
rated for low voltage.
Figures 1-148; 1-149

58 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-150. A 240-volt capacitor-start motor with a potential relay. The coil of the
relay is connected to the center connection of the start winding. The relay coil is rated for
low voltage.
Fig. l-151a. Straight-line diagram (a) of a large capacitor-start motor using two low-
voltage potential relays. Both the start and run windings are two circuit. The motor
operates on 240 volts. To reverse, put T with T4.
Figures 1-150; 1-15la

Fig. 1-152. Schematic of a dual-voltage capacitor-start motor connected for high

voltage, (a) clockwise rotation facing the end opposite the shaft, and (b) counterclockwise
rotation.
Figures 1-15 lb; 1-152

60 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-153. A three-lead connection used on large capacitor-start motors. The motor
is reversed by moving T5 to TA.
Triple-pole double-throw center off switch
R.W.
Fig. 1-154. A capacitor-start motor using a triple-pole, double throw switch for
reversing.
Double contact centrifugal switch
Fig. 1-155. An instantly reversible capacitor-start motor with triple-pole, double-throw

switch for reversing.
Figures 1-153; 1-154; 1-155

Fig. 1-156. Schematic of an instantly reversible capacitor-start motor with a sta¬

tionary switch that allows instant reversal. Figs. 1-157 and 1-58 show how it is connected
in each direction.
Not used
7-8 #2
7-8 #1*-
Lifting
Open contact
7-8#'
ME
Fig. 1-157. Schematic of an instantly reversible capacitor-start motor running in a

forward direction.
Not used
T zt 1
'8 1
1-1-*T8# 2
Lifting
r~~l Open contact
Fig. 1-158. Schematic of an instantly reversible capacitor-start motor running in

reverse.
Figures 1-156; 1-157; 1-158

62 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-159. A motor with the instant reversing stationary switch connected to a four-
pole, double-throw, center-off reversing toggle switch with the switch thrown in the for¬
ward direction. Dotted lines show which terminals on the switch are joined by the switch
blades in that direction.
Fig. 1-160. Circuitry of the most commonly used stationary switch used in three-
winding, two-speed motors (one-start winding and two-run windings).
Low R.W.
Fig. 1-161. Schematic of the external selector switch, the stationary switch contacts,
and the windings as they are connected.
Figures 1-159; 1-160; 1-161

Low R.W.
Fig. l-162a. Two-speed capacitor-start motor schematic showing the current flow
when it is starting at high speed.
Low R.W.
Fig. l-162b. Two-speed capacitor-start motor schematic showing the current flow
when it is running at high speed.
Low R.W.
Fig. l-163a. Two-speed capacitor-start motor schematic showing the current flow
when the motor is started in low speed.
Figures 1-162a; 1-162b; 1-163 a

64 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Low R.W.
Low R.W.
Low *1 Common
To line , l_ow
o line
High S.W.
High R.W. -sjISlSLr-
High R.W.
Fig. l-163b. Two-speed capacitor-start motor schematic showing the current flow
when the motor is running at low speed.
Slot No. *
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1314 15 16 1718 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 2627 2829 30 31 32 33 3435 36
, , . . — . , ... »■ . . -t ■ — + t t »■ f'"-T r i t r t ""T 1 r T Tt t T '1 r ~l
6-po
R. W.
6-po
S. W.
Fig. l-163c. A typical layout of coils in a two-speed capacitor-start motor.
wmyA
Fig. 1-164. Straight-line diagram of four- and eight-pole consequent-pole motor, con¬
nected for high speed.
Figures l-163b; 1—163c; 1-164

El. cap.
St. sw.
B (insulate)
Fig. 1-165. Straight-line diagram of a four- and eight-pole consequent-pole motor

connected for low speed.
Lines of force-
North
Mr
/s'/ irw
m
fii
4n^gc£f' vs--
South Sout
s
j«r
Fig. 1-166. If the two poles of a two-
pole motor are connected so that like
M
mil': linn /$?'/
M
polarity results, two more poles will be !l"!ll|"ll
formed by the lines of force entering the
Fig. 1-167. Circular diagram of a

two-speed capacitor-start motor.
Figures 1-165; 1-166; 1-167

66 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. l-169b. Straight-line diagram of a permanent-split, capacitor-run motor and the

terminal markings, as found on a refrigeration compressor.
Figures 1-168; 1—169a; l-169b

S. (Start)
Fig. 1-170. Starting unit consisting of a single-pole, double-throw toggle switch, three
electrolytic capacitors, and three toggle switches and leads connected to a refrigeration
compressor motor.
Fig. 1-171. Special-duty, permanent-split, capacitor-run motor going forward because

the capacitor is in series with winding, making (a) the start winding and (b) the run
winding.
Fig. 1-172. The same motor as in Fig. 1-171, with the capacitor in series with the
winding (b). This makes (b) the start winding and (a) the run winding, and the motor
will run in reverse.
Figures 1-170; 1-171; 1-172

68 CAPACITOR MOTORS
|H%|
R.W. Sec. 1
5 3 8 2
High voltage Low voltage
Fig. 1-173. Two-voltage permanent-split, capacitor-run motor connected short jumper.
O.F. cap.
S.W.
i r Maybe connected internally
High R.W.
* ii
i___i
High
Low R.W.
High I
LowJ
Ext. sw.
Fig. l-174a. Two-speed permanent-split, capacitor-run motor connected for high

speed. The low-speed winding is idle on high speed.
Figures 1-173; l-174a

O.F. cap
Internal connection
High R.W.
Low R.W.
Ext. Sw.
Fig. l-174b. Two-speed permanent-split capacitor-run motor connected for low speed
Both the high- and low-speed windings are energized in series.
O.F. cap.
^m. High R.W.

S.W. connection
I_'_I (a)
High
T High”! Low R.W.
Low
I Low 1
I_I
O.F. cap.
Com. High R.W.
High
High Low R.W.
Low
<b> -4
I Low 1
I_I
Ext. Sw.
Fig. 1-175. Schematics showing the two start-winding connections used in a

multispeed, permanent-split, capacitor-run motor. Connection (a) is across the high run
winding, and connection (b) is across the line.
Figures l-174b; 1-175

70 CAPACITOR MOTORS
O.F. cap.
71
TV _^ z_ _
Line 1 m’m s.w.
High R.W.
Com.
High
Medium R.W.
High
Line 2 To Med. Med.
Low R.W.
Low
I_
Ext. sw.
Low
—•—
Fig. 1-176. Three-speed permanent-split, capacitor-run motor and external selector

switch.
O.F. cap.
Fig. 1-177. Three-speed permanent-split, capacitor-run motor and external selector

switch.
Figures 1-176; 1-177

Figures 1-178; 1-179
72 CAPACITOR MOTORS
AIR CONDITIONING CQNPINSIRS AND EVAPORATOR

FRACTION AL>HORSBPOWKR MOTOR!
Fig. 1-181. Terminal markings—multispeed single-voltage permanent-split capacitor

motors.
Figures 1-180; 1-181

O.F. Cap.
S.W.
High R.W.
Com.
Med. R.W.
High
Medium
Low R.W.
Fig. 1-182. Wiring diagram of a three-speed capacitor-run motor.
Slot No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12 13 1415 1617 1819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 2829 30 31 3232 3435 36 1
Start
Auxiliary
1
Auxiliary
2
Fig. 1-183. A typical layout of a three-speed capacitor-run motor.
Figures 1-182; 1-183

74 CAPACITOR MOTORS
O.F. cap.
Fig. 1-184. Two-value capacitor motor showing the path of the current when the
motor is running.
O.F. cap.
Fig. 1-185. Schematic of a two-value capacitor motor using two capacitors.
O.F. cap.
Fig. 1-186. Single-voltage start-winding connection. The voltage rating can be high or
low.
Figures 1-184; 1-185; 1-186

Fig. 1-187. Low voltage start-winding connected to the center of the run winding.
This is a high-voltage motor. The electrolytic capacitor is rated for low voltage.
Fig. 1-188. Single-voltage start winding with two electrolytic capacitors in parallel.
O.F. cap.
Fig. 1-189. High-voltage start winding using two low-voltage capacitors in series.
Figures 1-187; 1-188; 1-189

76 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-190. High-voltage start winding using two low-voltage capacitors in series, in
parallel with two low-voltage capacitors in series.
O.F. cap.
Fig. 1-191. High-voltage winding with two capacitors connected in parallel, in series
with two capacitors connected in parallel. The electrolytic capacitors all are low voltage.
High voltage: Low voltage:

to reverse, interchange T5 with T^Q. to reverse, interchange Ts and T7 with T^Q.
Fig. 1-192. Dual-voltage motor with a dual-voltage start winding controlled by a sta¬
tionary switch with one set of contacts.
Figures 1-190; 1-191; 1-192


to reverse, interchange T9 with r,0. to reverse, interchange T9 with 7"10.
Fig. 1-193. Dual-voltage capacitor-start motor with a dual-voltage start winding con¬
trolled by a stationary switch connected internally to TA. T9 is connected internally to

to reverse, interchange 7"5 with T8. to reverse, interchange 7"5 and T7
with T6 and T8.
Fig. 1-194. Dual-voltage, capacitor-start motor with two sets of stationary switch
contacts controlling the start winding.
Figures 1-193; 1-194

78 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-195. Two-value capacitor-start motor with a separate winding for the oil-filled
capacitor.
Fig. 1-196. Two-value capacitor-start motor with a potential relay controlling the start
winding.
Figures 1-195; 1-196

contacts
I I
S.W. Sec. 1 S.W. Sec. 2

to reverse, interchange 7"5 with 7"10. to reverse, interchange 7"5 and T7 with 7"10.
Fig. 1-197. Dual-voltage capacitor-start motor with a dual-voltage start winding con
trolled by a potential relay with one set of contacts. The potential relay is rated for low
voltage.
240 volts-
[iIiIO [•III*] [iIiTi]
Fig. 1-198. Series connection of coils for 240-volt operation.
120 volts
60 V. 60 V.
Fig. 1-199. Parallel connection of coils for 120-volt operation. Voltage remains the
same across each coil.
Figures 1-197; 1-198; 1-199

80 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Slot No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Run
Start
Fig. 1-200.
Pitch data of a 36-slot, four-pole motor. The poles of the starting wind¬
ing are not the same; one pole has four coils, and the next has three.
Fig. 1-201. Pitch data of a 36-slot, six-pole motor. The outer coils of each pole
group lap one another and share the same slot.
Aluminum strap
Retaining ring
Terminal board
Break
Fig. 1-202. Capacitor with a broken

connecting strap under the terminal
board.
1 2
Fig. 1-203.
Locked rotor method for finding the right-sized capacitor for a motor.
Voltmeter 2 should read 5 to 10 percent higher than voltmeter 1.
Figures 1-200; 1-201; 1-202; 1-203

1,800 watt resistor
Fig. 1-206. Test used to determine a

capacitor’s value.
O. F. cap.
Fig. 1-207. Start-winding schematic of a two-value capacitor-start motor with four

oil-filled capacitors and one electrolytic capacitor. Oil-filled capacitors are always con¬
nected in parallel to each other.
Figures 1-204; 1-205; 1-206; 1-207

82 CAPACITOR MOTORS
0. F. cap. shorted
S.W.. El. cap.

St. sw. open
Line Line
R.W.
Fig. 1-208. If an oil-filled capacitor becomes shorted, a high current will flow in the
start winding. If the circuit protection does not function, the winding will burn.
50-amp
50-amp meter
switch
25-amp
30-amp meter
switch
Test
clip
2,100-watt,
240- volt
resistors
50-amp switch
15-amp
switches
1 240-vo It,
120 volts A.C. 100-watt light
I
1 Neutral
240 volts A.C.
Fig. 1-209.Test panel. Test clips 1 and 2 are used for 120-volt testing, and test clips
1 and 3 are used for 240-volt testing.
Figures 1-208; 1-209; 1-210

Fig. 1-211. Testing for the shorted circuit in a dual-voltage capacitor-start motor.
Fig. 1-212. First locate the grounded circuit with the test light, and then locate the
grounded coil group with a limited current.
Fig. 1-213. Comparison test used to locate partially shorted section of dual-voltage
run winding.
Figures 1-211; 1-212; 1-213

84 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Small rotor
Modified to spin freely Extended handle
Fig. 1-214. Test rotor made from a small fan motor or a skeleton-type motor.
_yc_
To line
Test leads
Figures 1-214; 1-215; 1-216

Fig. 1-217. The effect of a defective pole. If the circuit is open, the lamp will not
light.
Hack-saw blade
Winding
nternal growler
/
Fig. l-220a. The growler method of
testinng for shorts in the stator.
Figures 1-217; 1-218; 1-219; l-220a

86 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Split-phase motor
Overload
Figures 1-222; 1-223; 1-224

88 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-225. The bearings are tested

t/JJJ by trying to move the shaft vertically.
End Plate
Bearing
Holes
for bolts Shaft -
Fig. 1-226. If the shaft can be

moved vertically, it indicates a worn
bearing or worn rotor shaft.
Stator
Fig. 1-227. A worn bearing may

cause the rotor to rub on the stator core.
Fig. 1-228. The tool used for forc¬

ing bearings out of end plates.
Figures 1-225; 1-226; 1-227; 1-228

Fig. 1-229. A motor showing end

plates not mounted properly. This
prevents the rotor from turning. Use a
mallet to tap plates into position.
Fig. 1-232. A connection mistake often made by beginners.
Fig. 1-233. The rotor under test

placed between the open ends of the
growler core.
Figures 1-229; 1-230; 1-231; 1-232; 1-233

90 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Connect reverting leach to

terminals marked by an
I 15 I&LvC
Dual voltaga
reversible non thermo Wesringhouse u/Rirr
U5 Bust
cLCCTvtic cone lima wki
LIMA OHIO USA
SMALL MOTOR OIVISION ROT CONN VOL T VOLT CONN
Connect reversing leads

to terminals marked with
Fig. 1-234. Miscellaneous diagrams.
Figures 1-234
Fig. 1-234. Miscellaneous diagrams {continued).
Figures 1-234
Figures 1-235
GENERAL ELECTRIC _ |I2IA865

I2IA865 Diagram-Connection
LABEL 219505
MOtS*l-TO RtVEBSE ROTATION INTERCHANGE BLUE (OR Tli

AND WHITE (O* Ti) LEADS
NOTE#2- When MORE THAN ONE CAPACITOR IS JSC0, CONNECT

IN PARALLEL
TITwa
48 PR TYPCPJ-F2
MOTOR l LINK
WIRING DIAGRAM
Fig. 1-235. Miscellaneous diagrams {continued).
Figures 1-235
94 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Fig. 1-238. A two-pole, capacitor start motor with a one-circuit start and a one- and
two-circuit run winding.
Figures 1-236; 1-237; 1-238

CHAPTER 2
Repulsion-type Motors
Fig. 2-2. Stator and winding of a

repulsion-start, induction motor. (Wagner
Electric Co.)
Axial commutator
Figures 2-1; 2-2; 2-3

96 REPULSION-TYPE MOTORS
Fig. 2-4. A rotor having a radial commutator with bars perpendicular to the shaft.
(Wagner Electric Company)
Governo
spring
c..
Spring Lock Brush- Spring barrel Spring
retainer washer holder Short-circuiting retainer
cup necklace
Fig. 2-5.A partly dismantled rotor and parts of the centrifugal mechanism. (Wagner
Electric Company)
Short-circuiting necklace
and spring barrel
Governor weights
r-Commutator
rPush rods
rSlots for lock washer
[-Short-circuiting necklace
Spring barrel
Brush rBrush holder
I-Fiber washer
Brush holder cup
Governor spring
Spring retainers
Lock washer
Fig. 2-6. An exploded view of the
rotor of a repulsion-start, induction-run
motor, showing the short-circuiting and
brush-lifting mechanism.
Figures 2-4; 2-5; 2-6

Short-circuiting necklace
and spring barrel
rGovernor weights
Commutator
Threads
[■Short-circuiting necklace
[-Spring barrel
[-Governor spring
Nut-i
Fig. 2-7. An exploded view of the

rotor of a repulsion-start, induction-run
motor. In this type, the brush holder is
located in the end plate.
Fig. 2-8. A commutator for a

brush-riding, repulsion-start, induction-
run motor.
Cutaway spring
Fig. 2-9. The assembly of the short-circuiting device of a brush-riding, repulsion-

start, induction-run motor.
Fig. 2-10. Four brushes are used on

this four-pole motor. All brushes are
connected together by a one-piece metal
brush holder rigging and the pigtails on
the brushes.
Figures 2-7; 2-8; 2-9; 2-10

REPULSION-TYPE MOTORS
230-volt
Fig. 2-12. A four-pole stator of a repulsion-start, induction-run motor, connected for

230 volts.
115-volt
71
line
r\
Fig. 2-13. A four-pole stator con¬
nected for 115 volts.
Figures 2-11; 2-12; 2-13

Fig. 2-14. A two-circuit connection for 230-volt operation (a). A four-circuit connec¬
tion for 115-volt operation (b).
Figures 2-14; 2-15; 2-16

Figures 2-17; 2-18; 2-19; 2-20
Fig. 2-21. The core section at the center of the pole. It is wider than other sections.
Slot No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Run. Size of wire

#18 SCE
20 Turns
20 Turns
12 Turns
Fig. 2-22. The method of recording data for a 24-slot, repulsion-start, induction-run
motor.
Core Centrifugal weights

Radial type Winding-i
commutator
Skewed slots
V.'- .■
Hi rffr
Fig. 2-23. The armature of a repulsion-start, induction-run motor.
Figures 2-21; 2-22; 2-23

Fig. 2-24. A radial commutator that

is pressed on the armature shaft.
Fig. 2-25. A radial commutator that

screws onto the armature shaft.
Bar No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Fig. 2-27. A wave winding with one coil per slot.
Figures 2-24; 2-25; 2-26; 2-27

