Mathematics

Relations

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Table of Content

1. Definitions.

2. Inverse Relation.

3. Types of Relations.

4. Equivalence Classes of an Equivalence Relation.

5. Composition of Relations.
6. Peano's Axioms.

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1. Definitions.

Let A and B be two non-empty sets, then every subset of A × B defines a relation from A to B and every
relation from A to B is a subset of A × B.
Let R  A  B and (a, b)  R. Then we say that a is related to b by the relation R and write it as a R b . If
(a, b )  R , we write it as a R b .
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 5, 8, 9}, B = {1, 3} we set a relation from A to B as: a R b iff a  b; a  A, b  B .
Then R = {(1, 1)}, (1, 3), (2, 3)}  A × B

(1) Total number of relations: Let A and B be two non-empty finite sets consisting of m and n elements
respectively. Then A × B consists of mn ordered pairs. So, total number of subset of A × B is 2mn. Since
each subset of A × B defines relation from A to B, so total number of relations from A to B is 2mn. Among
these 2mn relations the void relation  and the universal relation A × B are trivial relations from A to B.

(2) Domain and range of a relation: Let R be a relation from a set A to a set B. Then the set of all first
components or coordinates of the ordered pairs belonging to R is called the domain of R, while the set
of all second components or coordinates of the ordered pairs in R is called the range of R.
Thus, Dom (R) = {a : (a, b)  R} and Range (R) = {b : (a, b)  R}.
It is evident from the definition that the domain of a relation from A to B is a subset of A and its range is a
subset of B.

(3) Relation on a set: Let A be a non-void set. Then, a relation from A to itself i.e. a subset of A × A is
called a relation on set A.

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2. Inverse Relation.

Let A, B be two sets and let R be a relation from a set A to a set B. Then the inverse of R, denoted by R–1,
is a relation from B to A and is defined by R 1  {(b, a) : (a, b )  R}
Clearly (a, b)  R  (b, a)  R–1 .

Also, Dom (R) = Range (R 1 ) and Range (R) = Dom (R 1 )

3. Types of Relations.

(1) Reflexive relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if every element of A is related to
itself.
Thus, R is reflexive  (a, a)  R for all a  A.
A relation R on a set A is not reflexive if there exists an element a  A such that (a, a)  R.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1); (1, 3)}
Then R is not reflexive since 3  A but (3, 3)  R

Note:  The identity relation on a non-void set A is always reflexive relation on A. However, a reflexive relation on
A is not necessarily the identity relation on A.
 The universal relation on a non-void set A is reflexive.

(2) Symmetric relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be a symmetric relation iff

(a, b)  R  (b, a)  R for all a, b  A
i.e. aRb  bRa for all a, b  A.
It should be noted that R is symmetric iff R 1  R

Note: The identity and the universal relations on a non-void set are symmetric relations.
A relation R on a set A is not a symmetric relation if there are at least two elements a, b  A such that (a, b)  R but
(b, a)  R.
A reflexive relation on a set A is not necessarily symmetric.

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(3) Anti-symmetric relation: Let A be any set. A relation R on set A is said to be an anti-symmetric
relation iff (a, b)  R and (b, a)  R  a = b for all a, b  A.
Thus, if a  b then a may be related to b or b may be related to a, but never both.
Example: Let N be the set of natural numbers. A relation R  N  N is defined by xRy iff x divides y(i.e.,
x/y).
Then x R y , y R x  x divides y, y divides x  x  y

Note: The identity relation on a set A is an anti-symmetric relation.

The universal relation on a set A containing at least two elements is not anti-symmetric, because if a  b are in A,
then a is related to b and b is related to a under the universal relation will imply that a = b but a  b.

The set {(a, a) : a  A}  D is called the diagonal line of A  A . Then “the relation R in A is antisymmetric iff
R  R 1  D ”.

(4) Transitive relation: Let A be any set. A relation R on set A is said to be a transitive relation iff
(a, b)  R and (b, c)  R  (a, c)  R for all a, b, c  A i.e., aRb and bRc  aRc for all a, b, c  A.
In other words, if a is related to b, b is related to c, then a is related to c.
Transitivity fails only when there exists a, b, c such that a R b, b R c but a R c.
Example: Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3} and the relations
R1  {(1, 2), (1, 3)} ; R 2 = {(1, 2)}; R 3 = {(1, 1)}; R 4 = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 1)}

Then R1 , R 2 , R 3 are transitive while R 4 is not transitive since in R 4 , (2, 1)  R 4 ; (1, 2)  R 4 but (2, 2)  R4 .

Note: The identity and the universal relations on a non-void sets are transitive.
The relation ‘is congruent to’ on the set T of all triangles in a plane is a transitive relation.

(5) Identity relation: Let A be a set. Then the relation IA = {(a, a) : a  A} on A is called the identity relation on
A.
In other words, a relation IA on A is called the identity relation if every element of A is related to itself
only. Every identity relation will be reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Example: On the set = {1, 2, 3}, R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} is the identity relation on A .

Note: It is interesting to note that every identity relation is reflexive but every reflexive relation need not be an
identity relation.
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Also, identity relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

(6) Equivalence relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation on A iff

(i) It is reflexive i.e. (a, a)  R for all a  A
(ii) It is symmetric i.e. (a, b)  R  (b, a)  R, for all a, b  A
(iii) It is transitive i.e. (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R  (a, c)  R for all a, b, c  A.

Note: Congruence modulo (m): Let m be an arbitrary but fixed integer. Two integers a and b are said to be
congruence modulo m if a  b is divisible by m and we write a  b (mod m).

Thus a  b (mod m)  a  b is divisible by m. For example, 18  3 (mod 5) because 18 – 3 = 15 which is

divisible by 5. Similarly, 3  13 (mod 2) because 3 – 13 = –10 which is divisible by 2. But 25  2 (mod 4)
because 4 is not a divisor of 25 – 3 = 22.
The relation “Congruence modulo m” is an equivalence relation.

Important Tips
 If R and S are two equivalence relations on a set A , then R  S is also an equivalence relation on A.
 The union of two equivalence relations on a set is not necessarily an equivalence relation on the set.
 The inverse of an equivalence relation is an equivalence relation.

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4. Equivalence Classes of an Equivalence Relation.

Let R be equivalence relation in A(  ) . Let a  A . Then the equivalence class of a, denoted by [a] or {a }
is defined as the set of all those points of A which are related to a under the relation R. Thus [a] = {x  A
: x R a}.
It is easy to see that
(1) b  [a]  a  [b] (2) b  [a]  [a]  [b ] (3) Two equivalence classes are either disjoint or
identical.
As an example we consider a very important equivalence relation x  y(mod n) iff n divides (x  y ), n is a
fixed positive integer. Consider n  5 . Then
[0] = {x : x  0 (mod 5)} = {5p : p  Z} = { 0,  5,  10 ,  15 ,.....}

[1] = { x : x  1(mod 5)}  { x : x  1  5 k , k  Z}  {5 k  1 : k  Z }  {1, 6, 11, .......,  4 ,  9, .....} .

One can easily see that there are only 5 distinct equivalence classes viz. [0], [1], [2], [3] and [4], when n =
5.

5. Axiomatic Definitions of the Set of Natural Numbers (Peano's Axioms).

The set N of natural numbers (N = {1, 2, 3, 4......}) is a set satisfying the following axioms (known as
peano's axioms)
(1) N is not empty.

(2) There exist an injective (one-one) map S : N  N given by S (n)  n  , where n  is the immediate
successor of n in N i.e., n  1  n  .

(3) The successor mapping S is not surjective (onto).

(4) If M  N such that,

(i) M contains an element which is not the successor of any element in N, and
(ii) m  M  m   M , then M  N
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This is called the axiom of induction. We denote the unique element which is not the successor of any
element is 1. Also, we get 1   2, 2   3 .

Note: Addition in N is defined as,

n  1  n
n  m   (n  m ) 

Multiplication in N is defined by,

n .1  n

n.m   n.m  n

7
Mathematics

Sets Theory

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Table of Content

1. Definitions.
2. Types of Sets.

3. Venn-Euler diagrams.

4. Operations on Sets.

5. Some Important results on Number of elements in Sets.

6. Laws of Algebra of Sets.

7. Cartesian product of sets.

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1. Definitions.

A set is a well-defined class or collection of objects. By a well-defined collection we mean that there exists
a rule with the help of which it is possible to tell whether a given object belongs or does not belong to
the given collection. The objects in sets may be anything, numbers, people, mountains, rivers etc. The
objects constituting the set are called elements or members of the set.
A set is often described in the following two ways.

(1) Roster method or Listing method: In this method a set is described by listing elements, separated
by commas, within braces {}. The set of vowels of English alphabet may be described as {a, e, i, o, u}.
The set of even natural numbers can be described as {2, 4, 6..........}. Here the dots stand for ‘and so on’.

Note:  The order in which the elements are written in a set makes no difference. Thus {a, e, i, o, u} and {e, a, i,
o, u} denote the same set. Also the repetition of an element has no effect. For example, {1, 2, 3, and 2} is the same
set as {1, 2, and 3}

(2) Set-builder method or Rule method: In this method, a set is described by a characterizing property
P(x) of its elements x. In such a case the set is described by {x: P(x) holds} or {x | P(x) holds}, which is read
as ‘the set of all x such that P(x) holds’. The symbol ‘|’ or ‘:’ is read as ‘such that’.
The set E of all even natural numbers can be written as
E = {x | x is natural number and x = 2n for n  N}
or E = {x | x  N, x = 2n, n  N}
or E = {x  N | x = 2n, n  N}
The set A  {0, 1, 4 , 9, 16 ,....} can be written as A  {x 2 | x  Z }

Note: Symbols

Symbol Meaning
 Implies
 Belongs to
AB A is a subset of B
 Implies and is implied by
 Does not belong to
s.t. Such that
 For every
 There exists
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 Symbol Meaning
iff If and only if
& And
a|b a is a divisor of b
N Set of natural numbers
I or Z Set of integers
R Set of real numbers
C Set of complex numbers
Q Set of rational numbers

2. Types of Sets.

(1) Null set or Empty set: The set which contains no element at all is called the null set. This set is
sometimes also called the ‘empty set’ or the ‘void set’. It is denoted by the symbol  or {}.
A set which has at least one element is called a non-empty set.
Let A  {x : x 2  1  0 and x is real)
Since there is no real number which satisfies the equation x 2  1  0 , therefore the set A is empty set.

Note: If A and B are any two empty sets, then x  A iff x  B is satisfied because there is no element x in either A
or B to which the condition may be applied. Thus A = B. Hence, there is only one empty set and we denote it by  .
Therefore, article 'the' is used before empty set.

(2) Singleton set: A set consisting of a single element is called a singleton set. The set {5} is a singleton
set.

(3) Finite set: A set is called a finite set if it is either void set or its elements can be listed (counted,
labelled) by natural number 1, 2, 3, … and the process of listing terminates at a certain natural number n
(say).

Cardinal number of a finite set: The number n in the above definition is called the cardinal number or
order of a finite set A and is denoted by n(A) or O(A).

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(4) Infinite set: A set whose elements cannot be listed by the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, …., n, for any
natural number n is called an infinite set.

(5) Equivalent set: Two finite sets A and B are equivalent if their cardinal numbers are same i.e. n (A) = n
(B).
Example: A  {1, 3, 5, 7} ; B  {10 , 12, 14 , 16 } are equivalent sets [ O( A)  O(B)  4 ]

(6) Equal set: Two sets A and B are said to be equal iff every element of A is an element of B and also
every element of B is an element of A. We write “A = B” if the sets A and B are equal and “A  B” if the
sets A and B are not equal. Symbolically, A = B if x  A  x  B.
The statement given in the definition of the equality of two sets is also known as the axiom of extension.
Example: If A  {2, 3, 5, 6} and B  {6, 5, 3, 2} . Then A  B, because each element of A is an element of B
and vice-versa.

Note: Equal sets are always equivalent but equivalent sets may need not be equal set.

(7) Universal set: A set that contains all sets in a given context is called the universal set.
or
A set containing of all possible elements which occur in the discussion is called a universal set and is
denoted by U.
Thus in any particular discussion, no element can exist out of universal set. It should be noted that
universal set is not unique. It may differ in problem to problem.

(8) Power set: If S is any set, then the family of all the subsets of S is called the power set of S.
The power set of S is denoted by P(S). Symbolically, P(S) = {T: T  S}. Obviously  and S are both
elements of P(S).
Example: Let S = {a, b, c}, then P(S) = {  , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}.

Note:  If A   , then P(A) has one element  ,  n[P( A)]  1

 Power set of a given set is always non-empty.

 If A has n elements, then P (A) has 2n elements.
 P( )  { }

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P(P( ))  { , { }}  P[P(P( ))]  { , { }, {{ }}, { , { }}}
Hence n{P[ P(P( ))]}  4 .

(9) Subsets (Set inclusion): Let A and B be two sets. If every element of A is an element of B, then A is
called a subset of B.
If A is subset of B, we write A  B, which is read as “A is a subset of B” or “A is contained in B”.
Thus, A  B  a  A  a  B.

Note:  Every set is a subset of itself.

 The empty set is a subset of every set.
 The total number of subset of a finite set containing n elements is 2n.

Proper and improper subsets: If A is a subset of B and A  B, then A is a proper subset of B. We write
this as A  B .
The null set  is subset of every set and every set is subset of itself, i.e.,   A and A A for every set A.
They are called improper subsets of A. Thus every non-empty set has two improper subsets. It should be
noted that  has only one subset  which is improper. Thus A has two improper subsets iff it is non-
empty.
All other subsets of A are called its proper subsets. Thus, if A  B, A  B , A   , then A is said to be
proper subset of B.
Example: Let A  {1, 2} . Then A has  ; {1}, {2}, {1, 2} as its subsets out of which  and {1, 2} are improper
and {1} and {2} are proper subsets.

3. Venn-Euler Diagrams.

The combination of rectangles and circles are called Venn-Euler diagrams or simply Venn-diagrams.

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In venn-diagrams the universal set U is represented by points within a rectangle
and its subsets are represented by points in closed curves (usually circles) within
U
the rectangle. If a set A is a subset of a set B, then the circle representing A is
A
drawn inside the circle representing B. If A and B are not equal but they have
some common elements, then to represent A and B we draw two intersecting
circles. Two disjoints sets are represented by two non-intersecting circles.

4. Operations on Sets.

(1) Union of sets: Let A and B be two sets. The union of A and B is the set of all elements which are in
set A or in B. We denote the union of A and B by A  B
U
Which is usually read as “A union B”.
AB

Symbolically, A  B  {x : x  A or x  B}.
A B
It should be noted here that we take standard mathematical usage of “or”. When
we say that x  A or x B we do not exclude the possibility that x is a member of both A and B.

n
Note: If A1 , A 2 ,......, A n is a finite family of sets, then their union is denoted by  Ai or A 1  A 2  A 3 ......  A n .
i1

(2) Intersection of sets: Let A and B be two sets. The intersection of A and B is the set of all those
elements that belong to both A and B.
U
The intersection of A and B is denoted by A  B (read as “A intersection B”)
AB
Thus, A  B = {x : x  A and x  B}.
A B
Clearly, x  A  B  x  A and x  B.
In fig. the shaded region represents A  B. Evidently A  B  A, A  B  B.
n
Note: If A 1 , A 2 , A 3 ......., A n is a finite family of sets, then their intersection is denoted by  A or
i
i1

A1 A2 A3 ........

An.

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(3) Disjoint sets: Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint, if A  B =. If A  B  , then A and B are said
to be non-intersecting or non-overlapping sets.
In other words, if A and B have no element in common, then A and B are called disjoint sets.
Example: Sets {1, 2}; {3, 4} are disjoint sets.

(4) Difference of sets: Let A and B be two sets. The difference of A and B written as A – B, is the set of all
those elements of A which do not belong to B.
U U
Thus, A – B = {x: x  A and x  B}
A–B B–A
or A – B = {x  A: x  B}
Clearly, x  A – B  x  A and x  B. In fig. the shaded part A B A B

represents A – B.
Similarly, the difference B  A is the set of all those elements of B that do not belong to A i.e.
B  A  {x  B : x  A}
Example: Consider the sets A  {1, 2, 3} and B  {3, 4 , 5} , then A  B  {1, 2}; B  A  {4 , 5}
As another example, R  Q is the set of all irrational numbers.

(5) Symmetric difference of two sets: Let A and B be two sets. The symmetric difference of sets A and
B is the set ( A  B)  (B  A) and is denoted by A  B . Thus, A  B = ( A  B)  (B  A)  {x : x  A  B}

(6) Complement of a set: Let U be the universal set and let A be a set such that A  U. Then, the
complement of A with respect to U is denoted by A or Ac or C(A) or U – A and is
U
defined the set of all those elements of U which are not in A. A
A
Thus, A = {x  U: x  A}.
Clearly, x  A  x  A
Example: Consider U  {1, 2,......, 10 } and A  {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} .
Then A   {2, 4 , 6, 8 , 10 }

5. Some Important Results on Number of Elements in Sets.

If A, B and C are finite sets and U be the finite universal set, then
(1) n (A  B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A  B)

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(2) n (A  B) = n (A) + n (B)  A, B are disjoint non-void sets.

(3) n (A – B) = n (A) – n (A  B) i.e. n (A – B) + n (A  B) = n (A)

(4) n (A  B) = Number of elements which belong to exactly one of A or B

= n ((A – B)  (B – A))
= n (A – B) + n(B – A) [ (A – B) and (B – A) are disjoint]
= n(A) – n(A  B) + n(B) – n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B) – 2n(A  B)

(5) n(A  B  C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A  B) – n(B  C) – n(A  C) + n(A  B  C)

(6) n (Number of elements in exactly two of the sets A, B, C) = n (A  B) + n (B  C) + n (C  A) – 3n

(ABC)

(7) n (Number of elements in exactly one of the sets A, B, C) = n (A) + n (B) + n(C)
– 2n (A  B) – 2n (B  C) – 2n (A C) + 3n (A  B  C)

(8) n (A  B) = n (A  B) = n (U) – n (A  B)

(9) n (A  B) = n (A  B) = n (U) – n (A  B)

6. Laws of Algebra of Sets.

(1) Idempotent laws: For any set A, we have

(i) A  A = A (ii) A  A = A

(2) Identity laws: For any set A, we have

(i) A   = A (ii) A  U = A
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i.e.  and U are identity elements for union and intersection respectively.

(3) Commutative laws: For any two sets A and B, we have

(i) A  B = B  A (ii) A  B = B  A (iii) AB  BA
i.e. union, intersection and symmetric difference of two sets are commutative.
(iv) A  B  B  A (iv) A  B  B  A
i.e., difference and Cartesian product of two sets are not commutative

(4) Associative laws: If A, B and C are any three sets, then

(i) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C) (ii) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C (iii) ( A B)C  A (B C)
i.e., union, intersection and symmetric difference of two sets are associative.
(iv) ( A  B)  C  A  (B  C) (v) ( A  B)  C  A  (B  C)
i.e., difference and Cartesian product of two sets are not associative.

(5) Distributive law: If A, B and C are any three sets, then

(i) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C) (ii) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
i.e. union and intersection are distributive over intersection and union respectively.
(iii) A  (B  C)  ( A  B)  ( A  C) (iv) A  (B  C)  ( A  B)  ( A  C) (v)
A  (B  C)  ( A  B)  ( A  C)

(6) De-Morgan’s law: If A and B are any two sets, then

(i) (A  B) = A  B (ii) (A  B) = A  B
(iii) A  (B  C )  ( A  B)  ( A  C) (iv) A  (B  C )  ( A  B)  ( A  C)

Note: Theorem 1: If A and B are any two sets, then

(i) A – B = A  B (ii) B – A = B  A
(iii) A – B = A  A  B =  (iv) (A – B)  B = A  B
(v) (A – B)  B =  (vi) A  B  B  A
(viii) (A – B)  (B – A) = (A  B) – (A  B)

Theorem 2: If A, B and C are any three sets, then

(i) A – (B  C) = (A – B)  (A – C) (ii) A – (B  C) = (A – B)  (A – C)
9
(iii) A  (B – C) = (A  B) – (A  C) (iv) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)

7. Cartesian Product of Sets.

Cartesian product of sets: Let A and B be any two non-empty sets. The set of all ordered pairs (a, b)
such that a  A and b  B is called the Cartesian product of the sets A and B and is denoted by A  B.
Thus, A × B = [(a, b): a  A and b  B]
If A =  or B =, then we define A × B =.
Example: Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {p, q}.
Then A × B = {(a, p), (a, q), (b, p), (b, q), (c, p), (c, q)}
Also B × A = {(p, a), (p, b), (p, c), (q, a), (q, b), (q, c)}

Important theorems on Cartesian product of sets:

Theorem 1: For any three sets A, B, C

(i) A × (B  C) = (A × B)  (A × C) (ii) A × (B  C) = (A × B)  (A × C)

Theorem 2: For any three sets A, B, C

A × (B – C) = (A × B) – (A × C)

Theorem 3: If A and B are any two non-empty sets, then

A×B=B×AA=B

Theorem 4: If A  B, then A × A  (A × B)  (B × A)

Theorem 5: If A  B, then A × C  B × C for any set C.

Theorem 6: If A  B and C  D, then A × C  B × D

Theorem 7: For any sets A, B, C, D

10
 (A × B)  (C  D) = (A  C) × (B  D)

Theorem 8: For any three sets A, B, C

A × (B  C) = (A × B)  (A × C)
(ii) A × (B  C) = (A × B)  (A × C)

Theorem 9: Let A and B two non-empty sets having n elements in common, then A × B and B × A have
n2 elements in common.

11
Mathematics

Continuity

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Table of Content

1. Introduction.

2. Continuity of a Function at a Point.

3. Continuity from Left and Right.

4. Continuity of a Function in Open and Closed Interval.

5. Continuous Function.

6. Discontinuous Function.

1
1. Introduction.

The word ‘Continuous’ means without any break or gap. If the graph of a function has no break, or gap or
jump, then it is said to be continuous.
A function which is not continuous is called a discontinuous function.
While studying graphs of functions, we see that graphs of functions sin x , x, cos x , ex etc. are continuous
but greatest integer function [x] has break at every integral point, so it is not continuous. Similarly
1
tan x , cot x , sec x , etc. are also discontinuous function.
x

Y Continuous function Discontinuous function

Y
Y
Y
3
(0, 1)
2
–/2  2 1
f (x) = x
–2 O /2 X X’
– X X
X X 0 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
(0,–1) f(x)= 1/x –1
–2
y = sin x y = [x]
–3
Y
Y’

2. Continuity of a Function at a Point.

A function f (x ) is said to be continuous at a point x  a of its domain iff lim f (x )  f (a) . i.e. a function
x a

f (x ) is continuous at x  a if and only if it satisfies the following three conditions:

(1) f (a) exists. (‘a’ lies in the domain of f)

(2) lim f (x ) exist i.e. lim f (x )  lim f (x ) or R.H.L. = L.H.L.

x a x a x a

(3) lim f ( x )  f (a) (limit equals the value of function).

x a

Cauchy’s definition of continuity: A function f is said to be continuous at a point a of its domain D if

for every   0 there exists   0 (dependent on  ) such that | x  a |   | f (x )  f (a)|   .
2
Comparing this definition with the definition of limit we find that f (x ) is continuous at x  a if lim f (x )
x a

exists and is equal to f (a) i.e., if lim f (x )  f (a)  lim f (x ) .

x a x a 

Heine’s definition of continuity: A function f is said to be continuous at a point a of its domain D,

converging to a, the sequence  a n  of the points in D converging to a, the sequence < f (a n ) 
converges to f (a) i.e . lim a n  a  lim f (a n )  f (a). This definition is mainly used to prove the
discontinuity to a function.

Note: Continuity of a function at a point, we find its limit and value at that point, if these two exist and are equal,
then function is continuous at that point.

Formal definition of continuity: The function f (x ) is said to be continuous at x  a, in its domain if for
any arbitrary chosen positive number   0 , we can find a corresponding number  depending on 
such that| f ( x )  f (a)|   x for which 0 | x  a |   .

3. Continuity from Left and Right.

Function f (x ) is said to be

(1) Left continuous at x = a if lim f (x )  f (a)

x a 0

(2) Right continuous at x  a if Lim f (x )  f (a) .

xa 0

Thus a function f (x ) is continuous at a point x  a if it is left continuous as well as right continuous at

x  a.

3
4. Continuity of a Function in Open and Closed Interval.

Open interval: A function f (x ) is said to be continuous in an open interval (a, b) iff it is continuous at
every point in that interval.
Note: This definition implies the non-breakable behavior of the function f (x ) in the interval (a, b).

Closed interval: A function f (x ) is said to be continuous in a closed interval [a, b] iff,

(1) f is continuous in (a, b)
(2) f is continuous from the right at ‘a’ i.e. lim f ( x )  f (a)
x a

(3) f is continuous from the left at ‘b’ i.e. lim f (x )  f (b) .

x b

5. Continuous Function.

(1) A list of continuous functions:

Function f(x) Interval in which f(x) is continuous

(i) Constant K (–, )

(ii) xn, (n is a positive integer) (–, )

(iii) x–n (n is a positive integer) (–, ) – {0}

(iv) |x – a| (–, )

(v) p( x )  a 0 x n  a1 x n  1  a 2 x n  2  ........  an (–, )

p( x ) (–, ) – {x : q(x) = 0}
(vi) , where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial in x
q( x )

(vii) sin x (–, )

(viii) cos x (–, )

(ix) tan x (–, ) – {(2n + 1)/2 : n  I}

(x) cot x (–, ) – {n : n  I}

4
 (xi) sec x (–, ) – {( 2n  1) /2 : n  I}

(xii) cosec x (–, ) – {n : n  I}

(xiii) e x (–, )

(xiv) log e x (0, )

(2) Properties of continuous functions: Let f (x ) and g(x ) be two continuous functions at x  a. Then
(i) cf (x ) is continuous at x = a, where c is any constant
(ii) f (x )  g(x ) is continuous at x  a.
(iii) f (x ) . g(x ) is continuous at x  a.
(iv) f ( x ) / g(x ) is continuous at x  a , provided g(a)  0 .

Important Tips
 A function f (x ) is said to be continuous if it is continuous at each point of its domain.
 A function f (x ) is said to be everywhere continuous if it is continuous on the entire real line R i.e.
(, ) . Eg. Polynomial function e x , sin x , cos x , constant, x n , | x  a | etc.

 Integral function of a continuous function is a continuous function.

 If g(x) is continuous at x = a and f(x) is continuous at x = g (a) then (fog) (x) is continuous at x  a .
 If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] then it is bounded on this interval.
 If f(x) is a continuous function defined on [a, b] such that f (a) and f (b) are of opposite signs, then
there is atleast one value of x for which f(x) vanishes. i.e. if f (a)>0, f (b) < 0  c  (a, b) such that f(c) = 0.
 If f(x) is continuous on [a, b] and maps [a, b] into [a, b] then for some x  [a, b] we have f(x) = x.

(3) Continuity of composite function: If the function u  f (x ) is continuous at the point x  a, and the
function y  g(u) is continuous at the point u  f (a) , then the composite function y  (gof )(x )  g( f (x )) is
continuous at the point x = a.

5
6. Discontinuous Function.

(1) Discontinuous function: A function ‘f’ which is not continuous at a point x  a in its domain is said
to be discontinuous there at. The point ‘a’ is called a point of discontinuity of the function.
The discontinuity may arise due to any of the following situations.
(i) lim f ( x ) or lim f (x ) or both may not exist
x a x a

(ii) lim f ( x ) as well as lim f (x ) may exist, but are unequal.

x a x a

(iii) lim f ( x ) as well as lim f (x ) both may exist, but either of the two or both may not be equal to f (a) .
x a x a

Important Tips
 A function f is said to have removable discontinuity at x = a if lim f (x )  lim f (x ) but their common
x a x a

value is not equal to f (a).

Such a discontinuity can be removed by assigning a suitable value to the function f at x = a.
 If lim f (x ) does not exist, then we cannot remove this discontinuity. So this become a non-removable
x a

discontinuity or essential discontinuity.

 If f is continuous at x = c and g is discontinuous at x = c, then
(a) f +g and f – g are discontinuous (b) f.g may be continuous
 If f and g are discontinuous at x = c, then f + g, f – g and fg may still be continuous.
 Point functions (domain and range consists one value only) is not a continuous function.

6
Mathematics

Differentiability

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Table of Content

1. Differentiability of a Function at a Point.

2. Differentiability in an Open interval.

1
1. Differentiability of a Function at a Point.

(1) Meaning of differentiability at a point: Consider the

function f (x ) defined on an open interval (b, c) let [a + h, f (a+h)]
Y R
P(a, f (a)) be a point on the curve y  f (x ) and let Q [a–h, f (a–h)]

(a  h, f (a  h)) and R(a  h, f (a  h)) be two neighboring Q

points on the left hand side and right hand side respectively P [a, f (a)]

of the point P.
X
f (a  h)  f (a) f (a  h)  f (a) O
Then slope of chord PQ  =
(a  h)  a h
f (a  h)  f (a) f (a  h)  f (a)
And, slope of chord PR  = .
aha h
 As h  0, point Q and R both tends to P from left hand and right hand respectively. Consequently,
chords PQ and PR becomes tangent at point P.
f (a  h)  f (a)
Thus, lim  lim (slope of chord PQ) = lim (slope of chord PQ)
h 0 h h 0 Q P

Slope of the tangent at point P, which is limiting position of the chords drawn on the left hand side of
f (a  h)  f (a)
point P and lim = lim (slope of chord PR) = lim (slope of chord PR).
h 0 h h 0 R P

 Slope of the tangent at point P, which is the limiting position of the chords drawn on the right hand
side of point P.
f (a  h)  f (a) f (a  h)  f (a)
Now, f (x ) is differentiable at x  a  lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h
 There is a unique tangent at point P.
Thus, f (x ) is differentiable at point P, iff there exists a unique tangent at point P. In other words, f (x ) is
differentiable at a point P iff the curve does not have P as a corner
point. i.e., "the function is not differentiable at those points on Y

which function has jumps (or holes) and sharp edges.”

Let us consider the function f (x ) | x  1 | , which can be graphically
f (x)=–x+1 f (x) = x – 1
shown,
f ' (x)= –1 f ' (x) = 1
Which show f (x ) is not differentiable at x  1 . Since, f (x ) has sharp
edge at x  1 . X
O 1 2 3
Mathematically: The right hand derivative at x  1 is 1 and left-
hand derivative at x  1 is –1. Thus, f (x ) is not differentiable at
x 1.
2
(2) Right hand derivative: Right hand derivative of f (x ) at x  a , denoted by f ' (a  0 ) or f ' (a ) , is the
f (a  h)  f (a)
lim .
h 0 h
(3) Left hand derivative: Left hand derivative of f (x ) at x  a, denoted by f ' (a  0) or f ' (a ) , is the
f (a  h)  f (a)
lim .
h 0 h
(4) A function f (x ) is said to be differentiable (finitely) at x = a if f ' (a  0)  f ' (a  0) = finite
f (a  h)  f (a) f (a  h)  f (a)
i.e., lim  lim = finite and the common limit is called the derivative of f (x ) at
h 0 h h  0 h
f ( x )  f (a)
x  a , denoted by f ' (a) . Clearly, f ' (a)  lim {x  a from the left as well as from the right}.
x a x a

2. Differentiability in an Open Interval.

A function f (x ) defined in an open interval (a, b) is said to be differentiable or derivable in open interval
(a, b) if it is differentiable at each point of (a, b).

Differentiability in a closed interval: A function f : [a, b]  R is said to be differentiable in [a, b] if

(1) f ' (x ) exists for every x such that a  x  b i.e. f is differentiable in (a, b).
(2) Right hand derivative of f at x  a exists.
(3) Left hand derivative of f at x  b exists.

Everywhere differentiable function: If a function is differentiable at each x  R , then it is said to be

everywhere differentiable. e.g., A constant function, a polynomial function, sin x , cos x etc. are
everywhere differentiable.

Some standard results on differentiability

(1) Every polynomial function is differentiable at each x  R .
(2) The exponential function a x , a  0 is differentiable at each x  R .
(3) Every constant function is differentiable at each x  R .
(4) The logarithmic function is differentiable at each point in its domain.
(5) Trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions are differentiable in their domains.
(6) The sum, difference, product and quotient of two differentiable functions is differentiable.
(7) The composition of differentiable function is a differentiable function.

3
Important Tips

 If f is derivable in the open interval (a, b) and also at the end points ‘a’ and ‘b’, then f is said to be
derivable in the closed interval [a, b].
 A function f is said to be a differentiable function if it is differentiable at every point of its domain.
 If a function is differentiable at a point, then it is continuous also at that point.
i.e. Differentiability  Continuity, but the converse need not be true.
 If a function ‘f’ is not differentiable but is continuous at x = a, it geometrically implies a sharp corner
or kink at x = a.
 If f(x) is differentiable at x = a and g(x) is not differentiable at x =a, then the product function f(x).g(x)
can still be differentiable at x = a.
 If f(x) and g(x) both are not differentiable at x = a then the product function f(x).g(x) can still be
differentiable at x = a.
 If f(x) is differentiable at x = a and g(x) is not differentiable at x = a then the sum function f(x) + g(x)
is also not differentiable at x = a
 If f(x) and g(x) both are not differentiable at x = a, then the sum function may be a differentiable
function.

4
Mathematics

Functions

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Table of Content

1. Some Important Definitions.

2. Intervals.

3. Definition of Functions.

4. Domain, Co- domain and Range of Functions.

5. Algebra of Functions.

6. Kinds of Function.
7. Even & Odd Functions.
8. Periodic Function.

9. Composite Function.

10. Inverse Function.

1
1. Some Important Definitions.

(1) Real numbers: Real numbers are those which are either rational or irrational. The set of real numbers
is denoted by R.
(i) Rational numbers: All numbers of the form p / q where p and q are integers and q  0, are called
2 5  4
rational numbers and their set is denoted by Q. e.g. , 4  as 4  are rational numbers.
3 2  1
(ii) Irrational numbers: Those are numbers which cannot be expressed in form of p / q are called
irrational numbers and their set is denoted by Q c (i.e., complementary set of Q) e.g. 2, 1  3 ,  are
irrational numbers.

(iii) Integers: The numbers …….– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …….. are called integers. The set of integers is
denoted by I or Z. Thus, I or Z = {…….,– 3, – 2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3,……}

Numbe
Real Number (R)

Rational Numbers (Q) Irrational Numbers (QC)

Integers (I or Z) Non-Integers

Negative Integers (I –) Zero Integers (I0) Positive Integers (I+) or Natural number (N)

Whole Numbers (W)

Note: Set of positive integers I+ = {1, 2, 3, ...}

Set of negative integers I– = {– 1, – 2, – 3, ……}.
Set of non-negative integers = {0, 1, 2, 3, ..}
Set of non-positive integers = {0, – 1, – 2, – 3,…..}
Positive real numbers: R   (0, )  Negative real numbers: R   (, 0)
R 0 : All real numbers except 0 (Zero)  Imaginary numbers: C  {i,  ,....}
Even numbers: E  {0 , 2, 4 , 6 ,......}  Odd numbers: 0  {1, 3, 5 , 7 ,......}
Prime numbers: The natural numbers greater than 1 which is divisible by 1 and itself only, called prime numbers.
In rational numbers the digits are repeated after decimal
0 (zero) is a rational number

2
In irrational numbers, digits are not repeated after decimal
 and e are called special irrational quantities
 is neither a rational number nor an irrational number

(2) Related quantities: When two quantities are such that the change in one is accompanied by the
change in other, i.e., if the value of one quantity depends upon the other, then they are called related
quantities. e.g. The area of a circle ( A  r 2 ) depends upon its radius (r) as soon as the radius of the
circle increases (or decreases), its area also increases (or decreases). In the given example, A and r are
related quantities.

(3) Variable: A variable is a symbol which can assume any value out of a given set of values. The
quantities, like height, weight, time, temperature, profit, sales etc. are examples of variables. The
variables are usually denoted by x, y, z, u, v, w, t etc. There are two types of variables mainly:
(i) Independent variable: A variable which can take any arbitrary value, is called independent variable.
(ii) Dependent variable: A variable whose value depends upon the independent variable is called
dependent variable. E.g. y  x 2 , if x = 2 then y = 4  so value of y depends on x. y is dependent and x is
independent variable here.

(4) Constant: A constant is a symbol which does not change its value, i.e., retains the same value
throughout a set of mathematical operation. These are generally denoted by a, b, c etc. There are two
types of constant.
(i) Absolute constant: A constant which remains the same throughout a set of mathematical operation
is known as absolute constant. All numerical numbers are absolute constants, i.e. 2, 3,  etc. are
absolute constants.
(ii) Arbitrary constant: A constant which remains same in a particular operation, but changes with the
change of reference, is called arbitrary constant e.g. y  mx  c represents a line. Here m and c are
constants, but they are different for different lines. Therefore, m and c are arbitrary constants.

(5) Absolute value: The absolute value of a number x, denoted by |x|, is a number that satisfies the
conditions
 x if x  0

| x |   0 if x  0 . We also define |x| as follows, |x|= maximum {x, – x} or |x|= x 2
 x if x  0

The properties of absolute value are
3
(i) The inequality | x |  a means  a  x  a (ii) The inequality | x |  a means x  a or
x  a
(iii) | x  y | | x |  | y | and | x  y | | x |  | y | (iv) | xy | | x || y |

x | x|
(v)  ,y  0
y | y|

(6) Greatest integer: Let x  R . Then [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x; e.g. [1.34]
=1, [– 4.57] = – 5, [0.69] = 0 etc.
(7) Fractional part: We know that x  [x ]. the difference between the number ‘x’ and its integral value
‘[x]’ is called the fractional part of x and is symbolically denoted as {x}. Thus, { x }  x  [ x ]
e.g., if x = 4.92 then [x] = 4 and {x} = 0.92.

Note: Fractional part of any number is always non-negative and less than one.

4
2. Intervals.
If a variable x assumes any real value between two given numbers, say a and b (a<b) as its value, then x
is called a continuous variable. The set of real numbers which lie between two specific numbers, is called
the interval.

There are four types of interval:

(1) Open interval: Let a and b be two real (2) Closed interval: Let a and b be two real
numbers such that a<b, then the set of all real numbers such that a<b, then the set of all
numbers lying strictly between a and b is real numbers lying between a and b
called an open interval and is denoted by] a, b including a and b is called a closed interval
[or (a, b). Thus, ]a, b[ or (a, b) = and is denoted by [a, b]. Thus, [a, b] =
{ x  R : a  x  b} a<x<b { x  R : a  x  b}
( )
a b [ ]
Open a b
Closed
(3) Open-Closed interval : It is denoted by ]a, b] (4) Closed-Open interval : It is denoted by [a,
or (a, b] and ]a, b] or (a, b] = b[ or [a, b) and [a, b[ or [a, b) =
{ x  R : a  x  b} { x  R : a  x  b}
( ] [ )
a a b
b
Closed open
Open closed

5
3. Definition of Function.

(1) Function can be easily defined with the help of the concept of mapping. Let X and Y be any two non-
empty sets. “A function from X to Y is a rule or correspondence that assigns to each element of set X,
one and only one element of set Y”. Let the correspondence be ‘f’ then mathematically we write
f : X  Y where y  f (x ), x  X and y  Y . We say that ‘y’ is the image of ‘x’ under f (or x is the pre
image of y).

