Renewable Energy 145 (2020) 997e1003

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

The use of lignocellulosic waste in the production of pellets for energy

purposes
Kazimierz Zawi
slak a, Paweł Sobczak a, *, Artur Kraszkiewicz b, Ignacy Niedzio

łka c,
Stanisław Parafiniuk b, Izabela Kuna-Broniowska d, Wojciech Tana
s c,
_
Wioletta Zukiewicz-Sobczak e
, Sławomir Obidzin
ski f
a
Department of Food Engineering and Machinery, Faculty of Production Engineering, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland, Gleboka 28 Street, 20-612
Lublin, Poland
b
Department of Machinery Exploitation and Management of Production Processes, Faculty of Production Engineering, University of Life Sciences in Lublin,
Poland, Gleboka 28 Street, 20-612 Lublin, Poland
c
Department of Agricultural, Forest and Transport Machinery, Faculty of Production Engineering, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland, Gleboka 28
Street, 20-612 Lublin, Poland
d
Department of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, Faculty of Production Engineering, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland, Gleboka 28
Street, 20-612 Lublin, Poland
e
Department of Public Health, Pope John Paul II State School of Higher Education in Biala Podlaska, Poland, Sidorska Street 95/97, 21-500 Biała Podlaska,
Poland
f
Department of Agri-Food Engineering and Environmental Management, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Białystok University of
Technology, Poland, Wiejska Street 45A, 15-351 Białystok, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Worldwide the search for new raw materials that are suitable for the production of energy pellets is
Received 21 December 2018 increasing. Each new raw material undergoes evaluation through various analytical processes and quality
Received in revised form assessments before being considered for use as energy pellet. In recent times, the raw materials such as
10 April 2019
agricultural, forestry, and food waste, as well as the surpluses originating from the agri-food production
Accepted 11 June 2019
Available online 14 June 2019
have become very popular for the production of energy pellets. In this study, we evaluated the feasibility
of using lignocellulosic raw materials such as chamomile waste, birch sawdust, pea waste, and soybean
waste for the production of pellets. In this study, we focused on the production of thermal energy from
Keywords:
Biopellets
pellets by assessing the pellets in accordance with the required standards. The results have shown that
Processing lignocellulosic raw materials can be used to produce good quality energy pellets. The proportion of in-
Utilization dividual raw materials determines the individual strength characteristics of pellets and the suitability of
Bioenergy pellets to produce thermal energy.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction wastes require either drying or should be mixed with other raw
materials that are characterized by low moisture content [2].
Research on properties and analysis of energy pellets is con- However, an additional process of drying of biomass significantly
ducted all over the world. Raw materials from the wood processing increases the energy consumption of the production process which
industry, as well as those obtained from agricultural activities, are in turn increases the cost of pellet production. Despite the fact that
used in the production of energy pellets depending on their avail- a number of studies have been focused on the optimization of
ability in large quantities in a particular area. In general, the energy drying kinetics of wood biomass, the cost of production remains
pellets produced from the aforementioned raw materials have high [3,4]. The use of fuels with high moisture content reduces the
similar efficiency to that of other energy fuels [1]. One of the factors overall energy efficiency of a power plant and also reduces the
limiting the use of certain agricultural waste products is high performance of a boiler to such an extent that installation of a dryer
moisture content, which might exceed 50% in some cases. Such combined with the boiler becomes reasonable [5]. In order to
reduce the cost of this process, waste heat in power plants is used to
dry the biomass. Li et al. studied the drying of pine chips with 60%
* Corresponding author. moisture content [6]. They were able to reduce the moisture con-
E-mail address: pawel.sobczak@up.lublin.pl (P. Sobczak). tent from 1.5 to 0.3 kg/kg of fuel. In this study, hot water coming