Figures 2-28; 2-29; 2-30; 2-31

Fig. 2-32. Step 1. Record the data for a two-coil per-slot repulsion armature.
Coils 1 and 2
Fig. 2-33a. Step 2. Place beginning leads in adjoining commutator bars according to
data and wind the proper number of turns, using two wires in hand. Cut the wires at the
last turn and bend them over the core.
Fig. 2-33b. Armature holder. (Crown Industrial Products)
Figures 2-32; 2-33a;b

Coils 1 and 2
Fig. 2-34. Step 3. Place the beginnings of coils 3 and 4 in bars 3 and 4 and start
winding the coils, beginning one slot away from the first coils and using the same pitch
as before.
Figures 2-34; 2-35; 2-36

35 36 1
Fig. 2-37. Cross connections of

commutator bars for a six-pole motor
having 36 bars, pitch 1 and 13.
20 19 18 17
o. 35 36 1
Fig. 2-38. Cross connections of

commutator bars for an eight-pole motor
having 36 bars, pitch 1 and 10.
20 19 18 17
,2434445 1 2 ,
Fig. 2-39. A four-pole, wave-wound

armature must have an odd number of
bars in the commutator. If there is an
35
34
37
36
mm B
9
10
|_| 11
even number of bars, two must be 33 fZ1 12
shorted. 32 13
31 y 14
/ 15
16
17
*2524 23 22 2120
Figures 2-37; 2-38; 2-39

Fig. 2-40. A wave connection showing dead coil. This coil must remain unconnected
when there are more coils than bars.
Fig. 2-41. The method of placing a jumper between two bars to take the place of a
coil. This is used when there is an even number of coils and one bar more than the
number of coils.
Coils 1 and 2
Fig. 2-42. The first two coils of a wave-wound armature in place. Note that this
armature is wound exactly as a lap armature, except that the beginning leads are placed
away from the center of the coil.
Figures 2-40; 2-41; 2-42

Figures 2-43; 2-44; 2-45
If brushes are shifted If brushes are shifted

to this position, then to this position, then
armature will rotate in armature will rotate in
a clockwise direction a counter-clockwise
direction
Distributed type of Shorted brushes

winding is used complete circuit
thru armature coils
Fig. 2-46. Two closed circuits in an armature similar to two coils. No motion takes
place if brushes are in a vertical or horizontal postion.
Mark (F) for

forward direction
This screw can be
loosened and
moved th the "R"
position for
opposite rotation
Mark (R) for

reverse direction
Fig. 2-47. An end plate showing

how the brush holder is moved to reverse
the motor.
Figures 2-46; 2-47; 2-48

Fig. 2-49. The position of the frame

in Fig. 2-48 reversed. This will cause the
motor to run in the opposite direction.
Fig. 2-50. A cartridge type of brush

holder with both brushes in position for
counterclockwise rotation.
Fig. 2-51. A cartridge type of brush

holder with both brushes in position for
clockwise rotation.
Figures 2-49; 2-50; 2-51

Figures 2-52; 2-53; 2-54

Fig. 2-55. A layout of a six-pole compensated repulsion motor. Note the location of
the compensating winding in relation to the main winding. The compensating winding is
generally wound into the slots first.
Slots for
regular Fig. 2-56. An armature of a
winding repulsion-induction motor. Note slots and
Squirrel-cage squirrel-cage winding.
winding
Figures 2-55; 2-56; 2-57

MG 1-2.52 Schematic Diagrams for Repulsion, Repulsion-Start

Induction and Repulsion-Induction Motors
Fig. 2-59. Schematic diagrams for repulsion, repulsion-start induction and repulsion-
induction motors.
Figures 2-58; 2-59

Fig. 2-60. Testing a repulsion motor for a shorted armature. Lift the brushes from
the commutator; throw the switch on, and turn the armature by hand. If it turns freely,
the armature is not shorted.
Fig. 2-61. A wrong connection for 230 volts. The current flows through two adja¬
cent poles in the same direction. The motor hums and does not run. To remedy, connect
T2 and 7^ together, L] to Tx and T4 to Lr
Figures 2-60; 2-61

Fig. 2-62. Although connected for 115 volts, adjacent poles have the same polarity.
Remedy by connecting 7^ and 7^ to Lx and T2 and 7^ to Lr
Fig. 2-63. A common mistake. There is no complete circuit across the line, and the
motor neither operates nor hums.
Figures 2-62; 2-63

CHAPTER 3
Three-phase Motors
Fig. 3-1. A three-phase motor. (Baldor Electric Co.)
Figure 3-1
118 THREE-PHASE MOTORS
Fig. 3-2. A stator of a three-phase motor. (Lenni Products)
Fig. 3-3. Rotor of a three-phase motor. (Westinghouse Electric Co.)
Figures 3-2; 3-3

Fig. 3-4. A wound rotor of a three-phase motor. (Westinghouse Electric Co.)
Phase C
Fig. 3-5. The coils of a three-phase

motor connected to produce three windings,
or phases.
0° 20° per tooth 90° 120°
Fig. 3-6a. A four-pole, 36-slot

stator. Each tooth equals 20°. This is a
concentric-wound coil group showing the
90° and the 120° locations. The 120° slot
is where the first coil of the next phase
group with the same polarity is placed.
0° 20° per tooth 90° 120°
Fig. 3-6b. A lap-wound coil group

showing the 90° and the 120° location.
The 120° slot is where the first coil of
the next phase group with the same
polarity is placed.
Figures 3-4; 3-5; 3-6a; 3-6b

Fig. 3-7. Concentric and lap coil placement 120° apart. Each coil group is the start
of its phase and is of the same polarity.
Figures 3-7; 3-8

n° a
Peak volts +
0 volts
Peak volts
Fig. 3-9. A simplified three-phase sine wave showing where each phase starts.
Phase C pole
Phase B pole
Phase A pole
Phase A 0°
Phase B 0C
Phase C 0C
_I
Phase A pole _I
Phase B pole
Phase C pole
Fig. 3-10. Illustration of how the coil groups or poles of a three-phase stator fit the
three-phase sine wave.
Figures 3-9; 3-10

Figures 3-1 la; 3-1 lb

Fig. 3-1 lc. The C Phase is energized, attracting the magnet in this position.
Fig. 3-1 Id. The A phase energized the same as in Fig. 3-1 la to complete one
revolution.
Figures 3-1 lc; 3-1 Id

Fig. 3-12. Pole formed in the stator

by the current in a coil group.
Current flowing right to left in bars of rotor
Fig. 3-13. Current flowing in rotor bars at 98 percent rpm. Bars located at 90° from
the stator pole centers are the center of the rotor poles.
Figures 3-12; 3-13

Fig. 3-14a. Magnetic lines of force going through the rotor at synchronous speed.
Fig. 3-14b. By the time the polarity reverses in the stator, the rotor has rotated to a
position where it needs no magnetic reversal. The magnetic lines of force continue to flow
through it in the same direction.
Figures 3-14a; 3-14b

Fig. 3-15. Nameplate. (Westinghouse Electric Co.)
1-8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7—8
— — — — — —
Fig. 3-16. How to count the span or

pitch of a coil. The coils in lap windings
all have the same span.
Figures 3-15; 3-16

3-17. Stripping the stator by
each coil on one side and pulling
e other side.
ts. (Wagner Electric Company)
9. A partial view of the coils

of a lap winding.
Figures 3-17; 3-18; 3-19

Fig. 3-21. A loop-forming head for formed coils. (Armature Coil Equipment, Inc.)
SPECIFICATIONS:
Largest loop length using coil end holders
Larger lengths upon application
Largest length across core: 22" Smallest 3".
Coil spread: 1" to 10"
Knuckle kick-up 0 to 2-1/2"
Included angle range: 0 to 80 degrees
Width of spread:
Minimum at 0 degree included angle:
80 degree included angle: 2-3/4"
Maximum at 0 degree included angle:
80 degree included angle: 12-3/4"
Jaw holding capacity: Maximum 1/2" W. x 7/8" H
Minimum 1/8" W. x 1/4" H.
Dimensions: 33" W. x 48" L. x 48" H.
Net Weight: 265 Lbs.
Gross Weight: 320 Lbs.
Fig. 3-22. A coil-forming machine. (Armature Coil Equipment, Inc.)
Figures 3-20; 3-21; 3-22

Figures 3-23; 3-24; 3-25

r i '
Fig. 3-26. Midget coil winding head.

(Crown Industrial Products Co.)
Fig. 3-27. Coil winding drive and

three-phase head. (Crown Industrial Pro¬
ducts Co.)
I •*;
w
Three phase head
Fig. 3-28. Three-phase head for rounded coils.
Figures 3-26; 3-27; 3-28

Figures 3-29; 3-30; 3-31

Coil after winding
Adhesive
Shape of coil
after pulling
Fig. 3-33. The coils of small motors may be wound in a rectangular shape, which is
later formed into a diamond shape by pulling at the center of opposite ends.
Fig. 3-34. This is a group-wound,

three-coils-per-group coil group.
Figures 3-32; 3-33; 3-34

First coil of winding in place
Fig. 3-37. The method of placing one side of each coil in slot.
Figures 3-35; 3-36; 3-37

Fig. 3-38. Installing groups of 3 coils into the slots.
2. - Slip separator over bottom coil
Wedge (Wood or Fiber)
Separator
Second __
coil side ^
3. - Place top coil over separator 4. - Slip wedge in place
Fig. 3-39. The method of placing the sides of two coils in a slot with insulation.
Figures 3-38; 3-39

Fig. 3-40. Winding and insulating a three-phase stator. (Wagner Electric Company)
Fig. 3-41. A diagram of a star connection. This is also called a Y connection.
Figures 3-40; 3-41

nnmmnmnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnmnnnnnn Nine coils to each pole
Fig. 3-43. A 36-coil, three-phase motor with coils divided into poles.
Fig. 3-45. A simplified diagram of the coils in a three-phase, four-pole motor.
Figures 3-42; 3-43; 3-44; 3-45

One group of a 4-pole

36-coil motor
\ Phase A j\ Phase B j\ Phase C |

^_1 pole_ j
Fig. 3-46. Three groups in one pole. Each group has three coils.
Fig. 3-47. How the coils in a group

are connected together.
Fig. 3-48a. A side view of the coil connections shown in Fig. 3-47.
Fig. 3-48b. Three coils are group wound. Connections between coils are automatic¬
ally made during the winding process.
Figures 3-46; 3-47; 3-48a; 3-48b

Phase A
^BCABCABCABC
uu uu uu uu uu uu uu uu uu uu uu
it It ll
Pole 1 Pole 2 Pole 3 Pole 4
Fig. 3-49. Coils connected in twelve groups of three coils each. Note that all poles
are alike.
Phase A
JU |UU| |U°U| liu |UU| |UU| UU |UU IUUI UU |UU| IUU
End of phase A not connected
Fig. 3-50. Connections of groups of phase A.
rBCAB C ABCA BC
Ends of A and C not connected
Fig. 3-51. Phase C connected exactly like phase A and connected before phase B to
simplify connections.
JU uu uu uu uu uu uu uu uu uu uu uu
Ends of each phase connected together

This is called the star point
Fig. 3-52. The current flow in the B phase is opposite to the current flow in both
the A and C phases. This is shown by the arrows under each group.
Figures 3-49; 3-50; 3-51; 3-52

Phase A A wye (Y)
Fig. 3-53a. Connections of groups of phase A.
Phase C C wye (Y)
Fig. 3-53b. Phase C connected exactly like phase A and connected before phase B to
simplify connections.
Fig. 3-53c. The current flow in the B phase is the opposite to the current flow in
both the A and C phases. This is accomplished by starting the B phase at the fifth group
or the second 5-phase group.
Fig. 3-53d. A complete diagram of a three-phase, four-pole, one-wye (1Y) or series-

wye-connected motor.
Figures 3-53a; 3-53b; 3-53c; 3-53d

Phase C
Phase B
Fig. 3-54c. The current flow in the
B phase is the opposite to the current
flow in both the A and C phases. This is
accomplished by starting the B phase at
the fifth group or the second B phase
group.
Fig. 3-54d. A circular diagram put¬

ting all three phases together. A one-wye
short jumper with connections starting at
the 6 o’clock position and the groups
numbers 1 through 12.
Figures 3-54a; 3-54b; 3-54c; 3-54d

Fig. 3-55. A schematic diagram of a

three-phase, four-pole, series star (1Y)
motor.
Star point
Phase C
Groups in
series
Groups in. 1 group

series >/
Phase B Phase A
Fig. 3-56. A schematic diagram of a

three-phase, four-pole, series delta motor.
«=>
Phase C
Phase A
To C End of Phase A
.A
Fig. 3-57a. The A Phase connections for a one-delta, four-pole motor.
Phase C End of
O
Phase C
.C
Fig. 3-57b. C Phase connections are the same as for the A phase.
Figures 3-55; 3-56; 3-57a; 3-57b

Phase B
To A-1 End of Phase B
Fig. 3-57c. The B phase connected with polarity the opposite of the A and C
phases.
Phase A Phase C Phase B
Fig. 3-57d. A complete diagram of a three-phase, one-delta, four-pole, short jumper

motor.
End of
A
Fig. 3-58a. The connections of the

A phase in a circular diagram.
Phase A
Fig. 3-58b. Phase C connected in

the same way as for the A phase.
End of C
Figures 3-57c; 3-57d; 3-58a; 3-58b

Phase B
Fig. 3-58c. Phase B starting at the

fifth group, thereby reversing the B phase
polarity.
Fig. 3-58d. A circular diagram of a

one-delta (series-delta), four-pole, short
jumper connection.
Fig. 3-59. A three-phase, series-wye connection in which the first phase B coil group
is not skipped. Phase A and phase C are connected in the same way as when the skip
group method is used.
Figures 3-58c; 3-58d; 3-59

Phase A
2 paths
Fig. 3-61. A four-pole, two-

parallel (2Y) connection. In this con¬
nection the groups are connected so
that there are two paths in each
phase for the current to follow. There
are four groups in each phase, and
this forms a four-pole motor.
Fig. 3-62a. Phase A connection of a two-wye, four-pole, short jumper motor.
Figures 3-60; 3-61; 3-62a

•JIM* £ ur-pole, short jumper motor.
nection of a two-wye, four-pole, short jumper motor.
Dhase B
Fig. 3-62d. Three-phase, two-wye, four-pole, short jumper motor.
Figures 3-62b; 3-62c; 3-62d

Phase B
Fig. 3-63. A four-pole, two-wye,

short jumper, three-phase diagram.
Phase C
Phase A
Fig. 3-64. A two-pole, series star

(1Y) connection. If only one group is
connected to each line, then it is a
series star (1Y) connection.
i
Phase A Phase C Phase B
Fig. 3-65. Straight-line diagram of a series-star or wye (1Y) connection.
Figures 3-63; 3-64; 3-65

o « >
A C
Fig. 3-67. Both methods of connection shown above have each line lead connected
to two groups, but the parallel star connection has six groups connected together in two
separate wyes.
Fig. 3-68. A three-parallel star (3Y)

connection. Each line lead connects to
three groups.
Figures 3-66; 3-67; 3-68

Fig. 3-69.
(A) shows a four-pole, two-parallel delta 2A connection with each line
lead connected to four groups. (B) shows an eight-pole, four-parallel star (4Y) connection.
Both methods of connection shown have each line lead connected to four groups, but the
four-parallel star (4Y) connection has twelve groups connected together.
Fig. 3-70. The four-pole, two-

parallel star (2Y) connection has six
jumpers.
115 115 115 115
Fig. 3-71. Four coils connected

in series for 460-volt line. The voltage
in each coil is 115.
Fig. 3-72. Four coils connected two-parallel for a 230-volt line. Each coil still receives
115 volts.
Figures 3-69; 3-70; 3-71; 3-72

115 115 115 115 115

» <
f-'TjtRT'-i -'IRKT'-f i
115
<
_i L - ^ .__ ....
115
115-volt
115 line
<-'TRRTL-.
Fig. 3-73. The four coils of Fig.
115 volt
line 3-72 connected for 115-volt operation.
115 115 115 115

r-nm
Fig. 3-74. Series connection 460-volt

of coils for 460-volt operation. line
115 115 115 115
Fig. 3-75. Two sets of coils in

230-volt parallel for 230-volt operation.
line
Figures 3-73; 3-74; 3-75; 3-76

Fig. 3-77. A three-phase, four-pole, two-parallel star (2Y) connection with one star
point.
Figures 3-77; 3-78

Standard markings for Y connected dual voltage motors

Both forms are used
Li l2 L3
Higher
voltage
connection
Y connections for dual voltage
Voltage L, *-2 *-3 Tie Together
bei m PBI
■a ■aa
Low
High T, T3 PBI
Table of connections
Fig. 3-79. Markings and connections for Y connected dual-voltage motor.
r,
Fig. 3-80a. The spiral method of finding the proper numbers for a nine-lead, one-
and two-wye schematic.
Figures 3-79; 3-80a

Fig. 3-80b. The spiral

method of finding the proper
numbers for a nine-lead, one-
and two-delta schematic.
Fig. 3-81. A two-voltage

star (wye) motor with groups
connected in series for high-
voltage operations.
/ \
Fig. 3-82. A two-voltage

star (wye) motor with groups
connected in parallel for low
voltage. The common connec
tion of 4, 5, and 6 forms an
external star.
Figures 3-80b; 3-81; 3-82

Fig. 3-83. A three-phase, four-pole, two-voltage, short jumper, one- and two-wye
motor connected for high voltage. Each phase is shown separately above and also con¬
nected for high voltage.
Figure 3-83
Internal
Y
tli
Phase A
11
/5k
Phase B
Internal Y
Phase C
InternalY
/5m
%
Internal Y
Fig. 3-84. A circular diagram of a four-pole, two-voltage, short jumper, one- and
two-wye motor.
Figure 3-84
Fig. 3-86. (Left) A two-voltage delta connection with groups in series for high-
voltage operation. (Right) A two-voltage delta connection with groups in parallel for low-
voltage operation.
Figures 3-85; 3-86