Two things should always be kept in mind:

(i) A mapping f : X  Y is said to be a function if each element in the set X has its image in set Y. It is
also possible that there are few elements in set Y which are not the images of any element in set X.
(ii) Every element in set X should have one and only one image. That means it is impossible to have
more than one image for a specific element in set X. Functions cannot be multi-valued (A mapping that
is multi-valued is called a relation from X and Y) e.g.

Set X Set Set X Set

a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3

Function Function
Set X Set Set X Set Y

a 1 a 1

b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3

Not function Not function

(2) Testing for a function by vertical line test: A relation f : A  B is a function or not it can be
checked by a graph of the relation. If it is possible to draw a vertical line which cuts the given curve at
more than one point then the given relation is not a function and when this vertical line means line
parallel to Y-axis cuts the curve at only one point then it is a function. Figure (iii) and (iv) represents a
function.

6
 Y Y Y Y

X X
O
X X X X X X
O O O

Y Y Y Y
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

(3) Number of functions: Let X and Y be two finite sets having m and n elements respectively. Then
each element of set X can be associated to any one of n elements of set Y. So, total number of functions
from set X to set Y is n m .
(4) Value of the function: If y  f (x ) is a function then to find its values at some value of x, say
x  a, we directly substitute x = a in its given rule f (x ) and it is denoted by f (a) .
e.g. If f (x )  x 2  1, then f (1)  1 2  1  2, f (2)  2 2  1  5, f (0)  0 2  1  1 etc.

4. Domain, Co-domain and Range of Function.

If a function f is defined from a set of A to set B then for f : A  B set A is called the domain of function f
and set B is called the co-domain of function f. The set of all f-images of the elements of A is called the
range of function f.
In other words, we can say Domain = All possible values of x for which f(x) exists.
Range = For all values of x, all possible values of f(x).

A B
f Domain = {a, b, c, d} = A
a p
q Co-domain = {p, q, r, s} = B
Range b
c r Range = {p, q, r}
d s
Domain
Co-domain

7
(1) Methods for finding domain and range of function
(i) Domain

(a) Expression under even root (i.e., square root, fourth root etc.)  0

(b) Denominator  0.

(c) If domain of y  f (x ) and y  g (x ) are D1 and D 2 respectively then the domain of f ( x )  g ( x ) or

f (x ). g (x ) is D1  D2 .

f (x )
(d) While domain of is D1  D 2  {g(x )  0}.
g (x )

(e) Domain of  
f ( x )  D1  {x : f (x )  0}

(ii) Range: Range of y  f (x ) is collection of all outputs f (x ) corresponding to each real number in the
domain.

(a) If domain  finite number of points  range  set of corresponding f (x ) values.

(b) If domain  R or R – [some finite points]. Then express x in terms of y. From this find y for x to be
defined (i.e., find the values of y for which x exists).

(c) If domain  a finite interval, find the least and greatest value for range using monotonicity.

Important Tips

 If f(x) is a given function of x and if a is in its domain of definition, then by f(a) it means the number
obtained by replacing x by a in f(x) or the value assumed by f(x) when x = a.
 Range is always a subset of co-domain.

8
5. Algebra of Functions.

Let f (x ) and g (x ) be two real and single-valued functions, with domains X f , X g and ranges Y f and Y g
respectively. Let X  X f  X g   . Then, the following operations are defined.

(1) Scalar multiplication of a function: (c f )( x )  c f (x ), where c is a scalar. The new function c f (x ) has
the domain X f .

(2) Addition/subtraction of functions: ( f  g)( x )  f ( x )  g(x ). The new function has the domain X.
(3) Multiplication of functions: ( fg)(x )  (g f )(x )  f ( x )g ( x ). The product function has the domain X.
(4) Division of functions:
f f (x )
(i)   ( x )  . The new function has the domain X, except for the values of x for which
g g(x )
g (x )  0 .

g g(x )
(ii)   ( x )  . The new function has the domain X, except for the values of x for which f ( x )  0 .
f f (x )

(5) Equal functions: Two function f and g are said to be equal functions, if and only if
(i) Domain of f = domain of g
(ii) Co-domain of f = co-domain of g
(iii) f (x )  g( x ) x  their common domain

(6) Real valued function: If R, be the set of real numbers and A, B are subsets of R, then the function
f : A  B is called a real function or real –valued function.

9
6. Kinds of Function.

(1) One-one function (injection): A function f : A  B is said to be a one-one function or an injection,

if different elements of A have different images in B. Thus, f : A  B is one-one.

 a  b  f (a)  f (b) For all a, b  A  f (a)  f (b)  a  b for all a, b  A .

E.g. Let f : A  B and g : X  Y be two functions represented by the following diagrams.

A B X Y
f g
a1 b1 x1 y1
a2 b2 x2 y2
b3 y3
a3 x3
b4 y4
a4 x4
b5 y5

Clearly, f : A  B is a one-one function. But g : X  Y is not one-one function because two distinct
elements x 1 and x 3 have the same image under function g.

(i) Method to check the injectivity of a function

Step I: Take two arbitrary elements x, y (say) in the domain of f.
Step II: Put f (x )  f (y ).
Step III: Solve f (x )  f (y ). If f (x )  f (y ) gives x = y only, then f : A  B is a one-one function (or an
injection). Otherwise not.

Note: If function is given in the form of ordered pairs and if two ordered pairs do not have same second element
then function is one-one.

If the graph of the function y  f (x ) is given and each line parallel to x-axis cuts the given curve at maximum one
point then function is one-one. e.g.

Y Y

(0, 1)
X X X
O O X
f (x) = ax (0 < a < 1)
f(x) = ax + b
Y Y
10
(ii) Number of one-one functions (injections) : If A and B are finite sets having m and n elements
 n P , if n  m
respectively, then number of one-one functions from A to B =  m
 0 , if n  m
(2) Many-one function: A function f : A  B is said to be a many-one function if two or more
elements of set A have the same image in B.
Thus, f : A  B is a many-one function if there exist x , y  A such that x  y but f (x )  f (y ).
In other words, f : A  B is a many-one function if it is not a one-one function.

A B X Y
f b1 g
a1 x1 y1
a2 b2 x2 y2
b3 y3
a3 x3
b4 y4
a4 b5 x4
a5 b6 x5 y5

Note: If function is given in the form of set of ordered pairs and the second element of atleast two ordered pairs
are same then function is many-one.

 If the graph of y  f (x ) is given and the line parallel to x-axis cuts the curve at more than one point
then function is many-one.

Y Y

Y Y

X X X X
O f (x) = x2 f (x) = |x| X
O
Y Y

 If the domain of the function is in one quadrant then the trigonometrical functions are always one-
one.

11
 If trigonometrical function changes its sign in two consecutive quadrants then it is one-one but if it
does not change the sign then it is many-one.

f : (0,  ), f (x )  sin x Y f : (0,  ), f (x )  cos x Y

one-one
Y many-one Y
+ /2
X X
+ + – X
O
X X

/2
OY
Y

 In three consecutive quadrants trigonometrical functions are always many-one.

(3) Onto function (surjection): A function f : A  B is onto if each element of B has its pre-image in A.
Therefore, if f 1 (y)  A, y  B then function is onto. In other words, Range of f = Co-domain of f.
E.g. The following arrow-diagram shows onto function.

A B X Y
f x1 g
a1 b1 y1
a2
x2 y2
b2
x3
a3 b3 x4 y3

(i) Number of onto function (surjection) : If A and B are two sets having m and n elements
n
nr n
respectively such that 1  n  m , then number of onto functions from A to B is  (1) Cr r m .
r 1

(4) Into function: A function f : A  B is an into function if there exists an element in B having no pre-
image in A.
In other words, f : A  B is an into function if it is not an onto function.

E.g. The following arrow-diagram shows into function.

A B X Y
f x1 g
a b1 y1
x2 y2
a2 b2
y3
a3 b3 x3 y4

12
(i) Method to find onto or into function
(a) If range = co-domain, then f (x ) is onto and if range is a proper subset of the co-domain, then
f (x ) is into.

(b) Solve f (x )  y by taking x as a function of y i.e., g(y ) (say).

(c) Now if g(y ) is defined for each y  co-domain and g(y )  domain for y  co-domain, then f (x ) is
onto and if any one of the above requirements is not fulfilled, then f (x ) is into.

(5) One-one onto function (bijection): A function f : A  B is a bijection if it is one-one as well as

onto. A B

In other words, a function f : A  B is a bijection if a1 f b1

a2 b2
(i) It is one-one i.e., f (x )  f (y )  x  y for all x , y  A. a3 b3
a4 b4
(ii) It is onto i.e., for all y  B , there exists x  A such that f (x )  y .
Clearly, f is a bijection since it is both injective as well as surjective.
Number of one-one onto function (bijection): If A and B are finite sets and f : A  B is a bijection,
then A and B have the same number of elements. If A has n elements, then the number of bijection from
A to B is the total number of arrangements of n items taken all at a time i.e. n!.

(6) Algebraic functions: Functions consisting of finite number of terms involving powers and roots of
the independent variable and the four fundamental operations +, –, × and  are called algebraic
functions.
3
x 1
2
e.g., (i) x  5 x (ii) ,x 1 (iii) 3 x 4  5 x  7
x 1
The algebraic functions can be classified as follows:

(i) Polynomial or integral function: It is a function of the form a0 x n  a1 x n 1  ....  an 1 x  an ,

Where a0  0 and a0 , a1 ,......... , an are constants and n  N is called a polynomial function of degree n

E.g. f (x )  x 3  2 x 2  x  3 is a polynomial function.

Note: The polynomial of first degree is called a linear function and polynomial of zero degree is called a constant
function.

13
(ii) Rational function: The quotient of two polynomial functions is called the rational function. E.g.
x2 1
f (x )  is a rational function.
2x 3  x 2  1
(iii) Irrational function: An algebraic function which is not rational is called an irrational function. E.g.
x3  x
f ( x )  x  x  6, g( x )  are irrational functions.
1  x1/4

(7) Transcendental function: A function which is not algebraic is called a transcendental function. e.g.,
trigonometric; inverse trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions are all transcendental
functions.
(i) Trigonometric functions: A function is said to be a trigonometric function if it involves circular
functions (sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and
Y
cosecant) of variable angles.
(a) Sine function: The function that associates to each X’ X

real numbers x to sin x is called the sine function. Here

x is the radian measure of the angle. The domain of the Y’

sine function is R and the range is [–1, 1].

(b) Cosine function: The function that associates to each real number x to cos x is called the cosine
function. Here x is the radian measure of the angle. The domain of the cosine function is R and the range
is [– 1, 1].

X’ X

Y’

(c) Tangent function: The function that associates a real number x to tan x is called the tangent
function.

14
Clearly, the tangent function is not defined at odd multiples
Y
  3
of i.e.,  ,  etc. So, the domain of the tangent
2 2 2
X’ X

function is R  {(2n  1) | n  I} . Since it takes every value
2
between   and  . So, the range is R. Graph of f ( x )  tan x
Y’
is shown in figure.

(d) Cosecant function: The function that associates a real number x to cosecx is called the cosecant
function.
Y
Clearly, cosec x is not defined at x  n  , n  I . i.e.,
0,   ,  2 ,  3 etc. So, its domain is R  {n  | n  I} .
X’ X
Since cosec x  1 or cosec x  1 . Therefore, range is
(,  1]  [1, ) . Graph of f (x )  cosec x is shown in figure.

Y’

(e) Secant function: The function that associates a real number x to sec x is called the secant function.

Clearly, sec x is not defined at odd multiples of Y
2

i.e., (2  1) , where n  I. so, its domain is X’ X
2

R  {(2n  1) | n  I}. Also, | sec x |  1, therefore its
2
Y
range is (,  1]  [1, ). Graph of f ( x )  sec x is
shown in figure.

(f) Cotangent function: The function that associates a real number x to cot x is called the cotangent
function. Clearly, cot x is not defined at x  n  , n  I i.e., at n  0,   ,  2 etc. So, domain of cot x is
R  {n  | n  I}. the range of f (x )  cot x is R as is evident from its graph in figure.

X’ X

Y’

15
(ii) Inverse trigonometric functions

Function Domain Range Definition of the function

sin 1 x [1, 1] [ /2,  /2] y  sin 1 x  x  sin y

cos 1 x [–1, 1] [0, ] y  cos 1 x  x  cos y

tan 1 x (–, ) or R (–/2, /2) y  tan 1 x  x  tan y

cot 1 x (–, ) or R (0, ) y  cot 1 x  x  cot y

cosec 1 x R – (–1, 1) [ /2,  /2]  {0} y  cosec 1 x  x  cosec y

sec 1 x R – (–1, 1) [0,  ]  [ /2] y  sec 1 x  x  sec y

(iii) Exponential function: Let a  1 be a positive real number. Then f : R  (0, ) defined by f (x )  a x is
called exponential function. Its domain is R and range is (0, ) .

Y
Y
a>1 a<1

(0, 1) f(x) = ax f(x) = ax (0, 1)

X X X X
O O

Y Y

graph of when a > 1 graph of when a < 1

(iv) Logarithmic function: Let a  1 be a positive real number. Then f : (0, )  R defined by
f (x )  log a x is called logarithmic function. Its domain is (0, ) and range is R.
Y Y

f(x) = loga x

(1, 0)
X X X X
O (1, 0) O
f(x) = loga x

Y Y
graph of when a > 1 graph of when a < 1

16
(8) Explicit and implicit functions: A function is said to be explicit if it can be expressed directly in
terms of the independent variable. If the function cannot be expressed directly in terms of the
independent variable or variables, then the function is said to be implicit. E.g. y  sin 1 x  log x is explicit
function, while x 2  y 2  xy and x 3 y 2  (a  x )2 (b  y)2 are implicit functions.

(9) Constant function: Let k be a fixed real number. (10) Identity function: The function defined by
Then a function f(x) given by f (x )  k for all x  R is f (x )  x for all x  R , is called the identity function
called a constant function. The domain of the on R. Clearly, the domain and range of the identity
constant function f (x )  k is the complete set of real function is R.
numbers and the range of f is the singleton set {k}. The graph of the identity function is a straight line
The graph of a constant function is a straight line passing through the origin and inclined at an angle
parallel to x-axis as shown in figure and it is above or of 45o with positive direction of x-axis.
below the x-axis according as k is positive or
negative. If k = 0, then the straight line coincides Y

with x-axis.
Y f (x) = x
X X
k f (x) = k
X X
O
Y

Y

(11) Modulus function: The function defined by (12) Greatest integer function: Let f (x )  [ x ], where
 x , when x  0 [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to
f ( x ) | x |   is called the modulus
-x , when x  0 x. The domain is R and the range is I. e.g. [1.1] = 1,
function. The domain of the modulus function is the [2.2] = 2, [– 0.9] = –1, [– 2.1] = – 3 etc. The function f
set R of all real numbers and the range is the set of defined by f (x )  [ x ] for all x  R , is called the
all non-negative real numbers. greatest integer function. Y
Y 3
2
f (x) =– x f (x) = x 1
X’ X
X X –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
O –1
–2
–3
Y’
Y

17
 (13) Signum function: The function defined by (14) Reciprocal function: The function that
| x |  1, x  0 associates each non-zero real number x to be
 , x 0  1
f(x )   x or f ( x )   0, x  0 is called reciprocal is called the reciprocal function. The
0 , x  0  1, x  0 x
 
domain and range of the reciprocal function are both
the signum function. The domain is R and the range
equal to R  {0} i.e., the set of all non-zero real
is the set {–1, 0, 1}.
Y numbers. The graph is as shown. Y
(0, 1) f (x) =1/ x

X X
O O
X X
O
(0, –1)
Y

Y

Domain and Range of Some Standard Functions

Function Domain Range

Polynomial function R R
Identity function x R R
Constant function K R {K}
1 R0 R0
Reciprocal function
x
x 2 ,| x | R R+ {0}
x 3, x| x | R R
Signum function R {1, 0, 1}
x| x | R R+ {0}
x | x | R R– {0}
[x ] R I
x  [x ] R [0, 1)
x [0, ) R
ax R R+
log x R+ R
sin x R [1, 1]

cos x R [1, 1]

tan x   3  R
R –  ,  ,......... 
 2 2 

18
 cot x R – {0,   ,  2 ,......... .....} R
sec x   3  R –(–1, 1)
R –  ,  ,......... .... 
 2 2 
cosec x R – 0,   ,  2 ,......... ..... R – ( – 1, 1)
sin1 x [1, 1]   
 2 , 2
 
cos 1 x [1, 1] [0,  ]

tan 1 x R    
 , 
 2 2
cot 1 x R (0,  )

sec 1 x R– (1, 1)  
[0,  ]   
2
cosec 1 x R– (1, 1)   
 2 , 2   {0}
 

Important Tips
 Any function, which is entirely increasing or decreasing in the whole of a domain, is one-one.
 Any continuous function f(x), which has at least one local maximum or local minimum, is many-one.
 If any line parallel to the x-axis cuts the graph of the function at most at one point, then the function
is one-one and if there exists a line which is parallel to the x-axis and cuts the graph of the function in at
least two points, then the function is many-one.
 Any polynomial function f : R  R is onto if degree of f is odd and into if degree of f is even.
 An into function can be made onto by redefining the co-domain as the range of the original
function.

19
7. Even and Odd function.

(1) Even function: If we put (–x) in place of x in the given function and if f ( x )  f (x ) , x  domain then
function f(x) is called even function.
E.g. f (x )  e x  e  x , f (x )  x 2 , f (x )  x sin x , f (x )  cos x , f (x )  x 2 cos x all are even function.

(2) Odd function: If we put (–x) in place of x in the given function and if f ( x )   f ( x ), x  domain
then f(x) is called odd function. e.g. f (x )  e x  e  x , f (x )  sin x , f (x )  x 3 , f (x )  x cos x , f (x )  x 2 sin x all
are odd function.

Important Tips
 The graph of even function is always symmetric with respect to y-axis.
 The graph of odd function is always symmetric with respect to origin.
 The product of two even functions is an even function.
 The sum and difference of two even functions is an even function.
 The sum and difference of two odd functions is an odd function.
 The product of two odd functions is an even function.
 The product of an even and an odd function is an odd function
 It is not essential that every function is even or odd. It is possible to have some functions
which are neither even nor odd function. E.g. f(x) = x2+ x3, f(x) = loge x, f(x) = ex.
 The sum of even and odd function is neither even nor odd function.
 Zero function f(x) = 0 is the only function which is even and odd both.

20
8. Periodic Function.

A function is said to be periodic function if its each value is repeated after a definite interval. So a
function f(x) will be periodic if a positive real number T exist such that, f (x  T )  f (x ), x  domain. Here
the least positive value of T is called the period of the function. Clearly
f (x )  f (x  T )  f (x  2T )  f (x  3 T )  ..... . E.g. sin x , cos x , tan x are periodic functions with period 2 , 2

and  respectively.

Some standard results on periodic functions

Functions Periods

(1) sin n x , cos n x , sec n x , cosec n x  ; if n is even

2 ; if n is odd or fraction

(2) tan n x , cot n x  ; n is even or odd.

| sin x |, | cos x |, | tan x |, 

(3)
| cot x |, | sec x |, | cosec x |

(4) x  [x ] 1

(5) Algebraic functions e.g., x , x 2 , x 3  5,.... etc Period does not exist

Important Tips
 If f(x) is periodic with period T, then c.f(x) is periodic with period T, f(x + c) is periodic with period T
and f(x)  c is periodic with period T. where c is any constant.
T
 If a function f(x) has a period T, then the function f (ax+b) will have a period .
| a|

1
 If f(x) is periodic with period T then is also periodic with same period T.
f (x )

 If f(x) is periodic with period T, f (x ) is also periodic with same period T.

 If f(x) is periodic with period T, then a f(x) + b, where a, b  R (a  0) is also a periodic function with
period T.

21
 If f1(x), f2(x), f3(x) are periodic functions with periods T1, T2, T3 respectively then; we have
h(x )  af1 ( x )  bf2 ( x )  cf3 ( x ) , has period as,
L.C.M.of {T1 , T2 , T3 }; if h (x ) is not an even function

 1
 L.C.M. of {T1 , T2 , T3 }; if h (x ) is an even function
2

9. Composite Function.

If f : A  B and g : B  C are two function then the composite function of f and g,

gof A  C will be defined as gof (x )  g [ f (x )], x  A

(1) Properties of composition of function:

(i) f is even, g is even  fog even function.
(ii) f is odd, g is odd  fog is odd function.
(iii) f is even, g is odd  fog is even function.
(iv) f is odd, g is even  fog is even function.
(v) Composite of functions is not commutative i.e. fog  gof
(vi) Composite of functions is associative i.e. ( fog )oh  fo(goh)
(vii) If f : A  B is bijection and g : B  A is inverse of f. Then fog  I B and gof  I A .
Where, I A and I B are identity functions on the sets A and B respectively.
(viii) If f : A  B and g : B  C are two bijections, then gof : A  C is bijection and
(gof )1  ( f 1 og 1 ).
(ix) fog  gof but if , fog  gof then either f 1  g or g 1  f also, ( fog ) (x )  (gof ) ( x )  (x ).

Important Tips
 gof(x) is simply the g-image of f(x), where f(x) is f-image of elements x A.
 Function gof will exist only when range of f is the subset of domain of g.
 fog does not exist if range of g is not a subset of domain of f.
 fog and gof may not be always defined.
 If both f and g are one-one, then fog and gof are also one-one.
 If both f and g are onto, then gof is onto.

22
10. Inverse Function.

If f : A  B be a one-one onto (bijection) function, then the mapping f 1 : B  A which associates each
element b  B with element a  A, such that f (a)  b, is called the inverse function of the function
f:AB

f 1 : B  A, f 1 (b)  a  f (a)  b
In terms of ordered pairs inverse function is defined as f 1  (b, a) if (a, b)  f .

Note: For the existence of inverse function, it should be one-one and onto.

Important Tips

 Inverse of a bijection is also a bijection function.

 Inverse of a bijection is unique.
 (f–1)–1= f
 If f and g are two bijections such that (gof) exists then (gof)–1=f–1og–1.
 If f: A B is a bijection then f–1: B  A is an inverse function of f. f–1of = IA and fof–1=IB. Here IA, is an
identity function on set A, and IB, is an identity function on set B.

23
Mathematics

Limits

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content

1. Limit of a Function.

2. Fundamental Theorems on Limits.

3. Some Important Expansions.

4. Methods of Evaluation of Limits.

1
1. Limit of a Function.

Let y  f (x ) be a function of x. If at x  a, f (x ) takes indeterminate form, then we consider the values of

the function which are very near to ‘a’. If these values tend to a definite unique number as x tends to ‘a’,
then the unique number so obtained is called the limit of f (x ) at x  a and we write it as lim f (x ) .
x a

(1) Meaning of ‘x  a’: Let x be a variable and a be the constant. If x assumes values nearer and nearer
to ‘a’ then we say ’x tends to a’ and we write ' x  a' . It should be noted that as x  a , we have x  a . By
' x tends to a' we mean that
(i) x  a
(ii) x assumes values nearer and nearer to ‘a’ and
(iii) We are not specifying any manner in which x should approach to ‘a’. x may approach to a from left or
right as shown in figure.
x a a x

(2) Left hand and right hand limit : Consider the values of the functions at the points which are very
near to a on the left of a. If these values tend to a definite unique number as x tends to a, then the
unique number so obtained is called left-hand limit of f (x ) at x = a and symbolically we write it as
f (a  0)  lim f (x )  lim f (a  h)
x a h 0

Similarly we can define right-hand limit of f (x ) at x  a which is expressed as f (a  0)  lim f (x )

x a

 lim f (a  h) .
h0

(3) Method for finding L.H.L. and R.H.L.

(i) For finding right hand limit (R.H.L.) of the function, we write x + h in place of x, while for left hand
limit (L.H.L.) we write x – h in place of x.
(ii) Then we replace x by ‘a’ in the function so obtained.
(iii) Lastly we find limit h  0 .

(4) Existence of limit: lim f ( x ) exists when,

x a

(i) lim f (x ) and lim f (x ) exist i.e. L.H.L. and R.H.L. both exists.
x a x a

(ii) lim f ( x )  lim f ( x ) i.e. L.H.L. = R.H.L.

x a x a

2
 0 
Note: If a function f (x ) takes the form or at x  a , then we say that f (x ) is indeterminate or meaningless
0 
at x  a . Other indeterminate forms are   ,   , 0  , 1 ,0 0 ,  0
In short, we write L.H.L. for left hand limit and R.H.L. for right hand limit.
It is not necessary that if the value of a function at some point exists then its limit at that point must exist.

(5) Sandwich theorem : If f (x ) , g(x ) and h(x ) are any three functions such that, f (x )  g(x )  h( x ) x 
neighborhood of x  a and lim f (x )  lim h(x )  l (say ) , then lim g(x )  l. This theorem is normally applied
x a x a x a

when the lim g( x ) can't be obtained by using conventional methods as function f (x ) and h(x ) can be
x a

easily found.

2. Fundamental Theorems on Limits.

The following theorems are very useful for evaluation of limits if lim f (x )  l and lim g( x )  m (l and m
x 0 x 0

are real numbers) then

(1) lim( f ( x )  g(x ))  l  m (Sum rule)
x a

(2) lim( f ( x )  g(x ))  l  m (Difference rule)

x a

(3) lim( f (x ). g(x ))  l.m (Product rule)

x a

(4) lim k f (x )  k .l (Constant multiple rule)

x a

f (x ) l
(5) lim  ,m  0 (Quotient rule)
x a g( x ) m

1
(6) If lim f (x )   or   , then lim 0
x a x a f (x )

(7) lim log{ f ( x )}  log {lim f ( x )}

x a x a

3
(8) If f ( x )  g(x ) for all x, then lim f ( x )  lim g(x )
x a x a

lim g ( x )
(9) lim[ f ( x )] g ( x )  { lim f ( x )} x  a
x a x a

(10) If p and q are integers, then lim ( f ( x )) p / q  l p / q , provided (l) p / q is a real number.
x a

(11) If lim f (g(x ))  f (lim g( x ))  f (m ) provided ‘f’ is continuous at g( x )  m . e . g. lim ln[ f ( x )]  ln(l), only if
x a x a x a

l  0.

3. Some Important Expansions.

In finding limits, use of expansions of following functions are useful:

n(n  1) 2
(1) (1  x )n  1  nx  x  .....
2!

(x log a) 2
(2) a x  1  x log a   .....
2!

x2 x3
(3) e x  1  x    .....
2! 3!
x2 x3 x4
(4) log(1  x )  x     ....., | x |  1
2 3 4
x2 x3 x4
(5) log(1  x )   x     ....... , where | x |  1
2 3 4
1 1 x x2
log( 1  x ) 1   x 11 2 
(6) (1  x )x  ex  e 2 3 .......  e  1   x  ....... 
 2 24 
x3 x5
(7) sin x  x    .......
3! 5!

x2 x4 x6
(8) cos x  1     ......
2! 4 ! 6!
x 3 2x 5
(9) tan x  x    .....
3 15

4
 x3 x5
(10) sinh x  x    .....
3! 5!
x2 x4 x6
(11) cosh x  1     .....
2 ! 4 ! 6!
x3
(12) tanh x  x   2 x 5  .....
3
x3 x5
(13) sin 1 x  x  1 2 .  3 2 .1 2 .  .....
3! 5!
 
(14) cos 1 x     sin 1 x
2
x3 x5 x7
(15) tan 1 x  x     .....
3 5 7

4. Methods of Evaluation of Limits.

We shall divide the problems of evaluation of limits in five categories.

(1) Algebraic limits: Let f (x ) be an algebraic function and ‘a’ be a real number. Then lim f ( x ) is known
x a

as an algebraic limit.
(i) Direct substitution method: If by direct substitution of the point in the given expression we get a
finite number, then the number obtained is the limit of the given expression.

(ii) Factorization method: In this method, numerator and denominator are factorized. The common
factors are cancelled and the rest outputs the results.

1 1
(iii) Rationalization method: Rationalization is followed when we have fractional powers (like , etc.)
2 3
on expressions in numerator or denominator or in both. After rationalization the terms are factorized
which on cancellation gives the result.

(iv) Based on the form when x   : In this case expression should be expressed as a function 1/x and
1
then after removing indeterminate form, (if it is there) replace by 0.
x
f (x )
Step I : Write down the expression in the form of rational function, i.e., , if it is not so.
g (x )

5
Step II : If k is the highest power of x in numerator and denominator both, then divide each term of
numerator and denominator by x k .
1
Step III : Use the result lim  0 , where n > 0.
x  xn
Note: An important result: If m, n are positive integers and a 0 , b 0  0 are non-zero real numbers, then
 a0
 b , if m  n
a 0 x m  a1 x m 1  ....  a m 1 x  am  0
lim   0, if m  n
x  b 0 x n  b 1 x n 1  .....  b n 1 x  b n  , if m  n



6
Mathematics

Differentiation

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content
1. Derivative at a Point.
 Geometrical meaning of derivative at a point
 Physical interpretation at a point

2. Some Standard Differentiation.

 Differentiation of Algebraic functions
 Differentiation of trigonometric functions
 Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential functions
 Differentiation of Inverse circular functions
 Differentiation of hyperbolic functions
 Some suitable substitution

3. Theorems for Differentiation.

4. Relation between dy/dx and dx/dy

5. Methods of Differentiation.
 Differentiation of Implicit functions
 Logarithmic Differentiation
 Differentiation of Parametric functions
 Differentiation of Infinite Series
 Differentiation of composite function

1
6. Differentiation of a function with respect to another
function.

7. Successive Differentiation or Higher order Derivatives.

8. nth derivative using Partial Fractions.

9. Differentiation of Determinant.

10. Differentiation of Integral Function.

11. Leibnitz's Theorem

2
Introduction.

The rate of change of one quantity with respect to some another quantity has a great importance. For
example, the rate of change of displacement of a particle with respect to time is called its velocity and
the rate of change of velocity is called its acceleration.
The rate of change of a quantity ‘y’ with respect to another quantity ‘x’ is called the derivative or
differential coefficient of y with respect to x.

1. Derivative at a Point.

f (a  h)  f (a)
The derivative of a function at a point x  a is defined by f (a)  lim (provided the limit
h0 h
exists and is finite)
The above definition of derivative is also called derivative by first principle.

(1) Geometrical meaning of derivatives at a point: Consider the curve y  f (x ) . Let f (x ) be

differentiable at x  c. Let P(c, f (c)) be a point on the curve and Q ( x , f (x )) be a neighboring point on the
curve. Then,
f ( x )  f (c)
Slope of the chord PQ  . Taking limit as Q  P , i.e. x  c,
y
x c Q[x, f(x)]
f (x )  f (c)
We get lim (slope of the chord PQ )  lim ……(i)
Q P x c x c f(x) – f(c)

As Q  P , chord PQ becomes tangent at P. [c, f(c)]P



Therefore from (i), we have x–c

f (x )  f (c)  df (x )  
Slope of the tangent at P = lim   . x
x c 0
x c  dx  x  c

3
Note: Thus, the derivatives of a function at a point x  c is the slope of the tangent to curve, y  f (x ) at point
(c, f (c)).

(2) Physical interpretation at a point: Let a particle moves in a straight line OX starting from O towards
X. Clearly, the position of the particle at any instant would depend upon the time elapsed. In other
words, the distance of the particle from O will be some function f of time t.
P Q
O X
t = t0 t = t0 + h

Let at any time t  t 0 , the particle be at P and after a further time h, it is at Q so that OP = f (t0 ) and
PQ
OQ  f (t0  h) . Hence, the average speed of the particle during the journey from P to Q is , i.e.,
h
f (t0  h)  f (t0 )
 f (t0 , h) . Taking the limit of f (t0 , h) as h  0 , we get its instantaneous speed to be
h
f (t  h)  f (t0 )
lim 0 , which is simply f (t0 ) . Thus, if f (t) gives the distance of a moving particle at time t,
h0 h
then the derivative of f at t  t 0 represents the instantaneous speed of the particle at the point P, i.e., at
time t  t 0 .

Important Tips
dy d d
 is (y ) in which is simply a symbol of operation and not ‘d’ divided by dx.
dx dx dx

 If f ( x 0 )  , the function is said to have an infinite derivative at the point x0. In this case the line
tangent to the curve of y = f(x) at the point x0 is perpendicular to the x-axis

4
2. Some Standard Differentiation.

(1) Differentiation of algebraic functions

d n d 1 d  1  n
(i) x  nx n 1 , x  R, n  R, x  0 (ii) ( x)  (iii)     n 1
dx dx 2 x dx  x n  x

(2) Differentiation of trigonometric functions: The following formulae can be applied directly while
differentiating trigonometric functions
d
(i) sin x  cos x
dx

d
(ii) cos x   sin x
dx

d
(iii) tan x  sec 2 x
dx

d
(iv) sec x  sec x tan x
dx

d
(v) cosec x  cosec x cot x
dx

d
(vi) cot x  cosec 2 x
dx

(3) Differentiation of logarithmic and exponential functions: The following formulae can be applied
directly when differentiating logarithmic and exponential functions
d 1
(i) log x  , for x > 0
dx x

d x
(ii) e  ex
dx

5
 d x
(iii) a  a x log a , for a > 0
dx

d 1
(iv) log a x  , for x > 0, a> 0, a  1
dx x log a

(4) Differentiation of inverse trigonometrical functions: The following formulae can be applied
directly while differentiating inverse trigonometrical functions
d 1
(i) sin 1 x  , for  1  x  1
dx 1 x2
d 1
(ii) cos 1 x  , for  1  x  1
dx 1  x2
d 1
(iii) sec 1 x  , for | x |  1
dx | x | x2 1
d 1
(iv) cosec 1 x  , for | x |  1
dx | x | x2 1
d 1
(v) tan 1 x  , for x  R
dx 1  x2
d 1
(vi) cot 1 x  , for x  R
dx 1  x2

(5) Differentiation of hyperbolic functions:

d
(i) sin h x  cos h x
dx

d
(ii) cos h x  sin h x
dx

d
(iii) tan h x  sec h 2 x
dx

d
(iv) cot h x   cosec h 2 x
dx

6
 d
(v) sec h x   sec h x tan h x
dx

d
(vi) cosec h x  cosec h x cot h x
dx

d
(vii) sin h 1 x  1 / (1  x 2 )
dx

d
(viii) cos h 1 x  1 / (x 2  1)
dx

d
(ix) tan h 1 x  1 /(x 2  1)
dx

d
(x) cot h 1 x  1 /(1  x 2 )
dx

d
(xi) sec h 1 x  1 / x (1  x 2 )
dx

d
(xii) cosec h 1 x  1 / x (1  x 2 )
dx

(6) Differentiation by inverse trigonometrical substitution: For trigonometrical substitutions

following formulae and substitution should be remembered

(i) sin 1 x  cos 1 x   / 2

(ii) tan 1 x  cot 1 x   / 2

(iii) sec 1 x  co sec 1 x   / 2

(iv) sin 1 x  sin 1 y  sin 1  x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 

 

(v) cos 1 x  cos 1 y  cos 1  xy  (1  x 2 )(1  y 2 ) 

 
7
  x y 
(vi) tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1  
 1  xy 

(vii) 2 sin 1 x  sin 1 (2 x 1  x 2 )

(viii) 2 cos 1 x  cos 1 (2 x 2  1)

2
 2x  1  2x  1  1  x 
(ix) 2 tan 1 x  tan 1  2
  sin  2
  cos  
1  x 2 
1  x  1  x   

(x) 3 sin 1 x  sin 1 (3 x  4 x 3 )

(xi) 3 cos 1 x  cos 1 (4 x 3  3 x )

 3x  x 3 
(xii) 3 tan 1 x  tan 1  2


 1  3x 
 x  y  z  xyz 
(xiii) tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1 z  tan 1  
 1  xy  yz  zx 

(xiv) sin 1 ( x )   sin 1 x

(xv) cos 1 ( x )    cos 1 x

(xvi) tan 1 ( x )   tan 1 x or   tan 1 x

 1  x 
(xvii)  tan 1 x  tan 1  
4 1  x 

8
(7) Some suitable substitutions

S Functio Substitution S Function Substitution

. N. n . N.
( a2  x 2 x  a sin  or (ii x 2  a2 x  a tan  or
i) a cos  ) a cot 

( x  a sec  or (i x  a cos 2
x 2  a2 ax
iii) a cosec  v) ax
( a2  x 2 x 2  a 2 cos 2 (v ax  x 2 x  a sin 2 
v) a2  x 2 i)
( x x  a tan 2  (v x x  a sin 2 
vii) ax iii) ax
( (x  a)(x 
2 2
x  a sec   b tan  (x (x  a)(b  x  a cos 2   b sin
ix) )

3. Theorems for Differentiation.

Let f (x ), g( x ) and u(x ) be differentiable functions

(1) If at all points of a certain interval. f ( x )  0, Then the function f (x ) has a constant value within this
interval.

(2) Chain rule

(i) Case I: If y is a function of u and u is a function of x, then derivative of y with respect to x is
dy dy du dy du
 or y  f (u)   f ' (u)
dx du dx dx dx

(ii) Case II: If y and x both are expressed in terms of t, y and x both are differentiable with respect to t
dy dy / dt
then  .
dx dx / dt

d d d
(3) Sum and difference rule: Using linear property ( f (x )  g(x ))  ( f ( x ))  (g(x ))
dx dx dx

9
 d d d
(4) Product rule: (i) ( f ( x )g ( x ))  f (x ) g(x )  g( x ) f (x ) (ii)
dx dx dx
d dw du dv
(u.v.w.)  u.v.  v.w.  u.w.
dx dx dx dx

d d
(5) Scalar multiple rule: (k f ( x ))  k f (x )
dx dx

d d
g( x ) ( f ( x ))  f ( x ) (g(x ))
d  f (x )  dx dx
(6) Quotient rule:    , provided g( x )  0
dx  g( x )  (g( x )) 2

4. Relation between dy/dx and dx/dy.

Let x and y be two variables connected by a relation of the form f (x , y )  0 . Let x be a small change in x
dy y dx x
and let y be the corresponding change in y. Then  lim and  lim .
dx  x  0 x dy  y  0 y
y x  y x 
Now, .  1  lim  . 1
x y x  0 x y 
 
y x dy dx dy 1
 lim . lim  1 [ x  0  y  0 ]  . 1. So,  .
x  0 x y 0 y dx dy dx dx / dy

5. Methods of Differentiation.

(1) Differentiation of implicit functions: If y is expressed entirely in terms of x, then we say that y is an
explicit function of x. For example y = sin x, y = ex, y = x2 + x + 1 etc. If y is related to x but cannot be
conveniently expressed in the form of y  f (x ) but can be expressed in the form f (x , y )  0 , then we say
that y is an implicit function of x.

(i) Working rule 1: (a) Differentiate each term of f (x , y )  0 with respect to x.

(b) Collect the terms containing dy / dx on one side and the terms not involving dy/dx on the other side.

(c) Express dy/dx as a function of x or y or both.

10
Note: In case of implicit differentiation, dy/dx may contain both x and y.

 f 
 
dy  x 
(ii) Working rule 2: If f(x, y) = constant, then 
dx  f 
 y 
 
f f
Where and are partial differential coefficients of f ( x , y ) with respect to x and y respectively.
x x

Note: Partial differential coefficient of f ( x , y ) with respect to x means the ordinary differential coefficient of f ( x , y )
with respect to x keeping y constant.