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.06.051
0960-1481/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
998 K. Zawi
slak et al. / Renewable Energy 145 (2020) 997e1003

from industrial installations, which was previously used for cooling (Fig. 1). Table 2 provides the technical data of the pellet mill. The
purposes, and heat contained in the exhaust gas was the source of diameter of the holes in the pellet mill die was equal to 8 mm, and
waste heat. The final drying can be performed using the dryers of the pellet length to diameter ratio (L/D) was equal to 3.125.
various design. The most popular industrial dryers include
convective drum or belt dryers, as well as those using steam as the 2.2.1. Moistening of raw materials prior to the pelleting procedure
heating medium [7]. In some cases, pressure compaction technol- Birc[fx]h sawdust and chamomile waste were moistened to a
ogy allows the use of raw materials with higher moisture content moisture content of 18%, but the additives were not moistened. The
without the need for prior final drying, which entails a substantial quantity of water required to obtain the desired moisture content
reduction in the costs of biofuel production [8]. In the European in the raw material was calculated based on the following formula
Union (EU) countries, the necessity to search for alternative sources (1):
of energy arises from the directives imposed on the members of the
EU states. The most popular raw materials among the renewable w2  w1
mw ¼ ,ms ½g (1)
energy sources are agricultural, forestry, and food waste, as well as 100  w1
the surpluses obtained from the agri-food industries.
Considering the aforementioned problems and the over- where.
production of certain waste, this study was undertaken to evaluate
the possible usage of lignocellulosic raw materials such as cham- mwdmass of water for moistening [g],
omile waste, birch sawdust, pea waste, and soybean waste for the w2ddesired water content of the mixture [%],
production of energy pellet by focusing on generating heat and w1dinitial water content of the mixture [%], and
classifying the pellets according to the required standards. The msdmass of the moistened mixture [g].
following properties and parameters were evaluated: calorific
value, ash content, the particle size distribution of the raw mate- 2.3. Methods of evaluating the obtained product
rials, geometric features of the pellet, as well as the specific and
bulk density of the pellets. In addition, we performed durability 2.3.1. Calorific value and ash content
tests and evaluated the heavy metal content, as well as the effec- The calorific value of the produced pellets was calculated based
tiveness and energy consumption of the pelleting process.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Plant raw materials

Waste obtained during the cleaning of chamomile, de-husking

of peas, cleaning of soybeans, and birch sawdust were used to
produce pellets. Table 1 presents the composition and proportion of
raw materials and additives used in the process. Before the
commencement of the pelleting process, both the raw materials
and additives were fragmented.
For the sieve analysis of the raw materials, samples (100 g(±1 g))
were sieved using a laboratory shaker with a set of sieves with the
following mesh size: 3.15, 2.8, 2.0, 1.4, 1.0, 0.5, and 0.25 mm. The
particle size distribution was determined in accordance with PN-
EN-ISO 17827-2:2016-07 standard [9].
Moisture content in the raw materials and pellets was deter-
mined in accordance with PN-EN-ISO 18134-3:2015-11 standard
[10] by using laboratory dryer with forced air circulation. The
samples were dried at 105
C until a constant mass was achieved.

2.2. Method of pellet production and conditions of the process

Fig. 1. Diagram of the pellet mill with stationary flat die: 1 - three phase electric motor,
Agglomeration of the raw materials and mixtures thereof was 2 - multi-plate clutch, 3 - two-stage reducer, 4 - rotating shaft with the rollers, 5 - press
performed using a pelleting mill with stationary flat die and rollers, 6 - stationary flat die, 7 - pellets cutter, 8 - pellets outlet, 9 - rollers adjusting
rotating press rollers driven by an electric motor rated at 7.5 kW nut, 10 - feeding hopper.

Table 1
The compound composition of particular pellet.

Type of raw material Mass share of the raw material [%] Type of additive The percentage share of the additive (%) Designation of the pellet

Camomile waste 100 e e P 1

Birch sawdust 100 e e P 2
Camomile waste 50 Peas waste 50 P 3
Birch sawdust 50 Peas waste 50 P 4
Camomile waste 50 Peas waste 30 P 5
Soybean waste 20
Birch sawdust 50 Peas waste 30 P6
Soybean waste 20
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slak et al. / Renewable Energy 145 (2020) 997e1003 999

Table 2
The technical and operational parameters of the pellet mill used.