Fig. 3-87. A four-pole, two-voltage, short jumper, one- and two-delta motor con¬
nected for high voltage.
Voltage Li L2 L3 Tie Together
High Ti t2 T3 t4t5t6
Low TiT6 t2t4 T3T5
Fig. 3-88. A wye-delta-connected dual-voltage motor with schematic and connection

directions.
Fig. 3-89a & b. (a) shows the B Phase with the jumper going back to the second
group, (b) shows a straight line diagram of this short jumper one and two wye
connection.
Figures 3-87; 3-88; 3-89

Fig. 3-90. A circular diagram

of a one- and two-wye, four-pole,
short jumper motor with the B
phase connected as described in
Fig. 3-89 b.
I '///////A V///////A
Fig. 3-91a. A two-pole, two-wye motor.
V///////A
Fig. 3-91b. A two-pole, one- and two-wye motor.
XY//////A V//////A
Fig. 3-91c. A two-pole, dual-voltage, wye-delta motor.
Figures 3-90; 3—91a; 3-91b; 3-91c

Figures 3-91d; 3-91e; 3—91f; 3-92a
Fig. 3-92c. A four-pole, four-delta connection.
T,
Fig. 3-92d. A four-pole, two- and four-delta, short jumper connection.
Fig. 3-92e. A four-pole, short jumper connection with the B phase connection start¬
ing at the opposite end, thereby reversing its polarity with respect to the A and C phases.
Figures 3-92b; 3-92c; 3-92d; 3-92e

Fig. 3-93b. Phase B of a four-pole, one-wye, long jumper motor.
C of a four-pole, one-wye, long jumper motor.
Wm. Wfim
Figures 3-93a; 3-93b; 3—93c; 3-94

Fig. 3-95b. A four-pole, one- and two-wye, long jumper connection.
Figures 3-95a; 3-95b; 3-95c

Fig. 3-96c. A four-pole, one- and two-delta, long jumper connection.
Figures 3-95d; 3-96a; 3—96b; 3-96c

19 lo 17
Fig. 3-97. A circular diagram of a three-layer concentric winding with coil groups
containing one and two coils per group. Each layer is a complete phase and is shown as
it would be placed in a stator.
Figures 3-96d; 3-97

Slot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Layer 1
Layer 2
m,fJmo B
mm
B
B
B
.ns
VSAa'/JX'/A>XM7M7SA'A
{W/MW/A
B c mm
a D a D
Layer 3
D c a D a D a D a
1A Phase ( Y////////A. ) B Phase ( ) ' vL; Q C Phase
Fig. 3-98. A straight-line diagram of the motor illustrated in Fig. 3-97. This is a
three-layer concentric winding, with each layer containing a complete phase.
Fig. 3-99. A circular diagram of a four-layer concentric winding with coil groups
containing one and two coils per group. This motor can be rewound with the same ar¬
rangement as in Fig. 3-97 with little difference electrically.
Figures 3-98; 3-99

Slot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
a D
B
Layer 1
Layer 2 |
2222<*************0;i
<)- B
a D
B
//a//////////* a D
a D
B
Layer 3
a D •;02****0**0***!******0Vi cmmmmmmD
Layer 4 c c
D a
Fig. 3-100. A straight-line illustration of a four-layer winding, as shown in Fig. 3-99.

The first and fourth layer have one coil per group, and the second and third layer have
two coils per group.
Slot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Fig. 3-101. A four-pole concentric winding with two coils per group. The outside
coils of each group share the slot.
Slot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Layer 1
Layer 2 rHh
a
■ B
1222 *02 <022 <022 3]
u 1
■ P HH
1
**** *02* 022 022 *02
■ B Mdl mB
<020 202* **** *2*0 020 m DK <02*222********* **0^
B m Ls
g* <***
mi m Hi m □rn□□□ mt PI LJLJ^p ^P Hi ^P ■i —
■i
“d nn^p BH ■i rj□^P Hi ■■ ^P PP ^P ^P HI PH ^p PP PH HP
BUM m
^P HI ^p
set m m 388 OK ISS m m SB 988 80 m 188 MS HP SIR Hi 91 BP
KS as
td
as
ggg
fiB an as m
m m|I H
H
r^□L
■i 1
P Pm gj rnrn ■ ■■ _j _ bw
Layer 3 SI ■
Bit S3 i
mi I ■■
| —r ■ m
^p
fm m m 8K m BBS
m
ULd
con
wj ms m
7
ras m
m PH PH PH ^P Hi
n■ ■■
as m ssst m a®
^P ^P Hi! iH mi
1888 m wa HI
Hi m ^P HP Hi
EBH
1I11i11111i11iII1ii111111i11ii1 11Il
Fig. 3-102. A four-pole concentric winding with each group containing two coils.
The inside coils of each group share the slot.
Figures 3-100; 3-101; 3-102

Slot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Layer 1
wmmmi
Layer 2 san WAYSSA mu
Layer 3
iisalilliBEiiBimiiSL,
Fig. 3-103. A four-pole, concentric winding with two coils per group. This pattern
has an empty slot on each side of the outer coil of each group. The inside coils share the
slot.
Slot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Layer 1
^^^B ^^BITUT ^^55 5SKK 751^1 BPV ^^^B m ^ ~. • m m t ** * • M * a ^^^B ****?. wmmm ^^^B **** 1
Layer 2 \MM/£Y//A
V/ay/aya'/. •Y/AY/AYAA V/AY/AY//A Y///Y/AY//AA
Layer 3
Fig. 3-104. A four-pole, concentric winding with three coils per group, all sharing
the slot.
Slot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Layer 1 W<m!im^^mmmYA
\y//Y//Y/////Y///Y/AY//ASi
Layer 2
RVAYAYY/Y/Y/YYY/YYAYY/Ai
Fig. 3-105. A straight-line diagram of a four-pole, consequent-pole winding.
Figures 3-103; 3-104; 3-105

CHHH0 Phase A ( Y/Z/////A ) Phase B C ) Phase C
Fig. 3-106. A circular diagram of a six-coil group, four-pole, consequent pole wind¬
ing, showing where the coils are placed in the stator.
Figures 3-106; 3-107a

B B
l wmb hh&b gSSBHI

.——« > <• <»-< > <
Fig. 3-107b. A four-pole, consequent-pole, two-wye connection.
Fig. 3-107c. A four-pole, consequent-pole, one- and two-wye connection.
Figures 3-107b; 3-107c; 3-107d

T, T, t2
> —>
■mm i. i...
«** *-
t2 T,
Fig. 3-107e. A four-pole, consequent-pole, two-delta connection. Like numbers are

joined and brought out of the motor on one lead.
Slot
A Sec. 1
A Sec. 2
B Sec. 1
B Sec. 2
C Sec. 1
C Sec. 2
Fig. 3-108. A four-pole concentric winding with each group split into two sections.
Each section is a circuit when connected, as in Fig. 3-109.
Figures 3-107e; 3-107f; 3-108

Fig. 3-109. A four-pole, concentric winding, with each coil group split into two sec¬
tions. It is connected for a part-winding start and is two wye.
lipi
End of Phase A
4
k
T, Start of Phase A
Fig. 3-110a. Phase A connections, starting at the six o’clock position and proceeding
to the right in a counterclockwise direction.
Figures 3-109; 3-110a

Fig. 3-110b. Start of the B phase at 120° tp the right of the start of the A phase.
This is the first coil located to the right of center or the 90° spot of the A phase and is
connected at the same polarity as the first coil of the A phase.
Start of
Phase C
120° from
start of Phase B
Center of
Phase B
at 90°
from start
Wye of
Phase A
Start of
Phase B
Wye or end of
Phase C
Wye of Phase B
Fig. 3-110c. Start of the C phase at 120° to the right of the start of the B phase.
This is the first coil located to the right of center or the 90° spot of the B phase and is
connected at the same polarity as is the first coil of the B phase.
Figures 3-110b; 3-110c

Figures 3-111; 3-112

Fig. 3-113. A continuous wind¬

ing head for small concentric coil
groups. This head winds one com¬
plete phase with no connections be¬
tween groups.
Fig. 3-114. (a) shows a four-pole, one- and two-delta connection with two groups
fastened to Tr Tv and 7^ and one group to each of the rest, (b) is a four-pole, two- and
four-delta connection with four groups fastened to 7^, Tv and Tv and two groups each to
the rest of the leads.
Fig. 3-115. (a) shows a four-pole, one- and two-wye connection with one group
fastened to each lead and one-wye point, (b) is a four-pole two- and four-wye connection
with two groups fastened to each lead and six groups tied together, forming two wyes.
Figures 3-113; 3-114; 3-115

Fig. 3-116a. A 12-lead schematic, sometimes used for a part-winding start.
2A: 220 Volts
L,: 1,7,6,12
L2- 2,8,4,10
L3: 3,9,5,11 L3
1 A: 440 Volts
7*i L'
Together
L,: 1,12 4,7
L2: 2,10 5,8
L3: 3,11 6,9
1Y: 760 Volts 7*i L

Together
Lx: 1 4,7
ro
5,8
ro
L3- 3 6,9
10,11,12
Fig. 3-116b. The voltage connections possible with a 12-lead motor.
Figures 3-116a; 3—116b

Figures 3-117; 3-118a

^53
Fig. 3-118b. A four-pole concentric winding that is consequent pole. This winding
also has six coil groups, like the two-pole winding.
T, T-j
Terminal markings 9 lead star (b)
Step Tie Together
t4t5t6
t,t7 T ,T« t4t5t6
Connector Table
Fig. 3-119a and b. Nine-lead wye connected part-winding motor. This connection can
be used on any nine-lead dual-voltage motor.
Figures 3—118b; 3-119

Ty
Terminal markings - 9 lead delta
b bB T le T ogether Step
BBB Tie Together
1
1231BO 1
B BBOBO^^22
2
22^9^3 2
29^23^2^^2 BQBBIO t4t8
Fig. 3-120a. Two methods of connecting a nine-lead delta part-winding motor.
Step 2 3
1 T, T7 T12 "*"2 t4 t10 "*"5 Tg
2 "*"l "*"7 "*"l2 "i~6 ~^2 "*"4 T10 T8 "*"5 Tg Tn T3
Fig. 3-120b. A 12-lead, delta motor connection for a 2A part-winding start. The out¬
side arrows indicate the windings energized in the first step, and the inside arrows are the
windings energized on the second step.
Figures 3-120a; 3-120b

Fig. 3-121. A six-lead, four-pole, long jumper, two-wye connection that can be used
for a part-winding start.
Fig. 3-122. A 12-lead, four-pole, long jumper, one- and two-delta connection that
can be used as part winding start for Vi or winding. This connection can also be used
as wye start, delta run (wye-delta), and one and two wye.
Figures 3-121; 3-122; 3-123a

Figures 3-123b; 3-123c; 3-124a

Ty
One circuit of a 9 lead

delta connected motor
Fig. 3-124b. Measuring resistances with ohmmeter resistance between T9 and T4 = 2

times that of T9 and 7j\
3 phase
Operate motor on 3 phase 230-volts _ __ _

Connect T4 to T7 and measure
voltage between T, and T2
Fig. 3-124c. Connecting circuits to their proper phases.
Figures 3—124b; 3-124c; 3-125

Fig. 3-126. The polarity of the A phase of a consequent-pole, two-speed, constant-

torque motor connected for low speed. All four poles have the same polarity, and so
eight poles will form in the stator.
Fig. 3-127. The polarity of the A phase of a constant-torque motor when connected
two wye for high speed. All one-winding, two-speed motors are connected long jumper.
Fig. 3-128. Phase A connected series-delta for eight-pole operation. The current
flows through the groups in the direction of the arrows. This type of motor will have the
same torque at both speeds.
Figures 3-126; 3-127; 3-128

a) Four-pole b) Eight-pole
Fig. 3-129. A two speed, constant-torque schematic connected for (a) high speed,
four poles, and two wye and (b) for low speed, eight poles, and one delta. The arrows
show the path from L{ to Lr
Fig. 3-130b. Phase B of a constant-torque motor connected one delta for low speed.
Fig. 3-130c. Phase C of a constant-torque motor, connected one delta for low speed.
Figures 3-129; 3—130a; 3-130b; 3-130c

Fig. 3-130d. A four- and eight-pole constant-torque motor connected for low speed.
T4, T5, and T6 are separately insulated for this connection.
Insulate
Speed Li L2 L3 Separately Tie Together
Low T, t2 t3 t4t6t6
High t6 t4 t6 t,t2t3
Schematic for a 4 and 8 pole

constant torque motor.
Fig. 3-130e. A four-pole, constant-torque two-speed motor. The parallel-star (2Y)

connection is used for high-speed operation; the series-delta for low-speed operation. 7’,
T5, T6 to line; T{, T2, T2 connected together, for high speed. Tv Tv to line; T4, T$, T6 not
connected, for low speed.
Fig. 3-131a. Phase A of a one-delta, four-pole motor.
Figures 3-130d; 3-130e; 3-13 la

Fig. 3-131b. Phase A of a constant-horsepower, one-delta, two-wye, four- and eight-

pole motor connected four poles, one delta.
Fig. 3-131c. Phase A of a constant-horsepower, one-delta, two-wye, four- and eight-

pole motor connected eight poles, two wye.
a) Four-poles b) Eight-poles
Fig. 3-132. A two-speed, constant-horsepower schematic diagram, connected (a) for

high speed, four poles, and series-delta and (b) for low speed, eight poles, and two wye.
Figures 3—131b; 3—131c; 3-132

Fig. 3-133a. Phase A of a constant-horsepower motor, connected one delta and four
pole, for high speed.
Fig. 3-133b. Phase B of a constant-horsepower motor, connected one delta for high
speed.
Fig. 3-133c. Phase C of a constant-horsepower motor, connected one delta for high
speed.
Fig. 3-133d. A four- and eight-pole constant-horsepower motor, connected one delta
for high speed. T, Tv and T2 are separately insulated for this connection.
Figures 3-133a; 3-133b; 3-133c; 3-133d

Fig. 3-134a. A two- and four-pole,

constant-torque motor. The center lead con¬
nects to the left lead of the remaining group,
making it the same polarity. This doubles
the poles, making the one-delta connection
for low speed with four poles.
Fig. 3-134b. A two- and four-pole,

constant-horsepower motor. The center lead
connects to the right lead of the remaining
group, making it the opposite polarity.
When this connection is one delta, the
motor will be for high speed with two poles.
Fig. 3-135a. Phase A of a constant-torque motor. The center lead connects to the
group to the left or back to the group adjacent to the starting group of the phase. When
this four- and eight-pole connection is one delta, it will have eight poles.
Figures 3-134a; 3-134b; 3-135a

Fig. 3-135b. Phase A of a constant-horsepower motor. The center lead connects to

the adjacent group to the right, as it would with a normal long jumper motor. When this
four- and eight-pole connection is one delta, it will have four poles.
Fig. 3-136a. A six- and 12-pole, constant-torque motor. The center lead connects to
the left lead of the group adjacent to the group that is the start of the phase. When this
six- and 12-pole motor is connected as one delta, it will have 12 poles.
Fig. 3-136b. A six- and 12-pole, constant-horsepower motor. The center lead connects
to the right lead of the group adjacent to it, the same as a normal delta motor is. Con¬
nected as one delta, this six- and 12-pole motor will have 12 poles.
Figures 3—135b; 3-136a; 3-136b

Fig. 3-137. A four-speed constant-torque motor consisting of a four- and eight-pole

winding and a six- and 12-pole winding. The idle winding must be opened to prevent cir¬
culating currents induced from the energized winding.
Figures 3-137; 3-138

Fig. 3-140b. Phase B of a variable-torque motor connected one wye for low speed.
Figures 3-139; 3-140a; 3—140b; 3-140c

Fig. 3-140d. A variable-torque four- and eight-pole motor connected one wye for
eight poles and low speed. For high speed, connect ^ to 7^, to Tt 1^ to T5, and connect
Tr Tv and T3 together.
Fig. 3-142. A consequent-pole, eight-pole, three-phase motor, connected one delta. 2^

is used instead of connecting to T3 when this connection is used in a two-winding motor.
Figures 3-140d; 3-141; 3-142

TWO SPEEDS — ONE WINDING TWO SPEEDS — TWO WINDINGS THREE SPEEDS — TWO WINDINGS
Constant Horsepower Constant Torque, Voriable Torque or Constant Horsepower

Constant Horsepower
AA
t4
T3v/vTI
'7f, Te Tb T|2
T2 Ti3
Speed Open Together

Speed 1 Low All Others
1 Low T.. T , T, 1 Low T, T. T, T,„ T,.. T,, 2nd All Others
2 High 2 High | T„ | T,. | T,, | T,. T.. T, 3 High All Others
Constant Torque Constant Torque, Variable Torque or Constant Horsepower
Constant Horsepower
T4
TjvJU
t,Xt, I"
7 t2 Te TI3 TI2
T2 T|3 t|7 Ti2
Speed Open Together
Speed L, L. L Open Together Speed Open 1 Low All Others
1 Low T, T. T, All Others 1 Low T T T T
11, 1 >, 11. 17 2nd T All Others
2 High T, T, T T,. T.. T 2 High Tn.Tn T,.T..T, 3 High All Others
Varioble Torque Constont Torque, Varioble Torque or Constant Horsepower

Constant Horsepower
Il4 T
U
T,Xt2XLt tr _1 s
'3 T7 t2 t,3
Open
All Others
r2
Together
Speed Open Together Speed L, Open

All Others T,4, T, „ TIC, Tn
1 Low All Others - 1 Low Ti 1, T1 *, T, 1
All Others
2 High T1, T T, 2 High T..T..T, T,
Constant Torque
XA
t5 t2 t6 T,3 1,2
l3 Open
All Others
nil
5 All Others
r
1 \ All Others
Fig. 3-143. Connections for multispeed squirrel cage motors. (Allen-Bradley Co.)
First half Second half