(3) Differentiation of parametric functions: Sometimes x and y are given as functions of a single
variable, e.g., x =  (t), y =  (t) are two functions and t is a variable. In such a case x and y are called
dy
parametric functions or parametric equations and t is called the parameter. To find in case of
dx
parametric functions, we first obtain the relationship between x and y by eliminating the parameter t and
then we differentiate it with respect to x. But every time it is not convenient to eliminate the parameter.

dy
Therefore can also be obtained by the following formula
dx
dy dy / dt

dx dx / dt

To prove it, let x and y be the changes in x and y respectively corresponding to a small change t in
t.

y dy
lim
y y / t dy y  t  0 t  ' (t)
Since  ,   lim   dt 
x x / t dx x 0 x x dx  ' (t)
lim
t  0 t dt

11
(4) Differentiation of infinite series: If y is given in the form of infinite series of x and we have to find
dy
out then we remove one or more terms, it does not affect the series
dx

(i) If y  f (x )  f(x )  f ( x )  .......  , then y  f (x )  y  y 2  f ( x )  y

dy dy dy f (x )
2y  f (x )  ,  
dx dx dx 2 y  1
f ( x ) f ( x )..... 
(ii) If y  f (x ) f ( x ) then y  f ( x )y
 log y  y log f (x )

1 dy y . f ( x ) dy dy y 2 f ( x )
  log f (x ). ,  
y dx f (x ) dx dx f (x )[1  y log f ( x )]
1 dy y f (x )
(iii) If y  f (x )  then 
1 dx 2 y  f ( x )
f (x ) 
f (x )  .... 

(5) Differentiation of composite function: Suppose function is given in form of fog(x ) or f [g( x )]
d
Working rule: Differentiate applying chain rule f [g( x )]  f ' [g( x )]. g ' ( x )
dx

6. Differentiation of a Function with Respect to another Function.

In this section we will discuss derivative of a function with respect to another function. Let u  f (x ) and
du
v  g(x ) be two functions of x. Then, to find the derivative of f (x ) w.r.t. g(x ) i.e., to find we use the
dv
du du / dx
following formula 
dv dv / dx
Thus, to find the derivative of f(x) w.r.t. g(x) we first differentiate both w.r.t. x and then divide the
derivative of f(x) w.r.t. x by the derivative of g(x) w.r.t. x.

12
7. Successive Differentiation or Higher Order Derivatives.

(1) Definition and notation: If y is a function of x and is differentiable with respect to x, then its
dy dy
derivative can be found which is known as derivative of first order. If the first derivative is also a
dx dx
differentiable. Function, then it can be further differentiated with respect to x and this derivative is
d 2y
denoted by d 2 y / dx 2 which is called the second derivative of y with respect to x further if is also
dx 2
d3y
differentiable then its derivative is called third derivative of y which is denoted by . Similarly nth
dx 3
d ny
derivative of y is denoted by . All these derivatives are called as successive derivative and this
dx n
process is known as successive differentiation. We also use the following symbols for the successive
derivatives of y  f (x ) :
y 1 , y 2 , y 3 , ........., y n ,...... y I , y II , y III ........., y n ,......

d dy d 2 y d 3 y d ny
Dy , D 2 y, D 3 y........., D n y ,...... (Where D  ) , , , ....... ,......... ..
dx dx dx 2 dx 3 dx n
f (x ), f ( x ), f ( x ),........ ., f n ( x ),......
If y  f (x ) , then the value of the nth order derivative at x  a is usually denoted by
 d ny 
 
 dx n  or (y n ) x  a or (y n ) x a or f n (a)
  x a

(2) nth Derivatives of some standard functions:

dn  n  dn  n 
(i) (a) n
sin(ax  b )  a n sin  ax  b  (b) n
cos( ax  b)  a n cos   ax  b 
dx  2  dx  2 
dn m!
(ii) n
(ax  b )m  a n (ax  b)m n , Where m  n
dx (m  n) !

Particular cases:
(i)(a) When m = n
(ii) When a  1, b  0 , then y  x n

13
D n {(ax  b )n }  a n .n ! 
m!
D n (x m )  m (m  1).......( m  n  1)x m n  x m n
(m  n)!

(b) When m  n, D n {(ax  b )m }  0

(iii) When a = 1, b = 0 and m = n,
1
(iv) When m  1, y 
(ax  b)

Then y  x n

D n (y )  a n (1)(2)(3)........( n)(ax  b )1 n

 D n (x n )  n !
an (1)n n !
 an (1)n (1 . 2 . 3 ...... n)(ax  b)1 n 
(ax  b )n 1

dn (1)n 1 (n  1)! a n
(3) log( ax  b) 
dx n (ax  b)n

dn
(4) (e ax )  a n e ax
dx n
d n (a x )
(5)  a x (log a)n
dx n
dn
(6) (i) n
e ax sin(bx  c)  r n e ax sin(bx  c  n  )
dx
b
Where r  a 2  b 2 ;   tan 1 , y  e ax sin(bx  c)
a
dn
(ii) n
e ax cos(bx  c)  r n e ax cos( bx  c  n  )
dx

14
8. nth Derivative using Partial fractions.

For finding nth derivative of fractional expressions whose numerator and denominator are rational
algebraic expression, firstly we resolve them into partial fractions and then we find nth derivative by using
1
the formula giving the nth derivative of .
ax  b

9. Differentiation of Determinants.

a1 ( x ) b 1 ( x ) a1 (x ) b1 ( x ) a1 ( x ) b 1 ( x )
Let (x) = . Then (x )  
a2 (x ) b 2 (x ) a 2 (x ) b 2 ( x ) a2 ( x ) b 2 ( x )

If we write (x) =| C 1 C 2 C 3 | . Then ( x ) | C1 C2 C3 |  | C1 C 2 C3 |  | C1 C 2 C3 |

R1 R1 R1 R1
Similarly, if (x) = R 2 , then ( x )  R 2  R 2  R 2
R3 R 3 R 3 R 3

Thus, to differentiate a determinant, we differentiate one row (or column) at a time, keeping others
unchanged.

10. Differentiation of Integral Function.

If g 1 ( x ) and g 2 (x ) both functions are defined on [a, b] and differentiable at a point x  (a, b) and f (t) is
continuous for g (a)  f (t)  g (b)
1 2
d g2 ( x ) d d
Then  f (t)dt  f [g 2 ( x )]g 2 ( x )  f [ g1 (x )]g1 ( x ) = f [g 2 (x )] g 2 (x )  f [g 1 ( x )] g1 (x ) .
dx g1 ( x ) dx dx

15
11. Leibnitz’s Theorem.

G.W. Leibnitz, a German mathematician gave a method for evaluating the nth differential coefficient of
the product of two functions. This method is known as Leibnitz’s theorem.
Statement of the theorem – If u and v are two functions of x such that their nth derivative exist then
D n (u.v.)  n C 0 (D n u)v  n C 1 D n 1 u. Dv  n C 2 D n  2 u.D 2 v  .......... ..  n C r D n r u. D r v  .........  u.(D n v).

Note: The success in finding the nth derivative by this theorem lies in the proper selection of first and second
function. Here first function should be selected whose nth derivative can be found by standard formulae. Second
function should be such that on successive differentiation, at some stage, it becomes zero so that we need not to
write further terms.

16
Mathematics

Differentiation

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content
1. Derivative at a Point.
 Geometrical meaning of derivative at a point
 Physical interpretation at a point

2. Some Standard Differentiation.

 Differentiation of Algebraic functions
 Differentiation of trigonometric functions
 Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential functions
 Differentiation of Inverse circular functions
 Differentiation of hyperbolic functions
 Some suitable substitution

3. Theorems for Differentiation.

4. Relation between dy/dx and dx/dy

5. Methods of Differentiation.
 Differentiation of Implicit functions
 Logarithmic Differentiation
 Differentiation of Parametric functions
 Differentiation of Infinite Series
 Differentiation of composite function

1
6. Differentiation of a function with respect to another
function.

7. Successive Differentiation or Higher order Derivatives.

8. nth derivative using Partial Fractions.

9. Differentiation of Determinant.

10. Differentiation of Integral Function.

11. Leibnitz's Theorem

2
Introduction.

The rate of change of one quantity with respect to some another quantity has a great importance. For
example, the rate of change of displacement of a particle with respect to time is called its velocity and
the rate of change of velocity is called its acceleration.
The rate of change of a quantity ‘y’ with respect to another quantity ‘x’ is called the derivative or
differential coefficient of y with respect to x.

1. Derivative at a Point.

f (a  h)  f (a)
The derivative of a function at a point x  a is defined by f (a)  lim (provided the limit
h0 h
exists and is finite)
The above definition of derivative is also called derivative by first principle.

(1) Geometrical meaning of derivatives at a point: Consider the curve y  f (x ) . Let f (x ) be

differentiable at x  c. Let P(c, f (c)) be a point on the curve and Q ( x , f (x )) be a neighboring point on the
curve. Then,
f ( x )  f (c)
Slope of the chord PQ  . Taking limit as Q  P , i.e. x  c,
y
x c Q[x, f(x)]
f (x )  f (c)
We get lim (slope of the chord PQ )  lim ……(i)
Q P x c x c f(x) – f(c)

As Q  P , chord PQ becomes tangent at P. [c, f(c)]P



Therefore from (i), we have x–c

f (x )  f (c)  df (x )  
Slope of the tangent at P = lim   . x
x c 0
x c  dx  x  c

3
Note: Thus, the derivatives of a function at a point x  c is the slope of the tangent to curve, y  f (x ) at point
(c, f (c)).

(2) Physical interpretation at a point: Let a particle moves in a straight line OX starting from O towards
X. Clearly, the position of the particle at any instant would depend upon the time elapsed. In other
words, the distance of the particle from O will be some function f of time t.
P Q
O X
t = t0 t = t0 + h

Let at any time t  t 0 , the particle be at P and after a further time h, it is at Q so that OP = f (t0 ) and
PQ
OQ  f (t0  h) . Hence, the average speed of the particle during the journey from P to Q is , i.e.,
h
f (t0  h)  f (t0 )
 f (t0 , h) . Taking the limit of f (t0 , h) as h  0 , we get its instantaneous speed to be
h
f (t  h)  f (t0 )
lim 0 , which is simply f (t0 ) . Thus, if f (t) gives the distance of a moving particle at time t,
h0 h
then the derivative of f at t  t 0 represents the instantaneous speed of the particle at the point P, i.e., at
time t  t 0 .

Important Tips
dy d d
 is (y ) in which is simply a symbol of operation and not ‘d’ divided by dx.
dx dx dx

 If f ( x 0 )  , the function is said to have an infinite derivative at the point x0. In this case the line
tangent to the curve of y = f(x) at the point x0 is perpendicular to the x-axis

4
2. Some Standard Differentiation.

(1) Differentiation of algebraic functions

d n d 1 d  1  n
(i) x  nx n 1 , x  R, n  R, x  0 (ii) ( x)  (iii)     n 1
dx dx 2 x dx  x n  x

(2) Differentiation of trigonometric functions: The following formulae can be applied directly while
differentiating trigonometric functions
d
(i) sin x  cos x
dx

d
(ii) cos x   sin x
dx

d
(iii) tan x  sec 2 x
dx

d
(iv) sec x  sec x tan x
dx

d
(v) cosec x  cosec x cot x
dx

d
(vi) cot x  cosec 2 x
dx

(3) Differentiation of logarithmic and exponential functions: The following formulae can be applied
directly when differentiating logarithmic and exponential functions
d 1
(i) log x  , for x > 0
dx x

d x
(ii) e  ex
dx

5
 d x
(iii) a  a x log a , for a > 0
dx

d 1
(iv) log a x  , for x > 0, a> 0, a  1
dx x log a

(4) Differentiation of inverse trigonometrical functions: The following formulae can be applied
directly while differentiating inverse trigonometrical functions
d 1
(i) sin 1 x  , for  1  x  1
dx 1 x2
d 1
(ii) cos 1 x  , for  1  x  1
dx 1  x2
d 1
(iii) sec 1 x  , for | x |  1
dx | x | x2 1
d 1
(iv) cosec 1 x  , for | x |  1
dx | x | x2 1
d 1
(v) tan 1 x  , for x  R
dx 1  x2
d 1
(vi) cot 1 x  , for x  R
dx 1  x2

(5) Differentiation of hyperbolic functions:

d
(i) sin h x  cos h x
dx

d
(ii) cos h x  sin h x
dx

d
(iii) tan h x  sec h 2 x
dx

d
(iv) cot h x   cosec h 2 x
dx

6
 d
(v) sec h x   sec h x tan h x
dx

d
(vi) cosec h x  cosec h x cot h x
dx

d
(vii) sin h 1 x  1 / (1  x 2 )
dx

d
(viii) cos h 1 x  1 / (x 2  1)
dx

d
(ix) tan h 1 x  1 /(x 2  1)
dx

d
(x) cot h 1 x  1 /(1  x 2 )
dx

d
(xi) sec h 1 x  1 / x (1  x 2 )
dx

d
(xii) cosec h 1 x  1 / x (1  x 2 )
dx

(6) Differentiation by inverse trigonometrical substitution: For trigonometrical substitutions

following formulae and substitution should be remembered

(i) sin 1 x  cos 1 x   / 2

(ii) tan 1 x  cot 1 x   / 2

(iii) sec 1 x  co sec 1 x   / 2

(iv) sin 1 x  sin 1 y  sin 1  x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 

 

(v) cos 1 x  cos 1 y  cos 1  xy  (1  x 2 )(1  y 2 ) 

 
7
  x y 
(vi) tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1  
 1  xy 

(vii) 2 sin 1 x  sin 1 (2 x 1  x 2 )

(viii) 2 cos 1 x  cos 1 (2 x 2  1)

2
 2x  1  2x  1  1  x 
(ix) 2 tan 1 x  tan 1  2
  sin  2
  cos  
1  x 2 
1  x  1  x   

(x) 3 sin 1 x  sin 1 (3 x  4 x 3 )

(xi) 3 cos 1 x  cos 1 (4 x 3  3 x )

 3x  x 3 
(xii) 3 tan 1 x  tan 1  2


 1  3x 
 x  y  z  xyz 
(xiii) tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1 z  tan 1  
 1  xy  yz  zx 

(xiv) sin 1 ( x )   sin 1 x

(xv) cos 1 ( x )    cos 1 x

(xvi) tan 1 ( x )   tan 1 x or   tan 1 x

 1  x 
(xvii)  tan 1 x  tan 1  
4 1  x 

8
(7) Some suitable substitutions

S Functio Substitution S Function Substitution

. N. n . N.
( a2  x 2 x  a sin  or (ii x 2  a2 x  a tan  or
i) a cos  ) a cot 

( x  a sec  or (i x  a cos 2
x 2  a2 ax
iii) a cosec  v) ax
( a2  x 2 x 2  a 2 cos 2 (v ax  x 2 x  a sin 2 
v) a2  x 2 i)
( x x  a tan 2  (v x x  a sin 2 
vii) ax iii) ax
( (x  a)(x 
2 2
x  a sec   b tan  (x (x  a)(b  x  a cos 2   b sin
ix) )

3. Theorems for Differentiation.

Let f (x ), g( x ) and u(x ) be differentiable functions

(1) If at all points of a certain interval. f ( x )  0, Then the function f (x ) has a constant value within this
interval.

(2) Chain rule

(i) Case I: If y is a function of u and u is a function of x, then derivative of y with respect to x is
dy dy du dy du
 or y  f (u)   f ' (u)
dx du dx dx dx

(ii) Case II: If y and x both are expressed in terms of t, y and x both are differentiable with respect to t
dy dy / dt
then  .
dx dx / dt

d d d
(3) Sum and difference rule: Using linear property ( f (x )  g(x ))  ( f ( x ))  (g(x ))
dx dx dx

9
 d d d
(4) Product rule: (i) ( f ( x )g ( x ))  f (x ) g(x )  g( x ) f (x ) (ii)
dx dx dx
d dw du dv
(u.v.w.)  u.v.  v.w.  u.w.
dx dx dx dx

d d
(5) Scalar multiple rule: (k f ( x ))  k f (x )
dx dx

d d
g( x ) ( f ( x ))  f ( x ) (g(x ))
d  f (x )  dx dx
(6) Quotient rule:    , provided g( x )  0
dx  g( x )  (g( x )) 2

4. Relation between dy/dx and dx/dy.

Let x and y be two variables connected by a relation of the form f (x , y )  0 . Let x be a small change in x
dy y dx x
and let y be the corresponding change in y. Then  lim and  lim .
dx  x  0 x dy  y  0 y
y x  y x 
Now, .  1  lim  . 1
x y x  0 x y 
 
y x dy dx dy 1
 lim . lim  1 [ x  0  y  0 ]  . 1. So,  .
x  0 x y 0 y dx dy dx dx / dy

5. Methods of Differentiation.

(1) Differentiation of implicit functions: If y is expressed entirely in terms of x, then we say that y is an
explicit function of x. For example y = sin x, y = ex, y = x2 + x + 1 etc. If y is related to x but cannot be
conveniently expressed in the form of y  f (x ) but can be expressed in the form f (x , y )  0 , then we say
that y is an implicit function of x.

(i) Working rule 1: (a) Differentiate each term of f (x , y )  0 with respect to x.

(b) Collect the terms containing dy / dx on one side and the terms not involving dy/dx on the other side.

(c) Express dy/dx as a function of x or y or both.

10
Note: In case of implicit differentiation, dy/dx may contain both x and y.

 f 
 
dy  x 
(ii) Working rule 2: If f(x, y) = constant, then 
dx  f 
 y 
 
f f
Where and are partial differential coefficients of f ( x , y ) with respect to x and y respectively.
x x

Note: Partial differential coefficient of f ( x , y ) with respect to x means the ordinary differential coefficient of f ( x , y )
with respect to x keeping y constant.

(3) Differentiation of parametric functions: Sometimes x and y are given as functions of a single
variable, e.g., x =  (t), y =  (t) are two functions and t is a variable. In such a case x and y are called
dy
parametric functions or parametric equations and t is called the parameter. To find in case of
dx
parametric functions, we first obtain the relationship between x and y by eliminating the parameter t and
then we differentiate it with respect to x. But every time it is not convenient to eliminate the parameter.

dy
Therefore can also be obtained by the following formula
dx
dy dy / dt

dx dx / dt

To prove it, let x and y be the changes in x and y respectively corresponding to a small change t in
t.

y dy
lim
y y / t dy y  t  0 t  ' (t)
Since  ,   lim   dt 
x x / t dx x 0 x x dx  ' (t)
lim
t  0 t dt

11
(4) Differentiation of infinite series: If y is given in the form of infinite series of x and we have to find
dy
out then we remove one or more terms, it does not affect the series
dx

(i) If y  f (x )  f(x )  f ( x )  .......  , then y  f (x )  y  y 2  f ( x )  y

dy dy dy f (x )
2y  f (x )  ,  
dx dx dx 2 y  1
f ( x ) f ( x )..... 
(ii) If y  f (x ) f ( x ) then y  f ( x )y
 log y  y log f (x )

1 dy y . f ( x ) dy dy y 2 f ( x )
  log f (x ). ,  
y dx f (x ) dx dx f (x )[1  y log f ( x )]
1 dy y f (x )
(iii) If y  f (x )  then 
1 dx 2 y  f ( x )
f (x ) 
f (x )  .... 

(5) Differentiation of composite function: Suppose function is given in form of fog(x ) or f [g( x )]
d
Working rule: Differentiate applying chain rule f [g( x )]  f ' [g( x )]. g ' ( x )
dx

6. Differentiation of a Function with Respect to another Function.

In this section we will discuss derivative of a function with respect to another function. Let u  f (x ) and
du
v  g(x ) be two functions of x. Then, to find the derivative of f (x ) w.r.t. g(x ) i.e., to find we use the
dv
du du / dx
following formula 
dv dv / dx
Thus, to find the derivative of f(x) w.r.t. g(x) we first differentiate both w.r.t. x and then divide the
derivative of f(x) w.r.t. x by the derivative of g(x) w.r.t. x.

12
7. Successive Differentiation or Higher Order Derivatives.

(1) Definition and notation: If y is a function of x and is differentiable with respect to x, then its
dy dy
derivative can be found which is known as derivative of first order. If the first derivative is also a
dx dx
differentiable. Function, then it can be further differentiated with respect to x and this derivative is
d 2y
denoted by d 2 y / dx 2 which is called the second derivative of y with respect to x further if is also
dx 2
d3y
differentiable then its derivative is called third derivative of y which is denoted by . Similarly nth
dx 3
d ny
derivative of y is denoted by . All these derivatives are called as successive derivative and this
dx n
process is known as successive differentiation. We also use the following symbols for the successive
derivatives of y  f (x ) :
y 1 , y 2 , y 3 , ........., y n ,...... y I , y II , y III ........., y n ,......

d dy d 2 y d 3 y d ny
Dy , D 2 y, D 3 y........., D n y ,...... (Where D  ) , , , ....... ,......... ..
dx dx dx 2 dx 3 dx n
f (x ), f ( x ), f ( x ),........ ., f n ( x ),......
If y  f (x ) , then the value of the nth order derivative at x  a is usually denoted by
 d ny 
 
 dx n  or (y n ) x  a or (y n ) x a or f n (a)
  x a

(2) nth Derivatives of some standard functions:

dn  n  dn  n 
(i) (a) n
sin(ax  b )  a n sin  ax  b  (b) n
cos( ax  b)  a n cos   ax  b 
dx  2  dx  2 
dn m!
(ii) n
(ax  b )m  a n (ax  b)m n , Where m  n
dx (m  n) !

Particular cases:
(i)(a) When m = n
(ii) When a  1, b  0 , then y  x n

13
D n {(ax  b )n }  a n .n ! 
m!
D n (x m )  m (m  1).......( m  n  1)x m n  x m n
(m  n)!

(b) When m  n, D n {(ax  b )m }  0

(iii) When a = 1, b = 0 and m = n,
1
(iv) When m  1, y 
(ax  b)

Then y  x n

D n (y )  a n (1)(2)(3)........( n)(ax  b )1 n

 D n (x n )  n !
an (1)n n !
 an (1)n (1 . 2 . 3 ...... n)(ax  b)1 n 
(ax  b )n 1

dn (1)n 1 (n  1)! a n
(3) log( ax  b) 
dx n (ax  b)n

dn
(4) (e ax )  a n e ax
dx n
d n (a x )
(5)  a x (log a)n
dx n
dn
(6) (i) n
e ax sin(bx  c)  r n e ax sin(bx  c  n  )
dx
b
Where r  a 2  b 2 ;   tan 1 , y  e ax sin(bx  c)
a
dn
(ii) n
e ax cos(bx  c)  r n e ax cos( bx  c  n  )
dx

14
8. nth Derivative using Partial fractions.

For finding nth derivative of fractional expressions whose numerator and denominator are rational
algebraic expression, firstly we resolve them into partial fractions and then we find nth derivative by using
1
the formula giving the nth derivative of .
ax  b

9. Differentiation of Determinants.

a1 ( x ) b 1 ( x ) a1 (x ) b1 ( x ) a1 ( x ) b 1 ( x )
Let (x) = . Then (x )  
a2 (x ) b 2 (x ) a 2 (x ) b 2 ( x ) a2 ( x ) b 2 ( x )

If we write (x) =| C 1 C 2 C 3 | . Then ( x ) | C1 C2 C3 |  | C1 C 2 C3 |  | C1 C 2 C3 |

R1 R1 R1 R1
Similarly, if (x) = R 2 , then ( x )  R 2  R 2  R 2
R3 R 3 R 3 R 3

Thus, to differentiate a determinant, we differentiate one row (or column) at a time, keeping others
unchanged.

10. Differentiation of Integral Function.

If g 1 ( x ) and g 2 (x ) both functions are defined on [a, b] and differentiable at a point x  (a, b) and f (t) is
continuous for g (a)  f (t)  g (b)
1 2
d g2 ( x ) d d
Then  f (t)dt  f [g 2 ( x )]g 2 ( x )  f [ g1 (x )]g1 ( x ) = f [g 2 (x )] g 2 (x )  f [g 1 ( x )] g1 (x ) .
dx g1 ( x ) dx dx

15
11. Leibnitz’s Theorem.

G.W. Leibnitz, a German mathematician gave a method for evaluating the nth differential coefficient of
the product of two functions. This method is known as Leibnitz’s theorem.
Statement of the theorem – If u and v are two functions of x such that their nth derivative exist then
D n (u.v.)  n C 0 (D n u)v  n C 1 D n 1 u. Dv  n C 2 D n  2 u.D 2 v  .......... ..  n C r D n r u. D r v  .........  u.(D n v).

Note: The success in finding the nth derivative by this theorem lies in the proper selection of first and second
function. Here first function should be selected whose nth derivative can be found by standard formulae. Second
function should be such that on successive differentiation, at some stage, it becomes zero so that we need not to
write further terms.

16
Mathematics

Application of Derivatives

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content

1. Application in Mechanics & rate measurer.

2. Tangent and Normal.

3. Maxima and Minima.

4. Increasing and Decreasing Function.

5. Rolle's Theorem.

6. Lagrange's Mean Value theorem.

1
1. Velocity and Acceleration in Rectilinear Motion.

The velocity of a moving particle is defined as the rate of change of its displacement with respect to time
and the acceleration is defined as the rate of change of its velocity with respect to time.
Let a particle A moves rectilinearly as shown in figure. V+V
s
s
O A (t) B (t+t)

Let s be the displacement from a fixed point O along the path at time t; s is considered to be positive on
right of the point O and negative on the left of it.
Also, s is positive when s increases i.e., when the particle moves towards right.
s
Thus, if s be the increment in s in time t . The average velocity in this interval is
t
s ds
And the instantaneous velocity i.e., velocity at time t is v  lim 
t  0 t dt
If the velocity varies, then there is change of velocity v in time t .
v dv
Hence, the acceleration at time t  lim 
t  0 t dt

2. Derivative as the Rate of Change.

If a variable quantity y is some function of time t i.e., y  f (t ), then small change in time t have a
corresponding change y in y.
y
Thus, the average rate of change =
t
When limit t  0 is applied, the rate of change becomes instantaneous and we get the rate of change
with respect to t.
y dy
i.e., lim 
t  0 t dt

Hence, it is clear that the rate of change of any variable with respect to some other variable is derivative
of first variable with respect to other variable.

2
 dy
Note: The differential coefficient of y with respect to x i.e., is nothing but the rate of increase of y relative to x.
dx

3. Slope of the Tangent and Normal.

(1) Slope of the tangent: If tangent is drawn on the curve y  f (x ) at point P(x 1 , y1 ) and this tangent
makes an angle  with positive x-direction then,
y
 dy  Tangent
   tan  = slope of the tangent
 dx ( x 1 , y1 ) Normal

 dy 
Note: If tangent is parallel to x-axis   0    0 
 dx ( x1 , y1 ) x
O
  dy 
 If tangent is perpendicular to x-axis     
2  dx ( x 1 , y1 )

(2) Slope of the normal: The normal to a curve at P(x 1 , y1 ) is a line perpendicular to the tangent at P
1 1  dx 
and passing through P and slope of the normal = =   
Slope of tangent  dy   dy  P ( x1 , y1 )
 
 dx  P( x1 , y1 )

Note: If normal is parallel to x-axis

 dx   dx 
     0 or   0
 dy ( x 1 , y1 )  dy ( x1 , y1 )

 If normal is perpendicular to x-axis (for parallel to y-axis)

 dy 
   0
 dx (x 1 , y 1 )

4. Equation of the Tangent and Normal.

3
(1) Equation of the tangent: We know that the equation of a line passing through a point P( x1 , y1 ) and
having slope m is y  y 1  m (x  x 1 )
 dy 
Slope of the tangent at (x 1 , y 1 ) is =  
 dx  ( x1 , y1 )
The equation of the tangent to the curve y  f (x ) at point P(x 1 , y 1 ) is
 dy 
y  y1    (x  x 1 )
 dx  ( x 1 , y1 )

1
(2) Equation of the normal: Slope of the Normal =
 dy 
 
 dx  ( x1 , y1 )
Thus equation of the normal to the curve y  f (x ) at point P(x 1 , y 1 )
1
y  y1  (x  x 1 )
 dy 
 
 dx  ( x1 , y1 )

Note: If at any point P (x 1 , y 1 ) on the curve y  f (x ) , the tangent makes equal angle with the axes, then at the
 3 dy
point P,   or . Hence, at P tan    1 .
4 4 dx

5. Angle of Intersection of Two Curves.

The angle of intersection of two curves is defined to be the angle between the tangents to the two
curves at their point of intersection.
We know that the angle between two straight lines having slopes m 1 and m 2 y
y = f2x
y = f1x

4
P


x
O
 m1  m 2
  tan 1
1  m 1m 2
Also slope of the tangent at P( x 1 , y 1 )
 dy   dy 
m1    , m2   
 dx  1( x1 , y1 )  dx  2( x 1 , y1 )
Thus the angle between the tangents of the two curves y  f1 ( x ) and y  f2 ( x )
 dy   dy 
   
 dx 1( x1 , y1 )  dx  2( x1 , y1 )
tan  
 dy   dy 
1   
 dx 1 ( x1 , y1 )  dx  2 ( x1 , y1 )

Orthogonal curves: If the angle of intersection of two curves is right angle, the two curves are said to

intersect orthogonally. The curves are called orthogonal curves. If the curves are orthogonal, then  
2
 dy   dy 
m 1 m 2  1       1
 dx  1  dx  2

6. Length of Tangent, Normal, Sub tangent and Subnormal.

Let the tangent and normal at point P( x , y ) on the curve y  f (x ) meet the x-axis at points A and B
respectively. Then PA and PB are called length of tangent and normal respectively at point P. If PC be the
perpendicular from P on x-axis, the AC and BC are called length of subtangent and subnormal
dy
respectively at P. If PA makes angle  with x-axis, then tan   from fig., we find that
dx

5
 2
 dy 
1 
 dx 
(1) Length of tangent PA  yc osec   y
 dy  y
 
 dx  Tangent
Normal

2 P (x, y)
 dy 
(2) Length of normal PB  y sec   y 1    
 dx  
x
O A C B

y
(3) Length of subtangent AC  y cot  
 dy 
 
 dx 

 dy 
(4) Length of subnormal BC  y tan   y  
 dx 

7. Length of Intercept made on Axis by the Tangent.

 dy 
Equation of tangent at any point (x 1 , y1 ) to the curve y  f (x ) is y  y1    (x  x1 ) ......(i)
 dx ( x1 , y1 )

Equation of x-axis y = 0 ......(ii)

and Equation of y-axis x = 0 ......(iii)
 
  Y
y1
Solving (i) and (ii) we get x  x 1   
R
  dy  
  
  dx (x 1 , y1 )  P (x1 y1)

X 6
O Q
  
 
 y1 
X-intercept OQ  x 1 
  dy  
  
  dx ( x 1 , y1 ) 
  dy  
Similarly solving (i) and (iii) we get, y-intercept OR = y1   x 1   
  dx ( x 1 , y1 ) 

8. Length of Perpendicular from Origin to the Tangent.

Length of perpendicular from origin (0, 0) to the tangent drawn at point P(x 1 , y 1 ) of the curve y  f (x )

 dy 
y1  x1  
 dx  ( x 1 , y1 )
p
2
 dy 
1 
 dx 

Introduction.
In this chapter we shall study those points of the domain of a function where its graph changes its
direction from upwards to downwards or from downwards to upwards. At such points the derivative of
the function, if it exists, is necessarily zero. y

x
O

7
9. Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function.

By the maximum / minimum value of function f (x ) we should mean local or regional

maximum/minimum and not the greatest / least value attainable by the
Y
function. It is also possible in a function that local maximum at one point
is smaller than local minimum at another point. Sometimes we use the f(a)
f(a–h) f(a+h)
word extreme for maxima and minima.
decreasing
Definition: A function f (x ) is said to have a maximum at x  a if f (a) is f(b) Increasing
Increasing f(b+h)
f(b–h)
greatest of all values in the suitably small neighborhood of a where
O a–h a a+h b b+h
(b–h)
x  a is an interior point in the domain of f (x ) . Analytically this means
f (a)  f (a  h) and f (a)  f (a  h) where h  0 . (Very small quantity).

Similarly, a function y  f (x ) is said to have a minimum at x  b . If f (b) is smallest of all values in the
suitably small neighborhood of b where x  b is an interior point in the domain of f (x ) . Analytically,
f (b)  f (b  h) and f (b)  f (b  h) where h  0 . (Very small quantity).

f(a)
f(a–h) f(a+h)
decreasing
increasing
f(b)
f(b+h)
f(b–h)

O a–h a a+h b–h b b–h

Hence we find that,

 f (a)  f (a  h)  0 y
(i) x  a is a maximum point of f (x ) 
 f (a)  f (a  h)  0
 f (b)  f (b  h)  0
(ii) x  b is a minimum point of f (x ) 
 f (b )  f (b  h)  0
(iii) x  c is neither a maximum point nor a minimum point,
x
 f (c)  f (c  h) and  a b c
  have opposite signs .
 f (c)  f (c  h) 

8
10. Local Maxima and Local Minima.

(1) Local maximum: A function f (x ) is said to attain a local maximum at x  a if there exists a
neighborhood (a   , a   ) of a such that f (x )  f (a) for all x  (a   , a   ), x  a
or f (x )  f (a)  0 for all x  (a   , a   ), x  a .
In such a case f (a) is called the local maximum value of f (x ) at x  a .

(2) Local minimum: A function f (x ) is said to attain a local minimum at x  a if there exists a
neighbourhood (a   , a   ) of a such that
f (x )  f (a) for all x  (a   , a   ), x  a

or f (x )  f (a)  0 for all x  (a   , a   ), x  a

The value of function at x  a i.e., f (a) is called the local minimum value of f (x ) at x  a .
The points at which a function attains either the local maximum values or local minimum values are
known as the extreme points or turning points and both local maximum and local minimum values are
called the extreme values of f (x ) . Thus, a function attains an extreme value at
x  a if f (a) is either a local maximum value or a local minimum value. y

Consequently at an extreme point ' a ' f (x )  f (a) keeps the same sign for all C E

y = f(x)
values of x in a deleted nbd of a.
D
A
In fig. we observe that the x-coordinates of the points A, C, E are points of local B
maximum and the values at these points i.e., their y-coordinates are the local x
O
maximum values of f (x ) . The x-coordinates of points B and D are points of
local minimum and their y-coordinates are the local minimum values of f (x ) .

Note: By a local maximum (or local minimum) value of a function at a point x  a we mean the greatest (or the
least) value in the neighbourhood of point x  a and not the absolute maximum (or the absolute minimum). In
fact a function may have any number of points of local maximum (or local minimum) and even a local minimum
value may be greater than a local maximum value. In fig. the minimum value at D is greater than the maximum
value at A. Thus, a local maximum value may not be the greatest value and a local minimum value may not be the
least value of the function in its domain.
 The maximum and minimum points are also known as extreme points.
 A function may have more than one maximum and minimum points.

9
 A maximum value of a function f(x) in an interval [a, b] is not necessarily its greatest value in that interval.
Similarly, a minimum value may not be the least value of the function. A minimum value may be greater than some
maximum value for a function.
 If a continuous function has only one maximum (minimum) point, then at this point function has its greatest
(least) value.
 Monotonic functions do not have extreme points.

11. Conditions for Maxima and Minima of a Function.

(1) Necessary condition: A point x  a is an extreme point of a function f (x ) if f (a)  0, provided

f (a) exists. Thus, if f (a) exists, then
x  a is an extreme point  f (a)  0
or
f (a)  0  x  a is not an extreme point
But its converse is not true i.e., f (a)  0, x  a is not an extreme point.

For example if f (x )  x 3 , then f (0)  0 but x  0 is not an extreme point.

(2) Sufficient condition:

(i) The value of the function f (x ) at x  a is maximum, if f (a)  0 and f (a)  0 .
(ii) The value of the function f (x ) at x  a is minimum if f (a)  0 and f (a)  0 .

Note: If f (a)  0 , f (a)  0, f (a)  0 then x  a is not an extreme point for the function f (x ) .

If f (a)  0 , f (a)  0, f (a)  0 then the sign of f (iv) (a) will determine the maximum and minimum value of
function i.e., f (x ) is maximum, if f (iv) (a)  0 and minimum if f (iv) (a)  0 .

12. Working rule for Finding Maxima and Minima.

(1) Find the differential coefficient of f (x ) with respect to x, i.e., f(x ) and equate it to zero.
(2) Find differential real values of x by solving the equation f ( x )  0 . Let its roots be a, b, c......
(3) Find the value of f (x ) and substitute the value of a1 , a2 , a3 ...... in it and get the sign of f (x ) for each
value of x.

10
(4) If f (a)  0 then the value of f (x ) is maximum at x  a and if f (a)  0 then value of f (x ) will be
minimum at x  a . Similarly by getting the signs of f (x ) at other point’s b, c.....we can find the points of
maxima and minima.

13. Point of Inflection.

A point of inflection is a point at which a curve is changing concave upward to concave downward or
vice-versa. A curve y  f (x ) has one of its points x  c as an inflection point, if
y
f (c)  0 or is not defined and if f (x ) changes sign as x increases through x  c
y = f(x)
.
The later condition may be replaced by f (c)  0 , when f (c) exists.
f(c)
Thus, x  c is a point of inflection if f (c)  0 and f (c)  0 .
x
O c
Properties of maxima and minima
(i) If f (x ) is continuous function in its domain, then at least one maxima and one minima must lie
between two equal values of x.
(ii) Maxima and minima occur alternately, that is, between two maxima there is one minimum and vice-
versa.
(iii) If f (x )   as x  a or b and f ( x )  0 only for one value of x (say c) between a and b, then f (c) is
necessarily the minimum and the least value.
If f (x )   as x  a or b, then f (c) is necessarily the maximum and the greatest value.

14. Greatest and Least Values of a Function in a given Interval.

If a function f (x ) is defined in an interval [a, b], then greatest or least values of this function occurs
either at x  a or x  b or at those values of x where f ( x )  0 .
Remember that a maximum value of the function f (x ) in any interval [a, b] is not necessarily its greatest
value in that interval. Thus greatest value of f(x) in interval [a, b] = max. [ f (a), f (b), f (c)]
Least value of f (x ) interval [a, b] = min. [ f (a), f (b), f (c)]
Where x  c is a point such that f (c)  0

11
15. Maxima and Minima of Functions of Two Variables.

If a function is defined in terms of two variables and if these variables are associated with a given
relation then by eliminating one variable, we convert function in terms of one variable and then find
maxima and minima by known methods.

16. Geometrical Results related to Maxima and Minima.

The following results can easily be established.

(1) The area of rectangle with given perimeter is greatest when it is a square.
(2) The perimeter of a rectangle with given area is least when it is a square.
(3) The greatest rectangle inscribed in a given circle is a square.
(4) The greatest triangle inscribed in given circle is equilateral.
(5) The semi vertical angle of a cone with given slant height and maximum volume is tan 1 2
(6) The height of a cylinder of maximum volume inscribed in a sphere of radius a is a 2a / 3 .

Important Tips

 Equilateral triangle: Area = ( 3 / 4 )x 2 , where x is its side.

 Square: Area = a 2 , perimeter = 4 a , where a is its side.
 Rectangle: Area = ab, perimeter = 2(a  b) , where a, b are its sides.
1
 Trapezium: Area = (a  b)h , where a, b are lengths of parallel sides and h be the distance between
2
them.
 Circle: Area = a 2 , perimeter = 2a , where a is its radius.
4
 Sphere: Volume = a 3 , surface area = 4a 2 , where a is its radius.
3
1
 Right circular cone: Volume = r 2 h, curved surface = rl , where r is the radius of its base, h is its
3
height and l is its slant height.
 Cylinder: Volume = r 2 h , whole surface = 2r(r  h) , where r is the radius of the base and h is its
height.

