Section 9.

5 (Equivalence Relation)
Q:9. Suppose that A is a nonempty set, and f is a function that has A as its domain. Let R be the relation
on A consisting of all ordered pairs (x, y) such that f (x) = f (y).
a) Show that R is an equivalence relation on A.
b) What are the equivalence classes of R?
Ans: a) Reflexivity:

f is a function, for any element x in A, f(x) is also in A. Therefore, (x, x) is in R because f(x) = f(x), which
demonstrates reflexivity.

b) Symmetry:

If f(x) = f(y), it follows that f(y) = f(x), and vice versa. This symmetry shows that R is symmetric.

c) Transitivity:

If f(x) = f(y) and f(y) = f(z), then by transitivity of equality, we can conclude that f(x) = f(z). This shows that
R is transitive.

Therefore, R satisfies the properties of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity, making it an equivalence
relation on set A.

(B) Equivalence Classes of R:

The equivalence classes of R are subsets of A where each element in a subset is related to all other
elements in that subset according to the relation R. In this case, each equivalence class corresponds to
elements in set A that map to the same value under the function f.

To find the equivalence classes, you can group elements in A that have the same function value (i.e.,
those elements x and y for which f(x) = f(y)). Each group forms an equivalence class.

For example, if there are three elements a, b, and c in A such that f(a) = f(b) = f(c), then the equivalence
class of f(a) consists of {a, b, c}.

In general, the equivalence classes can be represented as:

[E] = {x ∈ A : f(x) = f(e) for some fixed element e ∈ A}

Each equivalence class [E] contains all elements related to each other under the relation R.

Please let me know if you have further questions or need more clarification

Q:11. Show that the relation R consisting of all pairs(x, y)such that x and y are bit strings of length three
or more that agree in their first three bits is an equivalence relation on the set of all bit strings of length
three or more

Ans: Reflexivity:
If x and y have the same first three bits, they must be related. So, for any bit string x, (x, x) is in R because
x agrees with itself in its first three bits, demonstrating reflexivity.

Symmetry:

If x and y agree in their first three bits, then it's clear that y and x also agree in their first three bits.
Therefore, symmetry is satisfied.

Transitivity:

If x and y agree in their first three bits and y and z agree in their first three bits, then it's evident that x
and z also agree in their first three bits. Transitivity is thus satisfied.

Since the relation R satisfies the properties of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity, it is indeed an
equivalence relation on the set of all bit strings of length three or more.

Q:13. Show that the relation R consisting of all pairs (x, y) such that x and y are bit strings that agree in
their first and third bits is an equivalence relation on the set of all bit strings of length three or more.

Ans: Reflexivity:

If x and y have the same first and third bits, they must be related. So, for any bit string x, (x, x) is in R
because x agrees with itself in its first and third bits, demonstrating reflexivity.

Symmetry:

If x and y agree in their first and third bits, it's clear that y and x also agree in their first and third bits.
Therefore, symmetry is satisfied.

Transitivity:

If x and y agree in their first and third bits and y and z agree in their first and third bits, then it's evident
that x and z also agree in their first and third bits. Transitivity is thus satisfied.

Since the relation R satisfies the properties of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity, it is indeed an
equivalence relation on the set of all bit strings of length three or more.

Q:15. Let R be the relation on the set of ordered pairs of positive integers such that ((a, b), (c, d)) ∈ R if
and only if a + d = b + c. Show that R is an equivalence relation

Ans: Reflexivity:

For R to be reflexive, we must show that every ordered pair ((a, b), (c, d)) has the property a + d = b + c,
which means ((a, b), (a, b)) is in R for all positive integers a and b.

Clearly, a + b = b + a, which holds true for all positive integers a and b, so reflexivity is satisfied.

Symmetry:

For R to be symmetric, if ((a, b), (c, d)) is in R, then ((c, d), (a, b)) must also be in R.