1 2 3 1 2 3
A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C ABC
N S _N_ S_ N S N S N S N _S_ N S N S N S
2 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3
Fig. 3-144. The odd-pole group distribution of a six-pole, 48-slot motor.
Figures 3-143; 3-144

1 2 1 2
A B C A B C A B C A B C
N S N S N S N S N S N s
5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4— short jumper
5 4 5 4 5 4 4 5 4 5 4 5—long jumper
Fig. 3-145. Distribution of a four-pole, 54-slot motor showing both short jumper
and long jumper arrangements.
1 _2___ 1 2
ABC ABC ABC ABC
N S N 5 N S N S N 5 N S
7 6X 7 6 7 6 7 X6 7 6 7 6—short jumper
7 6X 7 6 7 6 6X 7 6 7 6 7—long jumper
Fig. 3-146. Distribution of a four-pole, 80-slot motor showing both short and long
jumper arrangments. The X indicates a dead coil location.
Fig. 3-147. The sine wave as it would compare with two full spanned coils in the
flattened slots of a four-pole, 36-slot stator. One tooth = 20°.
Figures 3-145; 3-146; 3-147

Fig. 3-148. A ball-bearing illustra¬

tion showing the components. (SNR)
Fig. 3-149. One style of bearing

puller.
Fig. 3-150. A ball-bearing heater

used to install ball bearings.
Fig. 3-151. Tubes made for driving

or pressing ball bearings onto the shaft
of an electric motor.
Figures 3-148; 3-149; 3-150; 3-151

Fig. 3-153. To reverse the direction of rotation, interchange any two motor leads.
Fig. 3-154. Testing a polyphase

3 motor for grounds.
Figures 3-152; 3-153; 3-154

Fig. 3-155. Testing a series-wye motor to locate the grounded phase. T2 has the
highest amp reading, showing the C phase to be grounded.
Fig. 3-156. Testing the C phase of a series-wye-connected motor to locate the end
closer to the grounded coil.
Figures 3-155; 3-156

To frame
Test leads
No ''9^1.
_Light
Y point
HI
— Ground to frame
Fig. 3-157. Locating the grounded group with a test light by opening splices.
25 amps
s\
Test panel
' /
Phase B /
Phase A /
/ *
Fig. 3-158.Testing a series-delta motor to locate the grounded phase. T2 has the
highest amp reading, and Tj’ is second highest, showing the ground to be in the A phase
close to T.
Figures 3-157; 3-158

T-i
Fig. 3-159. Testing a one- and two-wye motor to locate the grounded phase. Ts has
the highest amp reading, showing the C phase to be grounded.
7*1
Fig. 3-160. Testing a one- and two-delta motor to locate the grounded phase. T2 has
the highest amp reading, and Tn is second highest showing the ground to be in the A
phase close to Tr
Figures 3-159; 3-160

Open group
Phase A
Test light
V / . N
Phase B Phase C
Fig. 3-161. Locating the open phase with a test light.
A Open group-
Test light
Fig. 3-162. Locating the open group with a test light.
Phase A test 5 amps
Open group
Phase B Phase A
Current flow
Phase C
Fig. 3-163a. Using the limited current method to find the open phase in a delta con
nection. The open phase will have the lower amp reading.
Figures 3-161; 3-162; 3-163a

Fig. 3-163b. Using the limited current test to find the open phase of a delta-
connected motor. More current will flow when testing across the good phases than across
the open phase.
c)
Fig. 3-163c. Locating the open group in the A phase of a delta-connected motor us¬
ing the limited current method. The current in test 1 is high because it goes through only
one group. The current in test 2 goes through most of the groups and is low.
Figures 3—163b; 3-163c

Opened delta connection
Finding open winding with test light. Delta connection must be opened
Fig. 3-164.
at the leads when using test light for this test.
Opened delta connection

T2
✓ Open group
_/_t_
l_
c RHHMEH
o
CO
<
tami| 1 ■HMjHSa
Test leads
1 ?db Li.
/
/
/ 1 Light / 2 No light / 3 No light / 4 No light
_/_^_
Fig. 3-165. How to find an open group with a test light on a delta connection.
Figures 3-164; 3-165; 3-166

Fig. 3-167. Applying limited cur¬

rent to a winding to determine the
open phase in a two-wye motor. The
open phase will draw less current.
Fig. 3-168. Applying limited cur¬

rent to a winding to determine the
open phase in a two-delta motor. The
open phase will draw less current.
The direction of current flow is ex¬
plained in Figs. 3-163a and b.
Fig. 3-169. Locating the open circuit of the A phase with a clip-on ammeter and
limited current.
Figures 3-167; 3-168; 3-169

Fig. 3-170. The use of an internal

growler to locate a shorted coil.
Fig. 3-171. Testing a one-wye winding using the balance method. The readings mean
that the A phase may have a short.
Fig. 3-172. Testing a one-delta winding using the balance method. The readings
mean that the A phase may have a short.
Figures 3-170; 3-171; 3-172

Fig. 3-173a. Using the balance test on a one- and two-wye winding to locate shorts.
Tests 1, 2, and 3 should have the same amp reading. Tests 4, 5, and 6 will read lower but
should all be the same. If tests 4 and 6 are higher than test 5, the short will be in the A
phase.
t8t5
Fig. 3-173b. Using the balance test on a one- and two-delta winding to locate shorts.
All tests should have the same amp reading. A higher reading on any test may mean a
short.
Figures 3-I73a; 3-173b

Compass needle
A B c A B c
*77777?, ./
The correct method of

Fig. 3-174.
<=£> O o
A
connecting a three-phase, two-pole star 1
(wye) motor is indicated by the compass R _1
needle.
f- -4Ih i
f- Compass needle
A B C A B C Fig. 3-176. An incorrect connection

of phase B. Reverse this phase.
Fig. 3-177. Testing a fuse with a test

lamp.
Figures 3-174; 3-175; 3-176; 3-177

Switch
closed
Volt meter
Fig. 3-178. Testing for blown fuses

with a voltmeter. If the fuse is blown,
there will be a voltage reading.
4 1 4
Fig. 3-179. A star-connected motor

with burned-out fuse in one phase. Cur¬
rent through the other two phases will
overload the coils and burn them out.
o n
Figures 3-178; 3-179; 3-180

Fig. 3-181. Lift the shaft up and

down. Movement indicates worn bearing
of shaft.
Fig. 3-182. A feeler gauge, which

has thin metal strips of different
thickness.
Fig. 3-183. The air gap should be the same around the entire motor. This is checked
with a feeler gauge.
Motor belt-
Fig. 3-184. Disconnect belt and try
to move load in order to see if load is
Load
free to turn.
Figures 3-181; 3-182; 3-183; 3-184

Line
Switch closed
Fig. 3-185. Snap around ammeter

used to determine current in each line.
Fuses
Switch
closed
Fig. 3-186. The ball bearing should rotate around the core of the stator if internal
connections are correct.
Figures 3-185; 3-186

CHAPTER 4
Alternating-current Motor Control
Fig. 4-1. A wiring diagram of a standard START-STOP pushbutton station. (Allen-

Bradley Co.)
Fig. 4-2. A line diagram of a START-STOP pushbutton station. (.Allen-Bradley Co.)
Figures 4-1; 4-2

210 ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTOR CONTROL
Figures 4-3; 4-4

Fig. 4-6. Types of manual starters. (Furnas Electric Co.)
Figures 4-5; 4-6

^-i L2 L3
Fig. 4-7. A magnetic across-the-line starter connected to a three-phase motor. This is

an older starter with two overload relays.
Figures 4-7; 4-8

Relay and Contactor Motors and

Auxiliary Contacts Contacts Push Buttons
Indicating Lights
V'X
Indicating light
T
Single circuit Indicate color by
Normally open Normally open normally open letter symbol
O 1 Q
7^ %
Single circuit
Normally closed Normally closed normally closed
Three phase
Q 1 Q
T.O.
O O
-if-
Timed open Double circuit Single phase
Overload relay
Non-reversing
Timer Contacts Miscellaneous ^—s. Main

T.C.
Timed closed
Y
Time Delay -am- Start
Single Voltage
On Energization Power or control Single phase reversing
Magnetic Coils
Normally Open circuit fuse
T
Time Delay
Dual Voltage On Energization
Magnetic Coils Normally Closed
High voltage
Y
Time Delay
On De-Energization
Normally Open
Low voltage
oyo
lYxU
Time Delay
On De-Energization Control transformer
Normally Closed Dual voltage Wye-Delta
Fig. 4-9. Wiring diagram symbols.
Figure 4-9
Fig. 4-10. Magnetic starter for a three-phase motor. (.Allen-Bradley Co.)
Reset
Lever
Fig. 4-lla. Bimetallic overload relay. {Furnas Electric Co.)
Figures 4-10; 4-lla

o Contacts
o Rosot Arm
e Hootor
o Bimotallic Strip
o Adjustment Knob
Fig. 4-llb. Bimetallic overload relay. {General Electric Co.)
Trip indicator
Reset
* m
Normally closed contact
opens on overload to in¬
Heater coil terrupt coil voltage
Solder pot ratchet

engages pawl of
spring loaded re¬
setter
Fig. 4-12. Melting alloy overload relay. {Furnas Electric Co.)
Figures 4-llb; 4-12

0. L. O.L. O.L.
0—IHHt
REMOTE PILOT
SEPARATE CONTROL
DEVICES REMOVE WIRE "C" WHEN IT IS
SUPPLIED. CONNECT SEPARATE
2 WIRE CONTROL CONTROL LINES TO THE NO.I
TERMINAL ON THE REMOTE PILOT
DEVICE AND THE "X2" TERMINAL
ON THE OVERLOAD RELAY.
NOT FOR USC WITH AUTO.

RESET O.L. RELAYS
3 WIRE CONTROL
OVERLOAD RELAY
FOR 3 COIL OVERLOAD PROTECTION,
REMOVE JUMPER "B" AND MOUNT
THE APPROPRIATE HEATER COIL.
WHEN MORE THAN ONE

PUSHBUTTON STATION
IS USED, OHIT CON¬
NECTOR "A" AND CON¬
NECT PER SKETCH BELOW.
F»TART~1 rs'»«n
r\l Fig. 4-13b.
{Cutler-Hammer)
Three-phase starter.
STOP -1*1 sTOP I
MOTOR
—
Figures 4-13a; 4—13b

Wiring Dia&ra ni Elementary Diagram
Fig. 4-18. Three-pole, three-phase

starter with external two or three wire
control. {Square D Co.)
Figures 4-16; 4-17; 4-18

LI L2 L3
Fig. 4-19. Three-phase starter with three-coil thermal O.L. relay and step down con¬
trol transformer in control circuits. {Cutler-Hammer)
Figures 4-19; 4-20

Wiring Diagram Elementary Diagram
I -2 WIRE CONTROL
3 WIRE •IF
.1 irustD
CONTROL
IT
START ! M OL
STOP 2
2 WIRE L!->■—r|l B-
CONTROL
l2—"j—0Z3
Tl T2 T3 L3—^-(O
(MOTORll
Fig. 4-21. Combination starters with fusible disconnect switch. (Square D Co.)
Wiring Diagram Elementary Diagram
LI L 2
0
T3
with thermal magnetic circuit breaker. {Square D

Co.)
Figures 4-21; 4-22

Figures 4-23; 4-24; 4-25

Free Depressed
Run Motor
O ^ 0*0 X-
J°V-\
Xo o
°l° °1°
“
Selector switch operation
Fig. 4-26. A START-JOG-STOP station with selector push button, connected to a

magnetic switch.
Stop
Jog ( Run
Fig. 4-27. START-JOG-STOP station with selector push button.
Position
Fig. 4-28. Jogging with push-turn selector switch.
Figures 4-26; 4-27; 4-28

z.1 l2
Fig. 4-29. Jogging with a selector switch.
Fig. 4-30. Control circuit with JOG-RUN selector switch.
Fig. 4-31. A panel of a station in

which the START button can be used for
inching or jogging.
^-1 1-2 Z-3
Fig. 4-32. Magnetic switch with

JOG-RUN selector switch.
Figures 4-29; 4-30; 4-31; 4-32

Ly L2 L3
Fig. 4-33. A magnetic switch

operated by a START-JOG-STOP station
with a jog-relay attachment.
Start Jog Stop
Contacts
Fig. 4-34. An elementary diagram of Fig. 4-33.
LI L2 L3
Fig. 4-35. A jog relay connected to a magnetic switch.
Figures 4-33; 4-34; 4-35

Z-2 G
Start
Q_U> Jog
Stop
2 —I— 4 N O.L.
“f O O i—{ M } K
Stop
1 ,5 CR IV Start
Fig. 4-36. Control circuits of START-JOG-STOP button connected to a jog relay.
Pilot light
Pilot
Light
Start
Stop
HIMf—
3-Phase>
.Motor J
Fig. 4-37. Push button station with pilot light connected to a three-phase magnetic
starter.
L2 _ ^ 1
Pilot
Start Light
Stop
Q 1 O ! q-Lo
Start
h—Q_l_£>—f
O O
■ O O 1 Stop
J_ |
Pilot Light
I_I
Fig. 4-38. A simple control circuit of a START-STOP station with a pilot light.
Figures 4-36; 4-37; 4-38

Pilot
Light
Start
Stop
Pilot light indicates when motor is not running. Normally closed contact
Fig. 4-39.
M must be added to the starter.
a
Fig. 4-40. Station with pilot light. {Furnas Electric Co.)
Figures 4-39; 4-40

Figures 4-41; 4-42

Stop Rev.| | For
O.L.'s
4 5 2 3
Fig. 4-43. An elementary diagram of Fig. 4-42.
Stop Stop
For.
<H
Stop
Connections for two FORWARD-REVERSE-STOP stations to a reversing

Fig. 4-44.
magnetic switch.
Figures 4-43; 4-44

romukro
Limit Switches (When Used)

MOTOR
Fig. 4-45. Reversing magnetic starter with electrical interlock. (A lien-Bradley Co.)
6 "
Fig. 4-46. Line diagram of control circuits of Fig. 4-45.
"C"
itD ft
D I
Fwd
Rev.
Stop B T6
o o |
Fig. 4-47. A magnetic reversing

switch with electric interlock connected
r , t2\ t3
to a FORWARD-REVERSE-STOP sta¬ Motor]

tion. (General Electric Co.)
Figures 4-45; 4-46; 4-47

O.L O.L. O.L.

j'O'FLS
tt
JO'RLS
m
Fig. 4-48.Line diagram control circuits of magnetic reversing switch with electric in
terlock. B and C are used if limit switches are not used.
-1
4 !
Fwd.
Rev.
ii
Stop
Fig. 4-49. Two FORWARD-REVERSE-STOP stations connected to fermis immediate

ly reversing without pressing STOP button.
Figures 4-48; 4-49

Figures 4-50; 4-51
3-Phase
k motor i
Fig. 4-52. A magnetic reversing switch in a vertical, instead of a horizontal, position.
Resistance
insulation
Resistance
3-Phase
motor
Fig. 4-53. A manual resistance starter of the rheostat type.
Figures 4-52; 4-53

l3
LI L2 L3
NOMENCLATURE
S- START CONTACTOR
R-RUN CONTACTOR
RA.RB.RC-RESISTORS
TR- PNEUMATIC TIMER
TC - TIME CLOSING CONTACT
NOTE: FOR SEPARATE CONTROL. REMOVE

JUMPERS Jl AND J2
Fig. 4-56. A primary-resistor stator

'-( with pneumatic timer. (General Electric
i Co.)
[ , R
1 '* <S< v
< 3>—1
Figures 4-54; 4-55; 4-56

Fig. 4-57. A secondary-resistance

starter connected to a wound rotor. A
three-pole manual switch is used for the
stator.
Motor
*■ ■' ... --\L/
Fig. 4-58. A resistance starter connected to a magnetic switch.
Resistance
Fig. 4-59. An elementary diagram

of an automatic two-step resistance
Time Delay starter for a wound-rotor motor.
Figures 4-57; 4-58; 4-59

RUN
Fig. 4-60. The simplified wiring diagram of a solid-state, reduced-voltage starter.