12
Increasing & Decreasing Function

Definition.
(1) Strictly increasing function: A function f(x) is said to be a strictly increasing y
function on (a, b), if x 1  x 2  f ( x 1 )  f (x 2 ) for all x1, x2  (a, b).
Thus, f (x ) is strictly increasing on (a, b), if the values of f (x ) increase with the y = f(x)
increase in the values of x.
(2) Strictly decreasing function: A function f (x ) is said to be a strictly f(x1) f(x2)

decreasing function on (a, b ) , if x 1  x 2  f ( x 1 )  f (x 2 ) for all x 1 , x 2  (a, b) . Thus, x

O a x1 x2 b
f (x ) is strictly decreasing on (a, b), if the values of f (x ) decrease with the
increase in the values of x.
y

f(x1) f(x2)

x x
a O x1 x2 b

13
17. Monotonic Function.

A function f (x ) is said to be monotonic on an interval (a, b) if it is either increasing or decreasing on (a,

b).
(1) Monotonic increasing function: A function is said to be a monotonic increasing function in defined
interval if, y y

x 1  x 2  f ( x 1 )  f (x 2 )

or x 1  x 2  f ( x 1 )  f ( x 2 )
or x 1  x 2  f ( x 1 )  f ( x 2 )
or x 1  x 2  f (x1 )  f (x 2 ) x x
O O

(2) Monotonic decreasing function: A function is said to be a monotonic decreasing function in

defined interval, if x 1  x 2  f (x 1 )  f (x 2 ) y y

or x 1  x 2  f (x 1 )  f ( x 2 )
or x 1  x 2  f (x 1 )  f (x 2 )
or x 1  x 2  f (x 1 )  f ( x 2 )
x x
O O

18. Necessary and Sufficient Condition for Monotonic Function.

In this section we intend to see how we can use derivative of a function to determine where it is
increasing and where it is decreasing
(1) Necessary condition: From figure we observe that if f (x ) is an increasing function on (a, b), then
tangent at every point on the curve y  f (x ) makes y y
an acute angle  with the positive direction of x-axis.
P(x, y)
dy
 tan   0   0 or f ' ( x )  0 For all x  (a, b ) P(x,y)
dx
y=f(x) y=f(x)
It is evident from figure that if f (x ) is a decreasing
 
function on (a, b), then tangent at every point on the a
x
O
x
O b a b
curve y = f(x) makes an obtuse angle  with the
positive direction of x-axis.

14
 dy
 tan   0   0 or f ' ( x )  0 for all x  (a, b ).
dx

Thus, f ' (x )  0( 0) for all x  (a, b ) is the necessary condition for a function f (x) to be increasing
(decreasing) on a given interval (a, b). In other words, if it is given that f (x) is increasing (decreasing) on
(a, b), then we can say that f ' (x )  0 ( 0 ).

(2) Sufficient condition: Theorem: Let f be a differentiable real function defined on an open interval (a,
b).
(a) If f ' ( x )  0 for all x  (a, b ) , then f (x ) is increasing on (a, b).
(b) If f ' ( x )  0 for all x  (a, b ) , then f (x ) is decreasing on (a, b).

Corollary: Let f (x) be a function defined on (a, b).

(a) If f ' ( x )  0 for all x  (a, b ) , except for a finite number of points, where f ' (x )  0, then f (x ) is increasing
on (a, b).
(b) If f ' ( x )  0 for all x  (a, b ) , except for a finite number of points, where f ' (x )  0, then f (x) is decreasing
on (a, b).

19. Test for Monotonicity.

(1) At a point: (i) Function f (x) will be monotonic increasing in domain at a point if and only if, f ' (a)  0
(ii) Function f (x) will be monotonic decreasing in domain at a point if and only if, f ' (a)  0 .
(2) In an interval: Function f (x), defined in [a, b] is
(i) Monotonic increasing in (a, b) if, f ' ( x )  0 , ax b
(ii) Monotonic increasing in [a, b] if, f ' ( x )  0 , ax b
(iii) Strictly increasing in [a, b], if, f ' (x )  0 , ax b
(iv) Monotonic decreasing in (a, b), if, f ' (x )  0 , ax b
(v) Monotonic decreasing in [a, b], if, f ' ( x )  0 , ax b
(vi) Strictly decreasing in [a, b], if, f ' (x )  0 , ax b

Properties of Monotonic Function.

15
(1) If f (x ) is strictly increasing function on an interval [a, b], then f 1 exists and it is also a strictly
increasing function.
(2) If f (x ) is strictly increasing function on an interval [a, b] such that it is continuous, then f 1 is
continuous on [ f (a), f (b)]

(3) If f (x ) is continuous on [a, b] such that f (c)  0( f (c)  0 ) for each c  (a, b ), then f (x ) is
monotonically (strictly) increasing function on [a, b].
(4) If f (x ) is continuous on [a, b] such that f (c)  0( f (c)  0) for each c  (a, b ) , then f (x ) is
monotonically (strictly) decreasing function on [a, b]
(5) If f (x ) and g(x ) are monotonically (or strictly) increasing (or decreasing) functions on [a, b], then gof
(x) is a monotonically (or strictly) increasing function on [a, b]
(6) If one of the two functions f (x ) and g(x ) is strictly (or monotonically) increasing and other a strictly
(monotonically) decreasing, then gof(x) is strictly (monotonically) decreasing on [a, b].

Rolle’s Theorem

Definition.
Let f be a real valued function defined on the closed interval [a, b] such that,
(1) f (x) is continuous in the closed interval [a, b]
(2) f (x ) is differentiable in the open interval ]a, b[ and
(3) f (a)  f (b)
Then there is atleast one value c of x in open interval] a, b [for which f (c)  0 .

20. Analytical Interpretation.

Now, Rolle's Theorem is valid for a function such that y

(1) f (x ) is continuous in the closed interval [a, b]

(2) f (x ) is differentiable in open interval] a, b[ and y=c

(3) f (a)  f (b)

So, generally two cases arises in such circumstances. x
O a b
16
Case I: f(x) is constant in the interval [a, b] then f (x )  0 for all x  [a, b] . Hence, Rolle's Theorem follows,
and we can say, f (c)  0, where a  c  b
Case II: f(x) is not constant in the interval [a, b] and since f (a)  f (b) .
y

C
Increase decrease

B
A

x
O x=a x=c x=b
positive

The function should either increase or decrease when x takes values slightly greater than a.
Now, let f (x ) increases for x  a
Since, f (a)  f (b) hence the function must seize to increase at some value x  c and decreasing up to
x b.
Clearly at x  c function has maximum value.
Now let h be a small positive quantity then, from definition of maximum value of the function,
f (c  h)  f (c)  0 and f (c  h)  f (c)  0
f (c  h)  f (c) f (c  h)  f (c)
  0 and 0
h h
f (c  h)  f (c) f (c  h)  f (c)
So, lim  0 and lim 0 .....(i)
h 0 h h 0 h
f (c  h)  f (c) f (c  h)  f (c)
But, if lim  lim ,
h 0 h h  0 h
The Rolle's Theorem cannot be applicable because in such case,
RHD at x  c  LHD at x  c .

Hence, f (x ) is not differentiable at x  c, which contradicts the condition of Rolle's Theorem.

f (c  h)  f (c) f (c  h)  f (c)
 Only one possible solution arises, when lim  lim 0
h 0 h h 0 h

17
Which implies that, f (c)  0 where a  c  b

Hence, Rolle's Theorem is proved. y

A B

Increase
Decrease
minimum
x
O x=a x=c x=b

Similarly, the case where f (x ) decreases in the interval a  x  c and then increases in the interval
c  x  b, f (c)  0 . But when x  c, the minimum value of f (x ) exists in the interval [a, b].

21. Geometrical Interpretation.

Consider the portion AB of the curve y  f (x ) , lying between x  a and x  b , y

such that
C1 C2
(1) It goes continuously from A to B.
(2) It has tangent at every point between A and B and B
D
A
(3) Ordinate of A = ordinate of B
x
O x=a x=c x=b

From figure, it is clear that f (x ) increases in the interval AC 1 , which implies that f (x )  0 in this region
and decreases in the interval C1 B which implies f ( x )  0 in this region. Now, since there is unique
tangent to be drawn on the curve lying in between A and B and since each of them has a unique slope
i.e., unique value of f (x ) .
 Due to continuity and differentiability of the function f (x ) in the region A to B. There is a point x  c
where f (c)  0 . Hence, f (c)  0 where a  c  b

Thus Rolle's Theorem is proved.

18
Similarly the other parts of the figure given above can be explained, establishing Rolle's Theorem
throughout.

Note: On Rolle's Theorem generally two types of problems are formulated.

 To check the applicability of Rolle's Theorem to a given function on a given interval.
 To verify Rolle's Theorem for a given function in a given interval.

In both types of problems we first check whether f(x) satisfies the condition of Rolle's Theorem or not.
The following results are very helpful in doing so.

(i) A polynomial function is everywhere continuous and differentiable.

(ii) The exponential function, sine and cosine functions are everywhere continuous and differentiable.
(iii) Logarithmic functions is continuous and differentiable in its domain.
 3 5
(iv) Tan x is not continuous and differentiable at x   ,  , ,.......
2 2 2
(v) |x| is not differentiable at x  0 .
(vi) If f (x ) tends to   as x  K , then f (x ) is not differentiable at x  K .

1 1 
For example, if f (x )  (2 x  1)1 / 2 , then f (x )  is such that as x     f (x )  
2x 1 2
1
So, f (x ) is not differentiable at x  .
2

19
Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem

Definition.
If a function f (x ) ,
(1) is continuous in the closed interval [a, b] and
(2) Is differentiable in the open interval (a, b)
f (b )  f (a)
Then there is atleast one value c  (a, b) , such that; f (c) 
ba

22. Analytical Interpretation.

f (b )  f (a)
First form: Consider the function,  (x )  f (x )  x
ba
Since, f (x ) is continuous in [a, b]
  (x ) is also continuous in [a,b]
f (b)  f (a)
Since, f(x ) exists in (a, b) hence  (x ) also exists in (a, b ) and  (x )  f ( x )  .....(i)
ba
Clearly,  (x ) satisfies all the condition of Rolle's Theorem
 There is atleast one value of c of x between a and b such that  (c)  0 substituting x  c in (i) we
get,
f (b )  f (a)
f (c)  Which proves the theorem.
ba
Second form: If we write b  a  h then a  c  b, c  a  h where 0    1
Thus, the mean value theorem can be stated as follows:
If (i) f (x ) is continuous in closed interval [a, a+h]
(ii) f(x ) exists in the open interval (a, a  h) then there exists at least one number  (0    1)
Such that f (a  h)  f (a)  h f (a  h) .

23. Geometrical Interpretation.

20
Let f (x ) be a function defined on [a, b] and let APB be the curve represented by y  f (x ) . Then co-
ordinates of A and B are (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) respectively. Suppose the chord AB makes an angle  with
the axis of x. Then from the triangle ARB, we have
BR f (b)  f (a)
tan    tan  
AR b a
f (b )  f (a)
By Lagrange's Mean value theorem, we have, f (c)   tan   f(c)
ba

B[b, f(b)]

[a, f(a)]  P[c, f(c)]

A R


x
O M N

 Slope of the chord AB = slope of the tangent at (c, f (c))

21
Mathematics

Definite Integrals

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content
1. Definition.

2. Definite Integral as the Limit of a Sum.

3. Definite Integral by Substitution.

4. Properties of Definite Integral.

5. Summation of Series by Integration.

6. Gamma Function.

7. Reduction formulae for Definite Integration.

8. Walli's Formula.

9. Leibnitz's Rule.

10. Integrals with Infinite Limits (Improper Integral).

11. Some important results of Definite Integral.

12. Integration of Piecewise Continuous Function.

1
1. Definition.
d
Let  (x ) be the primitive or anti-derivative of a function f(x) defined on [a, b] i.e., [ ( x )]  f ( x ) . Then
dx
b
the definite integral of f(x) over [a, b] is denoted by  f (x )dx and is defined as [ (b)   (a)] i.e.,
a
b
 f (x )dx   (b)  (a) . This is also called Newton Leibnitz formula.
a

The numbers a and b are called the limits of integration, ‘a’ is called the lower limit and ‘b’ the upper
limit. The interval [a, b] is called the interval of integration. The interval [a, b] is also known as range of
integration.

Important Tips
 In the above definition it does not matter which anti-derivative is used to evaluate the definite
b
integral, because if  f x dx   x   c, then  f x d x   x   c ba   (b)  c    (a)  c    (b)   (a).
a
In other words, to evaluate the definite integral there is no need to keep the constant of integration.
 Every definite integral has a unique value.

2. Definite Integral as the Limit of a Sum.

Let f(x) be a single valued continuous function defined in the interval a  x  b, where a and b are both
finite. Let this interval be divided into n equal sub-intervals, each of width h by inserting (n – 1) points
a  h, a  2 h, a  3 h...... a  (n  1)h between a and b. Then nh  b  a .
Now, we form the sum hf (a)  hf (a  h)  hf (a  2 h)  ........  hf (a  rh)  ......  hf [a  (n  1)h]
= h[ f (a)  f (a  h)  f (a  2h)  .....  f (a  rh)  ....  f {a  (n  1)h}]
n 1
= h  f (a  rh)
r 0

Where, a  nh  b  nh  b  a
n 1
The lim h
h0
 f (a  rh), if it exists is called the definite integral of f(x) with respect to x between the limits
r0
b
a and b and we denote it by the symbol  f (x )dx .
a

2
 b b n 1
Thus, 
a
f ( x )dx  lim h[ f (a)  f (a  h)  f (a  2h)  ......  f {a  (n  1)h}] 
h0 
a
f (x )dx  lim h
h 0
 f(a  rh)
r 0

Where, nh  b  a, a and b being the limits of integration.

The process of evaluating a definite integral by using the above definition is called integration
from the first principle or integration as the limit of a sum.

Important Tips

 In finding the above sum, we have taken the left end points of the subintervals. We can take the
right end points of the sub-intervals throughout.
n
Then we have, ab f ( x )dx  lim h[ f (a  h)  f (a  2h)  .....  f (a  nh)] ,  ab f ( x )dx  h  f (a  rh)
h0 r 1
Where, nh = b – a.

 
dx 
          x     x  dx     2
 x     x   8

b b nb
x a  1
 dx  b  a   f x  dx  f x  dx
a bx 2 
a n  na

b c b b c b
 f x  c  dx  f x  dx or f  x  c  dx  f x  dx
a c  a 
a c 
a

Some useful results for evaluation of definite integrals as limit for sums

n(n  1)
(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + …….+ n =
2

n(n  1)(2n  1)
(ii) 1 2  2 2  3 2  ........  n 2 
6

2
 n(n  1) 
(iii) 1 3  2 3  3 3  .......  n 3   
 2 

a(r n  1)
(iv) a  ar  ar 2  ........  ar n 1  ,r  1 , r  1
r 1

3
 a (1  r n )
(v) a  ar  ar 2  .......... .....  ar n 1  , r  1, r  1
1r

  n  1    nh 
sin a  
n 1
 h sin  
  2   2
r 0

(vi) sin a  sin(a  h)  ........  sin[ a  (n  1)h]  [sin(a  nh )] 
h
sin 
2

  n  1    nh 
cos a  
n 1
 h sin  
  2   2
(vii) cos a  cos( a  h)  cos( a  2h)  .....  cos[ a  (n  1)h]  [cos( a  nh)] 
r 0
 h
sin 
2

1 1 1 1 1 2
(viii) 1       .......... ..........  
22 32 4 2 5 2 6 2 12

1 1 1 1 1 2
(ix) 1      .......... ......  
22 32 4 2 5 2 62 6

1 1 2
(x) 1    .......... ..........  
32 52 8

1 1 1 2
(xi)    .......... ..........  
22 42 62 24

e i  e i e i  e i
(xii) cos   and sin  
2 2

e   e  e   e 
(xiii) cosh   and sinh  
2 2

4
3. Evaluation of Definite Integral by Substitution.

When the variable in a definite integral is changed, the substitutions in terms of new variable should be
effected at three places.
(i) In the integrand (ii) In the differential say, dx (iii) In the limits
b b  (b )
For example, if we put  (x )  t in the integral f { ( x )} ' ( x )dx , then
  f { ( x )} ' (x )dx   f (t) dt .
a a (a )

Important Tips

  /2
 0
dx
1  sin x
2  0
dx
sin x  cos x
 2 log  2 1 
 /2 a
dx a
 log tan x  dx  0  where f a  x    f x 
0 
0 1e f x 
 ,
2
a a
dx  dx 
      
0 2
a x 2 2 0 x 2  a2 2a
a
a 2
a 2  x 2 dx 
 0 4

4. Properties of Definite Integral.

b b
(1)  f (x )dx   f (t) dt i.e., The value of a definite integral remains unchanged if its variable is replaced by
a a

any other symbol.

b a
(2)  f(x)dx   f(x)dx i.e., by the interchange in the limits of definite integral, the sign of the integral is

a b

changed.

b c b
(3)  f (x )dx   f (x )dx   f (x )dx , (where a < c < b)
a a c

5
 b c1 c2 b
or  f (x )dx   f ( x )dx   f ( x )dx  .....   f ( x )dx ; (where a  c 1  c 2  ........ c n  b )
a a c1 cn

Generally this property is used when the integrand has two or more rules in the integration interval.

Important Tips

b
  ( x  a  x  b ) dx  (b  a)2
a

Note: Property (3) is useful when f (x ) is not continuous in [a, b] because we can break up the integral into several
integrals at the points of discontinuity so that the function is continuous in the sub-intervals.
The expression for f (x ) changes at the end points of each of the sub-interval. You might at times be puzzled
about the end points as limits of integration. You may not be sure for x = 0 as the limit of the first integral or the
0
next one. In fact, it is immaterial, as the area of the line is always zero. Therefore, even if you write  1
(1  2 x ) dx ,
whereas 0 is not included in its domain it is deemed to be understood that you are approaching x = 0 from the left
in the first integral and from right in the second integral. Similarly for x = 1.

a a
(4)  f ( x )dx   f (a  x )dx : This property can be used only when lower limit is zero. It is generally used
0 0

for those complicated integrals whose denominators are unchanged when x is replaced by (a – x).
Following integrals can be obtained with the help of above property.
 /2 sin n x  /2 cos n x 
(i)  n n
dx   n n
dx 
0 sin x  cos x 0 cos x  sin x 4

 /2 tan n x  /2 cot n x 
(ii)  n
dx   n
dx 
0 1  tan x 0 1  cot x 4

 /2 1  2 1 
(iii)  dx   dx 
0 1  tan n x 0 n
1  cot x 4

 2 sec n x  /2 cosec n x 
(iv)  dx   dx 
0 sec n x  cosec n x 0 n n
cosec x  sec x 4

6
  2  /2
(v)  f (sin 2 x ) sin xdx   f (sin 2 x ) cos xdx
0 0

 /2  /2
(vi)  f (sin x )dx   f (cos x )dx
0 0

 /2  /2
(vii)  f (tan x )dx   f (cot x )dx
0 0

1 1
(viii)  f (log x )dx   f [log(1  x )]dx
0 0

 /2  /2
(ix)  log tan xdx   log cot xdx
0 0

 /4 
(x)  log(1  tan x )dx  log 2
0 8

 /2  /2   1
(xi)  log sin xdx   log cos xdx  log 2  log
0 0 2 2 2

 /2 a sin x  b cos x  /2 a sec x  b cosec x  /2 a tan x  b cot x 

(xii)  dx   dx   dx  (a  b)
0 sin x  cos x 0 sec x  cosec x 0 tan x  cot x 4

7
 a a
(5)  f ( x ) dx   f (x )  f ( x ) dx .
a 0

a
a  2
In special case:  a
f (x ) dx    f (x ) dx , if f (x ) is even function or f ( x )  f (x )
0
 0 , if f (x ) is odd is odd function or f ( x )   f (x )

This property is generally used when integrand is either even or odd function of x.

2a a a
(6)  f ( x )dx   f (x )dx   f (2a  x ) dx
0 0 0

2a 0 , if f (2 a  x )   f (x )
In particular,  f ( x ) dx   a
0
 2  f (x ) dx ,
0
if f (2a  x )  f (x )

It is generally used to make half the upper limit.

b b
(7)  f (x ) dx   f (a  b  x )dx
a a

b f ( x ) dx 1
Note: a
 (b  a)
f ( x )  f (a  b  x ) 2

a 1 a
(8)  x f (x )dx  a  f ( x )dx if f (a  x )  f (x )
0 2 0

8
 nT T
(9) If f (x ) is a periodic function with period T, then  f (x )dx  n  f (x )dx ,
0 0

a  nT a
Deduction: If f (x ) is a periodic function with period T and a  R  , then  f (x )dx   f (x )dx
nT 0

(10)

(i) If f (x ) is a periodic function with period T, then

a  nT T
 f ( x ) dx  n  f ( x ) dx where n  I
a 0

(a) In particular, if a = 0
nT T
 f ( x ) dx  n  f (x ) dx , where n  I
0 0

aT T
(b) If n = 1,  f (x ) dx   f (x ) dx ,
0 0

nT T
(i)  f (x ) dx  (n  m )  f ( x ) dx , where n, m  I
mT 0

b  nT b
(ii)  f (x ) dx   f ( x ) dx , where n I
a  nT a

aT
(11) If f (x ) is a periodic function with period T, then  f (x ) is independent of a.
a

b 1
(12)  a
f (x ) dx  (b  a)  f (b  a) x  a  dx
0

x
(13) If f (t) is an odd function, then  (x )   f (t) dt is an even function
a

x
(14) If f (x ) is an even function, then  ( x )   f (t) dt is on odd function.
0

9
 x
Note: If f(t) is an even function, then for a non zero ‘a’, 
0
f (t) dt is not necessarily an odd function. It will be odd
a
function if  f (t) dt  0
0

Important Tips

 Every continuous function defined on [a, b] is integrable over [a, b].

 Every monotonic function defined on [a, b] is integrable over [a, b].
 If f(x) is a continuous function defined on [a, b], then there exists c  (a, b ) such that
b
f ( x )dx  f (c).(b  a) .
a

b
1
The number f (c)   f (x )dx is called the mean value of the function f (x ) on the interval [a, b].
(b  a) a

x
 If f is continuous on [a, b], then the integral function g defined by g(x) = f (t)dt for x  [a, b ] is a

derivable on [a, b] and g ( x )  f ( x ) for all x  [a, b] .

 If m and M are the smallest and greatest values of a function f(x) on an interval [a, b], then
b
m(b  a) 
 f (x )dx  M (b  a)
a

 If the function  (x ) and  (x ), are defined on [a, b] and differentiable at a point x  (a, b) and f(t) is
  (x ) 
continuous for  (a)  t   (b ) , then  f (t)dt   f ( (x )) ' ( x )  f ((x ))' (x )
 ( x ) 
b b

 a 
f ( x )dx  | f (x ) | dx
a

1/ 2 1/ 2
b  b   b 2 
 If f 2 (x ) and g 2 (x ) are integrable on [a, b], then  f (x ) g( x ) dx  
 f 2 (x ) dx 

 g (x ) dx 
a  a   a 

 Change of variables: If the function f(x) is continuous on [a, b] and the function x  (t) is
b t2
continuously differentiable on the interval [t1 , t 2 ] and a  (t1 ), b  (t 2 ), then  f ( x )dx 
 f ((t))' (t)dt .
a t1

b
 Let a function f ( x , ) be continuous for a  x  b and c    d . Then for any   [c, d ] , if I( )  f (x ,  )dx , a
b
then I'( )  f ' (x , )dx ,
 a

Where I'( ) is the derivative of I( ) w.r.t.  and f ' (x , ) is the derivative of f ( x , ) w.r.t. , keeping x
constant.
 For a given function f (x ) continuous on [a, b] if you are able to find two continuous function f1 ( x )
and f2 ( x ) on [a, b] such that f1 (x )  f (x )  f2 ( x )  x  [a, b ], then
b b b


a
f1 ( x ) dx 

a
f (x ) dx 

a
f2 ( x ) dx

10
5. Summation of Series by Integration.

b n
We know that f (x )dx  lim h

a n 
 f (a  rh) ,
r 1
where nh  b  a

1 1 1 r
Now, put a = 0, b = 1,  nh  1 or h 
n
. Hence  f (x )dx  lim n  f  n 
0 n 

1 r r 1
Note: Express the given series in the form   . Replace by x, by dx and the limit of the sum is
f
n h n n
1
0
f ( x ) dx .

6. Gamma Function.

m  1 n 1
   
 /2  2   2 
If m and n are non-negative integers, then  sin m n
x cos xdx 
0 m n  2
2  
 2 
Where (n) is called gamma function which satisfied the following properties
(n  1)  n (n)  n! i.e.  (1)  1 and (1 / 2)  

In place of gamma function, we can also use the following formula :

/ 2 (m  1)(m  3).....( 2 or 1)(n  1)(n  3).....( 2 or 1)
 sin m x cos n xdx =
0 (m  n)(m  n  2)....( 2 or 1)

It is important to note that we multiply by (/2); when both m and n are even.

11
7. Reduction formulae Definite Integration.

 b
(1)  e ax sin bxdx 
0 a  b2
2

 a
(2)  e ax cos bxdx 
0 a  b2
2

 n!
(3)  e ax x n dx  n
0 a 1

8. Walli's Formula.

n 1 n  3 n  5 2
 /2  /2  . . ...... , when n is odd
 sin n xdx   cos n xdx   n n  2 n  4 3
0 0 n 1 n  3 n  5 3 1 
 . . ....... . . , when n is even
 n n2 n4 4 2 2
 /2 (m  1)(m  3)......... .(n  1)(n  3)........ [If m, n are both odd +ve integers or one odd +ve
0 sin m x cos n dx 
(m  n)(m  n  2)
integer]

(m  1) (m  3)......... ...(n  1) (n  3) 
 . [If m, n are both +ve integers]
(m  n) (m  n  2) 2

12
9. Leibnitz’s Rule.

(1) If f(x) is continuous and u(x), v(x) are differentiable functions in the interval [a, b], then,

d v (x ) d d
dx 
u(x )
f (t)dt  f {v(x )}
dx
{v(x )}  f {u(x )}
dx
{u(x )}

(2) If the function  (x ) and  (x ) are defined on [a,b] and differentiable at a point x  (a, b ), and f (x , t) is
d   (x )  (x ) d  d  (x )   d  (x ) 
continuous, then,  f (x , t) dt    f (x , t) dt    f ( x ,  ( x ))    f (x ,  (x ))
dx  (x )  (x ) dx  dx   dx 

10. Integrals with Infinite Limits (Improper Integral).

b
A definite integral  f (x )dx is called an improper integral, if
a

The range of integration is finite and the integrand is unbounded and/or the range of integration is
infinite and the integrand is bounded.
1 1
e.g., The integral  dx is an improper integral, because the integrand is unbounded on [0, 1]. Infact,
0 x2
1  1
2
  as x  0 . The integral  dx is an improper integral, because the range of integration is
x 0 1 x2
not finite.

There are following two kinds of improper definite integrals:

b
(1) Improper integral of first kind: A definite integral  f (x )dx is called an improper integral of first
a

kind if the range of integration is not finite (i.e., either a   or b   or a   and b   ) and the
integrand f(x) is bounded on [a, b].
 1  1  1  3x
 2
dx , 2 
dx , 2
dx ,  dx are improper integrals of first kind.

1 x 0 1 x  1  x 1 (1  2 x ) 3

13
 Important Tips

 In an improper integral of first kind, the interval of integration is one of the following types [a,
), (–, b], (–, ).
 k
 The improper integral  f ( x )dx is said to be convergent, if lim  f (x )dx exists finitely and this limit
a k  a

k
is called the value of the improper integral. If lim  f ( x ) dx is either + or –, then the integral is said
k  a

to be divergent.

 The improper integral  f (x )dx is said to be convergent, if both the limits on the right-hand side


exist finitely and are independent of each other. The improper integral  f (x )dx is said to be divergent


if the right hand side is + or –

b
(2) Improper integral of second kind: A definite integral  f (x )dx is called an improper integral of
a

second kind if the range of integration [a, b] is finite and the integrand is unbounded at one or more
points of [a, b].
b
If  f (x )dx is an improper integral of second kind, then a, b are finite real numbers and there exists at
a

least one point c  [a, b ] such that f (x )   or f (x )   as x  c i.e., f(x) has at least one point of
finite discontinuity in [a, b].

For example:
3 1  1 
(i) The integral  dx , is an improper integral of second kind, because lim    .
1 x 2 x  2 x  2 

1
(ii) The integral  log xdx ; is an improper integral of second kind, because log x   as x  0 .
0

1 2 1
(iii) The integral dx , is an improper integral of second kind since integrand

1  cos x 0 1  cos x
becomes infinite at x    [0, 2 ] .
1 sin x sin x
(iv)  dx , is a proper integral since lim  1.
0 x x 0 x

14
Important Tips

 Let f(x) be bounded function defined on (a, b] such that a is the only point of infinite
discontinuity of f(x) i.e., f(x)   as x  a. Then the improper integral of f(x) on (a, b] is denoted by
b b b

 f (x )dx and is defined as  f (x )dx  lim

 f ( x )dx . Provided that the limit on right hand side exists. If l
a a  0 a
b
denotes the limit on right hand side, then the improper integral  f (x )dx is said to converge to l,
a

when l is finite. If l = +  or l = –, then the integral is said to be a divergent integral.

 Let f(x) be bounded function defined on [a, b) such that b is the only point of infinite
discontinuity of f(x) i.e. f(x)   as x  b. Then the improper integral of f(x) on [a, b) is denoted by
b b b 

 f (x )dx and is defined as 

a a
f ( x )dx  lim
 0 a
f (x )dx

Provided that the limit on right hand side exists finitely. If l denotes the limit on right hand side, then
b
the improper integral  f (x )dx is said to converge to l, when l is finite.
a

If l   or l   , then the integral is said to be a divergent integral.

 Let f(x) be a bounded function defined on (a, b) such that a and b are only two points of infinite
discontinuity of f(x) i.e., f(a)  , f(b)  .
b
Then the improper integral of f(x) on (a, b) is denoted by  f (x )dx and is defined as
a
b c b 

a
f ( x )dx  lim
 0 
a
f ( x )dx  lim
 0 a
f (x )dx , a  c  b

Provided that both the limits on right hand side exist.

 Let f(x) be a bounded function defined [a, b]-{c}, c[a, b] and c is the only point of infinite
b
discontinuity of f(x) i.e. f(c). Then the improper integral of f(x) on [a, b] – {c} is denoted by  f (x )dx
a
b cx b
and is defined as  f ( x )dx  lim
 f (x )dx  lim
 f ( x )dx
a x 0 a  0 c 

b
Provided that both the limits on right hand side exist finitely. The improper integral  f (x )dx is said to
a

be convergent if both the limits on the right hand side exist finitely.

 If either of the two or both the limits on RHS are , then the integral is said to be divergent.

15
11. Some Important results of Definite Integral.

 /4 1
(1) If I n   tan n xdx then I n  I n  2 
0 n 1

 /4 1
(2) If I n   cot n xdx then I n  I n  2 
0 1n

 /4 ( 2 )n  2 n  2
(3) If I n   sec n xdx then I n   In  2
0 n 1 n 1

 /4 ( 2 )n  2 n  2
(4) If I n   cosec n xdx then In   In  2
0 n 1 n 1

 /2
(5) If I n   x n sin xdx then In  n(n  1)In  2  n( / 2)n 1
0

 /2
(6) If I n   x n cos xdx then In  n(n  1)In  2  ( /2)n
0

 /2 dx 2 ab
(7) If a  b  0, then   tan 1
0 a  b cos x a2  b 2 ab

 /2 dx 1 b a  b a
(8) If 0  a  b then   log
0 a  b cos x 2
b a 2 ba  ba

 /2 dx 2 ab
(9) If a  b  0 then   tan 1
0 a  b sin x a2  b 2 ab

 /2 dx 1 ba  ba
(10) If 0  a  b , then   log
0 a  b sin x b a 2 2 ba  ba

 /2 dx 2 abc
(11) If a  b, a 2  b 2  c 2 , then   tan 1
0 a  b cos x  c sin x 2
a b c 2 2
a2  b 2  c 2

16
  /2 dx 1 a  b  c  b 2  c2  a2
(12) If a  b, a 2  b 2  c 2 , then   log
0 a  b cos x  c sin x b 2  c 2  a2 a  b  c  b 2  c 2  a2

 /2 dx 1 b  a  c  b 2  c 2  a2
(13) If a  b, a 2  b 2  c 2 then   log
0 a  b cos x  c sin x b 2  c 2  a2 b  a  c  b 2  c 2  a2

Important Tips

 lim
 f (x ) dx  f (0)
0
x 0 x

b 1
 f (b  a) t  a dt
a
f (x )dx  (b  a)

0

12. Integration of Piecewise Continuous Functions.

Any function f (x ) which is discontinuous at finite number of points in an interval [a, b] can be made
continuous in sub-intervals by breaking the intervals into these subintervals. If f (x ) is discontinuous at
points x 1 , x 2 , x 3 .......... x n in (a, b), then we can define subintervals
(a, x 1 ), ( x 1 , x 2 )......... ....( x n 1 , x n ), ( x n , b ) such that f (x ) is continuous in each of these subintervals. Such
functions are called piecewise continuous functions. For integration of Piecewise continuous function.
We integrate f (x ) in these sub-intervals and finally add all the values.

17
Mathematics

Indefinite Integrals

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content
1. Definition.

2. Comparison between Differentiation and Integration.

3. Properties of Integrals.

4. Fundamental Integration formulae.

5. Integration by Substitution.

6. Integration by Parts.

7. Evaluation of the various forms of Integrals by use of

Standard results.

8. Integrals of the form  a  bdxcos x ,  a  bdxsin x .

9. Integrals of the form

dx dx
 a  b cos x  c sin x ,  a sin x  b cos x .

10. Integrals of the form

dx dx dx
 a  b cos 2  a  b sin x ,  a sin x  b cos
x
, 2 2 2
x
dx dx
 (a sin x  b cos x ) ,  a  b sin x  c cos x .
2 2 2

1
11. Integrals of the form
a sin x  b cos x a sin x  b cos x  q
 c sin x  d cos x dx ,  c sin x  cos x  r
dx
.

12. Integration of rational functions by using Partial

fractions.

13. Integration of Trigonometric functions.

14. Integration of Hyperbolic functions.

15. Integrals of the type f[x,(ax  b) m1 / n1

, (ax  b)m 2 / n2 .....] .

16. Integrals using Euler's substitution.

17. Some integrals which cannot be found.

2
Introduction.

A function  (x ) is called a primitive or an antiderivative of a function f (x ) if  ' ( x )  f (x ).

x5 d  x5 
For example, is a primitive of x 4 because    x4
 5 
5 dx  
Let  (x ) be a primitive of a function f (x ) and let c be any constant.

d
Then [ (x )  c]   ' ( x )  f (x ) [  ' ( x )  f ( x )]
dx
  ( x )  c is also a primitive of f (x ).

Thus, if a function f (x ) possesses a primitive, then it possesses infinitely many primitives which are
contained in the expression  (x )  c, where c is a constant.

x5 x5 x5
For example ,  2,  1 etc. are primitives of x 4 .
5 5 5

Note: If F1 ( x ) and F2 (x ) are two antiderivatives of a function f (x) on an interval [a, b], then the difference
between them is a constant.

1. Definition.

Let f (x ) be a function. Then the collection of all its primitives is called the indefinite integral of f (x ) and
is denoted by  f (x ) dx .
d
Thus, ( ( x )  c)  f ( x )   f (x ) dx  (x )  c
dx
Where  (x ) is primitive of f (x ) and c is an arbitrary constant known as the constant of integration.

Here  is the integral sign, f (x ) is the integrand, x is the variable of integration and dx is the element of

integration.

3
The process of finding an indefinite integral of a given function is called integration of the function.
It follows from the above discussion that integrating a function f (x ) means finding a function  (x ) such
d
that ( ( x ))  f (x ).
dx

2. Comparison between Differentiation and Integration.

(1) Differentiation and integration both are operations on functions and each gives rise to a function.
(2) Each function is not differentiable or integrable.
(3) The derivative of a function, if it exists, is unique. The integral of a function, if it exists, is not unique.
(4) The derivative of a polynomial function decreases its degree by 1, but the integral of a polynomial
function increases its degree by 1.
(5) The derivative has a geometrical meaning, namely, the slope of the tangent to a curve at a point on it.
The integral has also a geometrical meaning, namely, the area of some region.
(6) The derivative is used in obtaining some physical quantities like velocity, acceleration etc. of a
particle. The integral is used in obtaining some physical quantities like centre of mass, momentum etc.
(7) Differentiation and integration are inverse of each other.

3. Properties of Integrals.

(1) The differentiation of an integral is the integrand itself or the process of differentiation and

integration neutralize each other, i.e.,

d
dx
 f (x )dx   f (x ).
(2) The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product of the constant and
the integral of the function, i.e.,  c f (x ) dx  c  f (x )dx .
(3) Integral of the sum or difference of two functions is equal to the sum or difference of their integrals,
i.e.,  f (x )  f (x )dx   f (x ) dx   f (x ) dx
1 2 1 2

In the general form,  k 1 . f1 (x )  k 2 . f 2 (x )  k 3 . f 3 (x )  ..... dx


 k 1 f1 (x )dx  k 2 f 2 ( x )dx  k3 f 3 ( x )dx  .......

4
4. Fundamental Integration Formulae.

(1)
x n 1 d  x n 1 
(i)  x n dx   c, n  1   
n 1  x
n
n 1 dx  
(ii)  dx  x  c
1
(iii)  dx  2 x  c,
x
1 (ax  b )n 1
(iv)  (ax  b )n dx  . c
a n 1

(2)
1 d 1
(i)  x dx  log | x | c  (log | x |) 
dx x
1 1
(ii)  ax  b dx  a (log | ax  b | c

d x
(3)  e x dx  e x  c  (e )  e x
dx

ax d  ax 
(4)  a x dx  c   
 log a   a
x
log e a dx  e 

d
(5)  sin x dx   cos x  c  ( cos x )  sin x
dx

d
(6)  cos x dx  sin x  c  (sin x )  cos x
dx
d
(7)  sec
2
x dx  tan x  c  (tan x )  sec 2 x
dx
d
(8)  cos ec
2
x dx   cot x  c  ( cot x )  cosec 2 x
dx

5
 d
(9)  sec x tan x dx  sec x  c  (sec x )  sec x tan x
dx

d
(10)  cosec x cot x dx  cosec x  c  (cosec x )  co sec x cot x
dx

d
(11)  tan x dx   log | cos x | c  log | sec x | c  (log cos x )   tan x
dx

d
(12)  cot x dx  log | sin x | c   log | cos ec x |  c  (log sin x )  cot x
dx

 x d
(13)  sec x dx  log | sec x  tan x | c  log tan  4  2   c  log(sec x  tan x )  sec x
dx

x d
(14)  cosec x dx  log | cosec x  cot x | c  log tan 2  c  (log | cosec x  cot x |)  cosec x
dx

dx d 1
(15)   sin 1 x  c   cos 1 x  c  (sin 1 x )  , d (cos 1 x )   1
2 dx 2 dx
1 x 1x 1 x2

dx x x d  1 x  1 d x 1
(16)   sin 1  c   cos 1  c   sin  , (cos 1 ) 
a x2 2 a a dx  a 2
a x 2 dx a a x2
2

dx d 1 d 1
(17) 1 x 2
 tan 1 x  c   cot 1 x  c  (tan 1 x )  2
, (cot 1 x ) 
dx 1x dx 1 x2

dx 1 x 1 x d  1 x  a d  1 x  a
(18) a 2 2
 tan 1  c  cot 1  c   tan  2  cot  2
x a a a a dx  a a  x2 dx  a a  x2

dx d 1
(19) x  sec 1 x  c   cos ec 1 x  c  (sec 1 x ) 
x 2 1 dx x x2 1
d 1
(cosec 1 x ) 
dx x x 2 1

6
 dx 1 x 1 x d x a
(20) x  sec 1  c  cos ec 1  c  d  sec 1 x   a (cosec 1 ) 
2
x a 2 a a a a dx  a x x a
2 2 dx a x x 2  a2
Note: In any of the fundamental integration formulae, if x is replaced by ax + b, then the same formulae is
applicable but we must divide by coefficient of x or derivative of (ax + b) i.e., a. In general, if  f (x )dx   (x )  c ,
1

then f (ax  b ) dx 
a
 (ax  b)  c

1 1
 sin(ax  b) dx  a
cos( ax  b)  c,  sec( ax  b) dx  a log | sec( ax  b)  tan( ax  b)| c etc.