Specification measurement unit Parameters

Electric motor rated power kW 7.5

Electric motor supply voltage V 400
Motor rotational speed Rad$s1 151.8
Reduction rate e 1:13
Rotational speed of the shaft with rollers Rad$s1 11.6
Number of rollers pcs. 2
Diameter of the press rollers mm 100.0
Width of the press rollers mm 50.0
Dimensions of the grooves on the rollers (width x depth) mm 33
Spacing of the grooves on the press rollers mm 3
Type of die e flat
Die diameter mm 230.0
Thickness of the die mm 28.0
Diameter of the holes in the die mm 8.0
Number of holes in the die pcs. 126
Capacity of the feeding hopper dm3 20.0
Dimensions of the pellet mill (length x width x height) mm 1300  650  1020
Mass of the pellet mill kg 250.0

on the heat of combustion determined with the calorimetric 2.3.4. Mechanical strength
method using Isoperibol calorimeter of Parr 6400 type, in accor- The measurement of mechanical strength of the pellets was
dance with PN-EN-ISO 18125:2017e07 standard [11]. The ash conducted on a test bench in accordance with PN-EN-ISO 17831-
content was determined after ashing the pellet sample at a final 1:2016-02 standard [15]. The rotational speed of the drum was
temperature of 550
C, in accordance with PN-EN-ISO 50 rpm, measuring time was 10 min, and the mass of the sample
18122:2016e01 standard [12]. was equal to 500 g. After the strength test, the examined pellet
samples were sieved on the sieve with the mesh diameter smaller
by 1 mm than the diameter of the pellet. The mechanical strength
2.3.2. Geometric properties of the pellets was calculated using the following formula (3):
Measurements of the geometric properties (diameter and mA
length) of the pellets produced in the pellet mill with stationary die DU ¼ ,100½% (3)
mE
were performed in accordance with PN-EN-ISO 17829:2016e02
standard [13]. Samples of pellets with the minimum mass of 100 g where.
were collected at random for measurements. Geometric di-
mensions of pellets were determined in three repetitions using a DUdmechanical strength of the pellets [%],
caliper with the measurement accuracy of ±0.1 mm, and their mass mAdmass of pellets after strength test [g], and
was determined using laboratory scales with the measurement mEdmass of pellets before strength test [g].
accuracy of ±0.01 g.

2.3.5. Crushing and cutting tests

2.3.3. Specific and bulk density The pellets were placed between the working platens of the
The specific density of pellets was calculated based on the measuring head and then crushing the sample at a constant speed
previously completed measurements of the diameter and length, as of 50 mm min1 until the structure of the sample cracked or was
well as the mass of randomly selected samples. The calculation was destroyed. We used pellets with a length of 10 ± 0.1 mm for this
performed according to the following formula (2): test. In some studies [16,17], the values of crushing and cutting
forces are defined as the resistance or the compressive strength.
4,106 ,m The compression test simulates stress resulting from the weight of
rw ¼ ½kg$m3  (2) the upper pellets acting on the lower pellets during storage in
p,d2 ,l
containers or silos, as well as the crushing force acting on the
where. pellets in screw conveyors. The cutting force of the pellets was
measured using a knife with the blade set at 45
angle. The values
rwdspecific density of pellets [kg$m3], of the crushing and cutting forces were calculated based on the
mdmass of the randomly selected pellet sample [g], obtained curves thereof. The tests were performed with the TA.XT
ddaverage diameter of pellet in randomly selected sample Plus Texture Analyzer.
[mm], and
ldsum of the length of pellets in randomly selected sample 2.4. Heavy metal content
[mm].
Samples (0.2 g) were transferred to the polytetrafluoroethylene
The bulk density of the pellets was determined based on the (PTFE) vessel and 6 mL of HNO3 and 1 mL of HCl Merck Tracepure®
measurements of their mass and volume in accordance with PN- were added. The vessels were placed in the rotor and loaded into a
EN-ISO 17828:2016e02 standard [14]. After pouring the pellets microwave. The following digestion program was used:
into a measurement container with the capacity of 5 dm3and
removing the excess with a slat, the pellets were weighted on a Step 1dpower ramps 800INd100
laboratory scale and their bulk density was calculated. Step 2dpower hold 800INd100
1000 K. Zawi
slak et al. / Renewable Energy 145 (2020) 997e1003