(Allen-Bradley Co.)
No current flow
Fig. 4-61. A comparison with the normal sine wave (a) and the sine wave of the
reduced-voltage part of the starting cycle (b).
Figures 4-60; 4-61

Fig. 4-62. The connection of a start

position of a compensator.
Fig. 4-63. Autotransformer type manual starter. (General Electric Co.)
Figures 4-62; 4-63

Figures 4-64; 4-65

Autotransformer
Z-i
Fig. 4-67. A line diagram of a two-

coil, three-phase compensator on START
position. Note the open-delta connection.
Figures 4-66; 4-67

LI L2 L3
Fig. 4-68. Motor and control circuit

of an autotransformer type magnetic
starter. (General Electric Co.)
NOMENCLATURE
S-START CONTACTOR TR-PNEUMATIC TIMER
R-RUN CONTACTOR\MECHANCALLY T.O.-TIME OPENING CONTACT
Y-WYE CONTACTORS INTERLOCKED T.C-TIME CLOSING CONTACT
AT-AUTOTRANSFORMER OL-OVERLOAD RELAY
OTT-OVERTEMPERATURE
THERMOSTAT
NOTE: FOR SEPARATE CONTROL. REMOVE JUMPERS Jl AND J2
Figures 4-68; 4-69

TS 2S O.L. T.S.
Mechanical
/ interlock
TS 2S
T.C.
J Starting transformer
Fig. 4-70. Autotransformer type reduced-voltage magnetic starter.
Fig. 4-71. Each phase of a delta-

connected motor receives the full line
voltage. 208 208
Fig. 4-72. If a delta-connected

[WltlW motor is connected wye, each phase will
receive 58 percent of line voltage.
T ogether
Start T1 (T4 t5t6)
Run ~f.j Tg T2T4 T3T5
Figures 4-70; 4-71; 4-72

st_i_y
Fig. 4-73. A star-delta connection for reduced-voltage starting.
LI L2 L3
NOTE FOP SEPARATE CONTROL. REMOVE JUMPERS Jl ANO J2
Fig. 4-74. Wye delta starter of the open transition type. (General Electric Co.)
Figures 4-73; 4-74

Li L7 L3
Fig. 4-75. Wye-delta magnetic starter. (General Electric Co.)
L1 L 2 L3
Fig. 4-76. Part-winding magnetic starter for wye-connected motor.
Figures 4-75; 4-76

TO SUPPLY
LI L2 L3 Tl
SELECT OVERLOAD HEATER COILS FOR

LINES 50 % OF RATED FULL LOAD MOtOR
<A) (B)
Fig. 4-77. Typical wiring diagrams of two step increment starting. At (Furness Electric)
g: {Cutler Hammer)
LI LS LS
MOTOR LEAD CONNECTIONS
Y Control
Vi Y OR a 6 LEAOS
A
T7
B
T2
c
T3
D
Tl
E
T8
F
T9
Vi Y 9 LEAOSO T7 T2 T3 Tl T8 T9
IM ,2*4
Vi A 9 LEADS 11 Tl T8 T3 T6 T2 T9
Vi Y OR a 6 LEAOS T9 T8 Tl T3 T2 ~1T
%Y 9 LEADSO T9 T8 Tl T3 T2 T7
°LW OLk OLv Vi A 9 LEADSn Tl T4 T9 T6 T2 T3
O Connect terminals 4, 5 and 6 together at motor terminal box.
□ Connect terminals 4 and 8. 5 and 9, 6 and 7 together in three
separate pairs at terminal box.
MOTOR LEAOS
(SEE TABLE Q)
START
STOP OL OL OL OL OL OL
■o o-
—if—if—if— ti¬
.-j
IM
NOMENCLATURE
IM—ACCELERATINQ CONTACTOR
re EM-RUN CONTACTOR
TR-PNEUMATIC TIMER
NOTE: FOR SEPARATE CONTROL. REMOVE JUMPERS Jl ANO J2 TC-TIME CLOSWM CONTACT
OL-OVERLOAD RELAY
Fig. 4-78. Connections for G.E. part-winding starters.
Figures 4-77; 4-78

Wye Connected Motors Delta Connected Motors

T, t9 t7
^3 T, T9 T7
V
T
V
r
2 9
6 leads - delta
T*
9 leads - wye 9 leads - delta
Fig. 4-78. (continued)
Fig. 4-79. A three-phase motor connected to a manual reversing-drum switch for

clockwise rotation.
Fig. 4-80. A drum switch connected to a three-phase motor for counterclockwise

rotation.
Figures 4-78 (con’t.); 4-79; 4-80

ill
f096069K*l
Fig. 4-81. A drum switch for revers

ing a split-phase motor.
IjWWggg
0 Capacitor
Fig. 4-82. A drum switch for revers

ing capacitor-start motor.
INTERNAL
3 PHASE internal connections
MOTOR SWITCH 0 o o o—
o o o o
u o o
Off
i phase capacitor-split phase 1 phase.repulsion-induction motor INSTANTLY REVERSIBLE

a LEADS single phase - single voltage
MOTOR SWITCH MOTOR SWITCH
I -1 Ll LI
MO
i phase,repulsion-induction motor | internal connections
3 LEADS
MOTOR SWITCH , , 0 0 0 o
0—0 0 o 1 l
0—0 0 o 0—0
230 V Off iiS v
0 c. SHUNT 0 c. SERIES OR COMPOUND I llS V -230 V DUAL VOLTAGE -

| NON REVERSING L l
MOTOR SWITCH ft: MOTOR SWITCH
o o
wtO ARMATURE
;oi
u.
l ►- W
X S ui
VI _ 1/1
INTERNAL CONNECTIONS 3 PHASE. 3 WIRE iphase, capacitor-split phase

MOTOR SWITCH MOTOR SWITCH LI
Q—O 0 0 O— Ci o-
C v o o 9 6 a: r I RuN
--' L 2
o—6 o o 6—o 0 O-
POR OPP REV sLo_
i phase, RE pulsion-induction I Phase. REPulSiON-iNOuCTiON
MOTOR ♦ LEAOS MOTOR. 3 LEADS
MOTOR SWITCH | MOTOR SWITCH
O O-1 LI
( 1 O O-
0 0*11 A*
Fig. 4-83. Typical connection diagram of drum switches.
Figures 4-81; 4-82; 4-83

TWO SPEED STARTER FOR THREE

PHASE TWO WINDING MOTOR
TO SUPPLY
LI L2 L3
OL-L
—oo-
OLL
x2 all ol's
_'**__'ll_
TWO WINDING
MOTOR
HIGH
STOP LO* 4 JL. 3 L9,
POSITION IU1U L3 OPEN

LOW SPEED TI |T2l T3 Tl 1, T12, Tl3
HIGH SPEED Tl 1 QQ T13 Tl. T2, T3
Fig. 4-84. A two-speed controller for two sets of three-phase windings.
High
Low
o i o
Fig. 4-85. Two-speed, two-winding full-voltage starter. (Allen-Bradley Co.)
Figures 4-84; 4-85

Motor Terminal
Markings
3 T1^
) cr Low
L O.L. O.L.
Fig. 4-85 (con t.)
High 6r95
1-1
Low
M
T6 OT4 OT5 T1 O T2
Fig. 4-86. Wiring diagram of a two-speed, single-winding, three-phase, squirrel-cage

motor controller for constant torque or for variable torque. (Alien-Bradley Co.)
Figures 4-85; 4-86

CONNECTIONS MADE BY STARTER
Speed Supply Lines Open Together

LI L2 L3
Low T1 T2 T3 T4, 5, 6 None
High T6 T4 T5 None T1, 2, 3
T4 T4
Fig. 4-86. (<continued)
T6
Constant Variable
Torque Torque
LI L2
Figures 4-86 (con’t.); 4-87

T4 Terminal
CONNECTIONS MADE BY STARTER I Markings
Speed Supply Lines Open Together
_LI L2 L3_
Low T1 T2 T3 None T4, 5, 6
High T6 T4 T5 T1, 2, 3 None T2
Constant Horsepower
Stop Hiah Low O.L. O.L.
2 11 3
Fig. 4-88. Wiring diagram of a two-speed constant horsepower consequent pole

motor starter. {Allen-Bradley Co.)
Figure 4-88
3 phase 2 speed
1 winding Constant horsepower
Speed L, Open T ogether

Low T, ,5,6
High El All others
3 phase 2 speed
1 winding Variable torque
Speed Open T ogether Speed Open
Low All others Low All others
High High All others
Fig. 4-90. Two-speed motor connections.
Figures 4-89; 4-90

Fig. 4-90. (continued)
Fig. 4-91. A one-through-15-horsepower, adjustable-frequency controller. (AHen-

Brad ley Co.)
Figures 4-90 (con’t.); 4-91

252
Figure 4-92
Fig. 4-92. Logic board for adjustable-frequency drive. (Allen-Bradley Co.)
ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTOR CONTROL
Figures 4-93; 4-94

Figure 4-95
CHAPTER 5
Direct-current Armature Winding
Fig. 5-1. Different types of dc armatures.
Beginning 2
U ■ ■
jj^j
Coil 1 Coil 2/toil 3 Coil 4 Coil 5 Coil 6 Coil 7 Coil 8 Coil 9
m *14 15 16 7 1*L_LJ> 111

i
Commutator bars—1
Fig. 5-2a. A schematic diagram of a simple loop winding that consists of nine coils
and nine commutator bars. The end lead of each coil and the beginning lead of the next
coil are placed in the same commutator bar. The end lead of the last coil is placed in the
same bar as the beginning lead of the first coil.
Figures 5-1; 5-2a

256 DIRECT-CURRENT ARMATURE WINDING
Commutator
Fig. 5-2b. A circular schematic
Coil 7 Coil 2 diagram showing all the coils of a nine-
coil armature connected to the com¬
mutator bars.
Coil 3
Coil b Coil 4
Fig. 5-3. Slots in the armature into

Slot
which the coils are wound.
^9 1 2^
Insulation in
'8 /O 31
every slot
W
Insulation over shaft
Washers of fiber or insulation paper
Fig. 5-4. In addition to the slot insulation, the insulation shown above is necessary
to protect the winding from grounding.
mm
i/M 9
Fig. 5-5. A small armature can be

held in one hand during winding.
Figures 5-2b; 5-3; 5-4; 5-5

Fig. 5-6. Large armatures are sup

ported by horses during winding.
Fig. 5-7. The start of a loop winding. The entire armature is wound before the
loops are connected to the commutator. Note that the first coil is wound into slots 1 and
5. This is the pitch or span of the coil.
Third coil
slot 2
Fig. 5-8. Steps in winding the coils of a nine-slot armature.
Figures 5-6; 5-7; 5-8

Paper insulation extends
Fiber pressing insulation

into slot Wooden Wedges
Fig. 5-9. A method of folding insulation into slot and locking it in place with a
wooden wedge.
Cord ^Cord
D D 0 0 0 0 0,0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,0 0
i Slot Bar., 1
Slot rBar
X 1 M 1 1 1 T JJ rn i ill
Fig. 5-10. A simple method of determining the alignment of slot and commutator
bar.
Figures 5-9; 5-10

Fig. 5-11. Three conditions of lead

swing.
rnf m I ul ini I
Slot No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fig. 5-12. A two-coil-per-slot wind¬

ing with short and long loops for
identification. Beg. of
coil
oil
First_
loop
Fig. 5-13. A loop armature having

twice as many loops as slots after four
coils have been wound.
Figures 5-11; 5-12; 5-13

Coil 1 Coil 2 Coil 3
Fig. 5-14. A simplex lap winding in

which the start and end of a coil are
connected to adjacent bars.
Fig. 5-15. In a duplex lap winding, Coil 1 Coil 2 Coil 3 Coil 4 Coil 5 Coil 6
the end lead of each coil is connected
two bars away from the beginning lead.
Start of coil 1 End of coil 1
Coil 1 Coil 2 Coil 3 Coil 4 Coil 5 Coil 6 Coil 7
Fig. 5-16. In a triplex lap winding, the end lead of each coil is connected three bars
away from the beginning lead.
Fig. 5-17. A lap winding with one

coil per slot has the beginning and end
of the same coil connected to adjoining
bars. The loops are connected to the
commutator bars in succession.
I LEnd of first coil \ Each loop consists the

Beginning of first coil ' end of a coil and tl be-
ginning of the next
Fig. 5-18. A lap winding with two

coils per slot. The beginning and end of
each coil is connected to adjoining bars.
Figures 5-14; 5-15; 5-16; 5-17; 5-18

Fig. 5-19. A lap winding of one coil

per slot with beginning leads in place.
Beginning leads placed in End lead of each coil

bars as each coil is wound is left up until entire
armature is wound
Fig. 5-20. A lap winding of one coil

per slot after the end leads are placed in
the commutator bars.
Coil 1 and 2-i

Coil 5 and 6-i
Coil 3 and 4
Coil 7 and 8 \
Fig. 5-21. A method of winding an
armature having two coils per slot. The
bottom or beginning leads are placed in
the commutator bars as each coil is
wound. The top leads are placed in the
Short and long leads bars after the armature is wound.
for identification
TTTriTfrr it ri 1111
Fig. 5-22. The connections after the

top leads are placed in the bars to pro¬
duce a simplex lap winding with two
coils in each slot.
Bottom leads placed Top leads placed
into bars when each into bars after all
coil is wound coils are wound
Figures 5-19; 5-20; 5-21; 5-22

Test leads
Bottom ^
leads ~/// leads
Top side of first five coils

are left out until slot has
bottom coil side
Coil pitch 1-6 _. |
2 coils per slot
Commutator-
of coil
Fig. 5-25. A lap winding with two coils
Fig. 5-26. In a lap winding leads

face each other and are connected to ad¬
jacent bars.
Figures 5-23; 5-24; 5-25; 5-26

Fig. 5-27. In a wave winding, leads

face away from one another and must be
a definite number of commutator bars
apart.
Fig. 5-28. Lead connections for a four-pole, 49-bar armature. According to the for-
mular, the leads should be 24 bars apart; hence, they are placed in bars 1 and 25.
Fig. 5-29. A simplex progressive lap

End winding. The current flows in a
lead clockwise direction.
..
Fig. 5-30. A retrogressive lap wind¬

ing. The leads cross one another even
though they are connected to adjacent
bars. The current flows in a Beg. lead
counterclockwise direction.
End lead—+A
Jilpi ll i ii
Figures 5-27; 5-28; 5-29; 5-30

Fig. 5-32. A simplex, retrogressive

lap winding.
Fig. 5-33. A four-pole, simplex, progressive wave winding with a commutator pitch
of 1 and 13. The current travels through two coils before reaching the bar adjacent to the
start.
Figures 5-31; 5-32; 5-33

Fig. 5-34. A four-pole, simplex, retrogressive wave winding with a commutator pitch
of 1 and 12.
Fig. 5-35. A four-pole, simplex, progressive wave winding with a commutator pitch
of 1 and 13.
Fig. 5-36. A four-pole, simplex, retrogressive wave winding with a commutator pitch
of 1 and 12.
Fig. 5-37. Two coils of a progressive

lap winding.
Figures 5-34; 5-35; 5-36; 5-37

1 2 24 25
Fig. 5-39. Wave-wound coils.
45 "T 2 24 " 25 45- “3

1 1 2
Fig. 5-40. A progressive wave winding, two coils per slot.
1-* t- 2 23-* t 24 45-J ' 1
Fig. 5-41. A retrogressive wave winding, two coils per slot.
Figures 5-38; 5-39; 5-40; 5-41

Fig. 5-43c. A circular diagram of a six-pole, wave-wound armature.
File or punch
marks
Fig. 5-44. Pitch and lead data of a

lap winding may be marked on the
armature.
i i i-i-i i Min i Trim
Coil File or punch

lap winding marked at the slots and bars
of one particular coil.

wave winding marked at the slots and
bars of a particular coil.
Figures 5-43c; 5-44; 5-45; 5-46

Fig. 5-47. A tool for cutting slots in commutator bars.
First hit blade down so Next hit blade on the side.

that teeth will dig into Both the blade and the
wooden or fiber wedge wedge will come out
Fig. 5-48. Method of removing

wedges from armature or stator slots.
Commutator
Fig. 5-49. Measurements to be taken

before removing commutator.
Fig. 5-50. Soldering leads to the commutator. The soldering iron is held slightly
above the horizontal.
Figures 5-47; 5-48; 5-49; 5-50

Fig. 5-51. Holding the iron vertically prevents the solder from spanning two bars.
1. Start of the cord band 2. Eight turns of

the cord band
free end
5. The end of the cord is brought

through the loop and pulled
underneath the cord band
Fig. 5-52. A method of winding a cord band on an armature.
Figures 5-51; 5-52

Figures 5-53; 5-54

Fig. 5-55. Armature mounted on balancing ways. {Crown Industrial Products)
Figures 5-55; 5-56; 5-57

Fig. 5-58. Testing the winding for

grounds before the leads have been con¬
nected to the commutator.
Commutator
Shaft
Fig. 5-59. Testing the completed ar¬
mature for grounds after the leads have
been connected to the commutator.
Test
leads
To line
Fig. 5-60. The coil may contact the

iron core due to torn or improperly cut
slot insulation.
Leads placed under cord

Fig. 5-61. A variable resistance is
placed in series with the line in order to Variable resistance
AWWWA/WW
obtain a normal deflection on the meter.
To line Cord tied around

commutator
Low voltage DC
Figures 5-58; 5-59; 5-60; 5-61

Fig. 5-62. Lamps placed in series

with 115 volts of direct current to supply
current to the armature for testing.
Switches 1, 2, 3, and 4 may be connected
in the circuit, depending on the armature
tested and the amount of current Lamps
necessary.
To line / / { \ Switches
Fig. 5-63. Testing an armature for

grounds. One meter lead is moved from
bar to bar until the lowest reading is in¬
dicated on the meter. The grounded coil
is connected to this bar.
Figures 5-62; 5-63; 5-64; 5-65

Laminated
C0Vl
Fig. 5-66. A growler consisting of a
laminated core on which a coil of wire is
wound.
To line
120 Volts^J/
A.C.
Coil insulated from core
Fig. 5-67. An armature in position

on a growler for test purposes.
To line
120 Volts*"—
A.C.
Armature placed in growler for testing purposes
Fig. 5-68. The growler test to deter

mine the location of a grounded coil.
Growler consists of a
laminated core on which
a coil of wire is wound
Figures 5-66; 5-67; 5-68

This lead disconnected from bar
Fig. 5-69. Locating a grounded coil

by the trial method. The leads are
disconnected on opposite sides of the
commutator, and in this case, the bottom
half of the armature will test grounded.
Fig. 5-70. Disconnect a lead in the

center of the grounded group and test in
which quarter grounded coil is located.
Grounded coil leads are removed

■from the commutator and the
4 two bars shorted with a piece of wire
rmrm TJTi (W
i i I 1.„JLZJ I 1 I
Fig. 5-71. Schematic diagram showing how a grounded coil is disconnected from the
commutator.
Fig. 5-72. Disconnecting a grounded

coil from a loop winding.
Figures 5-69; 5-70; 5-71; 5-72

Fig. 5-73. Disconnecting a grounded

coil from a lap winding.
1 I II 111 I 1II
This coil is grounded
Leads from grounded coil-

are lifted from bars and a
jumper put in its place
Fig. 5-74. Disconnecting a grounded coil from a wave winding.
Hack-saw blade

shorts by placing a hack-saw blade over 1 II .
1 -III
.
. . M.
i
the top slot. i ;ii'
lr
■ :'ii;1.. v,
i: i:;
Growler
H
L !i
h . • t
: i |i'
•
lull' 'll _
Fig. 5-76. Using an internal growler to locate shorted coils in an armature.
Figures 5-73; 5-74; 5-75; 5-76