Some more results:

1 1 x 1 x a
(i) x 2 2
 coth 1  c  log c, when x  a
a a a 2a x a

1 1 x 1 ax
(ii) a 2 2
dx  tanh 1  c  log  c , when x  a
x a a 2a ax

dx x
(iii)   log{| x  x 2  a 2 |}  c  cos h 1    c
2
x a 2 a

dx x
(iv)   log {| x  x 2  a 2 |}  c  sinh 1    c
2
x a 2 a

1 1 x
(v)  a 2  x 2 dx  x a 2  x 2  a 2 sin 1    c
2 2 a

1 1 1 1 x
(vi)  x 2  a 2 dx  x x 2  a 2  a 2 log{ x  x 2  a 2 }  c  x x 2  a 2  a 2 cos h 1    c
2 2 2 2 a

1 1 1 1 x
(vii)  x 2  a 2 dx  x x 2  a 2  a 2 log{ x  x 2  a 2 }  c  x x 2  a 2  a 2 sinh 1    c
2 2 2 2 a

7
Important Tips
 The signum function has an antiderivative on any interval which doesn't contain the point x = 0,
and does not possess an anti-derivative on any interval which contains the point.
 The antiderivative of every odd function is an even function and vice-versa

5. Integration by Substitution.

(1) When integrand is a function i.e.,  f [ ( x )] '( x ) dx :

Here, we put  (x )  t, so that  ' ( x )dx  dt and in that case the integrand is reduced to  f (t)dt . In this
method, the integrand is broken into two factors so that one factor can be expressed in terms of the
function whose differential coefficient is the second factor.

(2) When integrand is the product of two factors such that one is the derivative of the others i.e.,
I  f'( x ) . f ( x ) . dx
In this case we put f ( x )  t and convert it into a standard integral.

(3) Integral of a function of the form f (ax  b ) : Here we put ax  b  t and convert it into standard
1
integral. Obviously if  f (x )dx   (x ), then,  f (ax  b)dx  a (ax  b) +c

f'( x )
(4) If integral of a function of the form dx  log[ f ( x )]  c
f(x)

 f ( x )n 1
  f ( x ) f'( x )dx n  1 
n
(5) If integral of a function of the form,  c
n 1

f'(x)
(6) If the integral of a function of the form,  dx  2 f(x)  c
f ( x)

8
(7) Standard substitutions

Integrand form Substitution

(i) 1 x  a sin  , x  a cos 
a2  x 2 , , a2  x 2
2 2
a x
(ii) 1 x  a tan  or x  a sinh 
x 2  a2 , , x 2  a2
2 2
x a
(iii) 1 x  a sec  or x  a cos h 
x 2  a2 , , x 2  a2
2 2
x a
(iv) x ax 1 x  a tan 2 
, , x (a  x ),
a x x x (a  x )
(v) x ax 1 x  a sin 2 
, , x (a  x ) ,
ax x x (a  x )
(vi) x x a 1 x  a sec 2 
, , x (x  a),
x a x x ( x  a)
(vii) ax ax x  a cos 2
,
ax ax
(viii) x  x   cos 2    sin 2 
, (x   )(  x ), (   )
x

6. Integration by Parts.

(1) When integrand involves more than one type of functions: We may solve such integrals by a rule
which is known as integration by parts. We know that,
d dv du
(uv )  u v  d (uv )  udv  vdu   d (uv )   udv   vdu
dx dx dx
du
If u and v are two functions of x, then  u v dx  u  v dx   { dx . vdx }dx i.e., the integral of the product
I II

of two functions = (First function) × (Integral of second function) – Integral of {(Differentiation of first
function) × (Integral of second function)}
Integration with the help of above rule is called integration by parts. Before applying this rule proper
choice of first and second function is necessary. Normally we use the following methods:

9
(i) In the product of two functions, one of the function is not directly integrable (i.e.,
log | x |, sin 1 x , cos 1 x , tan 1 x ......etc), then we take it as the first function and the remaining function is
taken as the second function.

(ii) If there is no other function, then unity is taken as the second function e.g. In the integration of
1
 sin x dx , log x dx , 1 is taken as the second function.


(iii) If both of the function are directly integrable then the first function is chosen in such a way that the
derivative of the function thus obtained under integral sign is easily integrable.
Usually, we use the following preference order for the first function. (Inverse, Logarithmic, Algebraic,
Trigonometric, exponential). This rule is simply called as “I LATE”.

Important Tips
x n e ax n
 If In 
 x n . e ax dx , then In   In 1
a a

 If In  (log x ) dx , then In  x log x  x


1 (log x )2 (log x )3
 If In   dx , then In  log(log x )  log x    .......... .......... ...
log x 2.(2 ! ) 3(3 ! )

 If In  (log x )n dx
 ; then In  x (log x )n  n.In 1

 Successive integration by parts can be performed when one of the functions is x n (n is

positive integer) which will be successively differentiated and the other is either of the following
sin ax , cos ax , e ax , e  ax , (x  a)m which will be successively integrated.

 Chain rule :  u . v dx  u v 1  u ' v 2  u " v 3  u  v 4  .......... .......  (1)n 1 u n 1 v n  (1)n

u
n
. v n dx Where

u n stands for nth differential coefficient of u and v n stands for nth integral of v.

 e f (x )  f ' (x )dx ,
x
(2) Integral is of the form e
x
f ( x )  f '( x )dx : If the integral is of the form then by

breaking this integral into two integrals integrate one integral by parts and keeping other integral as it is,
by doing so, we get

 e  f (x )  f ' (x )dx  e f (x )  c
x x
(i)

(ii)  e mf (x )  f ' (x ) dx  e f (x )  c

mx mx

10
  f ' (x )  e mx f ( x )
(iii)  e mx  f (x )  dx  c
 m  m

(3) Integral is of the form [ x f ( x )  f(x )] dx : If the integral is of the form  [x f ' (x )  f (x )] dx then by
breaking this integral into two integrals, integrate one integral by parts and keeping other integral as it
is, by doing so, we get,  [x f ' (x )  f (x )] dx  x f (x )  c

(4) Integrals of the form  e ax sin bxdx ,  e ax cos bx dx :

ax ax
Working rule : To evaluate e sin bx dx or e cos bx dx , proceed as follows

(i) Put the given integral equal to I.

(ii) Integrate by parts, taking e ax as the first function.
(iii) Again, integrate by parts taking e ax as the first function. This will involve I.
(iv) Transpose and collect terms involving I and then obtain the value of I.
ax cos bx   cos bx 
Let I   e ax sin bx dx . Then I  e  . sin bx dx  e ax .  ae ax . 
  dx
I II b  b 

 1 ax a ax  1 ax a  e ax . sin bx sin bx 
 e . cos bx  
e . cos bx dx  e . cos bx    ae ax . dx  
b b I II b b b b 

 1 ax a a2  1 ax a a2
 e . cos bx  2 e ax . sin bx  2 e ax . sin bx dx   e . cos bx  2 e ax . sin bx  2 I
b b b b b b

a 2 e ax e ax
I  I.  (a sin bx  b cos bx )  I  (a sin bx  b cos bx )  c
b2 b2 a2  b 2

e ax e ax b
Thus,  e ax sin bx  (a sin bx  b cos bx )  c  sin(bx  tan 1 )c
a2  b 2 2
a b 2 a

e ax e ax  b
Similarly  e ax . cos bx dx  (a cos bx  b sin bx )  c  cos  bx  tan 1   c
a2  b 2 2
a b 2
 a

11
 e ax e ax   b 
Note:  e ax . sin(bx  c) dx  a sin(bx  c)  b cos( bx  c)  k  sin (bx  c)  tan 1     k
a2  b2 2
a b  2
 a 
e ax e ax   b 
 e ax . cos( bx  c) dx  a cos(bx  c)  b sin(bx  c)  k  cos (bx  c)  tan 1     k
a2  b 2 a2  b 2   a 

Important Tips
x e ax e ax

 x e ax sin(bx  c) dx  2
a b 2
a sin(bx  c)  b cos(bx  c) 
(a  b 2 )2
2
(a 2

 b 2 ) sin bx (bx  c)  2ab cos bx (bx  c)  k

x . e ax e ax

 x . e ax cos( bx  c) dx  a cos( bx  c )  b sin(bx  c )  [(a 2  b 2 ) cos( bx  c)  2ab sin(bx  c)]  k
a2  b 2 (a 2  b 2 )2

ax

 a x . sin(bx  c) dx  (log a) sin(bx  c)  b cos(bx  c)  k
(log a)2  b 2

ax

 a x . cos(bx  c) dx  (log a)cos(bx  c)  b sin(bx  c)  k
(log a)2  b 2

7. Evaluation of the various forms of Integrals by use of Standard Results.

dx
(1) Integral of the form  ax 2
, where ax 2  bx  c can not be resolved into factors.
 bx  c

px  q
(2) Integral of the form  ax 2
dx .
 bx  c

dx
(3) Integral of the form  .
2
ax  bx  c

px  q
(4) Integral of the form  dx .
ax 2  bx  c

f (x )
(5) Integral of the form  ax 2
dx , where f (x ) is a polynomial of degree 2 or greater than 2.
 bx  c

12
(6) Integral of the form
x2 1
(i)  x4  k x2 1
dx ,

x2 1
(ii)  x4  k x2 1
dx , Where k is any constant

(7) Integral of the form  ax 2  bx  c dx

(8) Integral of the form  ( px  q) ax 2  bx  c dx

dx
(9) Integral of the form P Q

dx
(1) Integrals of the form  ax 2
, where ax 2  bx  c cannot be resolved into factors.
 bx  c
2 2
 b c  b   b2 c   b   b 2  4 ac 
We have, ax 2  bx  c  a x 2  . x    a  x     2    a  x     
 a a  2a   4a a   2a   4 a 2 

Case (i): When b 2  4 ac  0

dx 1 dx  dx 
  ax 2
 bx  c

a  2  b 2  4 ac 
2
,  form

x 2
 a 2 
 b 
x    
 2a   2a 
 
b b 2  4 ac
x 
1 1 2a 2a 1 2ax  b  b 2  4 ac
 . log c  log c
a b 2  4 ac b 2
b  4 ac b 2  4 ac 2ax  b  b 2  4 ac
2. x 
2a 2a 2a

13
Case (ii): When b 2  4 ac  0
dx 1 dx  dx 
 ax 2
 bx  c

a  2  4 ac  b 2 
2
,  form

x 2
 a 2 
 b   
 x   
 2a   2a 
 
 b 
 x   2ax  b 
1 1 2a 2
 . tan 1  c  tan 1  c
a 4 ac  b 2  4 ac  b 2  4 ac  b 2  4 ac  b 2 
 
2a  2a 

dx
Working rule for evaluating  ax 2
: To evaluate this form of integrals proceed as follows :
 bx  c
(i) Make the coefficient of x 2 unity by taking ‘a’ common from ax 2  bx  c.
(ii) Express the terms containing x 2 and x in the form of a perfect square by adding and subtracting the
square of half of the coefficient of x.
(iii) Put the linear expression in x equal to t and express the integrals in terms of t.
dx dx dx
(iv) The resultant integrand will be either in 2 2
or 2  2
or standard form. After
 
x a x a a  x2
2

using the standard formulae, express the results in terms of x.

px  q px  q
(2) Integral of the form  ax 2
dx : The integration of the function
is effected by 2
 bx  c ax  bx  c
breaking px  q into two parts such that one part is the differential coefficient of the denominator and
the other part is a constant.
d
If M and N are two constants, then we express px  q as px  q  M (ax 2  bx  c)  N
dx
 M .(2ax  b)  N  (2aM )x  Mb  N .
p
Comparing the coefficients of x and constant terms on both sides, we have, p  2 aM  M  and
2a
p
q  Mb  N  N  q  Mb  q  b.
2a
p  p 
(2ax  b)   q  b
px  q 2a  2a 
Thus, M and N are known. Hence, the given integral is  ax 2
dx   dx
 bx  c ax 2  bx  c
p 2ax  b  p  dx p  p  dx
  ax 2
dx   q  b 2   log | ax 2  bx  c |  q  b 2
C 
2a  bx  c  2 a  ax  bx  c 2 a  2 a  ax  bx  c

14
The integral on R.H.S. can be evaluated by the method discussed in previous section.
px  q p (2 aq  bp ) 2 ax  b
(i) If b 2  4 ac  0 , then 2  dx  log | ax 2  bx  c |  tan 1 k
ax  bx  c 2a a 4 ac  b 2 4 ac  b 2
(ii) If b 2  4 ac  0 , then
px  q p (2 aq  bp ) 2 ax  b  b 2  4 ac
 ax 2
dx  log | ax 2  bx  c |  log k
 bx  c 2a 2a b 2  4 ac 2 ax  b  b 2  4 ac

dx
(3) Integral of the form  : To evaluate this form of integrals proceed as follows :
ax 2  bx  c

(i) Make the coefficient of x 2 unity by taking a common from ax 2  bx  c .

dx 1 dx
Then,  a
 .
2 b c
ax  bx  c 2
x  x
a a
b c
(ii) Put x 2  x  , by the method of completing the square in the form, A 2  X 2 or X 2  A 2 or
a a
X 2  A 2 where, X is a linear function of x and A is a constant.
(iii) After this, use any of the following standard formulae according to the case under consideration
dx x dx dx
  sin 1    c    log | x  x 2  a 2 |  c and   log | x  x 2  a 2 | c.
2
a x 2 a 2
x a 2 2
x a 2

dx 1  2ax  b 
Note: If a  0, b 2  4 ac  0, then   sin 1    k.
 2 
ax 2  bx  c a  b  4 ac 

dx 1  2ax  b 
 If a  0, b 2  4 ac  0, then   sinh 1  k
2
ax  bx  c a  4 ac  b 2 
dx 1 2 ax  b
 If a  0, b 2  4 ac  0   cosh 1 k
2
ax  bx  c a b 2  4 ac

15
 px  q
(4) Integral of the form  dx : To evaluate this form of integrals, first we write,
ax 2  bx  c
d
px  q  M (ax 2  bx  c)  N  px  q  M (2ax  b)  N
dx
Where M and N are constants.
By equating the coefficients of x and constant terms on both sides, we get
p bp
p  2 aM  M  and q  bM  N  N  q 
2a 2a
In this way, the integral breaks up into two parts given by
px  q p 2 ax  b  bp  dx
 dx   dx   q     I1  I 2 , (say)
ax 2  bx  c 2a ax 2  bx  c  2a  ax 2  bx  c
p 2 ax  b
Now, I1   dx
2a ax 2  bx  c
p p t1 / 2 p
Putting ax 2  bx  c  (2 ax  b )dx  dt , we have, I1  t 1 / 2 dt 
 .  C1  ax 2  bx  c  C 1
2a 2a 1 a
2
and I 2 is calculated as in the previous section.

px  q p 2 aq  bp dx
Note: dx = ax 2  bx  c   .
2
ax  bx  c a 2a 2
ax  bx  c

f(x)
(5) Integrals of the form  ax 2
dx, where f(x) is a polynomial of degree 2 or greater than 2:
 bx  c

To evaluate the integrals of the above form, divide the numerator by the denominator. Then, the
f (x ) R( x )
integrals take the form given by 2
 Q(x )  2 dx
ax  bx  c ax  bx  c
where, Q(x ) is a polynomial and R(x ) is a linear polynomial in x.

f (x ) R( x )
Then, we have  ax 2 
dx  Q( x )dx  2  dx
 bx  c ax  bx  c
The integrals on R.H.S. can be obtained by the methods discussed earlier.

16
 x2 1 x2 1
(6) Integrals of the form  dx and  dx : To evaluate the integral of the
x 4  kx 2  1 x 4  kx 2  1
x2 1
form I=  dx , proceed as follows
x 4  kx 2  1
1
1
(i) Divide the numerator and denominator by x 2 to get I  x2
 2 1
dx .
x k  2
x
1  1  1 1
(ii) Put x   t   1  2 dx  dt and x 2  2  2  t 2  x 2  2  t 2  2 .
x  x  x x
dt
Then, the given integral reduces to the form I  t 2
, which can be integrand as usual.
2k
x2 1
(iii) To evaluate I   dx , we divide the numerator and denominator by x 2 and get
x 4  kx 2  1
1
1
x2
I  2 1
dx
x k  2
x
1  1  1 1
Then, we put x   t   1  2 dx  dt and x 2  2  2  t 2  x 2  2  t 2  2 .
x  x  x x
dt
Thus, we have t  t 2
, which can be evaluated as usual.
2k

Important Tips

2x 2 x2 1 x2 1
 Algebraic twins: x 4
dx 
x 4
dx 
x 4
dx
1 1 1

2 x2 1 x2 1 2x 2 2
x dx 
 dx 
 dx , x dx ,
 (x dx
4
1 x4 1 x4  1 4
1  k x 2 4
 1  kx 2)

x2 1 x2 1 x2 dx
We know the result of I1  x 4
dx and I2  x 4
dx , so for x 4
dx and for x 4
, we can use
1 1 1 1
I1  I 2 I1  I 2
the result of and .
2 2
dx dx  sin x  cos x
 Trigonometric twins:  tan x dx ,
 cot x dx ,
 (sin 4 4
,
 sin 6 6
,
 a  b sin x cos dx
x  cos x ) x  cos x

17
(7) Integrals of the forms  ax 2  bx  c dx : To evaluate this form of integrals, express ax 2  bx  c

 
in the form a (x   )2   2 by the method of completing the square and apply the standard result
discussed in the above section according to the case as may be.

(2ax  b) ax 2  bx  c 4 ac  b 2 dx
Note:  ax 2  bx  c dx   
4a 8a ax 2  bx  c

(8) Integrals of the form (px  q) ax 2  bx  c dx : To evaluate this form of integral, proceed as

follows:

d
(i) First express ( px  q ) as px  q  M (ax 2  bx  c)  N  px  q  M (2ax  b)  N
dx

Where, M and N are constant.

(ii) Compare the coefficients of x and constant terms on both sides, will get

p p
p  2a M  M  and q  Mb  N  N  q  Mb  q  b.
2a 2a

(iii) Now, write the given integral as

p  p 
 ( px  q ) ax 2  bx  c dx  (2 ax  b) ax 2  bx  c dx   q 
 b  ax 2  bx  c dx
2a  2a 

p  p 
 I1   q  b  I 2 , (say ).
2a  2a 

(iv) To evaluate I1 , put ax 2  bx  c  t and to evaluate I 2 , follows the method discussed in (7)

18
 dx
(9) Integrals of the form P , (where P and Q and linear or quadratic expressions in x): To
Q
evaluate such types of integrals, we have following substitutions according to the nature of expressions
of P and Q in x :

(i) When Q is linear and P is linear or quadratic, we put Q  t 2 .

1
(ii) When P is linear and Q is quadratic, we put P  .
t

1
(iii) When both P and Q are quadratic, we put x  .
t

8. Integrals of the form  dx and

dx
 a  b sin x .
a  b cos x

To evaluate such form of integrals, proceed as follows:

x x
1  tan 2 2 tan
(1) Put cos x  2 and sin x  2 .
x x
1  tan 2 1  tan 2
2 2

x x
(2) Replace 1  tan 2 in the numerator by sec 2 .
2 2

x 1 x
(3) Put tan  t so that sec 2 dx  dt .
2 2 2

dt
(4) Now, evaluate the integral obtained which will be of the form  at 2
by the method discussed
 bt  c
earlier.

dx
(i)  a  b cos x

19
 dx 2  ab x
Case I: When a  b , then   tan 1  tan   c
a  b cos x  ab 2 
a2  b 2 

x
b  a tan  ba
dx 1 2
Case II: When a  b , then   log c
a  b cos x b 2  a2 x
b  a tan  b  a
2

dx 1 x
Case III: When a  b , then  a  b cos x  a tan 2  c .
dx
(ii)  a  b sin x
 x 
 a tan  b 
dx 2 2
Case I: When a 2  b 2 or a  0 and a  b , then   tan 1  c
a  b sin x a2  b 2  a  b2 
2

 

x
 b)  ( b 2  a 2 )
(a tan
dx 1 2
Case II: When a 2  b 2 , then   log c
a  b sin x b 2  a2 x 2 2
(a tan  b)  b  a
2

Case III: When a 2  b 2

In this case, either b  a or b  a

dx 1  x  1
(a) When b  a , then  a  b sin x  cot     c  [tan x  sec x ]  c
a  4 2  a

dx 1  x 
(b) When b  a , then  a  b sin x  tan     c .
a 4 2

20
 dx dx
9. Integrals of the form  , .
a  b cos x  c sin x a sin x  b cos x

dx
(1) Integral of the form  a  b cos : To evaluate such integrals, we put b  r cos  and
x  c sin x
c  r sin  .

c dx dx
So that, r 2  b 2  c 2 and   tan 1 . I   
b a  r(cos  cos x  sin  sin x ) a  r cos( x   )

dt
Again, Put x    t  dx  dt , we have I   a  r cos t
Which can be evaluated by the method discussed earlier.

dx
(2) Integral of the form  a sin x  b cos : To evaluate this type of integrals we substitute a  r cos  ,
x
b
b  r sin  and so r  a 2  b 2 ,   tan 1
a

dx 1 dx 1
So,  a sin x  b cos x    
cos ec ( x   )dx
r sin( x   ) r

1 x  1 x 1 b
 log tan     log tan   tan 1   c
r 2 2 a2  b2 2 2 a

1  tan 2 x / 2 2 tan x / 2
Note: The integral of the above form can be evaluated by using cos x  and sin x  .
2
1  tan x / 2 1  tan 2 x / 2

Important Tips

dx 2  (a  b ) tan x / 2  c 
 If a  b, a 2  b 2  c 2 , then   tan 1   k
a  b cos x  c sin x a2  b 2  c 2  a 2  b 2  c 2 
( 
dx 1 a  b ) tan x / 2  c  b 2  c 2  a 2
 If a  b, a 2  b 2  c 2 , then  a  b cos x  c sin x  log  k
b 2  c 2  a2  (a  b ) tan x / 2  c  b 2  c 2  a 2 
 
 (b a 
dx 1  ) tan x / 2  c  b 2  c 2  a 2 
 If a  b,   log   k.
a  b cos x  c sin x b 2  c 2  a2  (b  a) tan x / 2  c  b 2  c 2  a 2 
 

21
10. Integrals of the form
dx dx dx dx dx
 a  bcos x ,  a  bsin x ,  asin x  bcos x ,  (asinx  bcos x) ,  a  bsin x  ccos
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x

To evaluate the above forms of integrals proceed as follows:

(1) Divide both the numerator and denominator by cos 2 x .
(2) Replace sec 2 x in the denominator, if any by (1  tan 2 x ).
(3) Put tan x  t  sec 2 xdx  dt.
(4) Now, evaluate the integral thus obtained, by the method discussed earlier.

11. Integrals of the form  a sin x  b cos x and  a sin x  b cos x  q

c sin x  d cos x c sin x  d cos x  r

a sin x  b cos x
(1) Integrals of the form  c sin x  d cos dx : Such rational functions of sin x and cos x may be
x
integrated by expressing the numerator of the integrand as follows:

Numerator = M (Diff. of denominator)+N (Denominator)

d
i.e., a sin x  b cos x  M (c sin x  d cos x )  N (c sin x  d cos x )
dx

The arbitary constants M and N are determined by comparing the coefficients of sin x and cos x from
two sides of the above identity. Then, the given integral is

a sin x  b cos x M (c cos x  d sin x )  N (c sin x  d cos x ) c cos x  d sin x

I  c sin x  d cos x dx   c sin x  d cos x
dx  M 
c sin x  d cos x 
dx  N 1dx

 M log | c sin x  d cos x |  Nx  c.

22
 a sin x  b cos x  q
(2) Integrals of the form  c sin x  d cos x  r dx : To evaluate this type of integrals, we express the

numerator as follows: Numerator  M (Denominat or)  N (Different iation of denominato r)  P

i.e., (c sin x  b cos x  q)  M (c sin x  d cos x  r)  N (c cos x  d sin x )  P.

where M, N, P are constants to be determined by comparing the coefficients of sin x , cos x and constant
term on both sides.

a sin x  b cos x  q Diff.of denominato r dx

  c sin x  d cos x  r dx   M dx  N  Denominato r
dx   c sin x  d cos x  r
dx
 Mx  N log | Denominato r |  P  c sin x  d cos x  r .

Important Tips

a cos x  b sin x ac  bd ad  bc

 c cos x  d sin x dx  c
2 2
x 2 log | c cos x  d sin x | c .
d c  d2

12. Integration of Rational Functions by using Partial Fractions.

f (x )
(1) Proper rational functions: Functions of the form , where f (x ) and g(x ) are polynomial and
g( x )
g(x )  0, are called rational functions of x.
f (x )
If degree of f (x ) is less than degree of g(x ) , then is called a proper rational function.
g (x )

f (x )
(2) Improper rational function: If degree of f (x ) is greater than or equal to degree of g(x ) , then ,
g( x )
is called an improper rational function and every improper rational function can be transformed to a
proper rational function by dividing the numerator by the denominator.
x3
For example, is an improper rational function and can be expressed as
x 2  5x  6
19 x  30 19 x  30
(x  5 )  2 , which is the sum of a polynomial ( x  5) and a proper function 2 .
x  5x  6 x  5x  6

23
(3) Partial fractions: Any proper rational function can be broken up into a group of different rational
fractions, each having a simple factor of the denominator of the original rational function. Each such
fraction is called a partial fraction.
f (x )
If by some process, we can break a given rational function into different fractions, whose
g (x )
denominators are the factors of g(x ) , then the process of obtaining them is called the resolution or
f (x )
decomposition of into its partial fractions.
g (x )
Depending on the nature of the factors of the denominator, the following cases arise.
Case I: When the denominator consists of non-repeated linear factors: To each linear factor (x  a)
occurring once in the denominator of a proper fraction, there corresponds a single partial fraction of the
A
form , where A is a constant to be determined.
x a

Case II: When the denominator consists of linear factors, some repeated: To each linear factor
(x  a) occurring r times in the denominator of a proper rational function, there corresponds a sum of r
partial fractions of the form.
A1 A2 Ar
 2
 .......... . 
x  a ( x  a) ( x  a) r
Where A' s are constants to be determined. Of course, Ar is not equal to zero.

Case III: When the denominator consists of quadratic factors: To each irreducible non repeated
Ax  B
quadratic factor ax 2  bx  c, there corresponds a partial fraction of the form 2
, where A
ax  bx  c
and B are constants to be determined.
To each irreducible quadratic factor ax 2  bx  c occurring r times in the denominator of a proper
rational fraction there corresponds a sum of r partial fractions of the form
A 1 x  B1 A2 x  B2 A r x  Br
2
 2 2
 .......... ....... 
ax  bx  c (ax  bx  c) (ax 2  bx  c)r

Where, A's and B's are constants to be determined.

24
(4) General methods of finding the constants
(i) In the given proper fraction, first of all factorize the denominator.
(ii) Express the given proper fraction into its partial fractions according to rules given above and multiply
both the sides by the denominator of the given fraction.
(iii) Equate the coefficients of like powers of x in the resulting identity and solve the equations so
obtained simultaneously to find the various constant is short method. Sometimes, we substitute
particular values of the variable x in the identity obtained after clearing of fractions to find some or all
the constants. For non-repeated linear factors, the values of x used as those for which the denominator
of the corresponding partial fractions become zero.

Note: If the given fraction is improper, then before finding partial fractions, the given fraction must be expressed
as sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction by division.

(5) Special cases: Some times a suitable substitution transform the given function to a rational fraction
which can be integrated by breaking it into partial fractions.

13. Integration of Trigonometric Functions.

m
(1) Integral of the form  sin x cos n x dx : (i) To evaluate the integrals of the form

I  sin m x cos n x dx , where m and n are rational numbers.


(a) Substitute sin x  t, if n is odd;

(b) Substitute cos x = t, if m is odd;

(c) Substitute tan x  t, if m  n is a negative even integer; and

1
(d) Substitute cot x  t, if (n  1) is an integer.
2

m n  2
(e) If m and n are rational numbers and   is a negative integer, then substitution cos x  t or
 2 
tan x  t is found suitable.

(ii) Integrals of the form  R(sin x , cos x ) dx , where R is a rational function of sin x and cos x , are
x
transformed into integrals of a rational function by the substitution tan  t, where    x   . This is
2

25
 x
the so called universal substitution. Sometimes it is more convenient to make the substitution cot t
2
for 0  x  2 .

The above substitution enables us to integrate any function of the form R(sin x , cos x ). However, in
practice, it sometimes leads to extremely complex rational function. In some cases, the integral can be
simplified by:

(a) Substituting sin x  t, if the integral is of the form  R(sin x )cos x dx .

(b) Substituting cos x  t, if the integral is of the form  R(cos x ) sin x dx .
dt
(c) Substituting tan x = t, i.e., dx  , if the integral is dependent only on tan x .
1  t2

(d) Substituting cos x  t , if R( sin x , cos x )   R(sin x , cos x )

(e) Substituting sin x  t , if R(sin x , cos x )   R(sin x , cos x )

(f) Substituting tan x  t , if R( sin x , cos x )   R(sin x , cos x )

Important Tips

 To evaluate integrals of the form  sin mx cos nx dx ,  sin mx . sin nx dx ,  cos mx . cos nx dx and

 cos mx . sin nx dx , we use the following trigonometrical identities.

1 1
sin mx . cos nx  [sin(m  n)x  sin(m  n)x ]  cos mx . sin nx  [sin(m  n)x  sin(m  n)x ]
2 2

1 1
sin mx . sin nx  [cos( m  n)x  cos( m  n)x ]  cos mx . cos nx  [cos( m  n)x  cos( m  n)x ]
2 2

26
(2) Reduction formulae for special cases

 cos x . sin n  1 x n  1
(i)  sin n x dx   sin n  2 x dx 
n n

sin x cos n 1 x n  1
(ii)  cos n x dx   cos n  2 x dx 
n n

tan n 1 x
(iii)  tan n x dx   tan n  2 x dx

n 1

1
(iv)  cot
n
x dx  cot n  1 x  cot n  2 x dx

n 1

(v)  sec
n
x dx 
1
(n  1)

sec n  2 x . tan x  (n  2) sec n  2 x dx 
(vi)  cosec
n
x dx 
1
(n  1)

 cos ec n  2 x . cot x  (n  2) cosec n  2 x dx  
sin q 1 x . cos p 1 x p 1 p2
(vii)  sin p x cos q x dx     sin x . cos q x dx
pq pq

sin p 1 x . cos q 1 x p 1
(viii)  sin p x cos q x dx    sin
p
x . cos q  2 x dx
pq pq

dx x (2 n  3 ) dx
(ix)  (x  n 1
 
2
 k) n
k (2 n  2) (x  k ) 2
k (2n  2) (x  k )n 1
2

Important Tips

sin n x n 1
 Reduction formulae for I(n , m )   cos m
dx is I(n,m )  1 . sin m 1 x  (n  1) . I(n  2, m  2 )
x m  1 cos x (m  1)

27
14. Integration of Hyperbolic Functions

(1)  sinh x dx  cos h x  c

(2)  cos h x dx  sin h x  c
2
(3)  sec h x dx  tan h x  c

2
(4)  cos ec h x dx   cot h x  c

(5)  sec h x tan h x dx   sec h x  c

(6)  cosec h x cot h dx  cos ec h x  c

15. Integral of the type f [x, (ax  b) m /n 1 1

, (ax  b) m 2 /n2 ...] where f is a rational function
and m 1 , n1 , m 2 , n 2 are Integers.

To evaluate such type of integral, we transform it into an integral of rational function by putting
(ax  b )  t s , where s is the least common multiple (L.C.M.) of the numbers n1 , n 2 .

m
Integrals of the form x (a  bx n ) p dx

Case I : If p  N (Natural number). We expand the integral with the help of binomial theorem and
integrate.

28
16. Integrals using Euler's substitution

Integrals of the form  f(x ), (ax 2  bx  c) dx are calculated with the aid of one of the three Euler

substitution:

(1) ax 2  bx  c  t  x a , if a  0.

(2) ax 2  bx  c  t x  c , if c  0.

(3) ax 2  bc  c  ( x   ) t, if ax 2  bx  c  a(x   )(x   ), i.e., if x is real root of (ax 2  bx  c).

Note: The Euler substitution often lead to rather some calculations, therefore they should be applied only when it
is difficult to find another method for calculating the given integral.

17. Some Integrals which cannot be found

Any function continuous on interval (a, b) has an antiderivative in that interval. In other words, there
exists a function F(x ) such that F ' ( x )  f ( x ).
However not every antiderivative F(x ), even when it exists is expressible in closed form in terms of
elementary functions such as polynomials, trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential etc. function. Then we
say that such antiderivatives or integrals "cannot be found." Some typical examples are:

dx
(i)  log x

x2
(ii) e dx

x2
(iii)  dx
1 x5

(iv)  3 1  x 2 dx

29
(v)  1  x 3 dx

(vi) 1  k 2 sin 2 x dx

x 2
(vii) e dx

sin x
(viii)  dx
x

cos x
(ix)  dx
x

(x)  sin x dx

2
(xi)  sin( x ) dx

2
(xii)  cos( x ) dx

(xiii)  x tan x dx etc.

30
Mathematics

Area under Curve

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content
1. Introduction.

2. Procedure of Curve Sketching.

3. Sketching of Some common Curves.

4. Area of Bounded Regions.

5. Sign convention for finding the Areas using Integration.

6. Symmetrical Area.

7. Area between Two curves.

8. Volumes and Surfaces of Solids of Revolution.

1
1. Introduction.

We know the methods of evaluating definite integrals. These integrals are used in evaluating certain
types of bounded regions. For evaluation of bounded regions defined by given functions, we shall also
require to draw rough sketch of the given function. The process of drawing rough sketch of a given
function is called curve sketching.

2. Procedure of Curve Sketching.

(1) Symmetry:

(i) Symmetry about x-axis: If all powers of y in equation of the given curve are even, then it is symmetric
about x-axis i.e., the shape of the curve above x-axis is exactly identical to its shape below x-axis.

For example, y 2  4 ax is symmetric about x-axis.

(ii) Symmetry about y-axis: If all power of x in the equation of the given curve are even, then it is
symmetric about y-axis
For example, x 2  4 ay is symmetric about y-axis.

(iii) Symmetry in opposite quadrants or symmetry about origin: If by putting –x for x and –y for y, the
equation of a curve remains same, then it is symmetric in opposite quadrants.

For example, x 2  y 2  a 2 and xy  a 2 are symmetric in opposite quadrants.

(iv) Symmetry about the line y  x : If the equation of a given curve remains unaltered by interchanging x
and y then it is symmetric about the line y  x which passes through the origin and makes an angle of
45 0 with the positive direction of x-axis.

2
(2) Origin: If the equation of curve contains no constant terms then it passes through the origin.
Find whether the curve passes through the origin or not.

For examples, x 2  y 2  4 ax  0 passes through origin.

(3) Points of intersection with the axes: If we get real values of x on putting y  0 in the equation of
the curve, then real values of x and y  0 give those points where the curve cuts the x-axis. Similarly by
putting x  0, we can get the points of intersection of the curve and y-axis.

x2 y2
For example, the curve   1 intersect the axes at points ( a, 0) and (0,  b) .
a2 b 2

dy
(4) Special points: Find the points at which  0 , at these points the tangent to the curve is parallel to
dx
dx
x-axis. Find the points at which  0 . At these points the tangent to the curve is parallel to y-axis.
dy

(5) Region: Write the given equation as y  f (x ) , and find minimum and maximum values of x which
determine the region of the curve.
ax
For example for the curve xy 2  a 2 (a  x )  y  a
x
Now y is real, if 0  x  a , So its region lies between the lines x = 0 and x = a

(6) Regions where the curve does not exist: Determine the regions in which the curve does not exists.
For this, find the value of y in terms of x from the equation of the curve and find the value of x for which
y is imaginary. Similarly find the value of x in terms of y and determine the values of y for which x is
imaginary. The curve does not exist for these values of x and y.
For example, the values of y obtained from y 2  4 ax are imaginary for negative value of x, so the curve
does not exist on the left side of y-axis. Similarly the curve a 2 y 2  x 2 (a  x ) does not exist for x  a as
the values of y are imaginary for x  a.

3
3. Sketching of Some Common Curves.

(1) Straight line: The general equation of a straight line is ax  by  c  0 . To draw a straight line, find
the points where it meets with the coordinate axes by putting y = 0 and x = 0 respectively in its
equation. By joining these two points, we get the sketch of the line.

(2) Region represented by a linear inequality: To find the region represented by linear inequalities
ax  by  c and ax  by  c, we proceed as follows.

(i) Convert the inequality into equality to obtain a linear equation in x, y.

(ii) Draw the straight line represented by it.
(iii) The straight line obtained in (ii) divides the xy-plane in two parts. To determine the region
represented by the inequality choose some convenient points, e.g. origin or some point on the
coordinate axes. If the coordinates of a point satisfy the inequality, then region containing the point is
the required region, otherwise the region not containing the point is the required
2
region.
1

–2 –1 1 2
(3) Circle: The equation of a circle having center at (0,0) and radius r is given by –1

x 2  y 2  r 2 . The equation of a circle having center at (h, k) and radius r is given by –2

(x  h)2  (y  k )2  r 2 . The general equation of a circle is

x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0 . This represents the circle whose center is at (-g,-f) and radius equal to

g 2  f 2  c.

The figure of the circle x 2  y 2  (2)2 is given. Here center is (0,0) and radius is 2.

4
(4) Parabola: There are four standard forms of parabola with vertex at origin and the axis along either of
coordinate axis. Y

Directrix
(i) y 2  4 ax : For this parabola
(a) Vertex: (0,0) (b) Focus: ( a, 0) X Z A S (a,0)
X

o)
(c) Directrix: x  a  0 (d) Latus rectum: 4 a
(e) Axis y  0 (f) Symmetry: It is symmetric about x-axis. Y´

Y
(ii) x 2  4 ay : For this parabola
(0, a)
(a) Vertex: (0,0) (b) Focus: (0,  a)
A
(c) Directrix: y  a  0 (d) Latus rectum: 4 a
X' Directrix X
Z
(e) Axis x = 0 (f) Symmetry: It is symmetric about y-axis Y'

(5) Ellipse: The standard equation of the ellipse having its center at the origin B (0,b)
2 2 (- a, 0) (a, 0)
x y
and major and minor axes along the coordinate axes is 2
 2  1 Here X
A
X
a b A

a  b. The figure of the ellipse is given. B (0, – b)

Y´

5
4. Area of Bounded Regions.