Step 3dcooling and ventilation. 17 MJ kg1, and only in one case, the ash content exceeded 6%. This
might be caused due to the mineral contamination of chamomile
Digested samples were transferred to 50 mL flasks through filter waste. The high energy value was due to the high energy value of
paper and diluted to the mark with ultra-pure water. The samples soybean waste in P5 and P6 mixtures, as well as the high energy
were examined using SpectroBlue ICP OES spectrometer at the value of birch sawdust in the P4 mixture. The lower energy value of
Regional Research Center for Environment, Agricultural, and P3 pellets was due to the proportion of pea waste in the mixture.
Innovative Technologies, Pope John II State School of Higher Edu- According to Mani et al. [19], the pellets prepared from maize,
cation in Biała Podlaska. Analytical curves were prepared by di- barley, and wheat straw had high ash content, which amounted to
lutions of VHG SM68-1-500 Multi-Element Standard 1 in 5% HNO3. 10.72% for barley, 8.32% for wheat, and 7.46% for maize, respec-
tively, which evidences the need for further studies aiming to
reduce ash content. Kraszkiewicz et al. [20] conducted research on
2.5. Statistical analysis of the results
the use of rapeseed and rye straw mixed in various proportions
with soybean hulls and rapeseed press cakes. The results demon-
The results of the analysis of the raw materials and pellets were
strated a reduction in the ash content in the pellets obtained from
subjected to one-way analysis of variance using Statistica 10.0
appropriate compounds, with the calorific values within the range
software.
of 15e17 MJ kg1. Similar results were reported by Ebling and Jen-
kins [21] after using barley and wheat straw.
3. Results and discussion Table 6 presents the geometric characteristics and mechanical
strength of the pellets obtained. Mechanical strength is an impor-
The raw materials used for pelleting were assessed in terms of tant technical parameter in the production of the pellet. Pellets that
their level of fragmentation. Degree of fragmentation determines degrade easily cause high emissions of dust; they may block
both the agglomeration process and the durability parameters of feeding system in a boiler and contribute to an increased risk of fire
the product obtained. Table 3 presents the results of the conducted or explosion during storage and transport. The pellets designated as
analysis. P4, obtained from birch sawdust and pea waste had the highest
Birch dust was the most fragmented materiald16.75% of this mechanical strength (more than 97%). The mechanical strength of
material sieved through the square mesh of 0.25 mm. At the same all the obtained pellets was high, where as only in the case of
time, soybean waste was not very fragmentedd85.5% of this ma- addition of soybean and pea waste to chamomile waste (pellet P5),
terial stopped on the sieve with 3.15 mm mesh size. After burning, the mechanical strength became low (just over 90%). The high
the moisture content, calorific value, and ash content were deter- mechanical strength of the pellets obtained from the P4 mixture is
mined for the individual raw materials used in the production of caused by the highest specific density, which indicates a high de-
pellets. Table 4 presents the data. In accordance with the estab- gree of compaction and low ash content (2.30%). The ash content in
lished methodology, chamomile waste and birch sawdust were the mixture affects the reduction of the binding forces of the pellet-
moistened to the moisture content of 18%. Soybean waste had the forming components, which was observed after the addition of
highest calorific value (20,929.6 kJ kg1), where as pea waste had chamomile waste with the highest ash content (5.31%) to the pel-
the lowest calorific value of 15,977.2 kJ kg1. The calorific value is lets obtained from the P5 mixture. In the study conducted by
influenced by the moisture content of the raw material, which was Kraszkiewicz et al. [20], the pellets obtained from rapeseed straw
the lowest in the case of soybean waste (7.67%). In addition to the with the addition of rapeseed press cake and spelt hulls had me-
moisture content, calorific value is also influenced by the density chanical strength of 95.9%, for which the compressive strength was
and the type of raw material. In this study, we were able to develop 1222.2 N and the cutting force was 136.6 N. In other studies
the composition of six compound pellets with similar calorific [22e26], mechanical strength of pellets was assessed, each time
values based on our knowledge of calorific value and ash content of highlighting the importance of the binding compound and the
the raw materials (Table 5). Although the pellets had similar calo- particle size on the overall mechanical strength. It has been sta-
rific values, the ash content varied (see Table 5). The pellets, tistically confirmed that the larger the size of the particles in the
designated as P2, P4, and P6, were characterized by low ash content pellet smaller will be its mechanical strength, and there is an in-
(below 3%), where as the remaining ones produced a greater verse relationship in the case of proportion of the binding agent.
amount of ash, not exceeding 6.27%. The varied content of moisture The calorific value and the values of mechanical strength,
prior to the process of pelleting resulted from various proportions hardness, cutting force, and energy consumption during the pro-
of additives that were not moistened. Aragon-Garitaet al. [18] used duction of the pellet was favorable toward the production of P4. The
five varieties of energy plants grown in Costa Rica. They determined results of the energy consumption of the pelleting process and its
the ash content, calorific value, and the size and number of cracks effectiveness (Table 7) shows the significant effect of the compo-
with the help of X-ray. The calorific value of the obtained pellets sition of the raw material on the aforementioned parameters.
was within the range of 15.6e17.6 MJ kg1; however, too high ash Despite the low initial moisture content in P5 (13.85%), it showed
content (3.4e10.5%) requires further research into its composition the highest effectiveness (106.7 kg h1) as well as the lowest energy
as it does not meet the DIN standards. In this study, the obtained consumption (38.4 Wh$kg1) than that of other pellets. However,
pellets were characterized by the calorific value higher than