Fig. 5-77. An external growler. This is used for testing armatures for shorts, opens
and grounds (Crown Industrial Products)
Lamps
shorted coils by using the bar-to-bar test.
A shorted coil will be indicated by a low
or zero reading on the meter.
To line
Coil cut at this point
Fig. 5-79. Cutting the shorted coil

and connecting a jumper between the
two bars connected to the coil.
i u i♦ i i
Jumper put into
these bars
Coil cut here
Fig. 5-80. Cutting out a shorted coil

on a form-wound armature.
Jumper
I I I I'l'I'IVI I I I
Figures 5-77; 5-78; 5-79; 5-80

Fig. 5-81. Cutting out a shorted coil

on a four-pole wave winding.
9 Jumper 17
Fig. 5-82. Cutting out a shorted coil on a wave winding.
Fig. 5-83. A method of locating an open coil. The meter will not show a reading
until it bridges bars 6 and 7. The meter completes the circuit from positive to negative.
Fig. 5-84. A method of jumping

out an open coil on a lap winding.
Fig. 5-85. A method of repairing a

wave-wound armature having an open
coil.
Figures 5-81; 5-82; 5-83; 5-84; 5-85

An open will also be indicated A jumper could be placed here
that test open on the meter
Fig. 5-86. A quick method of closing an open on a four-pole wave winding.
Fig. 5-87. If two bars are shorted

with a piece of wire, a small spark in¬
dicates a complete circuit through the
coil.
Note
spark
Wire
Fig. 5-88. Loops placed in wrong

bars.
Fig. 5-89. A test of a loop winding

for reversed coils. Between bars 3 and 4
the meter will indicate a reversed reading;
between bars 2 and 3 a double reading;
between bars 4 and 5 a double reading.
All others will be normal.
Figures 5-86; 5-87; 5-88; 5-89

Bar magnet moved over coil
Fig. 5-90. A method of testing for

reversed coils by running a bar magnet
over each coil and noting the meter
needle. When the reversed coil is reached,
the needle will reverse.
Fig. 5-91. Test for a reversed coil by

using a compass. The armature is turned
slowly until the reversed coil is alongside
the compass. The needle will reverse at
this point.
of slot
Iron shell Tightening nut
Fig. 5-92. A typical commutator.
Slots
for
leads
Back
end
V cut
Figures 5-90; 5-91; 5-92; 5-93

.Tightening nut
ron ring
Mica V ring
Front
V ring
Commutator
Commutator
bar
bars
Mica
insulation
between
bars
Back V ring with mica

inner and outer rings
for insulation
Fig. 5-94. A commutator with a portion removed to show section and assembly.
Front
V ring
with mica
insulation
Commutator
bar
Iron shell
with mica
insulation
Back
V ring
with mica
insulation
Fig. 5-95. A commutator with half the bars removed and the front and back V ring
in place.
Figures 5-94; 5-95

End of iron shell

threaded
Commutator -
bar
Iron shell
with mica
insulation
Back V ring
with mica insulation
Fig. 5-96. A commutator with the front V ring and half the bars removed.
Threaded
Iron shell
attached to
back V ring
Iron shell
This is insulated with
several layers of paper Mica
or mica insulation insulation
Inner
mica ring
Outer
mica ring
Iron V ring
Portion removed
to show section
Fig. 5-97. A back V ring with shell attached to iron core.
Figures 5-96; 5-97

f
Tightening nut
lron ring
Mica
Outer
mica ring
l_ Inner
mica ring
Portion removed
to show section
Threaded to Fig. 5-98. A front V ring and

match iron shell tightening nut.
•-Tightening nut
Iron ring
Outer
mica ring
nner
mica ring
Sheet of mica
Fig. 5-99. The mica sheet marked

off into small strips of mica.
Bar
r—J
-Use hack-saw to
cut along dotted
^ line
6 strips
\3 t-Cm, of mica
Fig. 5-100. Rectangular strips of
Vise jaws mica stacked between two commutator
bars and placed in a vise before being
iA | W
\i\ Lvif1
[1 riii"
U i| ii
\ M i"
Figures 5-98; 5-99; 5-100

Mica should be
filed flush with
the V's
Mica
Mica should
Fig. 5-101. The appearance of mica
extend a little
beyond the top segments after they have been cut and
of the bars filed to the same shape as the com¬
mutator bars.
Fig. 5-102. A mica V ring consists

of an inner and outer ring.
Cut along this line to

separate into two rings
heated and laid flat.
Fig. 5-103. Using the old V ring as

a template to mark off the outline of the
'Sheet of mica Old ring new ring.
Figures 5-101; 5-102; 5-103

Figures 5-104; 5-105; 5-106; 5-107

Fig. 5-108. A step in removing shorted bars.
Fig. 5-109. A quick repair that can

be made if two bars are shorted.
Figures 5-108; 5-109; 5-110

Figures 5-111; 5-112; 5-113; 5-114
CHAPTER 6
Direct-current Motors
Fig. 6-3. The armature with skewed slots and windings in place.
Figures 6-1; 6-2; 6-3

290 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS
Fig. 6-4.
i
A complete field assembly and frame of a dc motor.
■Laminations
Fig. 6-5. A laminated field core.

This may be bolted to the frame.
Fig. 6-6. An end plate of a dc motor showing brush rigging. (General Electric Co.)
Figures 6-4; 6-5; 6-6

Fig. 6-7. Construction of sleeve

bearing and oil ring.
End view Side view
Sleeve bearing showing oil ring
Fig. 6-8. A sleeve bearing assembled on an end plate.
Fig. 6-9. The ball bearing at right mounted in the end plates as shown.
Figures 6-7; 6-8; 6-9

Fig. 6-10. The brush rigging

attached to the end plate.
± —
Series field
HMV'
Fig. 6-11.
- O
Armature
The field and armature

— 3
connection of a series motor.
Shunt field
+
L-O- *
Shunt field
Fig. 6-12.The field and armature
connection of a shunt motor.
Series field Armature
nmr^
Fig. 6-13a. The field and armature
connection of a compound motor.
DC reversed
\ ^ ~ 1 \ A —u
; ) \\\\\\Nj)s\\\\ \\nJ
Repelling action Attracting action
Fig. 6-13b. Repelling and attracting action of two electromagnets.
Figures 6-10; 6-11; 6-12; 6-13a; 6—13b; 6-14a

Cord around coil

Flexible lead
soldered to wires
and taped
Fig. 6-15. A field coil after removal

from form. The cord holds the turns in
place.
Flexible lead
soldered to wires
and taped
Fig. 6-16. A series-field coil is taped

after flexible leads are soldered to the
beginning and end of the coil. The coil
is usually taped with a layer of cellulose
acetate film tape.
Flexible leads
soldered to
wires
Lead
Lead
Fig. 6-17. A cutaway view of a

shunt-field winding and the same wind¬
ing after taping.
Figures 6-14b; 6-15; 6-16; 6-17

Figures 6-18; 6-19; 6-20; 6-21

Fig. 6-22. A compound field for a large motor. The shunt and series fields are
wound and taped separately, then placed side by side and taped again.
Fig. 6-24. In a two-pole motor, the

fields are connected to form a north and
south pole.
Figures 6-22; 6-23; 6-24

Figures 6-25; 6-26; 6-27

Figures 6-28; 6-29; 6-30

Fig. 6-31. Three methods of showing the connection of a two-pole compound motor.
Fig. 6-32. A two-pole cumulatively compounded motor. If the current flow is in the
same direction in both fields, it is called a cumulative connection.
Fig. 6-33. A long-shunt, differentially connected compound motor with the current
flow in opposite directions in the fields. When the shunt field is connected across the line,
it is called a long shunt.
Figures 6-31; 6-32; 6-33

«=c>
—< ^ 3
Series
C *-i-^-L 2
=o Arm.
Fig. 6-34. A short-shunt cumulatively compound motor. The current in both the
series and shunt fields flows in the same direction.
o=
o
Series
=:> Arm.
Fig. 6-35. A two-pole, short-shunt differentially compounded motor.
Fig. 6-36. Method of connecting the

interpole in a two-pole motor.
Figures 6-34; 6-35; 6-36

Fig. 6-37. The polarity of the inter¬

pole for counterclockwise (c.c.w.) rotation
of a two-pole motor.
Fig. 6-38. The proper interpole

polarity for clockwise (c.w.) rotation of a
two-pole motor.
Fig. 6-39. The polarity of the inter¬

pole for clockwise (c.w.) rotation of a
four-pole motor.
Figures 6-37; 6-38; 6-39

Shunt
Fig. 6-40. A schematic diagram of a compound-interpole motor.
Fig. 6-41. A two-pole compound-

interpole motor. With the polarity in¬
dicated, the motor will run
counterclockwise.
Fig. 6-42. A two-pole compound-

interpole motor using one interpole con¬
nected in series with the armature.
Figures 6-40; 6-41; 6-42

♦M»I» M*I«W
Arm.
This motor will run opposite to this one —

C '""■w Direction of current flow
^ in armature is reversed /
Brush leads
reversed
Fig. 6-43. The direction of rotation of a two-pole series motor changed by reversing
the current flow in the armature.
Series
Arm.
Direction of current flow

in armature is the same
Field leads
reversed
Fig. 6-44. The direction of rotation of a two-pole series motor changed by reversing
the current flow in the field poles.
Figures 6-43; 6-44

mm
Arm.

in armature is reversed ^
ro=>
v j
Fig. 6-45. A two-pole shunt motor reversed in the armature circuit.
immm
000 '——
<3=, Int. VÂrm.

in armature is reversed >
Fig. 6-46. A two-pole shunt-interpole motor. The armature and interpole leads are
reversed as a unit. The field polarity remains the same.
Figures 6-45; 6-46

Fig. 6-47. A two-pole compound-interpole motor with six wires brought out of the
motor. Wires F and S are sometimes connected together inside the motor, and one wire
is brought outside.
Fig. 6-48. A two-pole compound-interpole motor with the armature circuit reversed
for opposite rotation from that of Fig. 6-47.
Figures 6-47; 6-48

Fig. 6-49. A four-pole compound-

interpole motor. To reverse, interchange
leads A{ and A
Shunt
mw
<=>
■nswpp-
Series
crkp—
c=^> Int. v"-^/Arm.
Li L2
Fig. 6-50. Testing a compound motor for grounds.
Fig. 6-51. The positions where the

field most often grounds.
Figures 6-49; 6-50; 6-51

Break these connections
Fig. 6-52b. Locating ground in field coil

with limited dc and a screwdriver blade.
Blade is attracted to
coils with magnetism.
Low amps
I— No magnetism
Magnetism
Test panel Test leads
This lead connected to frame of motor

Coil with ground
High amps ( A
No magnetism Magnetism
C Test leads
This lead connected to frame of motor
Fig. 6-52c. Locating ground in field coil
Figures 6-52; 6-52a; 6-52b; 6-52c; 6-53

Figures 6-54; 6-55; 6-56
and Fy are often connected

together internally and one
wire brought out marked 'L'
Seru
Fig. 6-57. Typical markings on the Arm.

leads of a compound motor.
_\_
\
/ v
Brushes removed
from commutator
Fig. 6-58. Identifying the leads of a rll Arm. )Ii

compound motor by use of a test lamp.
\_
No light
/ v
✓ s
Fig. 6-59. The test to determine

whether a motor is cumulatively
connected. Series
This lead
disconnected i
in step 2 —i
v
/ V
✓ X
Figures 6-57; 6-58; 6-59

Figures 6-60; 6-61; 6-62
Coil may
ground at
corners
Lead ripped
from coil
Fig. 6-64. Possible locations of opens in the field circuit and coil.
Figures 6-63; 6-64

Fig. 6-65. The ohmmeter method of detecting a shorted coil.
Coil to be
tested
-Laminated
core
„_Transformer
coil
Fig. 6-67. A transformer used for testing shorted coils.
Figures 6-65; 6-66; 6-67

Interpole
Rotation rotation
either direction
Fig. 6-68. The correct brush positions for interpole and noninterpole motors.
Fig. 6-69. The same amount of current flows through all elements of a series motor.
Fig. 6-70. Two diagrams showing the tension in the springs with brushes of different
length.
Figures 6-68; 6-69; 6-70

Fig. 6-71. A common type of pigtail brush.
Figure 6-71
CHAPTER 7
Direct-current Motor Control
Fig. 7-1. A three-point starting box connected to a shunt motor.
Holding coil Shunt field
Fig. 7-2. A simplified diagram of Fig. 7-1.
Fig. 7-3. A three-point starting box connected to a compound motor.
Figures 7-1; 7-2; 7-3

316 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTOR CONTROL
BntMtltit]
Fig. 7-4. A simplified diagram of
Resistance
Fig. 7-3.
Series
Fig. 7-5. A reduced voltage manual nonreversing starter. (Cutler Hammer)
Resistance
Shunt
H.C.J Series
am
Arm.
l2 a<
Resistance
Fig. 7-6. A four-point starting box connected to a compound motor.
Figures 7-4; 7-5; 7-6

Fig. 7-7. A schematic diagram of the current paths for a four-point box connected to
a compound motor.
Fig. 7-8. A four-point box with a variable field resistance added for speed control.
Fig. 7-9. A four-point speed-regulating rheostat connected to a compound motor.
Figures 7-7; 7-8; 7-9

Figures 7-10; 7-11; 7-12

Knife Handle
Fig. 7-13. A double-pole, double¬ bladeT,l
throw knife switch.
Series Fig. 7-14. A double-pole, double¬

throw switch connected to reverse the ar¬
mature current of a series motor. Note
the direction of current in the armature
with the switch thrown to the right.
Series
Fig. 7-15. A circuit of Fig. 7-14 with
the switch thrown in the opposite
direction.
Fig. 7-16. A series motor connected

to a double-pole, double-throw switch for
reversing.
Figures 7-13; 7-14; 7-15; 7-16

Shunt Shunt
Fig. 7-17. At (a) with the switch thrown up, the armature current of a shunt motor is
flowing to the right. At (b) with the switch thrown down, the armature current is flowing
to the left.
Fig. 7-18. A shunt motor connected

to a double-pole, double-throw switch.
Shunt
Fig. 7-20. A shunt motor connected to three-point box and reversing switch.
Figures 7-17; 7-18; 7-19; 7-20

Fig. 7-21. A compound motor connected to three-point box and reversing switch.
Note that the armature and interpole are reversed as a unit.
Shunt
Fig. 7-22. A shunt motor connected to a four-point box and reversing switch.
Fig. 7-23. A compound motor connected to a four-point box and reversing switch.
Figures 7-21; 7-22; 7-23

Fig. 7-24. General appearance of a

small drum switch.
1 □ □2
3D □4
Fig. 7-25. Stationary contacts of a
drum switch.
5□ □6
7□ □8
0 -
—Handle
Insulated
cylinder
Movable Fig. 7-26. Movable contacts of a

contacts drum switch.
j
¥
0
£ □
Fig. 7-27. The position of the con¬ □ □

tacts for forward rotation.
□ :□
u
aa
□
□u □ Fig. 7-28. The position of the con¬

tacts for reverse direction.
□
Figures 7-24; 7-25; 7-26; 7-27; 7-28

Fig. 7-29. A series motor connected

to a drum switch for clockwise direction.
Fig. 7-30. A drum switch connection

for counterclockwise rotation of a series
motor.
Fig. 7-31. A shunt motor connected Li

to a drum switch.
L-2
Fig. 7-32. A shunt motor of Fig.