(1) The area bounded by a Cartesian curve y = f(x), x-axis and ordinates x = a and x = b is given by
b b
Area  y dx 
  f (x )dx Y
a a

y = f(x)

dx
y
x=a x=b X
O

(2) If the curve y = f(x) lies below x-axis, then the area bounded by the curve y  f (x ), the x-axis and the
b
ordinates x =a and x =b is negative. So, area is given by  y dx
a

(3) The area bounded by a Cartesian curve x =f(y), y-axis and abscissa y = c and y = d is given by
d d
Area = Y

c
x dy   f (y)dy
c

y=d x x = f(y)
dy
y=c

X
O

(4) If the equation of a curve is in parametric form, say x = f(t), y = g(t) then the area
b t2
  y dx   g(t ) f ' (t ) dt where t1 and t 2 are the values of t respectively corresponding to the values of a
a t1

and b of x.

6
5. Sign convention for finding the Areas using Integration.

While applying the discussed sign convention, we will discuss the three cases.

b
Case I: In the expression  f (x ) dx if b  a and f (x )  0 for all a  x  b, then this integration will give
a

the area enclosed between the curve f(x), x-axis and the line x = a and x = b which is positive. No need of
any modification.

b
Case II: If in the expression  f ( x ) dx if b > a and f (x )  0 for all a  x  b, then this integration will
a

calculate to be negative. But the numerical or the absolute value is to be taken to mean the area
enclosed between the curve y = f(x), x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b.

b
Case III: If in the expression  f ( x ) dx where b  a but f(x) changes its sign a Y
a

numbers of times in the interval a  x  b, then we must divide the region [a, b]
in such a way that we clearly get the points lying between [a, b] where f(x) a c d e f b

changes its sign. For the region where f(x)>0 we just integrate to get the area in X
that region and then add the absolute value of the integration calculated in the
region where f(x)<0 to get the desired area between the curve y = f(x), x-axis
and the line x = a and x = b.
Hence, if f(x) is as in above figure, the area enclosed by y = f(x), x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b is
given by
c d e f b
A 
a
f (x ) dx   f (x ) dx  
c d
f ( x ) dx  e 
f ( x ) dx  f ( x ) dx
f

7
6. Symmetrical Area.

If the curve is symmetrical about a coordinate axis (or a line or origin), then we find the area of one
symmetrical portion and multiply it by the number of symmetrical portions to get the required area.

7. Area between Two curves.

(1) When both curves intersect at two points and their common area lies between these points:

Y
If the curves y1  f1 ( x ) and y 2  f2 ( x ), where f1 (x )  f2 (x ) intersect in two points
y = f1(x)
b B
A(x = a) and B(x = b), then common area between the curves is  (y 1  y 2 ) dx
a
A y = f2(x)

b
X
O x = a dx x=b
=  [ f (x )  f (x )] dx
1 2
a

(2) When two curves intersect at a point and the area between them is bounded by x-axis:
Area bounded by the curves y  f1 (x ), y 2  f2 (x ) and x  axis is Y

 b
=  f1 (x )dx   f (x )dx
2 y1 = f1(x) P(α,β)
a y2 = f2(x)

X
O
Where P( ,  ) is the point of intersection of the two curves.

(3) Positive and negative area : Area is always taken as positive. If some part of the area lies above the
x-axis and some part lies below x-axis, then the area of two parts should be calculated separately and
then add their numerical values to get the desired area.

8
Important Tips
16 ab
The area of the region bounded by y 2  4 ax and x 2  4 by is square units.
3

8a2
The area of the region bounded by y 2  4 ax and y  mx is square units
3m 3

8 a2
The area of the region bounded by y 2  4 ax and its latus rectum is square units
3
2
The area of the region bounded by one arch of sin (ax) or cos (ax) and x-axis is sq. units
a

x2 y2
Area of the ellipse  1 is  ab sq. units.
a2 b 2

Area of region bounded by the curve y = sin x , x-axis and the line x =0 and x= 2 is 4 unit.

8. Volumes and Surfaces of Solids of Revolution.

If a plane curve is revolved about some axis in the plane of the curve, then the body so generated is
known as solid of revolution. The surface generated by the perimeter of the curve is known as surface of
revolution and the volume generated by the area is called volume of revolution.
For example, a right angled triangle when revolved about one of its sides (forming the right angle)
generates a right circular cones.
Y

Q (x+ x, y+y)
(x,y)
Volumes of solids of revolution: A PR S x=b

(i) The volume of the solid generated by the revolution, about the x-axis, of x=a
the area bounded by the curve y = f(x), the ordinates at x = a, x = b and the
X
b O K N M L
x-axis is equal to  y dx .

2
a

(ii) The revolution of the area lying between the curve x = f(y), the y-axis and the lines y  a and y  b is
b
2
given by (interchanging x and y in the above formulae)  x dy .
a

(iii) If the equation of the generating curve be given by x  f1 (t ) and y  f 2 (t ) and it is revolved about x-
b t2
2
axis, then the formula corresponding to  y dx becomes   { f 2 (t )} 2 d { f1 (t)} , where f1 and f2 are
a t1

the values of t corresponding to x = a and x = b

9
(iv) If the curve is given by an equation in polar co-ordinates, say r  f ( ) , and the curve revolves about
the initial line, the volume generated
b dx  
2
  y 2 dx  
 .d  , where  and  are the values of  corresponding to x = a and x = b
 y
a  d 
 d
Now x  r cos  , y  r sin  . Hence the volume   r 2 sin 2  (r cos  ) d  
 d

(v) If the generating curve revolves about any line AB (which is different from either of the axes), then the
2
volume of revolution is   (PN ) d (ON ), D
Q
P

A B
O N M

Note: The volume of the solid generated by revolving the area bounded by the curve r  f ( ) and the radii vectors
2 
3
   and    about the initial line is
3
  r sin  d  .

 2 
3
 The volume in the case when the above area is revolved about the line   is   r cos  d  .
2 3

(2) Area of surfaces of revolution: C

Y
S Q
B
(i) The curved surface of the solid generated by the revolution, about the x- A P R

axis, of the area bounded by the curve y  f (x ) , the ordinates at x = a, x = b x=a x=b

x b
and the x-axis is equal to 2  y ds . O D N M E
X
x a

(ii) If the arc of the curve y  f (x ) revolves about y-axis, then the area of the surface of revolution
2
 dy 
(between proper limits) = 2  x ds , where ds  1    dx
 dx 
(iii) If the equation of the curve is given in the parametric form x  f1 (t ) and y  f2 (t) , and the curve
t t2 t t2
revolves about x-axis, then we get the area of the surface of revolution  2  yds  2  f2 (t)ds
t  t1 t  t1

10
 t2  dx  2  dy  2 
 2  f2 (t)       dt , where t1 and t 2 are the values of the parameter t corresponding to x = a
t1  dt   dt  

and x = b.

(iv) If the equation of the curve is given in polar form then the area of the surface of revolution about x-
2
dS   dr  
axis  2  y ds  2  (r sin  ) .d   2  r sin  . r 2     d  between proper limits.
d   d   

11
Mathematics

Differential Equation

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content
1. Definition.

2. Formation of Differential Equation.

3. Variable separable type differential equation.

4. Homogeneous Differential Equation.

5. Exact Differential Equation.

6. Linear Differential Equation.

7. Applications of Differential Equation.

8. Miscellaneous Differential Equation.

1
Many of the practical problems in physics and engineering can be converted into differential equations.
The solution of differential equations is, therefore of paramount importance. This chapter deals with
some elementary aspects of differential equations. These are addressed through simple application of
differential and integral calculus.
There are two important aspects of differential equation, which have just been touched in this chapter.
How to formulate a problem as a differential equation is the one, and the other is how to solve it.

1. Definition.

An equation involving independent variable x, dependent variable y and the differential coefficients
dy d 2 y
, ,........ is called differential equation.
dx dx 2
dy dy
Examples: (i) 1 x y (ii)  xy  cot x
dx dx
3 2
 d4y  dy d 2y  dy 
(iii)  4   4  4 y  5 cos 3 x (iv) x 2 2
 1   0
 dx  dx dx  dx 

Order of a differential equation: The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest
derivative occurring in the differential equation. For example, the order of above differential equations
are 1,1,4 and 2 respectively.

Note: The order of a differential equation is a positive integer. To determine the order of a differential equation, it
is not needed to make the equation free from radicals.

(2) Degree of a differential equation: The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest
order derivative, when differential coefficients are made free from radicals and fractions. In other words,
the degree of a differential equation is the power of the highest order derivative occurring in differential
equation when it is written as a polynomial in differential coefficients.
Note: The definition of degree does not require variables x, y, t etc. to be free from radicals and
fractions. The degree of above differential equations are 1, 1, 3 and 2 respectively.

2
2. Formation of Differential Equation.

Formulating a differential equation from a given equation representing a family of curves means finding
a differential equation whose solution is the given equation. If an equation, representing a family of
curves, contains n arbitrary constants, then we differentiate the given equation n times to obtain n more
equations. Using all these equations, we eliminate the constants. The equation so obtained is the
differential equation of order n for the family of given curves.
Consider a family of curves f (x , y , a1 , a 2 ....., an )  0 ......(i)
Where a1 , a 2 ,...... a n are n independent parameters.

Equation (i) is known as an n parameter family of curves e.g. y = mx is a one-parameter family of straight
lines. x 2  y 2  ax  by  0 is a two parameters family of circles.

If we differentiate equation (i) n times w.r.t. x, we will get n more relations between x , y, a1 , a 2 ,..... a n and
derivatives of y w.r.t. x. By eliminating a1 , a 2 ,...., a n from these n relations and equation (i), we get a
differential equation.
Clearly order of this differential equation will be n i.e. equal to the number of independent parameters in
the family of curves.

Algorithm for formation of differential equations

Step (i): Write the given equation involving independent variable x (say), dependent variable y (say) and
the arbitrary constants.
Step (ii): Obtain the number of arbitrary constants in step (i). Let there be n arbitrary constants.
Step (iii): Differentiate the relation in step (i) n times with respect to x.
Step (iv): Eliminate arbitrary constants with the help of n equations involving differential coefficients
obtained in step (iii) and an equation in step (i). The equation so obtained is the desired differential
equation.

3
3. Variable Separable type Differential Equation.

(1) Solution of differential equations: If we have a differential equation of order ‘n’ then by solving a
differential equation we mean to get a family of curves with n parameters whose differential equation is
the given differential equation. Solution or integral of a differential equation is a relation between the
variables, not involving the differential coefficients such that this relation and the derivatives obtained
from it satisfy the given differential equation. The solution of a differential equation is also called its
primitive.
dy
For example y  e x is a solution of the differential equation y.
dx
(i) General solution: The solution which contains as many as arbitrary constants as the order of the
differential equation is called the general solution of the differential equation. For example,
d 2y
y  A cos x  B sin x is the general solution of the differential equation  y  0 . But y  A cos x is
dx 2
not the general solution as it contains one arbitrary constant.

(ii) Particular solution: Solution obtained by giving particular values to the arbitrary constants in the
general solution of a differential equation is called a particular solution. For example, y  3 cos x  2 sin x
d 2y
is a particular solution of the differential equation y 0
dx 2

(2) Differential equations of first order and first degree: A differential equation of first order and first
dy dy
degree involves x, y and . So it can be put in any one of the following forms:  f (x , y ) or
dx dx
 dy 
f  x , y,   0 or f (x , y ) dx  g( x , y ) dy  0 where f ( x , y ) and g(x , y ) are obviously the functions of x and
 dx 
y.

(3) Geometrical interpretation of the differential equations of first order and first degree: The
 dy 
general form of a first order and first degree differential equation is f  x , y ,   0 .....(i)
 dx 
We know that the direction of the tangent of a curve in Cartesian rectangular coordinates at any point is
dy
given by , so the equation in (i) can be known as an equation which establishes the relationship
dx
dy
between the coordinates of a point and the slope of the tangent i.e., to the integral curve at that
dx
point. Solving the differential equation given by (i) means finding those curves for which the direction of
4
tangent at each point coincides with the direction of the field. All the curves represented by the general
solution when taken together will give the locus of the differential equation. Since there is one arbitrary
constant in the general solution of the equation of first order, the locus of the equation can be said to be
made up of single infinity of curves.

(4) Solution of first order and first degree differential equations: A first order and first degree
differential equation can be written as
f(x, y)dx + g(x, y)dy = 0
dy f (x , y ) dy
or  or  (x, y)
dx g(x , y )' dx
Where f ( x , y ) and g(x , y ) are obviously the functions of x and y. It is not always possible to solve this
type of equations. The solution of this type of differential equations is possible only when it falls under
the category of some standard forms.

(5) Equations in variable separable form : If the differential equation of the form
f1 (x )dx  f2 (y )dy .....(i)
Where f1 and f2 being functions of x and y only. Then we say that the variables are separable in the
differential equation.

Thus, integrating both sides of (i), we get its solution as  f1 ( x )dx   f 2 (y )dy  C ,

Where c is an arbitrary constant.

There is no need of introducing arbitrary constants to both sides as they can be combined
together to give just one.

dy
(i) Differential equations of the type  f(x)
dx

To solve this type of differential equations we integrate both sides to obtain the general solution as
dy
discussed following:  f ( x )  dy  f (x ) dx
dx
Integrating both sides, we obtain,  dy   f (x ) dx  C or y   f (x ) dx  C .

5
 dy
(ii) Differential equations of the type  f (y )
dx
To solve this type of differential equations we integrate both sides to obtain the general solution as
dy dx 1 1
discussed following :  f (y )    dx  dy
dx dy f (y ) f (y )
1 1
Integrating both sides, we obtain,  dx   f (y) dy  C or x   f (y) dy  C .

(6) Equations reducible to variable separable form

dy
(i) Differential equations of the form  f (ax  by  c) can be reduced to variable separable form by
dx
the substitution ax + by + c = Z
dy dZ
 ab 
dx dx
 dZ 1 dZ
   a   f (Z )   a  bf (Z) .
 dx b dx
This is variable separable form.

(ii) Differential equation of the form

dy ax  by  c a b
 , where   K (say)
dx Ax  By  C A B
dy K ( Ax  By )  C
 
dx Ax  By  C
Put Ax + By = Z
dy dZ  dZ  1 KZ  C dZ KZ  C
 AB  ,    A    AB
dx dx  dx B Z C dx ZC
This is variable separable form and can be solved.

6
4. Homogeneous Differential Equation.

(1) Homogeneous differential equation: A function f(x, y) is called a homogeneous function of degree
n if f (x , y )  n f ( x , y) .

For example, f (x , y)  x 2  y 2  3 xy is a homogeneous function of degree 2, because f (x , y ) 

2 x 2  2 y 2  3 x . y  2 f (x , y). A homogeneous function f(x, y) of degree n can always be written as
y x
f ( x , y )  x n f   or f ( x , y )  y n f   . If a first-order first degree differential equation is expressible in the
x y 
dy f (x , y )
form  where f(x, y) and g(x, y) are homogeneous functions of the same degree, then it is
dx g( x , y )
called a homogeneous differential equation. Such type of equations can be reduced to variable
separable form by the substitution y  vx . The given differential equation can be written as
dy x n f (y / x ) f (y / x ) y dy dv dy y
 n   F   . If y  vx , then vx . Substituting the value of  F   , we
dx x g(y / x ) g(y / x ) x dx dx dx x
dv dv dx 1 dx
get v  x  F(v )   . On integration,  dv    C where C is an arbitrary
dx F(v)  v x F(v )  v x
y
constant of integration. After integration, v will be replaced by in complete solution.
x

(2) Algorithm for solving homogeneous differential equation

dy  ( x , y )
Step (i) : Put the differential equation in the form 
dx  (x , y )
dy dv
Step (ii) : Put y = vx and v  x in the equation in step (i) and cancel out x from the right hand
dx dx
dv
side. The equation reduces to the form v  x  F(v) .
dx
Step (iii) : Shift v on RHS and separate the variables v and x
Step (iv) : Integrate both sides to obtain the solution in terms of v and x.
y
Step (v) : Replace v by in the solution obtained in step (iv) to obtain the solution in terms of x and y.
x

7
(3) Equation reducible to homogeneous form
A first order, first degree differential equation of the form
dy a x  b1 y  c1 a b
 1 , where 1  1 .....(i)
dx a2 x  b2 y  c 2 a2 b2
This is non-homogeneous.
It can be reduced to homogeneous form by certain substitutions. Put x  X  h, y  Y  k
Where h and k are constants, which are to be determined.
dy dy dY dX dY
  . . 
dx dY dX dx dX
dY (a X  b1 Y )  a1 h  b1 k  c 1
Substituting these values in (i), we have  1 .....(ii)
dX (a 2 X  b 2 Y )  a 2 h  b 2 k  c 2
a1 h  b 1 k  c 1  0 
Now h, k will be chosen such that .....(iii)
a 2 h  b 2 k  c 2  0 
h k 1
i.e.   .....(iv)
b 1 c 2  b 2 c 1 c 1 a 2  c 2 a1 a1 b 2  a 2 b 1
dY a X  b1 Y
For these values of h and k the equation (ii) reduces to  1 which is a homogeneous
dX a2 X  b2 Y
differential equation and can be solved by the substitution Y = vX. Replacing X and Y in the solution so
obtained by x  h and y  k respectively, we can obtain the required solution in terms of x and y.

5. Exact Differential Equation.

(1) Exact differential equation : If M and N are functions of x and y, the equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 is
called exact when there exists a function f(x, y) of x and y such that

f f
d[f(x, y)] = Mdx + Ndy i.e., dx  dy  Mdx  Ndy
x y

f
where  Partial derivative of f(x, y) with respect to x (keeping y constant)
x

f
 Partial derivative of f(x, y) with respect to y (treating x as constant)
y

Note: An exact differential equation can always be derived from its general solution directly by differentiation
without any subsequent multiplication, elimination etc.

8
(2) Theorem: The necessary and sufficient condition for the differential equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 to be
M N
exact is  i.e., partial derivative of M(x, y) w.r.t. y = Partial derivative of N(x, y) w.r.t. x
y x

(3) Integrating factor: If an equation of the form Mdx + Ndy = 0 is not exact, it can always be made
exact by multiplying by some function of x and y. Such a multiplier is called an integrating factor.

(4) Working rule for solving an exact differential equation:

M
Step (i): Compare the given equation with Mdx + Ndy = 0 and find out M and N. Then find out and
y
N M N
. If  , the given equation is exact.
x y x
Step (ii): Integrate M with respect to x treating y as a constant.
Step (iii): Integrate N with respect to y treating x as constant and omit those terms which have been
already obtained by integrating M.
Step (iv): On adding the terms obtained in steps (ii) and (iii) and equating to an arbitrary constant, we
get the required solution.

In other words, solution of an exact differential equation is  Mdx   Ndy c

Regarding y Only those terms
as constant not containing x

(5) Solution by inspection: If we can write the differential equation in the form
f ( f1 ( x , y ))d ( f1 (x , y ))   ( f2 (x , y ))d ( f2 (x , y ))  ......  0 , then each term can be easily integrated separately. For
this the following results must be memorized.

(i) d(x + y) = dx + dy

(ii) d(xy) = xdy + ydx

 x  ydx  xdy
(iii) d   
y y2
 y  xdy  ydx
(iv) d   
x x2
 x 2  2 xydx  x 2 dy
(v) d  

 y  y2

9
  y 2  2 xydy  y 2 dx
(vi) d   
 x  x2

 x 2  2 xy 2 dx  2 x 2 ydy
(vii) d  2  
y  y4

 y 2  2 x 2 ydy  2 xy 2 dx
(viii) d  2  
x  x4

 x  ydx  xdy
(ix) d  tan 1  
 y x2  y2

xdy  ydx
(xi) d[ln( xy )] 
xy

  x   ydx  xdy
(xii) d  ln   
  y  xy

1  xdx  ydy
(xiii) d  ln( x 2  y 2 ) 
2  x2  y2

  y  xdy  ydx
(xiv) d ln  
  x  xy

 1  xdy  ydx
(xv) d    
 xy  x 2y 2

ex  ye x dx  e x dy
(xvi) d  

 y  y2

 e y  xe y dy  e y dx
(xvii) d    2
 x  x

(xviii) d (x m y n )  x m 1 y n 1 (mydx  nxdy )

10
 xdx  y dy
(xix) d  x 2  y 2  
  x2  y2

1 x  y  x dy  y dx
(xx) d  log 
2 x  y  x2 y2

d [ f (x , y )]1n f (x , y )
(xxi) 
1n ( f (x , y ))n

6. Linear Differential Equation.

(1) Linear and non-linear differential equations: A differential equation is a linear differential equation
d ny d n 1 y d n2 y dy
if it is expressible in the form Po n
 P1 n 1
 P2 n2
 ...  Pn 1  Pn y  Q where
dx dx dx dx
P0 , P1 , P2 , ..., Pn 1 , Pn and Q are either constants or functions of independent variable x .

Thus, if a differential equation when expressed in the form of a polynomial involves the derivatives and
dependent variable in the first power and there are no product of these, and also the coefficient of the
various terms are either constants or functions of the independent variable, then it is said to be linear
differential equation. Otherwise, it is a nonlinear differential equation.

It follows from the above definition that a differential equation will be non-linear differential equation if
(i) its degree is more than one
(ii) Any of the differential coefficient has exponent more than one.
(iii) Exponent of the dependent variable is more than one.
(iv) Products containing dependent variable and its differential coefficients are present.

(2) Linear differential equation of first order: The general form of a linear differential equation of first
dy
order is  Py  Q .....(i)
dx
Where P and Q are functions of x (or constants)
dy dy dy
For example,  xy  x 3 , x  2y  x 3 ,  2 y  sin x etc. are linear differential equations. This
dx dx dx
type of differential equations are solved when they are multiplied by a factor, which is called integrating
11
factor, because by multiplication of this factor the left hand side of the differential equation (i) becomes
exact differential of some function.
 dy  d   Pdx 
Multiplying both sides of (i) by e  , we get e   Py   Q e   Pdx
Pdx Pdx Pdx
  y e Qe
 dx  dx  

ye  Qe
Pdx Pdx
On integrating both sides w. r. t. x, we get;  dx  C ……..(ii)

Which is the required solution, where C is the constant of integration. e 

Pdx
is called the integrating
factor. The solution (ii) in short may also be written as y.( I. F.)   Q.( I. F.) dx  C

(3) Algorithm for solving a linear differential equation:

dy
Step (i): Write the differential equation in the form  Py  Q and obtain P and Q.
dx

Step (ii): Find integrating factor (I.F.) given by I. F.  e 

Pdx
.
Step (iii): Multiply both sides of equation in step (i) by I.F.
Step (iv): Integrate both sides of the equation obtained in step (iii) w. r. t. x to obtain y(I. F.)   Q(I. F.) dx  C

This gives the required solution.

dx
(4) Linear differential equations of the form  Rx  S . Sometimes a linear differential equation can
dy
dx
be put in the form  Rx  S where R and S are functions of y or constants. Note that y is
dy
independent variable and x is a dependent variable.

dx
(5) Algorithm for solving linear differential equations of the form  Rx  S
dy
dx
Step (i): Write the differential equation in the form  Rx  S and obtain R and S.
dy

Step (ii): Find I.F. by using I. F.  e 

R dy

Step (iii): Multiply both sides of the differential equation in step (i) by I.F.
Step (iv): Integrate both sides of the equation obtained in step (iii) w. r. t. y to obtain the solution given
by x (I. F.)   S (I. F.) dy  C Where C is the constant of integration.

12
(6) Equations reducible to linear form (Bernoulli's differential equation) : The differential equation
dy
of type  Py  Qy n ......(i)
dx

Where P and Q are constants or functions of x alone and n is a constant other than zero or unity, can be
reduced to the linear form by dividing by y n and then putting y  n 1  v , as explained below.
dy
Dividing both sides of (i) by y n , we get y n  Py n 1  Q
dx
dy dv 1 dv dv
Putting y  n 1  v so that (n  1)y  n  , we get  Pv  Q   (1  n)Pv  (1  n)Q
dx dx  n  1 dx dx
which is a linear differential equation.
Remark : If n  1 , then we find that the variables in equation (i) are separable and it can be easily
integrated by the method discussed in variable separable from.

dy
(7) Differential equation of the form :  P (y )  Q  (y )
dx

Where P and Q are functions of x alone or constants.

1 dy  (y )
Dividing by  (y), we get  PQ
 (y ) dx  (y )
 (y ) d   (y )  dv dv 1 dy
Now put  v , so that   or k , where k is constant
 (y ) dx  (y )  dx dx  (y ) dx

dv
We get  kP v  kQ
dx

Which is linear differential equation.

13
7. Application of Differential Equation.

Differential equation is applied in various practical fields of life. It is used to define various physical laws
and quantities. It is widely used in physics, chemistry, engineering etc.

Some important fields of application are;

(i) Rate of change

(ii) Geometrical problems etc.

Differential equation is used for finding the family of curves for which some conditions involving the
derivatives are given.
dy
Equation of the tangent at a point (x, y) to the curve y = f(x) is given by Y y  (X  x ) ……..(i)
dx
1
and equation of normal at (x, y) is Y y   (X  x ) ……..(ii)
 dy 
 
 dx 

 
 
 y  dy 
The tangent meets X-axis at  x  , 0  and Y-axis at  0, y  x 
 dy   dx 
   
  dx  

 
 
 dy  x
The normal meets X-axis at  x  y , 0  and Y-axis at  0, y  
 dx   dy 
   
  dx 

14
8. Miscellaneous Differential Equation.

d 2y
(1) A special type of second order differential equation:  f (x ) ……..(i)
dx 2

d  dy   dy 
Equation (i) may be re-written as    f (x )  d    f (x )dx
dx  dx   dx 

dy dy
Integrating,   f ( x )dx  c 1 i.e.  F( x )  c 1 ……..(ii)
dx dx

Where F( x )   f (x )dx  c 1 dx

From (ii), dy  f ( x )dx  c1 dx

Integrating, y   F(x )dx  c 1 x  c 2

 y  H (x )  c 1 x  c 2

Where H (x )   F( x )dx c 1 and c 2 are arbitrary constants.

(2) Particular solution type problems: To solve such a problem, we proceed according to the type of
the problem (i.e. variable-separable, linear, exact, homogeneous etc.) and then we apply the given
conditions to find the particular values of the arbitrary constants.

15
Mathematics

Indices and Surds

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Table of Content
1. Definition of indices.

2. Laws of indices.

3. Definition of surds.

4. Types of surds.

5. Properties of quadratic surds.

6. Rationalization factors.

7. Square roots of a + b and a + b + c + d where b,

c, d are surds.

8. Cube root of a binomial quadratic surd.

9. Equation involving surds.

1
1. Definition of Indices.

If a is any non-zero real or imaginary number and m is the positive integer, then a m  a. a. a. a.......... a
(m times). Here a is called the base and m the index, power or exponent.

2. Laws of Indices.

(1) a 0  1 , (a  0)
1
(2) a m  , (a  0)
am
(3) a m  n  a m .a n , Where m and n are rational numbers
am
(4) a m n  , Where m and n are rational numbers, a  0
an
(5) (a m )n  a mn

(6) a p / q  a p
q

(7) If x  y , then a x  a y , but the converse may not be true.

For example: (1)6  (1)8 , but 6  8

If a  1, or 0, then x  y

(ii) If a  1 , then x, y may be any real number

(iii) If a  1, then x, y may be both even or both odd
(iv) If a  0, then x, y may be any non-zero real number

2
But if we have to solve the equations like [ f (x )] ( x )  [ f (x )]Ψ( x ) then we have to solve :
(a) f (x )  1
(b) f (x )  1
(c) f (x )  0
(d)  (x )  Ψ(x )
Verification should be done in (b) and (c) cases

(8) a m .b m  (ab)m is not always true

In real domain, a b  (ab) , only when a  0, b  0
In complex domain, a . b  (ab) , if at least one of a and b is positive.

(9) If a x  b x then consider the following cases:

(i) If a  b, then x  0

(ii) If a  b  0, then x may have any real value
(iii) If a  b , then x is even.

If we have to solve the equation of the form [ f (x )] ( x )  [g(x )] ( x ) i.e., same index, different bases, then we
have to solve
(a) f (x )  g(x ) ,
(b) f (x )   g(x ) ,
(c)  (x )  0
Verification should be done in (b) and (c) cases.

3
3. Definition of Surds.

Any root of a number which cannot be exactly found is called a surd.

Let a be a rational number and n is a positive integer. If the n th root of x i.e., x 1 / n is irrational, then it is
called surd of order n.
Order of a surd is indicated by the number denoting the root.
For example 7 , 3 9 , (11)3 / 5 , n 3 are surds of second, third, fifth and nth order respectively.
A second order surd is often called a quadratic surd, a surd of third order is called a cubic surd.

Note: If a is not rational, n

a is not a surd.

4. Types of Surds.

(1) Simple surd: A surd consisting of a single term. For example 2 3 ,6 5, 5 etc.

(2) Pure and mixed surds: A surd consisting of wholly of an irrational number is called pure surd.

Example: 5, 3 7

A surd consisting of the product of a rational number and an irrational number is called a mixed surd.

Example: 5 3 .

(3) Compound surds: An expression consisting of the sum or difference of two or more surds.

Example: 5  2 , 2  3  3 5 etc.

(4) Similar surds: If the surds are different multiples of the same surd, they are called similar surds.

Example: 45 , 80 are similar surds because they are equal to 3 5 and 4 5 respectively.

4
(5) Binomial surds: A compound surd consisting of two surds is called a binomial surd.

Example: 5  2 , 3  3 2 etc.

(6) Binomial quadratic surds: Binomial surds consisting of pure (or simple) surds of order two i.e., the
surds of the form a b  c d or a  b c are called binomial quadratic surds.

Two binomial quadratic surds which differ only in the sign which connects their terms are said to be
conjugate or complementary to each other. The product of a binomial quadratic surd and its conjugate
is always rational.

For example: The conjugate of the surd 2 7  5 3 is the surd 2 7  5 3 .

5. Properties of Quadratic Surds.

(1) The square root of a rational number cannot be expressed as the sum or difference of a rational
number and a quadratic surd.

(2) If two quadratic surds cannot be reduced to others, which have not the same irrational part, their
product is irrational.

(3) One quadratic surd cannot be equal to the sum or difference of two others, not having the same irrational
part.

(4) If a  b  c  d , where a and c are rational, and b, d are irrational, then a  c and b= d .

5
6. Rationalization Factors.

If two surds be such that their product is rational, then each one of them is called rationalizing factor of the
other.

Thus each of 2 3 and 3 is a rationalizing factor of each other. Similarly 3  2 and 3  2 are
rationalizing factors of each other, as ( 3  2 )( 3  2 )  1 , which is rational.

To find the factor which will rationalize any given binomial surd:

Case I: Suppose the given surd is a b

P q

Suppose a1 / P  x, b1 / q  y and let n be the L.C.M. of p and q. Then x n and y n are both rational.
Now x n  y n is divisible by x  y for all values of n, and
x n  y n  (x  y)(x n 1  x n 2 y  x n 3 y 2  .....  y n 1 ) .
Thus the rationalizing factor is x n 1  x n 2 y  x n 3 y 2  .....  y n 1 and the rational product is x n  y n .

Case II: Let the given surd be a  b .

p q

Let x , y, n have the same meaning as in Case I.

(1) If n is even, then x n  y n is divisible by x+ y and x n  y n  (x  y)(x n 1  x n 2 y  x n 3 y 3  .....  y n 1 )
Thus the rationalizing factor is x n 1  x n 2 y  x n 3 y 2  .....  y n 1 and the rational product is x n  y n .
(2) If n is odd, x n  y n is divisible by x  y , and x n  y n  (x  y)(x n 1  x n 2 y  ....  y n 1 )
Thus the rationalizing factor is x n 1  x n 2 y  .....  xy n 2  y n 1 and the rational product is x n  y n .

7. Square Roots of a +b and a + b + c + d Where b, c, d are Surds.

Let (a  b )  x  y , where x , y  0 are rational numbers.

Then squaring both sides we have, a  b  x  y  2 x y

 a  x  y, b  2 xy  b  4 xy

So, (x  y) 2  (x  y) 2  4 xy  a 2  b
After solving we can find x and y.
6
Similarly square root of a  b can be found by taking (a  b )  x  y, x  y

To find square root of a + b + c + d : Let (a  b  c  d )  x  y  z , (x , y, z  0) and take

(a  b  c  d )  x  y  z . Then by squaring and equating, we get equations in x, y, z. On

solving these equations, we can find the required square roots.

Note: If a 2  b is not a perfect square, the square root of a  b is complicated i.e., we can't find the value of

(a  b ) in the form of a compound surd.

 If (a  b )  x  y , x  y then (a  b )  x y

 a  a2  b   
  a a b
2
 a  (b)   
 2   2 
   

 a  a2  b   
  a a b
2
 a  (b)   
 2   2 
   
 If a is a rational number, b , c , d , are surds then

bd bc cd
(i) a b  c  d   
4c 4d 4b
bd cd bc
(ii) a b  c  d    ,
4c 4b 4d
bc bd cd
(iii) a b  c  d   
4d 4c 4b

7
8. Cube Root of a Binomial Quadratic Surd.

If (a  b )1 / 3  x  y then (a  b )2 / 3  x  y , where a is a rational number and b is a surd.

Procedure of finding (a  b )1 / 3 is illustrated with the help of an example:
Taking (37  30 3 )1 / 3  x  y we get on cubing both sides, 37  30 3  x 3  3 xy  (3 x 2  y) y
 x 3  3 xy  37
(3 x 2  y) y  30 3  15 12

As 3 cannot be reduced, let us assume y  3 we get 3 x 2  y  3 x 2  3  30  x  3

Which doesn't satisfy x 3  3 xy  37

Again taking y  12, we get

3 x 2  12  15 ,  x  1
x  1, y  12 Satisfy x 3  3 xy  37

 3 37  30 3  1  12  1  2 3

9. Equations Involving Surds.

While solving equations involving surds, usually we have to square, on squaring the domain of the
equation extends and we may get some extraneous solutions, and so we must verify the solutions and
neglect those which do not satisfy the equation.
Note that from ax  bx , to conclude a  b is not correct. The correct procedure is x (a  b) =0 i.e. x  0 or
a  b . Here, necessity of verification is required.

8
Mathematics

Logarithms

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Table of Content
1. Definition.

2. Characteristic and mantissa.

3. Properties of logarithms.

4. Logarithmic inequalities.

1
1. Definition.

“The Logarithm of a given number to a given base is the index of the power to which the base must be
raised in order to equal the given number.”
If a  0 and  1, then logarithm of a positive number N is defined as the index x of that power of 'a'
which equals N i.e., log a N  x iff a x  N  a log a N  N, a  0 , a  1 and N  0
It is also known as fundamental logarithmic identity.
The function defined by f (x )  log a x , a  0, a  1 is called logarithmic function.
Its domain is (0, ) and range is R. a is called the base of the logarithmic function.
When base is 'e' then the logarithmic function is called natural or Napierian logarithmic function and
when base is 10, then it is called common logarithmic function.

Note: The logarithm of a number is unique i.e. No number can have two different log to a given base.
log e a
log e a  log e 10. log10 a or log10 a   0 .434 log e a
log e 10

2. Characteristic and Mantissa.

(1) The integral part of a logarithm is called the characteristic and the fractional part is called mantissa.
log10 N  integer  fraction (ve )
 
Characters tics Mantissa

(2) The mantissa part of log of a number is always kept positive.

(3) If the characteristics of log10 N be n, then the number of digits in N is (n+1)

(4) If the characteristics of log10 N be (– n) then there exists (n – 1) number of zeros after decimal part of
N.

2
3. Properties of Logarithms.

Let m and n be arbitrary positive numbers such that a  0, a  1, b  0, b  1 then

(1) log a a  1, log a 1  0

1
(2) log a b. log b a  1  log a a  log b b  log a b 
log b a

log b a
(3) log c a  log b a. log c b or log c a 
log b c

(4) log a (mn)  log a m  log a n

m 
(5) log a    log a m  log a n
n

(6) log a m n  n log a m

(7) a loga m  m

1
(8) log a     log a n
n

1
(9) loga  n  loga n



(10) log a  n   log a n , (  0)


(11) a logc b  b logc a , (a, b, c  0 and c  1)

3
4. Logarithmic Inequalities.

(1) If a  1, p  1  log a p  0

(2) If 0  a  1, p  1  log a p  0

(3) If a  1, 0  p  1  log a p  0

(4) If p  a  1  log a p  1

(5) If a  p  1  0  log a p  1

(6) If 0  a  p  1  0  log a p  1

(7) If 0  p  a  1  log a p  1

a  m b , if m  1
(8) If logm a  b  

a  m , if 0  m  1
b

a  m b , if m  1
(9) logm a  b  

a  m , if 0  m  1
b

(10) log p a  log p b  a  b if base p is positive and >1 or a  b if base p is positive and < 1 i.e.,
0  p 1
In other words, if base is greater than 1 then inequality remains same and if base is positive but less than
1 then the sign of inequality is reversed.

4
Mathematics

Partial Fractions

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Table of Content
1. Definition.

2. Different cases of partial fractions.

3. Partial fractions of improper rational functions.

4. General method of Finding out the constants.

1
1. Definition.

f (x )
An expression of the form , where f (x ) and g(x ) are polynomial in x, is called a rational fraction.
g( x )
f (x )
(1) Proper rational functions: Functions of the form ,where f (x ) and g(x ) are polynomials and
g( x )
g(x )  0 ,are called rational functions of x.
f (x )
If degree of f (x ) is less than degree of g(x ) , then is called a proper rational function.
g( x )
x2
Example: is a proper rational function.
x  2x  4
2

f (x )
(2) Improper rational functions: If degree of f (x ) is greater than or equal to degree of g(x ) , then
g( x )
is called an improper rational function.
x3
For example: is an improper rational function.
(x  1)(x  2)

(3) Partial fractions: Any proper rational function can be broken up into a group of different rational
fractions, each having a simple factor of the denominator of the original rational function. Each such
fraction is called a partial fraction.
f (x )
If by some process, we can break a given rational function into different fractions, whose
g( x )
denominators are the factors of g(x ) , then the process of obtaining them is called the resolution or
f (x )
decomposition of into its partial fractions.
g( x )

2
2. Different Cases of Partial Fractions.

(1) When the denominator consists of non-repeated linear factors: To each linear factor (x  a)
occurring once in the denominator of a proper fraction, there corresponds a single partial fraction of the
A
form , where A is a constant to be determined.
x a
f (x ) A1 A2 An
If g(x ) = (x  a1 ) (x  a2 ) (x  a3 ).......( x  an ), then we assume that,    ...... 
g(x ) x  a1 x  a2 x  an
Where A1 , A2 , A3 ....... An are constants, can be determined by equating the numerator of L.H.S. to the
numerator of R.H.S. (after L.C.M.) and substituting x  a1 , a2 ......an .

Note: Remainder of polynomial f (x ) , when divided by (x  a) is f (a) .

e.g., Remainder of x 2  3 x  7 ,when divided by x  2 is (2)  3(2)  7  3 .