Table 3
Particle size distribution of the raw materials and plant waste used for pelleting [%].

Type of the raw material Sieve mesh size [mm]

3.15 2.8 2.0 1.4 1.0 0.5 0.25 0.0

Camomile waste 12.09 0.32 0.64 7.23 25.28 48.17 5.32 0.96
Birch sawdust 1.96 0.34 0.77 1.28 3.39 28.98 46.53 16.75
Peas waste 24.79 3.54 9.41 14.12 11.86 18.41 9.4 8.48
Soybean waste 85.50 3.31 5.24 3.95 0.90 0.72 0.19 0.18
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Table 4
Characteristics of plant raw materials in working state.

Type of raw material Moisture content of the raw material [%] Calorific value [kJ$kg1] Ash content [%]

Camomile waste 15.34 17252.6 5.31

Birch sawdust 8.56 17663.6 1.77
Peas waste 10.77 15977.2 2.52
Soybean waste 7.67 20929.6 5.07

Table 5
Characteristics of the produced pellets.

Pellet designation Moisture content before pelleting [%] Pellets moisture content [%] Calorific value [kJ$kg1of dry matter) ash content in the dry matter [%]

P 1 18.17 12.80 17627.4 6.27

P 2 17.92 12.27 17873.5 1.93
P 3 14.47 12.07 16711.4 4.40
P 4 14.35 11.56 17104.6 2.30
P 5 13.85 12.59 17861.8 5.62
P 6 13.72 11.12 17994.5 2.89

Table 6
Physical properties of pellets.