If a + d = b + c, then switching the positions of the pairs, d + a = c + b. This shows that if ((a, b), (c, d)) is in
R, then ((c, d), (a, b)) is also in R, demonstrating symmetry.
Transitivity:

For R to be transitive, if ((a, b), (c, d)) and ((c, d), (e, f)) are in R, then ((a, b), (e, f)) must also be in R.

If a + d = b + c and c + f = d + e, we can add the two equations to get a + d + c + f = b + c + d + e, which

Since R satisfies the properties of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity, it is indeed an equivalence
relation on the set of ordered pairs of positive integers.

Q:17. (a) Show that the relation R on the set of all differentiable functions from R to R consisting of all
pairs (f, g) such that f' (x) = g' (x) for all real numbers x is an equivalence relation

Ans: Reflexivity:

For R to be reflexive, we must show that for every differentiable function f(x) from R to R, (f, f) is in R. In
other words, we need to demonstrate that f'(x) = f'(x) for all real numbers x.

This is trivially true since the derivative of a function with itself is always equal to itself: f'(x) = f'(x) for all
x. Therefore, R is reflexive.

Symmetry:

For R to be symmetric, if (f, g) is in R, then (g, f) must also be in R. In this case, it means we must show
that if f'(x) = g'(x) for all x, then g'(x) = f'(x) for all x.

This is also trivially true, as the order of the functions does not affect the equality of their derivatives.
Therefore, R is symmetric.

Transitivity:

For R to be transitive, if (f, g) and (g, h) are in R, then (f, h) must also be in R. In this case, it means we
must show that if f'(x) = g'(x) and g'(x) = h'(x) for all x, then f'(x) = h'(x) for all x.

Transitivity holds because if two functions have the same derivative with respect to x, and a third
function also has the same derivative, then the first and the third functions have the same derivative.
This means that f'(x) = h'(x) for all x. Therefore, R is transitive.

Since the relation R satisfies the properties of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity, it is indeed an
equivalence relation on the set of all differentiable functions from R to R

Q:17. (b) Which functions are in the same equivalence class as the function f (x) = x2?

Ans: In the context of the equivalence relation defined as "two functions are in the same equivalence
class if their derivatives are equal for all real numbers x," let's find the functions in the same equivalence
class as the function f(x) = x^2.

We have f(x) = x^2, and we want to find functions g(x) such that g'(x) = f'(x) for all x.

The derivative of f(x) = x^2 is f'(x) = 2x.

So, any function g(x) for which g'(x) = 2x is in the same equivalence class as f(x).
A general form of such functions would be:

g(x) = x^2 + C, where C is an arbitrary constant.

For any value of C, the derivative of g(x) is g'(x) = 2x, which is equal to the derivative of f(x). Therefore, all
functions of the form g(x) = x^2 + C, where C is a constant, are in the same equivalence class as f(x) = x^2

Q:19. Let R be the relation on the set of all URLs (or Web addresses) such that xRy if and only if the Web
page at x is the same as the Web page at y. Show that R is an equivalence relation.

Ans: Reflexivity:

For R to be reflexive, every URL x must be related to itself. In other words, (x, x) should be in R for all
URLs x.

This is trivially true because any Web page is the same as itself. Therefore, reflexivity is satisfied.

Symmetry:

For R to be symmetric, if (x, y) is in R, then (y, x) must also be in R.

If the Web page at URL x is the same as the Web page at URL y, then it is clear that the Web page at URL
y is also the same as the Web page at URL x. Therefore, symmetry is satisfied.

Transitivity:

For R to be transitive, if (x, y) and (y, z) are in R, then (x, z) must also be in R.

If the Web page at URL x is the same as the Web page at URL y and the Web page at URL y is the same as
the Web page at URL z, it follows that the Web page at URL x is also the same as the Web page at URL z.
Therefore, transitivity is satisfied.

Since the relation R satisfies the properties of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity, it is indeed an
equivalence relation on the set of all URLs. This means that it defines equivalence classes of Web pages
that are identical to each other.

``~~The End~~``