2

px  q pa  q pb  q
  
(x  a)(x  b) (x  a)(a  b) (b  a)(x  b)

(2) When the denominator consists of linear factors, some repeated: To each linear factor (x – a)
occurring r times in the denominator of a proper rational function, there corresponds a sum of r partial
fractions.

Let g(x )  (x  a)k (x  a1 )(x  a2 ).......( x  ar ) .Then we assume that

f (x ) A A2 Ak B1 Br
 1   ......    ...... 
g(x ) x  a (x  a)2
(x  a) (x  a1 )
k
(x  ar )
Where A1 , A2 , ......, Ak are constants. To determined the value of constants adopt the procedure as above.

(3) When the denominator consists of non-repeated quadratic factors: To each irreducible non
Ax  B
repeated quadratic factor ax 2  bx  c , there corresponds a partial fraction of the form ,
ax  bx  c
2

where A and B are constants to be determined.

3
 px  q  q pa  q pa  q
Note:  2  2  2
x (x  a) ax
2
a x a (x  a)
px  q q q pa  q
  2  2 
x (x  a) 2
a x a (x  a) a(x  a)2

px  q q pa 2  qx
  
x (x 2  a 2 ) a 2 x a 2 (x 2  a 2 )

(4) When the denominator consists of repeated quadratic factors: To each irreducible quadratic
factor ax 2  bx  c occurring r times in the denominator of a proper rational fraction there corresponds
a sum of r partial fractions of the form.

A1 x  B1 A2 x  B2 Ar x  Br
  ......... 
ax  bx  c (ax  bx  c)
2 2 2
(ax 2  bx  c)r

Where, A’s and B’s are constants to be determined.

3. Partial Fractions of Improper Rational Functions.

f (x )
If degree of f (x ) is greater than or equal to degree of g(x ) , then is called an improper rational
g( x )
function and every rational function can be transformed to a proper rational function by dividing the
numerator by the denominator.
We divide the numerator by denominator until a remainder is obtained which is of lower degree than
the denominator.
f (x ) R( x )
i.e.,  Q(x )  , where degree of R(x ) < degree of g (x ) .
g(x ) g (x )
x3 19 x  30
For example, is an improper rational function and can be expressed as (x  5)  2
x  5x  6
2
x  5x  6
19 x  30
which is the sum of a polynomial (x  5) and a proper rational function 2 .
x  5x  6

4
4. General Method of Finding out the Constants.

(1) Express the given fraction into its partial fractions in accordance with the rules written above.
(2) Then multiply both sides by the denominator of the given fraction and you will get an identity which
will hold for all values of x.
(3) Equate the coefficients of like powers of x in the resulting identity and solve the equations so obtained
simultaneously to find the various constant is short method. Sometimes, we substitute particular values of
the variable x in the identity obtained after clearing of fractions to find some or all the constants. For non-
repeated linear factors, the values of x used as those for which the denominator of the corresponding
partial fractions become zero.

Note: If the given fraction is improper, then before finding partial fractions, the given fraction must be expressed
as sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction by division.

Important Tips
 Sometimes a suitable substitution transforms the given function to a rational fraction
which can be integrated by breaking it into partial fractions.

5
Mathematics

Complex Numbers

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Real & Imaginary parts of a complex number.
3. Algebraic operation with complex numbers.
4. Equality of two complex number.
5. Conjugate of a complex number.
6. Modulus of complex number.
7. Argument of a complex number.
8. Square root of a complex number.
9. Representation of complex number.
10. Logarithm of a complex number.
11. Geometry of a complex number.
12. Use of complex numbers in co-ordinate geometry.
13. Rotation theorem.
14. Triangle inequalities.
15. Standard loci in the argand plane.
16. De’ moivre's theorem.
17. Roots of complex number.
18. Shifting the origin in case of complex numbers.
19. Inverse points.

1
20. Dot and cross product.

2
1. Introduction.

1
Number system consists of real numbers (5, 7, , 3 .......... ....etc.) and imaginary numbers (  5 ,  9
3
....etc.) If we combine these two numbers by some mathematical operations, the resulting number is known
as Complex Number i.e., “Complex Number is the combination of real and imaginary numbers”.

(1) Basic concepts of complex number

(i) General definition: A number of the form x  iy, where x , y  R and i   1 is called a complex
number so the quantity  1 is denoted by 'i' called iota thus i   1 .

A complex number is usually denoted by z and the set of complex number is denoted by c

i.e., c  {x  i y : x  R, y  R, i   1}

For example, 5  3i,  1  i, 0  4 i, 4  0i etc. are complex numbers.

Note: Euler was the first mathematician to introduce the symbol i (iota) for the square root of – 1 with property
i 2  1. He also called this symbol as the imaginary unit.

 Iota (i) is neither 0, nor greater than 0, nor less than 0.

 The square root of a negative real number is called an imaginary unit.
 For any positive real number a, we have  a  1a  1 a  i a
 i  a   a.
 The property a b  ab is valid only if at least one of a and b is non-negative. If a and b are both
negative then a b   ab .
 If a  0 then a  | a| i .

3
(2) Integral powers of iota (i): Since i   1 hence we have i2  1 , i3  i and i 4  1 . To find the
value of i n (n  4 ), first divide n by 4. Let q be the quotient and r be the remainder.

i.e., n  4 q  r where 0  r  3

i n  i 4 q r  (i 4 )q . (i)r  (1)q . (i)r  i r

In general we have the following results i 4 n  1, i 4 n 1  i, i 4 n  2  1, i 4 n 3  i , where n is any integer.

In other words, i n  (1)n / 2 if n is even integer and i n  (1)n 1 / 2 i if n is odd integer.

The value of the negative integral powers of i are found as given below:

1 i3 1 1 1 i i 1 1
i 1   4  i 3  i, i  2  2   1, i 3  3  4   i, i 4  4   1
i i i 1 i i 1 i 1

Important Tips
The sum of four consecutive powers of i is always zero i.e., in  in1  in 2  in3  0, n  I.

 in  1, i,  1,  i, where n is any integer.

 (1  i) 2  2i, (1  i)2  2i

1i 1i 2i
  i,  i, 1i
1i 1i i 1

2. Real and Imaginary Parts of a Complex Number.

If x and y are two real numbers, then a number of the form z  x  iy is called a complex number. Here
‘x’ is called the real part of z and ‘y’ is known as the imaginary part of z. The real part of z is denoted by
Re(z) and the imaginary part by Im(z).
If z = 3 – 4i, then Re(z) = 3 and Im(z) = – 4.

Note: A complex number z is purely real if its imaginary part is zero i.e., Im(z) = 0 and purely imaginary if its real
part is zero i.e., Re(z) = 0.
i can be denoted by the ordered pair (0,1).
The complex number (a, b) can also be split as (a, 0) + (0, 1) (b, 0).

4
Important Tips
A complex number is an imaginary number if and only if its imaginary part is non-zero. Here real
part may or may not be zero.
All purely imaginary numbers except zero are imaginary numbers but an imaginary number may
or not be purely imaginary.
A real number can be written as a + i.0, therefore every real number can be considered as a
complex number whose imaginary part is zero. Thus the set of real number (R) is a proper subset of
the complex number (C) i.e., R  C.
Complex number as an ordered pair : A complex number may also be defined as an ordered pair
of real numbers and may be denoted by the symbol (a,b). For a complex number to be uniquely
specified, we need two real numbers in particular order.

3. Algebraic Operations with Complex Numbers.

Let two complex numbers z 1  a  ib and z 2  c  id

Addition : (a  ib)  (c  id)  (a  c)  i(b  d )
Subtraction : (a  ib)  (c  id)  (a  c)  i(b  d )
Multiplication : (a  ib)(c  id)  (ac  bd )  i(ad  bc)
a  ib
Division : (when at least one of c and d is non-zero)
c  id

a  ib (a  ib) (c  id)
 . (Rationalization)
c  id (c  id) (c  id)
a  ib (ac  bd ) i(bc  ad)
 2  2 .
c  id c d2 c d2

Properties of algebraic operations with complex numbers: Let z 1 , z 2 and z 3 are any complex
numbers then their algebraic operation satisfy following operations:
(i) Addition of complex numbers satisfies the commutative and associative properties
i.e., z 1  z 2  z 2  z 1 and (z 1  z 2 )  z 3  z 1  (z 2  z 3 ).
(ii) Multiplication of complex number satisfies the commutative and associative properties.
i.e., z 1 z 2  z 2 z 1 and (z 1 z 2 )z 3  z 1 (z 2 z 3 ).
5
(iii) Multiplication of complex numbers is distributive over addition
i.e., z 1 (z 2  z 3 )  z 1 z 2  z 1 z 3 and (z 2  z 3 )z 1  z 2 z 1  z 3 z 1 .

Note: 0  0  0i is the identity element for addition.

 1  1  0 i is the identity element for multiplication.

The additive inverse of a complex number z  a  ib is  z (i.e. – a – ib).

1
For every non-zero complex number z, the multiplicative inverse of z is .
z

4. Equality of Two Complex Numbers.

Two complex numbers z1  x 1  iy1 and z 2  x 2  iy2 are said to be equal if and only if their real parts
and imaginary parts are separately equal.
i.e., z1  z 2  x 1  iy1  x 2  iy2  x 1  x 2 and y1  y 2 .
Thus, one complex equation is equivalent to two real equations.

Note: A complex number z  x  iy  0 iff x  0, y  0.

 The complex number do not possess the property of order i.e., (a  ib)  (or)  (c  id) is not defined. For
example, the statement 9  6i  3  2i makes no sense.

5. Conjugate of a Complex Number.

(1) Conjugate complex number: If there exists a complex number z = a  i b, (a , b)  R, then its
conjugate is defined as z  a  i b .
Y
zz zz
Imaginary axis

Hence, we have Re( z )  and Im (z )  . Geometrically, the conjugate of z P(z)

2 2i

is the reflection or point image of z in the real axis. O –
X

(2) Properties of conjugate: If z, z1 and z 2 are existing complex numbers, then we

have the following results:
(i) (z )  z

6
(ii) z1  z 2  z1  z 2

(iii) z1  z 2  z1  z 2

(iv) z1 z 2  z1 z 2 , In general z1 .z 2 .z 3 ..... z n  z1 .z 2 .z 3 ..... z n

z  z1
(v)  1   , z 2  0
 z2  z2

(vi) (z )n  (z n )

(vii) z  z  2 Re(z)  2 Re(z )  purely real

(viii) z  z  2i Im(z)  purely imaginary

(ix) z z  purely real

(x) z1 z 2  z1 z 2  2 Re(z1 z 2 )  2 Re(z1 z 2 )

(xi) z  z  0 i.e., z  z  z is purely real i.e., Im(z )  0

(xii) z  z  0 i.e., z  z  either z  0 or z is purely imaginary i.e., Re( z)  0

(xiii) z 1  z 2  z 1  z 2

(xiv) z  0  z  0

(xv) zz  0  z  0

(xvi) If w  f (z ) then w  f (z )

(xvii) re i  re i

7
Important Tips
Complex conjugate is obtained by just changing the sign of i.
Conjugate of i  i
Conjugate of iz  iz
 (z 1  z 2 ) and (z 1 . z 2 ) real  z 1  z 2 or z 2  z 1
 z1 z 2  z1 z 2

(3) Reciprocal of a complex number : For an existing non-zero complex number z  a  ib , the
1 z 1 a  ib Re( z ) i[ Im(z )] z
reciprocal is given by z 1   i.e., z 1   2   = .
z | z| 2
a  ib a b 2
| z| 2
| z| 2
| z|2

6. Modulus of a Complex Number.

Modulus of a complex number z  a  ib is defined by a positive real number given by | z |  a 2  b 2 ,

where a, b real numbers. Geometrically |z| represents the distance of point P (represented by z) from the
origin,
i.e. |z| = OP. Y
If |z| = 0, then z is known as zero modular complex number and is used to P(z)

represent the origin of reference plane.

If |z| = 1 the corresponding complex number is known as unimodular M

complex number. Clearly z lies on a circle of unit radius having centre (0, O X

0).

Note: In the set C of all complex numbers, the order relation is not defined. As such z 1  z 2  or z 1  z 2 has no
meaning. But | z 1 | | z 2 | or | z1 | | z 2 | has got its meaning since | z1 | and | z 2 | are real numbers.

Properties of modulus
(i) z  0  z  0 iff z  0 and |z| 0 iff z  0 .
(ii)  z  Re (z )  z and  z  Im (z)  z
(iii) z  z   z   z | zi |

(iv) z z  z
2
| z | 2

8
(v) z 1 z 2  z 1 z 2 . In general z 1 z 2 z 3 ...... z n  z 1 z2 z 3 .... z n

z1 z1
(vi)  , (z 2  0)
z2 z2

(vii) | z n | | z | n , n  N
2
(viii) z 1  z 2  (z 1 z 2  z 1 z 2 ) or | z1 | 2  | z 2 | 2  2 Re(z1z 2 )
2
2
 (z 1  z 2 )(z 1  z 2 )  z 1  z2

z1 z 
(ix) z 1  z 2 is purely imaginary or Re  1   0
2 2 2
 z1  z2 
z2  z2 

(x) z 1  z 2
2
 z1  z 2
2

 2 z1
2
 z2
2
 (Law of parallelogram)
(xi) az1  bz 2
2
 bz 1  az 2
2
 (a2  b 2 ) z 1
2
 z2
2
, where a, b  R.
Important Tips
Modulus of every complex number is a non-negative real number.  | z |  0 iff z  0 i.e.,
Re(z)  Im( z)  0

| z | | Re(z)|  Re(z) and | z | | Im( z)|  Im( z)  | z|  1z  1

z

is always a unimodular complex

z z
 1 
z | z|

number if z  0
is always a unimodular complex number if z  0
z
  | Re(z)|  | Im( z)|  2 | z |
z
|| z 1 |  | z 2 || | z 1  z 2 | | z 1 |  | z 2 |

Thus | z 1 |  | z 2 | is the greatest possible value of | z 1  z 2 | and || z 1 |  | z 2 || is the least possible value
of | z 1  z 2 |
a  a2  4  a  a2  4
If z   a, the greatest and least values of | z | are respectively and
1
z 2 2

| z 1  z 12  z 22 |  | z 1  z 12  z 22 | | z 1  z 2 |  | z 1  z 2 |

9
7. Argument of a Complex Number.

Let z  a  ib be any complex number. If this complex number is represented geometrically by a point P,
then the angle made by the line OP with real axis is known as argument or (+,+)
–
amplitude of z and is expressed as (–,+)
P(z)
-
1  b
  
arg (z )    tan  ,   POM . Also, argument of a complex number is X' 
a
– X
(–, –) O (+,–)
not unique, since if  be a value of the argument, so also is 2n   , where n I – + –
Y'
.
(1) Principal value of arg (z): The value  of the argument, which satisfies the inequality       is
called the principal value of argument. Principal values of argument z will be  ,   ,     and  
according as the point z lies in the 1st , 2nd , 3rd and 4th quadrants Y
b
respectively, where   tan 1   (acute angle). Principal value of – 
a (–,+) (+,+)
X' X
argument of any complex number lies between       . (–,–) O (+,–)
– (  – ) –
b
(i) a, b  First quadrant a  0, b  0 . arg (z )    tan 1   . It is an Y'
a
acute angle and positive. Y
(a, b)


b
X' X
O a

Y'

 b 
(ii) (a, b) Second quadrant, a  0, b  0, arg (z )      tan 1   . It is an obtuse angle and positive.
| a | 
(a, b) y

b 
x' x
a O

y'

10
 b
(iii) (a, b)  Third quadrant a  0, b  0, arg (z )      tan 1   . It is an obtuse angle and negative.
a
y

a O
x' x
b 

(a, b)
y'

| b | 
(iv) (a, b) Fourth quadrant a  0, b  0, arg (z )     tan 1   . It is an acute angle and negative.
 a 

a
x' O 
x
b

y' (a, b)

Quadrant x y arg(z) Interval of 

I + +  0    / 2
II – +    / 2  
III – – (   )       / 2
IV + –   / 2   0

Note: Argument of the complex number 0 is not defined.

Principal value of argument of a purely real number is 0 if the real number is positive and is  if the real number is
negative.

Principal value of argument of a purely imaginary number is  / 2 if the imaginary part is positive and is   / 2 if
the imaginary part is negative.

11
(2) Properties of arguments

(i) arg (z1 z 2 )  arg(z1 )  arg(z 2 )  2k , (k  0 or 1 or – 1)

In general arg (z 1 z 2 z 3 ......... z n )  arg(z 1 )  arg(z 2 )  arg(z 3 )  ..........  arg(z n )  2k , (k  0 or 1 or  1)

(ii) arg (z 1 z 2 )  arg(z 1 )  arg(z 2 )

z 
(iii) arg 1   arg z 1  arg z 2  2k  , (k  0 or 1 or – 1)
 z2 

z
(iv) arg   2arg z  2k  , (k  0 or 1 or – 1)
z

(v) arg(z n )  n arg z  2k  , (k  0 or 1 or – 1)

z  z 
(vi) If arg  2    , then arg  1   2k    , where k  I
 z1   z2 

1
(vii) arg z  arg z  arg
z

(viii) arg (z  z )   / 2

(ix) arg (z)  arg (z)  

(x) arg (z)  arg(z )  0 or arg(z)  arg(z )

(xi) arg(z)  arg(z )  

(xii) z 1 z 2  z 1 z 2  2 | z 1 | | z 2 | cos ( 1   2 ), where  1  arg(z 1 ) and  2  arg(z 2 )

Note: Proper value of k must be chosen so that R.H.S. of (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) lies in ( ,  )
12
The property of argument is same as the property of logarithm.

If arg (z) lies between   and  ( inclusive), then this value itself is the principal value of arg (z). If not, see
whether arg (z)   or    . If arg(z )   , go on subtracting 2 until it lies between   and  ( inclusive).
The value thus obtained will be the principal value of arg (z).

The general value of a rg (z ) is 2n  arg (z ) .

Important Tips
 If z1  z 2  z1  z 2 and arg z 1 = arg z2.
 z1  z 2  z1 |  | z 2  arg (z1 )  arg (z 2 ) i.e., z1 and z2 are parallel.
 z1  z 2  z1 |  | z 2  arg (z1 )  arg (z 2 )  2n , where n is some integer.
 | z1  z 2 |  | | z1 |  | z 2 ||  arg(z1 )  arg(z 2 )  2n , where n is some integer.

 z1  z 2  z1  z 2  arg (z 1 ) – arg (z 2 )   / 2 .
 If | z1 | 1,| z 2 | 1 then (i) z1  z 2 2   z1  z 2 2  (arg (z1 )  arg (z 2 ))2 (ii) z1  z 2 2   z1  z 2 2 
arg (z1 )  arg (z 2 )2
 z1  z 2
2
 z1  z 2  2| z1 | | z 2 | cos(1   2 ).
2 2

 z1  z 2
2
 z1  z 2  2| z1 | | z 2 | cos(1   2 ).
2 2

 If | z 1 | | z 2 | and amp (z 1 )  amp (z 2 )  0, then z 1  z 2 are conjugate complex numbers of each other.
 z  0, amp (z  z )  0 or  ; amp(zz )  0; amp (z  z )   / 2.

 arg (1)  0, arg (1)   ; arg (i)   / 2, arg (i)   / 2.


 arg (z)   Re (z )  Im( z ).
4
 Amplitude of complex number in I and II quadrant is always positive and in IIIrd and IVth quadrant is
always negative.
 If a complex number multiplied by i (Iota) its amplitude will be increased by  / 2 and will be
 
decreased by  / 2 , if multiplied by –i, i.e. arg(iz)   arg(z ) and arg(iz)  arg(z )  .
2 2

13
 Complex number Value of argument
+ve Re (z) 0
–ve Re (z) 
+ve Im (z)  /2
–ve Im (z) 3 / 2 or   / 2
– (z) |    |, if  is  ve and  ve respectively
(iz)  
  arg(z )
2 

–(iz)  
arg(z )  
 2

(z n ) n. arg (z)
(z 1 .z 2 ) arg (z1) + arg (z2)
 z1  arg (z1) – arg (z2)
 
 z2 

8. Square Root of a Complex Number.

Let a  ib be a complex number such that a  ib  x  iy, where x and y are real numbers. Then

a  ib  x  iy  a  ib  (x  iy)2  a  ib  (x 2  y 2 )  2ixy

 x2  y2  a .....(i)
and 2 xy  b .....(ii) [On equating real and imaginary parts]

 a2  b 2  a   a2  b 2  a 
Solving, x     and y    
 2   2 
   

  a2  b 2  a   a2  b 2  a 
 a  ib      i  
  2   2 
     

 | z | a | z | a   | z | a | z | a 
Therefore a  ib    i  for b>0    i  for b<0.
 2 2   2 2 

14
Note: To find the square root of a  ib, replace i by – i in the above results.

1  i
The square root of i is    , [Here b = 1]
 2 
1  i
The square root of – i is    , [Here b = –1]
 2 

Alternative method for finding the square root

(i) If the imaginary part is not even then multiply and divide the given complex number by 2. e.g. z = 8 –
1
15i here imaginary part is not even so write z = (16 – 30i) and let a  i b = 16 – 30 i .
2

(ii) Now divide the numerical value of imaginary part of a  i b by 2 and let quotient be P and find all
possible two factors of the number P thus obtained and take that pair in which difference of squares of
the numbers is equal to the real part of a  i b e.g., here numerical value of Im(16 – 30i) is 30. Now 30 =
2  15 . All possible way to express 15 as a product of two are 1 15 , 3  5 etc. here 5 2  3 2 = 16 = Re
(16– 30i) so we will take 5, 3.
(iii) Take i with the smaller or the greater factor according as the real part of a + ib is positive or negative
and if real part is zero then take equal factors of P and associate i with any one of them e.g., Re(16 – 30i)
 0, we will take i with 3. Now complete the square and write down the square root of z.

e.g., z 
1
2 2
 
 16  30i   1 5 2  3i2  2  5  3i  1  5  3i  2  z   1 (5  3i)
2 2

15
9. Representation of Complex Number.

A complex number can be represented in the following from:

(1) Geometrical representation (Cartesian representation): The complex Imaginary axis

P(a, b)
number z  a  ib  (a, b) is represented by a point P whose coordinates are
referred to rectangular axes XOX  and YO Y  which are called real and 
b
Real
imaginary axis respectively. Thus a complex number z is represented by a
O a M
axis
point in a plane, and corresponding to every point in this plane there exists a
complex number such a plane is called argand plane or argand diagram or
complex plane or gaussian plane.

Note: Distance of any complex number from the origin is called the modules of complex number and is denoted

by |z|, i.e., | z |  a  b
2 2

Angle of any complex number with positive direction of x– axis is called amplitude or argument of z. i.e.,
b 
amp (z)  arg (z)  tan 1  
a

(2) Trigonometrical (Polar) representation: In  OPM, let OP  r , then a  r cos  and b  r sin  .
Hence z can be expressed as z  r(cos   i sin  )
Where r = |z| and  = principal value of argument of z.
For general values of the argument z  rcos(2n   )  i sin(2n   )

Note: Sometimes cos   i sin   is written in short as cis .

(3) Vector representation: If P is the point (a, b) on the argand plane corresponding to the complex
number z  a  ib .
b
Then OP  aˆi  bˆj ,  | OP |  a 2  b 2 | z | and arg z = direction of the vector OP  tan 1  
a
Therefore, complex number z can also be represented by OP .

16
(4) Eulerian representation (Exponential form): Since we have e i = cos   i sin  and thus z can be
expressed as z  re i , where | z |  r and   arg (z)

Note: e i  (cos   i sin  )

e i  e i  2 cos  , e i  e i  2i sin 

10. Logarithm of a Complex Number.

Let z  x  iy and
log e (x  iy)  a  ib .....(i)
x  iy  r(cos  i sin  )  re i .....(ii)
y
then x  r cos  , y  r sin  , clearly r  x 2  y 2 and   tan 1  
x
y
From equation (ii), log(x  iy)  log e (re i )  log r  log e e i  log e r  i  log e (x 2  y 2 )  i tan 1  
x
log e (z)  log e | z |  i amp z
Obviously, the general value is Log (z)  log e (z)  2ni (  amp(z)   )

11. Geometry of Complex Numbers.

(1) Geometrical representation of algebraic operations on complex numbers

(i) Sum: Let the complex numbers z1  x 1  iy1  (x 1 , y1 ) and z 2  x 2  iy 2  (x 2 , y 2 ) be represented by

the points P and Q on the argand plane. Q(x2,y2)
R(x1+x2, y2+y2)

Then sum of z 1 and z 2 i.e., z 1  z 2 is represented by the point R. Complex Y

y2
number z can be represented by OR .
P(x1,y1)
 (x 1  x 2 )  i(y1  y 2 )  (x 1  iy1 )  (x 2  iy 2 )  (z1  z 2 )  (x 1 , y1 )  (x 2 , y 2 ) M
y1
X
O x2 N
In vector notation, we have z1  z 2  OP  OQ  OP  PR  OR L K

17
(ii) Difference: We first represent  z 2 by Q', so that QQ' is bisected at O.
The point R represents the difference z 1  z 2 .

In parallelogram ORPQ, OR  QP Q(x2,y2)

We have in vectorial notation z1  z 2  OP  OQ  OP  QO Y P(x1,y1)

 OP  PR  OR  QP . O
X

R(x1–x2, y1–y2)
i1 Q'(–x2,–y2)
(iii) Product: Let z 1  r1 (cos 1  i sin  1 )  r1 e
 | z1 |  r1 and arg (z 1 )   1 and z 2  r2 (cos 2  i sin  2 )  r2 e i 2
 | z 2 |  r2 and arg (z 2 )   2 Y
R(z1,z2)
Then, z 1 z 2  r1 r2 (cos 1  i sin  1 )(cos 2  i sin  2 )
r1r2
= r1 r2 {cos( 1   2 )  i sin( 1   2 )} r2 Q(z2)
1 r
P(z1)
2 1
 | z1 z 2 |  r1r2 and arg (z 1 z 2 )   1   2
1
O X
R is the point representing product of complex numbers z 1 and z 2 . A

Important Tips
   
Multiplication of i : Since z  r (cos  i sin ) and i   cos   i sin   then iz  cos     i sin   
 2 2  2  2 

Hence, multiplication of z with i then vector for z rotates a right angle in the positive sense.
i.e., To multiply a vector by –1 is to turn it through two right angles.
i.e., To multiply a vector by (cos   i sin ) is to turn it through the angle  in the positive sense.

(iv) Division: Let z1  r1 (cos1  i sin 1 )  r1e i1

Y
 | z1 |  r1 and arg (z1 )  1 Q(z2)

and z 2  r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 )  r2e i 2

r2
 2 r1 P(z1)
1
 | z 2 |  r2 and arg (z 2 )   2 O 2 – 1 2 X

z1 r1 (cos1  i sin 1 ) R
Then  (z 2  0, r2  0)
z 2 r2 (cos 2  i sin  2 )

 cos(1   2 )  i sin(1   2 )
z1 r1

z 2 r2
z1 r1 z 
  , arg 1   1   2
z 2 r2  z2 
18
Note: The vertical angle R is  ( 2  1 ) i.e.,  1   2 .

If  1 and  2 are the principal values of z 1 and z 2 then  1   2 and  1   2 are not necessarily the principal value
of arg (z 1 z 2 ) and arg (z 1 / z 2 ) .

12. Use of Complex Numbers in Co-ordinate Geometry.

(1) Distance formula: The distance between two points P(z 1 ) and Q(z 2 ) is given by
PQ | z 2  z1 | = |affix of Q – affix of P|
Q(z2)

P(z1)

Note: The distance of point z from origin | z  0 | | z | | z  (0  i 0)| . Thus, modulus of a complex number z
represented by a point in the argand plane is its distance from the origin.
Three points A(z 1 ), B(z 2 ) and C(z 3 ) are collinear then AB  BC  AC

i.e., | z 1  z 2 |  | z 2  z 3 | | z 1  z 3 | .

(2) Section formula: If R(z) divides the joining of P(z1 ) and Q(z 2 ) in the ratio m 1 : m 2 (m 1 , m 2  0)
m1 z 2  m 2 z1
(i) If R(z) divides the segment PQ internally in the ratio of m1 : m 2 then z 
m1  m 2
(ii) If R(z) divides the segment PQ externally in the ratio of m1 : m 2 Q(z2)
m2
m1 z 2  m 2 z1
then z  m1
m1  m 2 R(z)
m1
m2
R(z)
P(z1)
Q(z2)

P(z1)

19
 z1  z 2
Note: If R(z) is the midpoint of PQ then affix of R is
2
z1  z 2  z 3
If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 are affixes of the vertices of a triangle, then affix of its centroid is .
3

(3) Equation of the perpendicular bisector: If P(z 1 ) and Q(z 2 ) are two fixed points and R(z ) is moving
point such that it is always at equal distance from P(z 1 ) and Q(z 2 ) P(z1)

i.e., PR = or | z  z1 | | z  z 2 |
R(z)
 | z  z1 | 2 | z  z 2 | 2
 (z  z1 )(z  z1 )  (z  z 2 ) (z  z 2 ) Q(z2)

 (z  z1 ) (z  z1 )  (z  z 2 ) (z  z 2 )
 z z(z 1  z 2 )  z (z 1  z 2 )  z 1 z 1  z 2 z 2  z(z 1  z 2 )  z (z 1  z 2 ) | z 1 | 2  | z 2 | 2
Hence, z lies on the perpendicular bisector of z 1 and z 2 .

(4) Equation of a straight line

(i) Parametric form: Equation of a straight line joining the point having affixes z1 and z 2 is
z  t z1  (1  t)z 2 , when t  R

(ii) Non parametric form: Equation of a straight line joining the points having affixes z1 and z 2 is
z z 1
z1 z1 1  0  z(z1  z 2 )  z (z1  z 2 )  z1 z 2  z 2 z1  0 .
z2 z2 1

z1 z1 1
Note: Three points z1 , z 2 and z 3 are collinear z 2 z2 1  0
z3 z3 1

(iii) General equation of a straight line: The general equation of a straight line is of the form
a z  az  b  0 , where a is complex number and b is real number.

20
 a coeff.of z
(iv) Slope of a line: The complex slope of the line a z  az  b  0 is   and real slope of
a coeff. of z
Re(a) (a  a )
the line a z  az  b  0 is   i .
Im(a) (a  a )

Note: If  1 and  2 are the are the complex slopes of two lines on the argand plane, then

(i) If lines are perpendicular then  1   2  0 (ii) If lines are parallel then  1   2

  a    a1 
If lines az  a z  b  0 and a1 z  a1 z  b1  0 are the perpendicular or parallel, then       0
 a   a1 
 a  a1
or   aa1  a1 a  0 or aa1  a a1  0, where a, a1 are the complex numbers and b, b1  R.
a a1

(v) Slope of the line segment joining two points: If A(z 1 ) and B(z 2 ) represent two points in the
z1  z 2
argand plane then the complex slope of AB is defined by . B(z2)
z1  z 2

Note: If three points A(z 1 ), B(z 2 ), C(z 3 ) are collinear then slope of AB = slope of
A(z1)
BC = slope of AC
z1  z 2 z 2  z 3 z1  z 3
 
z1  z 2 z 2  z 3 z1  z 3

(vi) Length of perpendicular: The length of perpendicular from a point z1 to the line a z  az  b  0 is
| a z1  az1  b | | a z1  az1  b |
given by or
| a| | a | 2| a|

(5) Equation of a circle: The equation of a circle whose centre is at point having affix z o and radius r is
| z  zo |  r

21
Note: If the centre of the circle is at origin and radius r, then its equation is | z |  r .
P(z)
| z  z 0 |  r represents interior of a circle | z  z 0 |  r and | z  z 0 |  r represent
r
exterior of the circle | z  z o |  r . Similarly, | z  z 0 |  r is the set of all points lying
outside the circle and | z  z 0 |  r is the set of all points lying outside and on the circle C(z0)

| z  z 0 |  r.

(i) General equation of a circle: The general equation of the circle is zz  az  a z  b  0 where a is
complex number and b  R .
 Centre and radius are – a and | a | 2 b respectively.

Note: Rule to find the center and radius of a circle whose equation is given:

 Make the coefficient of zz equal to 1 and right hand side equal to zero.
 The center of circle will be = – a  coefficent of z

 Radius  | a | 2  constant term

(ii) Equation of circle through three non-collinear points: Let A(z 1 ), B(z 2 ), C(z 3 ) are three points on
the circle and P(z ) be any point on the circle, then ACB  APB
P(z)
Using coni method
C(z3)
z 2  z 3 BC i 
In ACB,  e .....(i) 
z1  z 3 CA
z 2  z BP i A(z1) B(z2)
In  APB,  e .....(ii)
z 1  z AP
From (i) and (ii) we get
(z  z 1 )(z 2  z 3 )
= Real .....(iii)
(z  z 2 )(z 1  z 3 )

(iii) Equation of circle in diametric form: If end points of diameter represented by A(z 1 ) and B(z 2 ) and
P(z ) be any point on circle then, (z  z 1 )(z  z 2 )  (z  z 2 )(z  z 1 )  0
Which is required equation of circle in diametric form.

22
(iv) Other forms of circle: (a) Equation of all circle which are orthogonal to | z  z1 |  r1 and | z  z 2 |  r2 .
Let the circle be | z   | = r cut given circles orthogonally
 r 2  r12 |   z1 | 2 …...(i)
and r 2  r22 |   z 2 | 2 …..(ii)

on solving r22  r12  (z1  z 2 )   (z1  z 2 ) | z 2 | 2  | z1 | 2 and let   a  ib

P(z)

B(z2)

Diameter
A(z1)

z  z1
(b) = k is a circle if k  1 and a line if k = 1.
z  z2
1
(c) The equation | z  z1 | 2  | z  z 2 | 2  k , will represent a circle if k  | z1  z 2 | 2
2

(6) Equation of parabola: Now for parabola SP  PM

| z  z  2a | M
P(z)
| z  a|
2
N A S(a+i.0)
1 2
z+z+2a=0

or zz  4 a(z  z )  {z  (z )2 }
2
Where a  R (focus)
Directrix is z  z  2a  0
P(z)

(7) Equation of ellipse: For ellipse SP  S ' P  2a

S'(z2) S(z1)
 | z  z1 |  | z  z 2 |  2a
Where 2a | z1  z 2 | (since eccentricity <1)
Then point z describes an ellipse having foci at z1 and z 2 and a  R  .

(8) Equation of hyperbola: For hyperbola SP  S ' P  2a

P(z)
23

S(z1) O S'(z2)
 | z  z1 |  | z  z 2 |  2 a
Where 2a | z1  z 2 | (since eccentricity >1)
Then point z describes a hyperbola having foci at z1 and z 2 and a  R 

13. Rotation Theorem.

Rotational theorem i.e., angle between two intersecting lines. This is also known as coni method.
Let z 1 , z 2 and z 3 be the affixes of three points A, B and C respectively taken on argand plane.

Then we have AC  z 3  z1 and AB = z 2  z1 Y

C(z3)
and let arg AC  arg (z 3  z 1 )   and AB  arg (z 2  z 1 )   
B(z2)

Let CAB   ,  CAB       A(z1)

 z  z1   
= arg AC  arg AB = arg (z 3  z 1 )  arg (z 2  z 1 ) = arg  3  X
 z 2  z1 
O

 affix of C  affix of A 
or angle between AC and AB = arg  
 affix of B  affix of A 
For any complex number z we have z | z | e i(argz)
 z 3  z1 
 z  z1   z 3  z1  i  a rg z 2  z1  z  z1 | z 3  z 1 | i(CAB ) AC i
Similarly,  3     e or 3  e  e
 z 2  z1   z 2  z1  z 2  z1 | z 2  z1 | AB

Note: Here only principal values of the arguments are considered.

 z1  z 2   z1  z 2  z  z2
arg     , if AB coincides with CD, then arg    0 or   , so that 1 is real. It follows that
 z3  z4   z3  z4  z3  z4
z1  z 2
if is real, then the points A, B, C, D are collinear. D
z3  z4 P(z1)
S(z4) 
 z  z2  z  z2 A B
If AB is perpendicular to CD, then arg  1    / 2 , so 1 is R(z3)
 z3  z4  z3  z4
Q(z2)
purely imaginary. It follows that if z1  z 2 =  k z 3  z 4  , where k purely imaginary
C

number, then AB and CD are perpendicular to each other.

24
(1) Complex number as a rotating arrow in the argand plane: Let z  rcos  i sin    re i ..…(i)
r. e i be a complex number representing a point P in the argand plane.
Y Q(zei)

 P(z)
Then OP | z |  r and POX   X'

X
O
Now consider complex number z1  ze i
or z1  re i .e i  re i   {from (i)} Y'

Clearly the complex number z1 represents a point Q in the argand plane, when OQ  r and
QOX     .

Clearly multiplication of z with e i rotates the vector OP through angle  in anticlockwise sense.

Similarly multiplication of z with e i will rotate the vector OP in clockwise sense.

Note: If z1 , z 2 and z 3 are the affixes of the points A,B and C such that AC  AB and CAB   . Therefore,

AB  z 2  z1 , AC  z 3  z1 .
C(z3)

Then AC will be obtained by rotating AB through an angle  in anticlockwise

B(z2)
sense, and therefore, 

z 3  z1 A(z1)
AC  AB e i or (z 3  z1 )  (z 2  z1 )e i or  e i
z 2  z1
If A, B and C are three points in argand plane such that AC  AB and CAB   then use the rotation
about A to find e i , but if AC  AB use coni method.

Let z 1 and z 2 be two complex numbers represented by point P and Q in the argand plane such that
z1e i
 POQ   . Then, z1e i is a vector of magnitude | z 1 |  OP along OQ and is a unit vector along
| z1 |
z1e i
OQ . Consequently, | z 2 | . is a vector of magnitude | z 2 |  OQ along OQ i.e.,
| z1 |
| z2 | z
z2  .z1e i  z 2  2 .
| z1 | z1

25
(2) Condition for four points to be noncyclic: If points A, B, C and D are concyclic  ABD   ACD
Using rotation theorem
A(z1) D(z4)
(z  z 2 ) z 4  z 2 i
In  ABD 1  e .....(i)
z1  z 2 z4  z2
 
(z  z 3 ) z 4  z 3 i
In  ACD 1  e .....(ii)
z1  z 3 z4  z3 B(z2) C(z3)

From (i) and (ii)

(z 1  z 2 ) (z 4  z 3 ) (z 1  z 2 ) (z 4  z 3 )
 =Real
z1  z 3 z 4  z 2 (z 1  z 3 ) (z 4  z 2 )

(z 1  z 2 ) (z 4  z 3 )
So if z1 , z 2 , z 3 and z 4 are such that is real, then these four points are concyclic.
(z 1  z 3 ) (z 4  z 2 )

14. Triangle Inequalities.

In any triangle, sum of any two sides is greater than the third side and difference of any two side is less
than the third side. By applying this basic concept to the set of complex numbers we are having the
following results.
(1) | z1  z 2 | | z1 |  | z 2 |

(2) | z1  z 2 | | z1 |  | z 2 |

(3) | z1  z 2 | | | z1 |  | z 2 ||

(4) | z1  z 2 | || z1 |  | z 2 ||

Note: In a complex plane | z1  z 2 | is the distance between the points z 1 and z 2 .

The equality | z1  z 2 | | z1 |  | z 2 | holds only when arg (z 1 ) = arg (z 2 ) i.e., z 1 and z 2 are parallel.

The equality | z1  z 2 | || z1 |  | z 2 || holds only when arg (z 1 ) – arg (z 2 ) =  i.e., z 1 and z 2 are antiparallel.