Pellet designation Pellet diameter [mm] Pellet length [mm] Specific density [kg/m3] Bulk density [kg/m3] Mechanical strength [%]

P 1 8.37 26.85 1033.43 489.67 95.57

P 2 8.30 24.41 1146.87 506.13 96.13
P 3 8.30 31.34 1129.66 606.83 95.13
P 4 8.30 33.13 1152.3 584.13 97.06
P 5 8.31 26.21 1128.23 567.83 90.23
P 6 8.50 27.37 1077.73 544.83 94.63

Table 7
The effectiveness and energy consumption of pelleting process.

Pellets designation Effectiveness of pelleting process [kg$h1] Energy consumption of pelleting process [Wh$kg1]

P 1 83.1 108.9
P 2 39.2 100.8
P 3 90.9 44.7
P 4 57.0 43.6
P 5 106.7 38.4
P 6 93.8 44.7

P5 was characterized by the lowest mechanical strength (90.23%). results due to the variation in the content of lignin in the raw
P1 and P2 exhibited high energy consumption during the process material, as well as due to the varied moisture content of the pel-
(over 100 Wh kg1); they were obtained from chamomile waste lets. P2 and P4, based on birch sawdust, were characterized by the
and birch sawdust, respectively. Birch sawdust (P2) with no addi- highest mechanical strength. P5 made from the chamomile waste
tives was characterized by low effectiveness of pelleting with the addition of pea and soybean waste had the lowest me-
(39.2 kg h1). Birch sawdust and pea waste (P4) showed the higher chanical strength (122.88 N). The obtained compression test results
effectiveness of pelleting by more than 45%, where as the addition in this study are similar to the results obtained by a previous study
of soybean waste (P6) increased the effectiveness by 140%, in [16], in which the compressive strength of pellets obtained from
addition to simultaneously decrease the energy consumption by compost ranged from 99 to 130 N. These dependencies are caused
more than 55%. In comparison, by using an additive of soybean by the different composition of the raw material. Under high
waste to the chamomile waste, the effectiveness of production pressure, particles were brought close to each other causing inter-
improved and the energy consumption of the pelleting process particle bonding. The natural binding components such as starch,
decreased. Research shows that the chemical composition of raw protein, and lignin are squeezed out of the particles, which
materials has a significant effect on the pelleting process. Soybean contribute to the formation of solid bridges.
waste contains fat, which improves the efficiency of the process Similar dependencies were obtained when examining the cut-
and influences its energy consumption. The energy consumption of ting force of the pellet (Fig. 3). The highest cutting force was
pelleting process is one of the many components of the overall cost recorded for the pellets P2 made from birch sawdust (161.28 N) and
of pellet production, which among others, include the cost of raw P4 (156.22 N). The lowest cutting force was recorded for the pellets
materials, cost of running the equipment, cost of workers, and P5 (31.29 N) and P3 (56.04 N). According to Kraszkiewicz et al. [20],
possible cost of final drying of the raw materials [27]. the highest cutting force was obtained for pellets made of rapeseed
Similar to a previous study [27], our results of the mechanical straw and press cake with the addition of spelt hulls, which was
strength of pellet (Fig. 2) demonstrate significant importance of the 136.6 N. The lowest cutting force was recorded for pellets made of
composition of the pellet (Table 8). Jiang et al. [28] examined the rapeseed straw and soybean hulls (42.2 N).
mechanical strength of wood biomass pellet and obtained various Table 9 shows the heavy metal content in the tested pellets. In
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Fig. 2. Mechanical strength of the obtained pellets.