7-31 reversed by drum switch.
Figures 7-29; 7-30; 7-31; 7-32

Fig. 7-33a. A compound motor con¬

nected to a drum switch for clockwise
direction.
Z.i
Fig. 7-33b. A compound motor con¬
1-2
nected for counterclockwise direction.
Fig. 7-34. A magnetic circuit breaker.
Fig. 7-35. An overload relay con¬

nected in a three-point starting box.
Figures 7-33a; 7-33b; 7-34; 7-35

Contacts
Y W — normally
• i
. closed
Fig. 7-36. An overload relay with a I- 1
plunger to open the contacts.
J — _i— I
J
Adjustable
— screw for
w current
calibration
Fig. 7-37. A dc magnetic contactor.
t>
i 2 3 4
Fig. 7-38. Methods of denoting a magnetic contactor.
Figures 7-36; 7-37; 7-38

Fig. 7-39. A magnetic overload relay used in conjunction with a magnetic contactor.
Fig. 7-40. Methods of denoting a thermal relay. The figures to the right indicate
contacts.
Fig. 7-41. A thermal overload relay used with a magnetic contactor.
Figures 7-39; 7-40; 7-41

ABC
Fig. 7-42 a. The parts of a magnetic switch, b. Method of denoting a magnetic

switch, c. Two-pole contactor.
Start Stop
Stations in
straight
diagram
Fig. 7-43. Methods of showing four-contact, START-STOP, pushbutton stations.
Start
Stop
Fig. 7-44. A START-STOP station

connected to a magnetic contactor. J
Figures 7-42; 7-43; 7-44

Fig. 7-45. A START-STOP station connected to a magnetic switch.
Shunt
Fig. 7-46. An elementary diagram of a compound motor, START-STOP station and

contactor.
Li
Arm.
A
Fig. 7-47. Wiring diagram of a two-pole full-voltage starter connected to a dc motor.
Figures 7-45; 7-46; 7-47

rMotor >
Stop Stop
IIL
2 11 3
Z M J
Fig. 7-48. Two START-STOP stations controlling a dc starter.
Start
f f H'
Stop
Start
Stop
Fig. 7-49. Three START-STOP stations connected to a dc starter.
M M o.L. / \ M
]\-1| • OG ♦ .~( Motor ) j|"
Start ,
Stop Stop Stop i O.L.
2 I' 3
M
Fig. 7-50. Elementary diagram of three START-STOP station connected to a dc

starter.
Figures 7-48; 7-49; 7-50

^■i Line
^ disconnect Shunt field
Fig. 7-51. Reversing a small compound motor, using a magnetic reversing starter and
FORWARD-REVERSE-STOP station. The motor must come to a full stop before
reversing.
21 T tiVc V/ti A4
d*9
H N 1*2 lB
O.L.
i_
rnI n1 Shunt
field
Series
field i Arm.
I llLq 1
|S2 A2
Stop
1_2_ £ J
Fig. 7-52a. Wiring diagram of a reversing starter using overload protection and elec¬
trical interlocks.
Figures 7-51; 7-52a

Fig. 7-52b. Control circuits for a reversing starter using front and rear contacts of the
FORWARD and REVERSE buttons.
Fig. 7-53. Control circuit using timing relay to prevent reversing until motor comes to
a full stop.
Z.1 Z-2
Fig. 7-54. A small dc motor connected to a starter and START-JOG-STOP station.
Figures 7-52b; 7-53; 7-54

Fig. 7-55. An elementary diagram of a small motor connected to a dc starter and

START-JOG-STOP station.
Start
Stop
Fig. 7-56. A small dc motor connected to a starter and station with a JOG selector
push button.
Shunt
O.L. Series
[Arm.]
Start
O.L. Stop
Fig. 7-57. START-JOG-STOP station with selector push button.
Figures 7-55; 7-56; 7-57

contacts
ACC
contacts
)ACC. coil
Series
ArnriS
Fig. 7-58. Diagram of a simple counter e.m.f. starter operated by a magnetic switch.
Shunt
Res. Series
[Arm,
ACC.
ACC.
O.L.
Fig. 7-59. An elementary diagram of a counter e.m.f. starter connected to a com¬

pound motor.
L-i L- L, L.
Fig. 7-60. Positions of the accelerating contact of a counter e.m.f. starter when the
motor starts and after acceleration.
Figures 7-58; 7-59; 7-60

Shunt
Fig. 7-61. A counter e.m.f. starter with three steps of acceleration connected to a
compound motor.
Figures 7-61; 7-62

Shunt
A
Fig. 7-64a. A two-coil lockout starter with one step of acceleration connected to a
compound motor.
Fig. 7-64b. Different representation of a two-coil lockout starter with one step of
acceleration connected to a compound motor.
Figures 7-63; 7-64a,b

Z-i l2
Closing
Lockout
Fig. 7-64c. Position of the accelerating contact of a two-coil lockout starter when a
motor is drawing normal current.
Shunt
Closing Lockout Res. Series

—»iwiN-L
CL. nrm
Start
O.L. ' St°P
-X- <uy
TsP*
Fig. 7-65. An elementary diagram of a two-coil lockout starter connected to a com¬
pound motor.
Ly L2
Fig. 7-66. A two-coil lockout controller with two steps of acceleration.
Figures 7-64c; 7-65; 7-66

Shunt
/ O.L. M 1A
1A
2A
IB 2B
Rr
O—'ipm'
Arm.
Series
O.L.
-X- O-Q I Ch <M>
HH
M
Fig. 7-67. An elementary diagram of a two-step, two-coil lockout starter connected to

a compound motor.
Fig. 7-68. A single-coil lockout contactor.
Fig. 7-69. Different representations of a single-coil lockout starter with one step of
acceleration connected to a compound motor.
Figures 7-67; 7-68; 7-69

Fig. 7-70. An elementary diagram of a single-coil lockout starter connected to a com¬

pound motor.
Z-i L2
Fig. 7-71. A single-coil lockout starter with two steps of acceleration.
Shunt
Figures 7-70; 7-71; 7-72

Acc. coil 000000

A
Arm. Int. Series
Fig. 7-73. A wiring diagram of a definite magnetic time starter connected to a com
pound motor.
Shunt
O.L. M
Arm. Series
Start
Stop Accel, coil
Fig. 7-74. An elementary diagram of the connection of Fig. 7-73.
rn
Fig. 7-75. A wiring diagram of a definite magnetic time starter with a START-JOG-
STOP station.
Figures 7-73; 7-74; 7-75

II
Interlock
(auxiliary contact)
Fig. 7-76. An elementary diagram of a definite magnetic time starter having two steps
of resistance.
Fig. 7-77. A starter equipped with

dynamic braking. Contacts are shown in
position while motor is operating. Note
the flow of current in the armature.
Fig. 7-78. Position of the dynamic

braking contacts when the current is shut
off.
Figures 7-76; 7-77; 7-78

Shunt
-—^mmnnn-. .
Resis I \-Arm. Int. I Series
Hf: * IT, r Res. |—I

A IVI DB resistance
DR rpcictanrp
Start
O.L.
-Hr
Fig. 7-79. A wiring diagram of a magnetic time delay starter with dynamic braking
connected to a compound motor.
Fig. 7-80. A starter using dashpot acceleration.
Shunt
^mmv
Resistance
+■
DP. DP. O.L. Arm. Int. Series
Ini ii 1 i
II II • 1
Fig. 7-81. A line diagram of a dashpot starter.
Figures 7-79; 7-80; 7-81

Fig. 7-82. Line diagram of a dc reduced-voltage starter using a fluid dashpot ac¬
celerating mechanism. (Allen-Bradley Co.)
LI L2
Fig. 7-83. Reduced-voltage starter with two increments of resistance in the circuit.
(Allen-Bradley Co.)
Figures 7-82; 7-83

Fig. 7-85. A line diagram of a timed accelerating starter similar to the previous
starter.
Figures 7-84; 7-85

Fig. 7-86. An adjustable speed dc starter with field accelerating relay. (Allen Bradley
Co.)
Figures 7-86; 7-87

Figures 7-88a,b; 7-89

Figures 7-90; 7-91

/w\ Single phase converted to d-c
230V 180V DC
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-92. The single-phase sine wave and the way it looks after the controller con¬
verts it to dc.
Phase A
\A- Three phases converted to d-c
Phase B
Phase C
W
230V 240V DC
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-93. The three separate voltages of the three-phase sine wave and the way they
look after the controller converts them to dc.
to
O
>
Time
Fig. 7-94. How dc voltage from a battery compares with converted ac. Direct current
does not have the ripple effect that converted ac has.
Figures 7-92a,b; 7-93; 7-94

Fig. 7-95. A single-phase-powered, dc drive showing (a) the regulator board hinged
open to show the location of some of the circuitry and (b) with the regulator board in
place. The upper half is the power circuitry. (Allen-Bradley Co.)
Fig. 7-96. A regulator board and a module showing how the module plugs into the
regulator board. (Allen-Bradley Co.)
Figures 7-95; 7-96

Fig. 7-97. A large, three-phase-powered, dc motor controller. (Allen-Bradley Co.)

349
Figure 7-97
REVERSING DRIVE
n—— — — — — —————— —— — ——— — ^
AUXILIARY CONTACT
Fig. 7-98. A schematic that is included in the controller bulletin. (Allen-Bradley Co.)
Figure 7-98 (con’t.)

SCHEMATIC
D.CJMOTO*
•HUNT HELD
1KA4CON -3 (OPTIONAU
1EA-2COM -6
Figure 7-98 (con’t.)

CHAPTER 8
Figures 8-1; 8-2

354 UNIVERSAL, SHADED-POLE, AND FAN MOTORS
Laminated Core
n Fig. 8-3. Field core of a two-pole

universal motor.
°|S
Brush Holder
Fig. 8-4. End plate showing the

brush holders and bearing.
Fig. 8-5. Pins through the core hold

the field coils in place.
Pin Through Core
Metal Clamps-
Fig. 8-6. Method of securing coils to

the core by using metal clamps.
oX
Figures 8-3; 8-4; 8-5; 8-6

Fiber. Wedges
• i r
• r '■■■( : I
Fig. 8-7. Using fiber wedges to secure
field coils to the core.
fv/V'T
Leads
Fig. 8-8. Shape of coils after removal

Leads from the core.
M/
Leads
Fig. 8-9. Shape of coil after it is flat¬

tened to obtain coil dimensions.
Fig. 8-10. Form for winding field coils.
Figures 8-7; 8-8; 8-9; 8-10

au,u,lu:
Fig. 8-11. Taping a field coil.
Fig. 8-12. Testing fields for proper

polarity. If the nail stands between the
energized coils, their polarity is correct.
Fig. 8-13. Series connection of a

universal motor.
Fig. 8-14. Series connection showing

taped field coils.
Figures 8-11; 8-12; 8-13; 8-14

-o-
Fig. 8-15. Schematic connection of a universal motor. Note the armature is connected
between the field poles.
Fig. 8-16. Motor connection for

clockwise rotation.
Fig. 8-17. Motor of Fig. 8-16 con¬

nected for counterclockwise rotation by
interchanging armature connections.
Armature Coil
cm
Fig. 8-18. In a lap-wound armature,
each coil connects between adjacent bars.
Commutator—1
Fig. 8-19. A loop winding showing

loops at the end of each coil.
Figures 8-15; 8-16; 8-17; 8-18; 8-19

Skewed
Slots
String or
Straight Fig. 8-20. Lining out the center of
Straight
Edge slots to the commutator to determine
Slots
lead throw.
Commutator
rirr
Fig. 8-21. View of the armature from

the end opposite the commutator to
determine the coil pitch.
Fig. 8-22. Coils being unwound turn by turn to record the position of the leads to
the commutator bars.
Hack-saw
Blade
Fig. 8-23. The hacksaw blade

vibrates if bars 1 and 2 and 2 and 3 are
shorted while the armature is in the
growler. This determines the lead throw
2 Coils
of the coils.
per Slot
Winding
Growler
Figures 8-20; 8-21; 8-22; 8-23

1
1
Figures 8-24; 8-25; 8-26; 8-27

Fig. 8-28. In some armatures the

loops are made at the rear of the slots
and brought back through the slots to
the commutator.
Fig. 8-29. Leads connected several

bars to the right of each coil for clock¬
wise rotation.
Fig. 8-30. Leads connected to the

right of each coil for clockwise rotation.
Fig. 8-31. Leads connected several

bars to the left for counterclockwise
rotation.
Figures 8-28; 8-29; 8-30; 8-31

Figures 8-32; 8-33; 8-34

Main Compensating
wsw '—
On Fig. 8-35. Schematic diagram of a
Armature
compensated universal motor.
Center Punch Marks for

Identification When
Rewinding
Fig. 8-36. Recording the windings of a twelve-slot, two-pole, compensated universal

motor. Note the center-punch marks in the slots to locate the windings in the proper
slots.
Fig. 8-37. Speed of a small universal motor controlled by connecting a variable

resistor in series with the motor.
Pressure separates the carbons and

decreases the current through the
motor to vary the speed
Series Series
' \SrCap.
Arm.
*i—1
^—Resistance
Fig. 8-38. Speed control of a universal motor by a variation in contact resistance be¬
tween two carbon blocks.
Figures 8-35; 8-36; 8-37; 8-38

^-Resistance
Fig. 8-40. Speed control of a universal motor by means of a centrifugal governor.
Figures 8-39; 8-40; 8-41; 8-42

Fig. 8-44. A four-pole, shaded-pole

motor with the field poles connected in
series for alternate polarity.
Slot No. 1 23456789 10 1112 1
Main
Shaded
Fig. 8-45. Recording the windings of a four-pole, 12-slot, distributed shaded-pole

motor.
Fig. 8-46. Connection diagram of a

four-pole, distributed shaded-pole
winding.
Figures 8-43; 8-44; 8-45; 8-46

Fig. 8-47. Position of the poles and

shading coils before the stator is reversed.
Fig. 8-48. Position of the poles after

the stator is reversed end for end. Com¬
pare with Fig. 8-47.
Main Shaded
Fig. 8-49. One pole of a 12-slot,

reversible shaded-pole motor. Note the
two shading coils.
Slot No. 1 234 56 789 10 11 12 1
Main
(
- m \t \t
"V
\
Fig. 8-50. Coil layout of a reversible
shaded-pole motor.
Shaded
rA r r ■A r "N r
To Line
:—i _J Main
■=£>
mmm i i■n_
<=
Counter¬
clockwise
Clockwise Shaded
Fig. 8-51. Wiring diagram of a reversible shaded-pole motor. To reverse a shaded-pole

motor, one series of shading coils is opened and the other series closed.
Figures 8-47; 8-48; 8-49; 8-50; 8-51

Winding for Shaded Pole Winding for

Clockwise Counterclockwise
Rotation Rotation
Fig. 8-52. Reversible shaded-pole

motor with two main poles for each
shaded coil.
Slot No. 1 23 456 789 10 1112 1

—
Clockwise Winding ( y f y ( y (
Counterclockwise
( \ ( \ ( ( \
Shaded winding [] [] [] c]
_l _i - - --I
Fig. 8-53. Method of recording the layout of the coils of a 12-slot, four-pole, re¬
versible shaded-pole motor having two sets of main poles.
Figures 8-52; 8-53; 8-54; 8-55

Cent. Sw.
Auxiliary
Med
Run
Low
High
Fig. 8-56. A three-speed split-phase

motor.
Capacitor
High Low
Run. Run.
Fig. 8-57. A two-speed, capacitor-

start fan motor. Centrifugal switch is
shown in running position.
(r*^) Cap.
Auxiliary
Run.
Fig. 8-58. A two-speed, (permanent

split) capacitor fan motor.
Figures 8-56; 8-57; 8-58

Fig. 8-59. Wiring diagram of a three-speed (permanent-split) capacitor motor.
Figures 8-59; 8-60; 8-61

Fig. 8-62. Diagram of a
Snap
Fig. 8-63. Unit-heater three-speed

voltages from an autotransformer to
Figures
Fig. 8-64. Shaded-pole fan motor

with speed control varied by means of a
choke coil.
3 speed
Z-i i-2 Open

High speed White Black Red,Blue
Int. speed White Blue Red,Black
Low speed White Red Blue,Black
Fig. 8-65. Three-speed shaded-pole motor. Fig. 8-66. Four-speed shaded-pole motdr.
Fig. 8-67. External connection of a four-speed shaded-pole motor.
Figures 8-64; 8-65; 8-66; 8-67

Fig. 8-68. A single-phase motor wound as a three-phase motor. By using resistance

wire for the coils of one winding and a tapped-choke coil in series with another, this
motor can be run at various speeds on a single-phase line.
Fig. 8-69. Basket winding for a 48-slot, 24-coil, three-phase motor.
A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C A B
Fig. 8-70. A 48-slot, eight-pole, short jumper, three-phase motor connected in

series-wye.
Figures 8-68; 8-69; 8-70

1
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SAONOXHONAS
at point where motor speed drops below
oa
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1
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Especially suitable for sewing machines, portable tools, vacuum
•a
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cleaners, motion picture projectors, and mixers. Operates on A-C or
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D-C circuits. Inherent characteristics are high-starting torque, high
km
[£*!&
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11
speed, varying speed regulation and small size and light weight for
given hp. output.
_Ii_
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Compensated parts recommended when higher power at lower
speeds required as for larger commercial type vacuum cleaners,
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large portable tools.
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TVSHUAIfW
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Governor permits utilizing light-weight, high-spêd, universal motor
1
for constant speed applications. Two types governors supplied. One

at3
aca
permits adjustment while running—used on electric typewriters,
■
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motion picture projectors, cameras. Other type adjustable at stand¬
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still only—used for adding machines, calculating machines, other
3 a -c # 9
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constant speed office machines.
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Figures 8-71 (con’t.)

CHAPTER 9
Direct-current Generators;
Synchronous Motors and Generators;
Synchros; and Wound Rotor, Three-phase
Induction Motors
Fig. 9-1. A dc generator.
Fig. 9-2. A potential is induced in

the conductor when it cuts lines of force.
Coil of wire
Fig. 9-3. A coil of wire used as the

conductor and rotated in a magnetic
field. The leads of the coil are connected
to a commutator to produce direct
current.
Figures 9-1; 9-2; 9-3

376 DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS
Shunt field
Armature
Q fir
41 >42
/ /wwwi
is
Fig. 9-4. A separately excited shunt
generator.
To load 1-2
Fig. 9-5. A self-excited shunt

generator. M LA
^-1 | |^-2
To load
Series field
Fig. 9-6. A self-excited series

generator.
Fig. 9-7. A short-shunt cumulative

compound generator.
Ai A 2 «S 2
To load 2
Figures 9-4; 9-5; 9-6; 9-7

Shunt
Series Fy \ A F*
Fig. 9-8. Wiring of a compound

short-shunt generator. <F=1
KDr
Arm.
L, t-2
Shunt
Fig. 9-9. A short-shunt differential

generator.
Fig. 9-10. A short-shunt cumulative

generator with interpole.
Shunt
=o «=c>
r'Tmmr-
«=o
Fy Arm Fr F, F* F
Series
'VV o 1
A
-
<F=> A1
5,
To To To
line ^-2 L, load L- 2 load
Fig. 9-11. At the left is shown the direction of flow of the two field currents of a
compound motor. This motor is cumulative, but if used as a generator, it will be differen¬
tial, as shown in the center. If the series field is reversed, as shown at the right, the
generator will be cumulative.
Figures 9-8; 9-9; 9-10; 9-11

Fig. 9-12. A short-shunt cumulative generator with field rheostat for voltage control.
Fig. 9-13. A voltmeter and an am¬

meter properly connected in a generator
circuit.
Ammeter
Fig. 9-14. An ammeter with external

shunt connected in generator circuit.
Fig. 9-15. Two compound generators

connected in parallel.
Figures 9-12; 9-13; 9-14; 9-15

Fig. 9-16. A diagram showing how

the load is divided equally between two
generators if equalizer is used.
Lines produced by
current flowing Residual
Fig. 9-17. An incorrect connection of shunt field in a generator. The residual lines of
force oppose the lines caused by the field current and prevent build-up of the field
strength.
Fig. 9-18. A synchronous motor for general-purpose application. (General Electric

Co.)
Figures 9-16; 9-17; 9-18

Fig. 9-19. A rotor of a synchronous

motor.
Squirrel-cage
winding
Slip rings Field pole
Fig. 9-20. Synchronous-motor power DC
w
connections. Feed to
motor
3-phase line
Ammeter D-C Exciter
Voltmeter-
Variable
resistance
Fig. 9-21. A synchronous motor showing rotor supplied from a small exciter.
Synchronous Diode
Bridge rectifier
\Statori\ i llJ Bridge
Rotor PioiH rectifier
Exciter
-Rotating assembly
Rotor
field
Fig. 9-22. Connections for a brushless synchronous motor.
Figures 9-19; 9-20; 9-21; 9-22

Flat surface
I
Fig. 9-23. A flat-faced rotor of a
self-starting, nonexcited, split-phase syn¬
chronous motor.
0
' •
Squirrel-cage
— winding
-Shaded pole
Fig. 9-24. A stator with shaded poles

for a synchronous clock motor.
Squirrel-cage winding
1
Fig. 9-25. A rotor for a self-starting

synchronous motor.
Salient pole
Poles of rotor
Fig. 9-26. A synchronous clock

motor having 32 poles.
Figures 9-23; 9-24; 9-25; 9-26

Lamps for phasing out

Alternator Alternator
A B
Fig. 9-29. The “all dark” method of synchronizing two alternators.
Figures 9-27; 9-28; 9-29

Generator
B
Fig. 9-30. The “one dark and two bright” method of synchronizing.
3-phase winding
Fig. 9-31. A stator of a synchro.
Splice
Fig. 9-32. A rotor of a synchro.

Field coil
Slip rings
Rotor
120-volts
A.C.
Stator
3-phase winding
These wires are connected to

corresponding wires of another synchro
Fig. 9-33. Connections of a synchro showing a three-phase winding on the stator and
a single-phase winding on the rotor.
I
Figures 9-30; 9-31; 9-32; 9-33
Excitation
oec.
Receiver
Transmitter
Fig. 9-34. Two synchros connected for operation. The receiver will remain motionless
until the transmitter is turned.
This rotor will turn

A.C._
until it assumes the
Excitation position of the rotor
in the transmitter
un
Receiver
Transmitter
Fig. 9-35. The rotor of the transmitter has been turned slightly, causing the receiver to
tj
WMMM,
* , , "
Fig. 9-36. A rotor of a wound-rotor, three-phase induction motor. (Westinghouse

Electric Co.)
Figure 9-34; 9-35; 9-36

Fig. 9-37. A one-wye connection used in the rotor of a wound-rotor, three-phase in¬
duction motor.
Stator
■II—no-
Fig. 9-38. An elementary diagram of a four-step resistance starter for a wound-rotor,

three-phase induction motor without the controlling circuit.
Figures 9-37; 9-38

CHAPTER 10
Solid-state Motor Control
Outer orbit
4 electrons
Fig. 10-1. Bohr model of a silicon

atom.
Silicon atom
13 protons
15 protons
14 neutrons
16 neutrons
(A) Aluminum. (B) Phosphorus.
Fig. 10-2. Atoms of aluminum and phosphoros.
N type semi conductor
Figures 10-1; 10-2; 10-3

388 SOLID-STATE MOTOR CONTROL
Junction
Fig. 10-4. P-N diode.
Fig. 10-5. Potential barrier at P-N junction.
Increased potential barrier
Fig. 10-6. Reverse biased P-N junction.
Figures 10-4; 10-5; 10-6

Reduced potential barrier
©©©©©©|©©©©©©
©©©©©©j©©©©©©
< ©©©©©©|©©©©©©
©©©@©01©©©©©©
N
Large
current
flow
Fig. 10-7. Forward biased P-N junction.
N P
N-section P-section
cathode anode
/
y
J w
Cathode
- C —
Anode
Fig. 10-8. Diode circuit symbol. Electron current flows from cathode to anode.
Cathode anode
Fig. 10-9. Direction of electron cur¬

D.C. Load rent flow through diode rectifier and
'r
circuit.
+ -
♦ ——o
Fig. 10-10. Reverse biased diode 1

circuit. No appreciable current flow. D.C. Load
Figures 10-7; 10-8; 10-9; 10-10

O) Anode
Fig. 10-11. Types of silicon
wm
diodes.
Color
coded
G lass Top hat Stud mounted
Forward current
250 I- milliamps /
Forward bias
250 200 150 100 50

.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Fig. 10-12. Characteristic curve of a

silicon diode.
Reverse bias
Reverse current
microamps
Cathode Anode
Fig. 10-13. Rectifier circuit.

A.C. Load
Positive
Negative
half cycle
Fig. 10-14. Supply voltage or current.
Figure 10-11; 10-12; 10-13; 10-14

Di conducts ru, conducts
Fig. 10-15. Load voltage or current after rectification.
Fig. 10-16. Half-wave filtered rec

Load tification.
Filtered D.C.
Fig. 10-17. Load voltage after filtered half-wave rectification.
Fig. 10-18. Center-tapped full-wave

rectifier.
Figures 10-15; 10-16; 10-17; 10-18

Fig. 10-19. Full-wave rectification.

B is positive in respect to C.
£> conducts
D conducts
2
D.C. pulsating
output
D.C. filtered
output
Fig. 10-20. Load voltage of a full-

wave rectifier. A unfiltered, B filtered.
R
Load
Fig. 10-21. Full-wave filtered rectifi

cation.
I I
i—)|—i
Fig. 10-22a,b. Filtered full-wave

bridge rectification.
Figures 10-19; 10-20; 10-21; 10-22a

Fig. 10-22 (<continued). To transformer
Anode Cathode
Fig. 10-23. Circuit symbol of a Zener diode.
Reverse bias Forward bias
Zener
breakdown
point
Large
Reverse Fig. 10-24. Characteristic curve of a
current
current Zener diode.
change
Small
voltage
change
D.C. E in
Fig. 10-25. Zenor voltage regulator.
Figures 10-22b; 10-23; 10-24; 10-25

Fig. 10-26. Typical transistor cases.
Emitter Base Collector
Fig. 10-27. NPN transistor structure.
Emitter Base Collector
Collector Collector
1C
Emitter
NPN
Fig. 10-29. Circuit symbols of transistors.
Figures 10-26; 10-27; 10-28; 10-29

Fig. 10-30. Amplification in the NPN transistor, (a) Transistor structure, (b) potential
distribution. (Rosenstein, Morris, Modern Electronic Devices: Circuit Design and Applica¬
tion, A Reston Publication, reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall.)
NPN PNP
Fig. 10-31. Transistor model using 2 diodes.
Figures 10-30; 10-31

Figure 10-32
Anode
Cathode
Fig. 10-33. SCR. Circuit symbol (a). Case (b) Structure (c).
I Forward
conduction
Reverse
breakdown Holding
current Forward
voltage
breakover
voltage
O
\ Reverse
Forward
'-blocking
current blocking
i or leakage
current
A
Fig. 10-34a. SCR characteristics.
Forward
current
Forward
breakover
voltage
Gate current
equals zero
Fig. 10-34b. Gate current-O/V.
Figures 10-33; 10-34a; 10-34b

Figures 10-35; 10-36; 10-37

Figures 10-38; 10-39

applied to the emitter, the P.N.

junction will be forward biased
and current will flow through
the junction.
Fig. 10-40. Voltage division in the UJT.
Fig. 10-41. UJT relaxation oscillator circuit.
Figures 10-40; 10-41

Es
Programmable
unijunction
transistor
(PUT)
(a) (b)
Fig. 10-42. PUT circuit symbol and relaxation oscillator.
Anode Anode
Cathode Cathode
Symbol Equivalent circuit
The silicon unilateral switch (SUS)
Fig. 10-43. The silicon unilateral switch.
Figures 10-42; 10-43

Figures 10-44; 10-45; 10-46

Power to motor
Fig. 10-47. Power delivered by

Fig. 10-4c when SCR fires at 90°.
Current
Motor flow Fig. 10-48. Full-wave dc phase control.
kSCR,
Trigger
control
A.C.
Fig. 10-49. Power delivered by

Fig. 10-48 when SCR fires at 60°.
T rigger
pulse
Figures 10-47; 10-48; 10-49

(a) CONTROLLED FULL WAVE
(b) CONTROLLED FULL WAVE (c) CONTROLLED FULL WAVE FOR AC OR DC
Fig. 10-50. Full-wave ac phase control. (General Electric Co., Semiconductor

Products Dept.)
Load
Figures 10-50; 10-51; 10-52

Fig. 10-54. PNP transistor and UJT connected in

D.C.
load
Reference V
and feedback
Zener
SCR
Fig. 10-55. UJT and transistor control stabilized by a Zener voltage.
Reference
t/oltage
20
volts
15 | C.E.M.F
volts — (Feedback)
Fig. 10-56. Reference and feedback
voltages.
V
VGATE
= V
VREF C.E.M .F
VGate = 20 - 15 = 5 volts
Figures 10-55; 10-56

Fig. 10-57. Half-wave control with feedback. (General Electric Co., Semiconductor
Products Dept.)
VOLTAGE WAVESHAPE
FOR FAST AND SLOW
SPEED SETTINGS
SCRI
GE
C22BX70
Fig. 10-58. Improved half-wave control with feedback. (General Electric Co., Semicon¬
ductor Products Dept.)
Figures 10-57; 10-58

Figures 10-59; 10-60 (con’t.)

COMPONENT VALUES FOR THE CIRCUIT
LOW MEDIUM HIGH

UP TO IAMP UP TO SAMP UP TO SAMP
NAMEPLATE NAMEPLATE NAMEPLATE
PI IOK IW IK 2W IK 2W
Nl 47K I/2W 3.3K 2W 3.3 K 2W
m IK I/2W ISO I/2W ISO I/2W

OPTIONAL OPTIONAL
Cl .3/11 IOV lO/i« IOV 10/1 f IOV
l/i f IOV .1/1 « IOV

C2 I/if IOV
OPTIONAL OPTIONAL
GE GE GE
SCRI
C 1066 C 226X70 C 336
(0)
Fig. 10-60 0continued) Universal motor control with feedback.

(General Electric Co., Semiconductor Products Dept.)
Fig. 10-61. SUS triggered universal motor speed control with feedback. (General Elec¬
tric Co., Semiconductor Products Dept.)
Figures 10-60 (con’t.); 10-61

SPRAGUE 11Z12 OR EQUIVALENT

VALUES IN PARENTHESIS FOR 220V OPERATION.
Fig. 10-62. PUT triggered universal motor control with feedback. (General Electric
Co., Semiconductor Products Dept.)
Universal
motor
Fig. 10-63. Full-wave ac control without feedback. (General Electric Co., Semiconduc¬
tor Products Dept.)
Figures 10-62; 10-63

Fig. 10-64. Full-wave dc control with feedback. (General Electric Co.,

Semiconductor Products Dept.)
Figure 10-64; 10-65

SH. FLD.
r Trigger
SCR
u
control
Fig. 10-66. Half-wave control for a shunt motor without feedback.
Armature GE-A40B
GE-A13B
250K
Da GE-A13D
GE-A13B
SCR
Field GE-C20D
1 amp GE-A13B 5 amps max.
max
, DIAC
\ GE-ST2
Fig. 10-67. Half-wave control for shunt motor with precision firing. (General Electric
Co., Semiconductor Products Dept.)
Figures 10-66; 10-67

70 VOLT DC MOTOR ARMATURE
SCR1
GEC122B
Fig. 10-68. Half-wave control without feedback (neon triggered). (General Elec¬
tric Co., Semiconductor Products Dept.)
GE A40B(4)
BRIDGE
RECTIFIER
Fig. 10-69. Speed control for Vi hp, 115 V shunt motor. (General Electric Co.,
Semiconductor Products Dept.)
Figures 10-68; 10-69

d5
Motor Current Diodes CR3-CR6 Triac
1.5 A A14B SC141B

4.5 A A15B SC141B
4.5 A A40B/A41B SC251B
Fig. 10-71. Induction motor speed-torque curves for use with a fan-type load.
(General Electric Co., Semiconductor Products Dept.)
Figure 10-70; 10-71

Figures 10-72; 10-73; 10-74

1FU
'armature
Fig. 10-75. Protecting the SCR by means of diodes, fuses and surge protectors.
(Square D Co.)
Fig. 10-76. Firing circuit using transistor Q for amplifying the error signal.
Fig. 10-77. Full-wave reference supply voltage.
Figure 10-75; 10-76; 10-77

Fig. 10-79. Solid state switching of starting windings in capacitor or split-phase
motors.
Figures 10-78; 10-79

Figures 10-80; 10-81

D.C. D.C.
T
Fig. 10-82. Simplified diagram of a motor generator drive.
Figure 10-82
Figures 10-83; 10-84

Figure 10-85
Fig. 10-86. Bridge inverter with voltage input control for three-phase ac motors. (S.A.
Nasar, Electromechanics and Electric Machines, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
Figures 10-86; 10-87

INPUT
OUTPUT
Fig. 10-88. Single-phase cycloconverter waveforms. (General Electric Co., Semiconduc¬

tor Products Dept.)
Fig. 10-89. Permanent magnet stepper motor. (M.G. Say and E.A. Taylor, Direct Cur¬
rent Machines, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
Figures 10-88; 10-89

Step 1 Step 2
Fig. 10-90. Variable reluctance stepper motor. (M.G. Say and E.A. Taylor,; Direct Cur¬
rent Machines, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
I/O REQUEST - 1 40 -+5 VOLTS

2 39 -7/0 SELECT
XTAL
3 38 -WAIT (PROGRAM)
RESET - 4
CY512 37 ► MOTION COMPLETE
UNUSED- 5 36 —ASCII/BINARY
TERMINATE/ABORT - 6 35 ► PULSE
7 34 ► PROGRAMMABLE OUTPUT
GND Xl
INSTOBE 8 33 ► DIRECTION
UNUSED — 9 32 ► RUN (INT REQ 2)
OUTSTROBE 10 31 ► PROG
CLOCK/15 11 30 -STEP INHIBIT
DB0 12 29 ►SLEW
DB, ** 13 28 — DOWHILE
DB2 14
INTELLIGENT
27 ►BUSY/RDY
DB3 - 15 POSITIONING 26 —+5 VOLTS
STEPPER
DB4 16 MOTOR 25 — UNUSED
DB5 17 CONTROLLER 24 ►$4 \
I STEPPER
db6 18 23 ^*3 I MOTOR
db7 19 22 ► 4), | DRIVE
SIGNALS
20 21 ►4>, /
GND
Fig. 10-91. CY512 stepper motor pinout diagram. (Cybernetics Microsystems.)
Figures 10-90; 10-91

Fig. 10-92. Basic closed-loop servo system. (J.A. Harden, “Programmable DC motor
controller, ” Powerconversion Int., Nov./Dec., 1983.)
Fig. 10-93. Closed-loop servo system with analog compensation. (J.A. Harden, “Pro¬
grammable DC motor controller, ” Powerconversion Int., Nov./Dec., 1983.)
vEL
i
MICRO-
rC~\]
(motor) , 1 1
S
POS.
CONT.
71
FEEDBACK
Fig. 10-94. Closed-loop servo system with digital compensation. (J.A. Harden,
“Programmable Dc motor controller, ” Powerconversion Int., Nov./Dec., 1983.)
Figures 10-92; 10-93; 10-94

Fig. 10-95. FPC-1800 precision digital controller block diagram. (Finnell Systems.)
Figures 10-95

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TgjMnH&fjbaS

U.IAJMLUX*''3IR. -»BWBBPW.fru ' .JP.«WW^rjA!JJWMMB MBI

Robert Rosenberg • August Hand

Fort Worth Chicago San Francisco Philadelphia

Rosenberg, Robert, 1904-

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

Printed in the United States of America.

Published simultaneously in Canada

Saunders College Publishing

Main Parts of Capacitor Motors Operation of Split-Phase

Construction The Repulsion-Start Induction Motor The

Varieties of Three-Phase Motors Rewinding Three-Phase

5 DIRECT-CURRENT ARMATURE WINDING 167

6 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 191

7 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTOR CONTROL 215

Manual Controllers Reduced-Voltage Starters

8 UNIVERSAL, SHADED-POLE, AND FAN

10 SOLID-STATE MOTOR CONTROL 268

STUDY QUESTIONS 302

1. Capacitor-start motor, a capacitor motor in which the capacitor phase (start

The End Plates (End Shields or Brackets)

The Centrifugal Switching System

The Stator Windings

The Electrolytic Capacitor

The Oil-filled Capacitor

2. Inductive Reactance. The effect of inductive reactance on a circuit is to

When direct current (dc) is applied to a resistor, the current immediately

3. Capacitive Reactance. Capacitance has an effect on current opposite to that

The Split-Phase Motor

Split-Phase Motor Operation

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYZING MOTOR TROUBLES

alignment. Improper alignment of the laminations will result in an increase in

REWINDING THE CAPACITOR-START MOTOR

H.P. R.P.M Volts Amps

Cycle Type Frame S.F.

Temp. Rise Model Serial # Phase

No. of Poles Code No. of Slots Time Rating

Winding Size Wire No. of Circuits Pitch Turns

Run 1iiii iiiiiiii iii iiii iiiii iiiiiii1111

TERMINAL MARKINGS FOR

Terminal Markings Identified by Color

T,— Blue T5—Black

Auxiliary Devices Within Motor

Auxiliary Devices External to Motor

Marking of Rigidly Mounted Terminals

HOW TO RECOGNIZE A CONNECTION

The insulation temperature classes are

FORMING SLOT LINERS

1. Select sleeving that is the right temperature and size.

Testing the New Winding

Baking and Varnishing

MOTOR OVERLOAD PROTECTIVE DEVICES

exercise care in assembly, as additional forming of the winding for location of

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS OF CAPACITOR-START

The schematic diagrams in Figures 1-12la, b, c, d, and e are reproduced through

CONNECTIONS OF CAPACITOR-START MOTORS

1. Single-voltage, externally reversible.

1. Single-Voltage, Externally Reversible Capacitor-Start Motor. This motor

2. Single-Voltage, Nonreversible Capacitor-Start Motor. If the start-winding

3. Single-Voltage, Reversible Capacitor-Start Motor with Overload Protec¬