Table 8 all the samples, the content of cadmium and lead was significantly
Analysis of variance (ANOVA). low, where as the content of copper and zinc varied. The coefficient
Source variables SS df MS F value Probability of variation (CV) for the copper content in the pellets was over 88%,
Particle density [kg,m3] 32279.90 5 6455.981 38.46674 0.0
which shows a large discrepancy in the results obtained, where as
Bulk density [kg,m3] 30912.53 5 6182.506 87.81137 0.0 the CV for the zinc content was 8.7%, which shows low variability in
Length [mm] 190.6000 5 38.12000 1.447595 0.22 the results. In all the tested pellets, zinc content was smaller than
Diameter [g] 0.318000 5 0.063600 26.01818 0.0 100 mg kg1of dry matter, which meets the accepted quality stan-
Mechanical durability [%] 85.48944 5 17.09789 5.247434 0.008
dards. The copper content in all the tested pellets was smaller than
Crushing force [N] 481536.8 5 96307.37 66.95664 0.0
Cutting force [N] 143615.7 5 28723.15 68.22602 0.0 10 mg kg1of dry matter, which also meets the quality re-
quirements [DIN plus, EN14961-2:2011], and the variation may
result from the place of origin of the raw material for energetic

Fig. 3. Cutting force for the obtained pellets.

Table 9
Heavy metal content in pellets.

Designation of the pellet Cu [mg,kg1s.m.] Cd [mg,kg1s.m.] Pb [mg,kg1s.m.] Zn [mg,kg1s.m.]

P1 7.04 >0.001 >0.009 36.17

P2 1.62 >0.001 >0.009 31.62
P3 1.24 >0.001 >0.009 34.16
P4 1.55 >0.001 >0.009 39.96
P5 2.22 >0.001 >0.009 32.29
P6 1.44 >0.001 >0.009 36.54
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purposes. According to Kabała et al. [29], the copper content in the biombioe.2003.08.019.
energy crops was within the range of 3.86e35.25 mg kg1of dry [8] G. Thek, I. Obernberger, Wood pellet production costs under Austrian and in
comparison to Swedish framework conditions, Biomass Bioenergy 27 (2004)
matter. However, Obernbergernad and Thek [30] found that the 671e693, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2003.07.007.
copper content in the wood pellets and briquettes was within the [9] PN-EN ISO 17827-2:2016-07. Biopaliwa Stałe - Oznaczanie Składu Ziarnowego
range of 1.1e1.4 mg kg1 of dry matter, where as the zinc content Paliw Niesprasowanych - Cze˛
s
c 2: Metoda Przesiewania Wibracyjnego Przy
_
Uzyciu Sit O Wymiarach Oczka 3,15 Mm Lub Ponizej _ (in polish).
was between 12.4 and 13.2 mg kg1of dry matter. However, in the [10] PN-EN-ISO 18134-3:2015-11. Biopaliwa Stałe - Oznaczanie Zawarto
sci Wil-
case of pellets made of straw, the copper content was in the range of goci - Metoda Suszarkowa - Cze˛
s
c 3: Wilgo
c W Pro
bce Do Analizy Ogo
lnej (in
2.2e7.1 mg kg1 of dry matter, where as zinc content ranged from 6 polish).
[11] PN-EN-ISO 18125:2017-07. Biopaliwa Stałe - Oznaczanie Warto
sci Opałowej.
to 170 mg kg1 of dry matter, which exceeded the acceptable (in polish).
norms. High zinc concentration was also recorded by Samars et al. [12] PN-EN ISO 18122:2016-01. Biopaliwa Stałe - Oznaczanie Zawarto
sci Popiołu.
[31]; they found zinc concentration to be around 121 mg kg1 of dry (in polish).


[13] PN-EN ISO 17829:2016-02. Biopaliwa Stałe e Okre
slanie Długo
sci I Srednicy
matter in the ash from plant biomass. Peleto
w. (in polish).
[14] PN-EN ISO 17828:2016-02. Biopaliwa Stałe e Okre
slanie Ge˛ sto
sci Nasypowej.
4. Conclusion (in polish).
[15] PN-EN ISO 17831-1:2016-02. Biopaliwa Stałe e Oznaczanie Wytrzymało
sci
Mechanicznej Peleto
w I Brykieto
w – Cze˛
s

c 1: Pelety. (in polish).
The constant search for waste materials that may be used in the [16] Gh. Absalan, M.H. Kianmehr, A. Arabhosseini, Sh. Kouravand, Optimization
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