In any parallelogram sum of the squares of its sides is equal to the sum of the squares of its diagonals i.e.
| z1  z 2 | 2  | z1  z 2 | 2  2 (| z1 | 2  | z 2 | 2 )

Law of polygon i.e., | z1  z 2  ....  z n | | z1 |  | z 2 | .... | z n |

26
Important Tips
 The area of the triangle whose vertices are z, iz and z + iz is 1 | z | 2 .
2

 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 be the vertices of a triangle then the area of the triangle is  (z 2  z 3 )| z1 | 2

.
4 iz1

Area of the triangle with vertices z, wz and z  wz is .

3
 | z2 |
4

 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 be the vertices of an equilateral triangle and z o be the circumcentre, then

z 12  z 22  z 32   3z 02 .

 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 ..... z n be the vertices of a regular polygon of n sides and z 0 be its centroid, then
z 12  z 22  .....  z n2  nz 02 .

 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 be the vertices of a triangle, then the triangle is equilateral iff

(z 1  z 2 )2  (z 2  z 3 )2  (z 3  z 1 )2  0 or z 12  z 22  z 32  z 1 z 2  z 2 z 3  z 3 z 1 or 0.
1 1 1
 
z1  z 2 z 2  z 3 z 3  z1

 If z 1 , z 2 z 3 are the vertices of an isosceles triangle, right angled at z 2 then z 12  z 22  z 32  2 z 2 (z 1  z 3 ) .

 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 are the vertices of right-angled isosceles triangle, then (z 1  z 2 )2  2z 1  z 3 (z 3  z 2 ) .

 If one of the vertices of the triangle is at the origin i.e., z 3  0, then the triangle is equilateral iff
z 12  z 22  z 1 z 2  0 .

z1 z 1 1
 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 and z 1 , z 2 , z 3 are the vertices of a similar triangle, then z 2 z 2 1  0 .
z3 z 3 1

 If z 1 , z 2 , z 3 be the affixes of the vertices A, B, C respectively of a triangle ABC, then its orthocentre is
a(sec A)z 1  b(sec B)z 2  (c sec C)z 3
.
a sec A  b sec B  c sec C

27
15. Standard Loci in the Argand Plane.

(1) If z is a variable point in the argand plane such that arg (z )   , then locus of z is a straight line
(excluding origin) through the origin inclined at an angle  with x–axis.

(2) If z is a variable point and z 1 is a fixed point in the argand plane such that arg (z  z 1 )   , then locus
of z is a straight line passing through the point representing z 1 and inclined at an angle  with x-axis.
Note that the point z 1 is excluded from the locus.

(3) If z is a variable point and z 1 , z 2 are two fixed points in the argand plane, then

(i) | z  z 1 | | z  z 2 |  Locus of z is the perpendicular bisector of the line

segment joining z1 and z 2

(ii) | z  z 1 |  | z  z 2 | = constant | z 1  z 2 |   Locus of z is an ellipse

(iii) | z  z 1 |  | z  z 2 | | z 1  z 2 |  Locus of z is the line segment joining z 1 and

z2

(iv) | z  z 1 |  | z  z 2 | | z 1  z 2 |  Locus of z is a straight line joining z 1 and z 2 but z

does not lie between z 1 and z 2 .

(v) | z  z1 | | z  z 2 |  constant | z1  z | 

2  Locus of z is a hyperbola.

(vi) | z  z 1 | 2  | z  z 2 | 2 | z 1  z 2 |  Locus of z is a circle with z 1 and z 2 as the

extremities of diameter.
28
(vii) | z  z 1 |  k | z  z 2 | k  1  Locus of z is a circle.

 z  z1 
(viii) arg     (fixed)  Locus of z is a segment of circle.
 z  z2 

 z  z1 
(ix) arg   =   / 2  Locus of z is a circle with z 1 and z 2 as the vertices
 z  z2 
of
diameter.

 z  z1 
(x) arg   = 0 or 
  Locus z is a straight line passing through z 1 and z 2 .
 z  z2 

z  z1 z  z1
(xi) The equation of the line joining complex numbers z 1 and z 2 is given by  or
z 2  z1 z 2  z 1
z z 1
z1 z1 1  0
z2 z2 1

16. De' Moivre's Theorem.

(1) If n is any rational number, then (cos   i sin  )n  cos n  i sin n .

(2) If z  (cos 1  i sin  1 )(cos 2  i sin  2 )(cos 3  i sin  3 ).....(cos n  i sin  n )

then z  cos( 1   2   3  .....   n )  i sin( 1   2   3  .....   n ) , where 1 ,  2,  3 .....n  R .

  2k      2k    
(3) If z  r(cos  i sin  ) and n is a positive integer, then z 1 / n  r1 / n cos   i sin   ,
  n   n 
where k  0, 1, 2, 3,.....(n  1) .

29
  2k   p    2k   p  
(4) If p, q  z and q  0, then (cos  i sin  ) p / q  cos   i sin   ,
 q   q 
where k  0, 1, 2, 3.....(q  1) .

Deductions: If n  Q, then

(i) (cos  i sin  )n  cos n  i sin n

(ii) (cos  i sin  )n  cos n  i sin n

(iii) (cos  i sin  )n  cos n  i sin n

   
(iv) (sin   i cos  )n  cos n      i sin n   
2  2 

Applications
(i) In finding the expansions of trigonometric functions i.e. cos n  cos n   n C 2 cos n 2  sin 2 
 n C4 cosn  4  sin 4  – ......

sin n  nC1 cosn 1  sin  n C3 cosn  3  sin 3   n C 5 cos n 5  sin 5   .......

(ii) In finding the roots of complex numbers.
(iii) In finding the complex solution of algebraic equations.

Note: This theorem is not valid when n is not a rational number or the complex number is not in the form of
cos   i sin  .

Powers of complex numbers: Let z  x  iy  r(cos  i sin  )

 z n  r n (cos  i sin  )n  r n (cos n  i sin n )

30
 Number x + iy form Standard complex form General
1 1+i0 cos 0  i sin 0 cos 2n  i sin 2n

–1 – 1+i0 cos   i sin cos(2n  1)  i sin(2n  1)

i 0 +i(1)    
cos  i sin cos( 4 n  1)  i sin(4 n  1)
2 2 2 2
–i 0 +i(–1) cos

 i sin

cos( 4 n  1)

 i sin(4 n  1)

2 2 2 2

17. Roots of a Complex Number.

(1) nth roots of complex number (z1/n) : Let z  r(cos i sin  ) be a complex number. To find the roots of
a complex number, first we express it in polar form with the general value of its amplitude and use the
De' Moivre’s theorem. By using De'moivre's theorem nth roots having n distinct values of such a complex
number are given by
 2m    2m    
z 1 / n  r 1 / n cos  i sin , where m  0, 1, 2,....., (n  1).
 n n 

Properties of the roots of z1/n:

(i) All roots of z1/n are in geometrical progression with common ratio e 2 i / n .
(ii) Sum of all roots of z1/n is always equal to zero.
(iii) Product of all roots of z 1 / n  (1)n1 z.
(iv) Modulus of all roots of z1/n are equal and each equal to r 1 / n or | z | 1 / n .
2
(v) Amplitude of all the roots of z1/n are in A.P. with common difference .
n
(vi) All roots of z1/n lies on the circumference of a circle whose center is origin and radius equal to | z | 1 / n .
Also these roots divides the circle into n equal parts and forms a polygon of n sides.

(2) The nth roots of unity: The nth roots of unity are given by the solution set of the equation
x n  1  cos 0  i sin 0  cos 2k   i sin 2k 
x  [cos 2k   i sin 2k  ]1 / n
31
 2k  2k 
x  cos  i sin , where k  0, 1, 2, ....., (n  1) .
n n

Properties of nth roots of unity

2 2
(i) Let   cos  i sin  e i(2 / n) , the nth roots of unity can be expressed in the form of a series i.e.,
n n
1,  ,  2 ,..... n1 . Clearly the series is G.P. with common difference  i.e., e i(2 / n) .
(ii) The sum of all n roots of unity is zero i.e., 1     2  .....   n1  0.
(iii) Product of all n roots of unity is (1)n1 .
(iv) Sum of pth power of n roots of unity

0, when p is not multiple of n

1   p   2 p  .....   (n 1) p  
n, when p is a multiple of n
(v) The n, nth roots of unity if represented on a complex plane locate their positions at the vertices of a
regular plane polygon of n sides inscribed in a unit circle having centre at origin, one vertex on positive
real axis.

n 1
Note: x  1  (x  1)(x
n
 x n2  .....  x  1)
(sin   i cos  )  i2 sin   i cos   i(cos  i sin  )

(3) Cube roots of unity: Cube roots of unity are the solution set of the equation x 3  1  0  x  (1)1 / 3
2k   2k  
 x  (cos 0  i sin 0)1 / 3  x  cos  i sin   , where k  0,1,2
3  3 
2 2 4 4
Therefore roots are 1, cos  i sin , cos  i sin or 1, e 2 i / 3 , e 4  i / 3 .
3 3 3 3
Alternative: x  (1)1 / 3  x 3  1  0  (x  1)(x 2  x  1)  0
1  i 3 1  i 3
x  1, ,
2 2
If one of the complex roots is  , then other root will be  2 or vice-versa.

Properties of cube roots of unity

(i) 1     2  0
(ii)  3  1
0, if r not a multiple of 3
(iii) 1   r   2 r  
3, if r is a multiple of 3
32
(iv)    2 and ( )2   and  .   3 .
(v) Cube roots of unity from a G.P.
(vi) Imaginary cube roots of unity are square of each other i.e., ( )2   2 and ( 2 )2   3 .    .
1 1
(vii) Imaginary cube roots of unity are reciprocal to each other i.e.,   2 and .
 2
(viii) The cube roots of unity by, when represented on complex plane, lie on vertices of an equilateral
triangle inscribed in a unit circle having centre at origin, one vertex being on positive real axis.
(ix) A complex number a  ib, for which | a : b |  1 : 3 or 3 : 1, can always be expressed in terms of i, ,  2 .

1  i 3 1  i 3
Note: If    e 2 i / 3 , then  2   e 4  i / 3  e  2 i / 3 or vice-versa  .    3 .
2 2
a  b  c 2  0  a  b  c, if a, b, c are real.
Cube root of – 1 are  1,, .
2

Important Tips
 x 2  x  1  (x   ) (x   2 )  x 2  x  1  x   x   2 
 
x 2  xy  y 2  x  y   x  y  2   x 2  xy  y 2  x  y x  y 2 
 x 2  y 2  (x  iy)(x  iy)  x 3  y 3  (x  y ) (x  y  ) (x  y  2 )

 x 3  y 3  (x  y ) (x  y  ) (x  y  2 ) 
x 2  y 2  z 2  xy  yz  zx  (x  y  z 2 )(x  y 2  z)
 x 3  y 3  z 3  3 xyz  (x  y  z)(x   y   2 z)(x   2 y   z)

Fourth roots of unity: The four, fourth roots of unity are given by the solution set of the equation
x 4  1  0.  (x 2  1)(x 2  1)  0  x   1,  i

Note: Sum of roots = 0 and product of roots =–1.

Fourth roots of unity are vertices of a square which lies on coordinate axes.

Continued product of the roots

If z  r(cos  i sin  ) i.e., | z |  r and amp (z )   then continued product of roots of z 1 / n is
n 1
2m   
 r(cos  i sin  ) , where   
m 0 n
 (n  1)   .

33
 z, if n is odd
Thus continued product of roots of z 1 / n  r[cos{(n  1)   }  i sin{(n  1)   }]  
 z, if n is even
z m , if n is odd
Similarly, the continued product of values of z m / n is   m
(-z) , if n is even

Important Tips
If x  or x  then x  cos   i sin ,
1 1 1 1 1
  2 cos   2i sin  cos   i sin , x n  n  2 cos n , x n  n  2i sin n .
x x x x x
n
1 n
 If n be a positive integer then , (1  i)n  (1  i)n  2 2 cos .
4
 If z is a complex number, then e z is periodic.
 nth root of –1 are the solution of the equation zn 1  0
z n  1  (z  1)(z   )(z   2 ).....( z   n 1 ), where   n th root of unity
(n  2) / 2
2r
z n  1  (z  1)(z  1)  r 1
(z 2  2 z cos
n
 1), if n is even.

 (n  2) / 2   (2r  1)  
 
 r 0 

 z  2 z cos
2

 n
  1, if n is even.
 
z 1  
n
(n - 3)/2
  2  (2r  1)  
(z  1)


 r 0 
 z  2 z cos
 n
  1, if n is odd.
 

 If x  cos   i sin, y  cos   i sin  , z  cos   i sin and given, x  y  z  0, then

1 1 1
(i)   0 (ii) yz  zx  xy  0 (iii) x 2  y 2  z 2  0 (iv) x 3  y 3  z 3  3 xyz
x y z

then, putting, values if x , y, z in these results

cos(   )  cos(   )  cos(   )  0
x yz 0  cos   cos   cos   0  sin  sin   sin  yz  zx  xy  0  
sin(   )  sin(   )  sin(   )  0

x2  y2  z2  0  

 cos 2  0 the summation consists 3 terms
 sin 2  0,

x 3  y 3  z 3  3 xyz , gives similarly

 cos 3  3 cos(     )   sin3  3 sin(     )

If the condition given be x  y  z  xyz , then  cos   cos(     ) etc.

34
18. Shifting the Origin in Case of Complex Numbers.

Let O be the origin and P be a point with affix z 0 . Let a point Q has affix z with Y Y
respect to the co-ordinate system passing through O. Q

When origin is shifted to the point P(z 0 ) then the new affix Z of the point Q X
P (z0)
with respect to new origin P is given by Z  z  z 0 i.e., to shift the origin at z 0 X
O M
we should replace z by Z  z 0 .

19. Inverse Points.

(1) Inverse points with respect to a line: Two points P and Q are said to be the inverse points with
respect to the line RS. If Q is the image of P in RS, i.e., if the line RS is the right bisector of PQ.
P

R S

(2) Inverse points with respect to a circle : If C is the center of the circle and P,Q are the inverse
points with respect to the circle then three points C,P,Q are collinear, and also CP . CQ  r 2 , where r is
the radius of the circle.

C P
Q 35
20. Dot and Cross Product.

Let z 1  a1  ib1  (a1 , b1 ) and z 2  a 2  ib2  (a 2 , b 2 ) be two complex numbers.

z 2  0 | z 2 | i Z2(a2, b2)
If  POQ   then from coni method  e
z1  0 | z1 |
z 2 z 1 | z 2 | i z z | z |
  e  2 12  2 e i  z 2 z1 | z1 || z 2 | e i 
Z1(a1, b1)
z1 z1 | z1 | | z1 | | z1 |
O
 z 2 z1 | z1 || z 2 | (cos  i sin  )
 Re(z 2 z1 ) | z1 || z 2 | cos  .....(i) and Im(z 2 z1 ) | z1 || z 2 | sin  .....(ii)
The dot product z 1 and z 2 is defined by z 1 o z 2 | z 1 | | z 2 | cos   Re(z 1 z 2 )  a1 a 2  b1 b 2 (From(i))
Cross product of z 1 and z 2 is defined by z 1  z 2 | z 1 | | z 2 | sin   Im(z 1 z 2 )  a1 b 2  a 2 b1 (From(ii))
Hence, z 1 oz 2  a1 a 2  b1 b 2  Re(z 1 z 2 ) and z1  z 2  a1b 2  a2 b1  Im(z1 z 2 )

Important Tips
 If z 1 and z 2 are perpendicular then z 1 o z 2  0  If z 1 and z 2 are parallel then
z1  z 2  0

 Projection of z 1 on z 2  (z 1 o z 2 ) / | z 2 |  Projection of z 2 on
z 1  (z 1 o z 2 ) / | z 1 |

Area of triangle if two sides represented by z 1 and z 2 is | z 1  z 2 |  Area of a parallelogram

1

2
having sides z 1 and z 2 is | z 1  z 2 |

Area of parallelogram if diagonals represents by z 1 and z 2 is | z 1  z 2 |

1

2

36
Mathematics

Progression

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Definition.
3. General term of an A.P.
4. Selection of terms in an A.P.
5. Arithmetic mean.
6. Properties of A.P.
7. Definition.
8. General term of G.P.
9. Sum of first n terms of a G.P.
10. Selection of terms in a G.P.
11. Sum of infinite terms of a G.P.
12. Geometric mean.
13. Properties of G.P.
14. Definition.
15. General term of an H.P.
16. Harmonic mean.
17. Properties of H.P.
18. nth term of A.G.P.

1
19. Sum of A.G.P.
20. Method of finding sum.
21. Method of difference.
22. Special series.
23. Vn method.
24. Properties of arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means
between two given numbers.
25. Relation between A.P., G.P. and H.P.
26. Applications of progressions.

2
1. Introduction.

(1) Sequence: A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers, N.
If f : N  C is a sequence, we usually denote it by  f (n)    f (1), f (2), f (3),.... 
It is not necessary that the terms of a sequence always follow a certain pattern or they are described by
some explicit formula for the nth term. Terms of a sequence are connected by commas. Example: 1, 1, 2,
3, 5, 8, …………. is a sequence.

(2) Series: By adding or subtracting the terms of a sequence, we get a series.

If t1 , t 2 , t 3 , ..... t n , ..... is a sequence, then the expression t1  t 2  t 3  .....  t n .... is a series.
A series is finite or infinite as the number of terms in the corresponding sequence is finite or infinite.
1 1 1 1
Example: 1      .... is a series.
2 3 4 5

(3) Progression: A progression is a sequence whose terms follow a certain pattern i.e. the terms are
arranged under a definite rule.
Example: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …….. is a progression whose terms are obtained by the rule : Tn  2n  1 , where Tn
denotes the nth term of the progression.
Progression is mainly of three types: Arithmetic progression, Geometric progression and Harmonic
progression.

However, here we have classified the study of progression into five parts as:
 Arithmetic progression
 Geometric progression
 Arithmetico-geometric progression
 Harmonic progression
 Miscellaneous progressions

3
 Arithmetic Progression (A.P)

2. Definition.

A sequence of numbers  t n  is said to be in arithmetic progression (A.P.) when the difference t n  t n 1 is

a constant for all n  N. This constant is called the common difference of the A.P., and is usually denoted
by the letter d.
If ‘a’ is the first term and ‘d’ the common difference, then an A.P. can be represented as
a, a  d, a  2d, a  3d,........
Example: 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, …… is an A.P. whose first term is 2 and common difference 5.
Algorithm to determine whether a sequence is an A.P. or not.
Step I: Obtain a n (the nth term of the sequence).
Step II: Replace n by n – 1 in a n to get an 1 .
Step III: Calculate an  an 1 .
If an  an 1 is independent of n, the given sequence is an A.P. otherwise it is not an A.P. An arithmetic
progression is a linear function with domain as the set of natural numbers N.
 t n  An  B represents the nth term of an A.P. with common difference A.

3. General Term of an A.P.

(1) Let ‘a’ be the first term and ‘d’ be the common difference of an A.P. Then its nth term is a  (n  1)d .
Tn  a  (n  1)d
(2) pth term of an A.P. from the end : Let ‘a’ be the first term and ‘d’ be the common difference of an
A.P. having n terms. Then pth term from the end is (n  p  1)th term from the beginning.
p th term from the end  T(n  p 1)  a  (n  p)d

4
Important Tips

 General term (Tn) is also denoted by l (last term).

 Common difference can be zero, +ve or –ve.
 n (number of terms) always belongs to set of natural numbers.
Tn  Tk T p  Tk
 If Tk and Tp of any A.P. are given, then formula for obtaining Tn is  .
nk p k

 If pTp = qTq of an A.P., then Tp + q = 0.

 If pth term of an A.P. is q and the qth term is p, then Tp + q = 0 and Tn = p + q – n.
If the pth term of an A.P. is and the qth term is , then its pqth term is 1.
1 1

q p

 If Tn =pn + q, then it will form an A.P. of common difference p and first term p + q.

4. Selection of Terms in an A.P.

When the sum is given, the following way is adopted in selecting certain number of terms:
Number of terms Terms to be taken
3 a – d, a, a + d
4 a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d
5 a – 2d, a – d, a, a + d, a + 2d

In general, we take a – rd, a – (r – 1)d, ……., a – d, a, a + d, ……, a + (r – 1)d, a + rd, in case we have to take
(2r + 1) terms (i.e. odd number of terms) in an A.P.
And, a  (2r  1)d, a  (2r  3)d, ......., a  d, a  d, ......., a  (2r  1)d , in case we have to take 2r terms in an

A.P.
When the sum is not given, then the following way is adopted in selection of terms.
Number of terms Terms to be taken
3 a, a  d, a  2d
4 a, a  d, a  2d, a  3d
5 a, a  d, a  2d, a  3d, a  4 d

5
Sum of n terms of an A.P. : The sum of n terms of the series a  (a  d )  (a  2d )  .......  {a  (n  1) d} is
n
given by Sn  [2a  (n  1) d ]
2
n
Also, S n  (a  l) , where l = last term = a  (n  1) d
2

Important Tips

 The common difference of an A.P is given by d  S 2  2S1 where S 2 is the sum of first two terms
and S 1 is the sum of first term or the first term.
 , when d  0
 The sum of infinite terms   .
 , when d  0
 If sum of n terms S n is given then general term Tn  S n  S n 1 , where S n 1 is sum of (n – 1) terms of
A.P.
 Sum of n terms of an A.P. is of the form An2  Bn i.e. a quadratic expression in n, in such case,
common difference is twice the coefficient of n 2 i.e. 2A.
f (2n  1)
If for the different A.P’s , then
Sn f Tn
   n 
S n n Tn  (2n  1)

 n 1 
A B
An  B  2 
If for two A.P.’s
Tn
then
Sn
  
Tn Cn  D S n  n 1 
C D
 2 
 Some standard results
n
n (n  1)
 Sum of first n natural numbers  1  2  3  ........  n  r 
r 1
2
n
 Sum of first n odd natural numbers  1  3  5  .....  (2n  1)   (2r  1)  n
r 1
2

n
 Sum of first n even natural numbers  2  4  6  ......  2n   2r  n (n  1)
r 1

  If for an A.P. sum of p terms is q and sum of q terms is p, then sum of (p + q) terms is {–
(p + q)}.
 If for an A.P., sum of p terms is equal to sum of q terms, then sum of (p + q) terms is zero.
1 1 1
 If the pth term of an A.P. is and qth term is , then sum of pq terms is given by S pq  (pq  1)
q p 2

6
5. Arithmetic Mean.

(1) Definitions
(i) If three quantities are in A.P. then the middle quantity is called Arithmetic mean (A.M.) between the other
two.
If a, A, b are in A.P., then A is called A.M. between a and b.
(ii) If a, A1 , A 2 , A3 ,....., An , b are in A.P., then A1 , A 2 , A3 , ......, An are called n A.M.’s between a and b.

(2) Insertion of arithmetic means

ab
(i) Single A.M. between a and b: If a and b are two real numbers then single A.M. between a and b 
2
(ii) n A.M.’s between a and b : If A1 , A 2 , A3 , ......., An are n A.M.’s between a and b, then
b a b a b a b a
A1  a  d  a  , A 2  a  2d  a  2 , A 3  a  3d  a  3 , ……., An  a  nd  a  n
n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1

Important Tips

 Sum of n A.M.’s between a and b is equal to n times the single A.M. between a and b.
ab 
i.e. A1  A2  A3  ..........  An  n  
 2 

If A1 and A2 are two A.M.’s between two numbers a and b, then A1  (2a  b), A2  (a  2b) .
1 1

3 3

Between two numbers,

Sum of m A.M.' s m
  .
Sum of n A.M.' s n
th
n 1 
 If number of terms in any series is odd, then only one middle term exists which is   term.
 2 
th
If number of terms in any series is even then there are two middle terms, which are given by  
n

2
th
 n 
and    1 term.
 2  

7
6. Properties of A.P.

(1) If a1 , a 2 , a 3 ..... are in A.P. whose common difference is d, then for fixed non-zero number K  R.
(i) a1  K, a 2  K, a3  K,..... will be in A.P., whose common difference will be d.
(ii) Ka 1 , Ka 2 , Ka 3 ........ will be in A.P. with common difference = Kd.
a1 a 2 a 3
(iii) , , ...... will be in A.P. with common difference = d/K.
K K K

(2) The sum of terms of an A.P. equidistant from the beginning and the end is constant and is equal to
sum of first and last term. i.e. a1  an  a 2  an 1  a3  an2  ....

(3) Any term (except the first term) of an A.P. is equal to half of the sum of terms equidistant from the
1
term i.e. an  (an k  an k ) , k < n.
2

(4) If number of terms of any A.P. is odd, then sum of the terms is equal to product of middle term and
number of terms.

(5) If number of terms of any A.P. is even then A.M. of middle two terms is A.M. of first and last term.

(6) If the number of terms of an A.P. is odd then its middle term is A.M. of first and last term.

(7) If a1 , a 2 , ......an and b1 , b 2 , ......b n are the two A.P.’s. Then a1  b1 , a 2  b 2 , ......an  b n are also A.P.’s
with common difference d 1  d 2 , where d 1 and d 2 are the common difference of the given A.P.’s.

(8) Three numbers a, b, c are in A.P. iff 2b  a  c .

(9) If Tn , Tn 1 and Tn  2 are three consecutive terms of an A.P., then 2Tn 1  Tn  Tn  2 .

(10) If the terms of an A.P. are chosen at regular intervals, then they form an A.P.

8
 Geometric Progression (G.P.)

7. Definition.

A progression is called a G.P. if the ratio of its each term to its previous term is always constant. This
constant ratio is called its common ratio and it is generally denoted by r.
12 36 108
Example: The sequence 4, 12, 36, 108, ….. is a G.P., because    .....  3 , which is constant.
4 12 36
Clearly, this sequence is a G.P. with first term 4 and common ratio 3.
1 1 3 9 1  1 1 3
The sequence ,  , ,  , .... is a G.P. with first term and common ratio       
3 2 4 8 3  2 3 2

8. General Term of a G.P.

(1) We know that, a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , .....ar n 1 is a sequence of G.P.

Here, the first term is ‘a’ and the common ratio is ‘r’.
The general term or nth term of a G.P. is Tn  ar n 1
It should be noted that,
T T
r  2  3  ......
T1 T2

(2) pth term from the end of a finite G.P. : If G.P. consists of ‘n’ terms, pth term from the end
 (n  p  1)th term from the beginning  ar n  p .
n 1
1 
Also, the p term from the end of a G.P. with last term l and common ratio r is l  
th

r

9
Important Tips

If a, b, c are in G.P.  or
b c
  b 2  ac
a b
 If Tk and Tp of any G.P. are given, then formula for obtaining Tn is
1 1
 Tn  n k  Tp  p k
    
T  
 k   Tk 
 If a, b, c are in G.P. then
ab b c ab a ab a
or or
b c
     
a b ab b c b c b bc b
 Let the first term of a G.P be positive, then if r > 1, then it is an increasing G.P., but if r is positive
and less than 1, i.e. 0< r < 1, then it is a decreasing G.P.
 Let the first term of a G.P. be negative, then if r > 1, then it is a decreasing G.P., but if 0< r < 1,
then it is an increasing G.P.
If a, b, c, d,… are in G.P., then they are also in continued proportion i.e.
a b c 1
    .... 
b c d r

9. Sum of First ‘n’ Terms of a G.P.

If a be the first term, r the common ratio, then sum S n of first n terms of a G.P. is given by
a(1  r n )
Sn  , |r|< 1
1r
a(r n  1)
Sn  , |r|> 1
r 1
S n  na , r=1

10
10. Selection of Terms in a G.P.

(1) When the product is given, the following way is adopted in selecting certain number of terms:

Number of terms Terms to be taken

3 a
, a, ar
r
4 a a
3
, , ar, ar 3
r r
5 a a
, , a, ar, ar 2
r2 r

(2) When the product is not given, then the following way is adopted in selection of terms

Number of terms Terms to be taken

3 a, ar, ar 2
4 a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3
5 a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , ar 4

11. Sum of Infinite Terms of a G.P.

(1) When |r|< 1, (or  1  r  1)

a
S 
1r
(2) If r  1, then S  doesn’t exist

11
12. Geometric Mean.

(1) Definition: (i) If three quantities are in G.P., then the middle quantity is called geometric mean (G.M.)
between the other two. If a, G, b are in G.P., then G is called G.M. between a and b.
(ii) If a, G1 , G 2 , G3 ,.... Gn , b are in G.P. then G1 , G 2 , G3 ,.... Gn are called n G.M.’s between a and b.

(2) Insertion of geometric means: (i) Single G.M. between a and b: If a and b are two real numbers
then single G.M. between a and b  ab
(ii) n G.M.’s between a and b : If G1 , G 2 , G3 , ......, Gn are n G.M.’s between a and b, then
1 2 3 n
 b  n 1  b  n 1  b  n 1  b  n 1
G1  ar  a  , G 2  ar 2  a  , G 3  ar 3  a  , ……………….., G n  ar n  a 
a a a a

Important Tips

 Product of n G.M.’s between a and b is equal to nth power of single geometric mean between a
and b.
i.e. G1 G2 G3 ...... Gn  ( ab )n
 G.M. of a1 a2 a3 ...... an is (a1 a2 a3 ..... an )1 / n
 If G1 and G2 are two G.M.’s between two numbers a and b is G1  (a2b)1 / 3 , G2  (ab2 )1 / 3 .

The product of n geometric means between a and

1
 is 1.
a
1
 b  n 1
 If n G.M.’s inserted between a and b then r 
a

12
13. Properties of G.P.

(1) If all the terms of a G.P. be multiplied or divided by the same non-zero constant, then it remains a
G.P., with the same common ratio.

(2) The reciprocal of the terms of a given G.P. form a G.P. with common ratio as reciprocal of the
common ratio of the original G.P.

(3) If each term of a G.P. with common ratio r be raised to the same power k, the resulting sequence also
forms a G.P. with common ratio r k .

(4) In a finite G.P., the product of terms equidistant from the beginning and the end is always the same
and is equal to the product of the first and last term.
i.e., if a1 , a 2 , a 3 , ...... an be in G.P. Then a1 an  a 2 an1  a3 an2  an an3  ..........  ar . anr 1

(5) If the terms of a given G.P. are chosen at regular intervals, then the new sequence so formed also
forms a G.P.

(6) If a1 , a 2 , a 3 , ....., an ...... is a G.P. of non-zero, non-negative terms, then

log a1 , log a 2 , log a3 , ..... log an , ...... is an A.P. and vice-versa.

(7) Three non-zero numbers a, b, c are in G.P. iff b 2  ac .

(8) Every term (except first term) of a G.P. is the square root of terms equidistant from it.
i.e. Tr  Tr  p  Tr  p ; [r > p]

(9) If first term of a G.P. of n terms is a and last term is l, then the product of all terms of the G.P. is
(al)n / 2 .

(10) If there be n quantities in G.P. whose common ratio is r and S m denotes the sum of the first m
r
terms, then the sum of their product taken two by two is S n S n 1 .
r 1

13
 Harmonic Progression (H.P.)

14. Definition.

A progression is called a harmonic progression (H.P.) if the reciprocals of its terms are in A.P.
1 1 1
Standard form:    ....
a a  d a  2d
1 1 1 1
Example: The sequence 1, , , , ,... is a H.P., because the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ….. is an A.P.
3 5 7 9

15. General Term of an H.P.

1 1 1
If the H.P. be as , , , .... then corresponding A.P. is a, a  d, a  2d, .....
a a  d a  2d
Tn of A.P. is a  (n  1) d
1
 Tn of H.P. is
a  (n  1) d
In order to solve the question on H.P., we should form the corresponding A.P.
1 1
Thus, General term: Tn  or Tn of H.P. 
a  (n  1) d Tn of A.P.

14
16. Harmonic Mean.

(1) Definition: If three or more numbers are in H.P., then the numbers lying between the first and last
are called harmonic means (H.M.’s) between them. For example 1, 1/3, 1/5, 1/7, 1/9 are in H.P. So 1/3,
1/5 and 1/7 are three H.M.’s between 1 and 1/9.
Also, if a, H, b are in H.P., then H is called harmonic mean between a and b.

(2) Insertion of harmonic means:

2ab
(i) Single H.M. between a and b 
ab
1 1 1
  ..... 
1 a a2 an
(ii) H, H.M. of n non-zero numbers a1 , a 2 , a 3 , ...., an is given by  1 .
H n
(iii) Let a, b be two given numbers. If n numbers H 1 , H 2 , ...... H n are inserted between a and b such that
the sequence a, H 1 , H 2 , H 3 ...... H n , b is an H.P., then H 1 , H 2 , ...... H n are called n harmonic means
between a and b.

1 1 1 1 1
Now, a, H 1 , H 2 , ...... H n , b are in H.P.  , , , ...... , are in A.P.
a H1 H 2 Hn b
Let D be the common difference of this A.P. Then,
1
 (n  2)th term  Tn  2
b
1 1 ab
  (n  1) D  D 
b a (n  1) ab
Thus, if n harmonic means are inserted between two given numbers a and b, then the common
ab
difference of the corresponding A.P. is given by D 
(n  1) ab
1 1 1 1 1 1 ab
Also,   D,   2 D ,…….,   nD where D 
H1 a H2 a Hn a (n  1) ab

Important Tips

If a, b, c are in H.P. then b 

2ac
 .
ac
3 ab 3 ab
 If H1 and H 2 are two H.M.’s between a and b, then H1  and H 2 
a  2b 2a  b

15
17. Properties of H.P.

(1) No term of H.P. can be zero.

ab a
(2) If a, b, c are in H.P., then  .
b c c
(3) If H is the H.M. between a and b, then
1 1 1 1 H a H b
(i)    (ii) (H  2a)(H  2b)  H 2 (iii)  2
H a H b a b H a H b

Arithmetico-Geometric Progression (A.G.P.)

18. nth Term of A.G.P.

If a1 , a2 , a3 , ......, an , ...... is an A.P. and b1 , b2 , ......, bn , ...... is a G.P., then the sequence a1 b1 , a 2 b 2 , a 3 b 3 ,
......, an b n , ..... is said to be an arithmetico-geometric sequence.

Thus, the general form of an arithmetico geometric sequence is a, (a  d ) r, (a  2d ) r 2 , (a  3d ) r 3 , .....

From the symmetry we obtain that the nth term of this sequence is [a  (n  1) d ] r n 1

Also, let a, (a  d ) r, (a  2d ) r 2 , (a  3d ) r 3 , ..... be an arithmetico-geometric sequence. Then, a  (a  d ) r

 (a  2d ) r 2  (a  3d ) r 3  ... is an arithmetico-geometric series.

16
19. Sum of A.G.P.

(1) Sum of n terms: The sum of n terms of an arithmetico-geometric sequence a, (a  d ) r, (a  2d ) r 2 ,

(a  3d ) r 3 , ..... is given by

 a (1  r n 1 ) {a  (n  1) d }r n
  dr  , when r  1
1  r (1  r ) 2
1r
Sn  
 n [2a  (n  1) d ], when r  1
 2

(2) Sum of infinite sequence: Let |r|< 1. Then r n , r n 1  0 as n   and it can also be shown that
a dr
n . r n  0 as n  . So, we obtain that S n   , as n  .
1  r (1  r) 2
a dr
In other words, when |r|< 1 the sum to infinity of an arithmetico-geometric series is S   
1  r (1  r)2

20. Method for Finding Sum.

This method is applicable for both sum of n terms and sum of infinite number of terms.
First suppose that sum of the series is S, then multiply it by common ratio of the G.P. and subtract. In this
way, we shall get a G.P., whose sum can be easily obtained.

21. Method of Difference.

If the differences of the successive terms of a series are in A.P. or G.P., we can find nth term of the series
by the following steps :
Step I: Denote the nth term by Tn and the sum of the series upto n terms by S n .
Step II: Rewrite the given series with each term shifted by one place to the right.
Step III: By subtracting the later series from the former, find Tn .
Step IV: From Tn , S n can be found by appropriate summation.

17
 Miscellaneous series

22. Special Series.

There are some series in which nth term can be predicted easily just by looking at the series.
If Tn   n 3   n 2   n  
n n n n n n
Then S n  
n 1
Tn  
n 1
( n 3   n 2   n   )   n 1
n3   
n 1
n2   
n 1
n  1
n 1

2
 n (n  1)   n (n  1)(2n  1)   n (n  1) 
      n
 2   6   2 

n
n (n  1)(2n  1)
Note: Sum of squares of first n natural numbers  1 2  2 2  3 2  .......  n 2  r
r 1
2

6
2
n
 n (n  1) 
 Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers  1 3  2 3  3 3  4 3  .......  n 3  
r 1
r3  
 2 


23. Vn Method.

1 1 1
(1) To find the sum of the series   ..... 
a1 a 2 a 3 .....ar a 2 a 3 .....ar 1 an an 1 .....an r 1
Let d be the common difference of A.P. Then an  a1  (n  1) d .
Let S n and Tn denote the sum to n terms of the series and nth term respectively.
1 1 1
Sn    ..... 
a1 a 2 .....ar a 2 a 3 .....ar 1 an an 1 .....an r 1
1
 Tn 
an an 1 .....an r 1
1 1
Let Vn  ; Vn 1 
an 1 an  2 .....an r 1 an an 1 .....an r  2
1 1 an  an r 1
 Vn  Vn 1   
an 1 an  2 .....an r 1 an an 1 .....an r  2 an an 1 .....an r 1
[a1  (n  1) d ]  [a1  {(n  r  1)  1}d ]
  d (1  r) Tn
an an 1 .....an r 1

18
 n

T
1 1
 Tn  {Vn 1  Vn } ,  S n   (V0  Vn )
d (r  1) d (r  1)
n
n 1

1  1 1 
Sn    
(r  1)(a 2  a1 )  a1 a 2 ....ar 1 an 1 an  2 ......an r 1 
1 1 1 1  1 1 
Example: If a1 , a 2 , .....an are in A.P., then   ...     
a1 a 2 a 3 a 2 a 3 a 4 an an 1 an  2 2(a 2  a1 )  a1 a 2 an 1 an  2 

(2) If S n  a1 a 2 .....ar  a 2 a3 .....ar 1 ....  an an 1 ...anr 1

Tn  an an 1 .....an r 1
Let Vn  an an 1 ....an r 1 an r ,  Vn 1  an 1 an 1 ......anr 1
 Vn  Vn1  an an1 an 2 .....anr 1 (anr  an1 )  Tn {[a1  (n  r  1) d ]  [a1  (n  2) d ]}  Tn (r  1) d
Vn  Vn 1
 Tn 
(r  1) d
n n

  (V
1 1 1
Sn  Tn   Vn 1 )  (Vn  V0 )  {(an an 1 ....an r )  (a 0 a1 ....ar )}
(r  1)d (r  1) d (r  1) d
n
n 1 n 1

1
 {an an 1 ....an r  a 0 a1 .....ar }
(r  1)(a 2  a1 )
1
Example: 1.2.3.4  2.3.4.5  ......  n (n  1)(n  2)(n  3)  {n (n  1)(n  2)(n  3)  0.1.2.3}
5 .1
1
 {n (n  1)(n  2)(n  3)}
5

24. Properties of Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic means between Two

given Numbers.

Let A, G and H be arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means of two numbers a and b. Then,
ab 2ab
A , G  ab and H 
2 ab
These three means possess the following properties:
(1) A  G  H
ab 2ab
A , G  ab and H 
2 ab
ab ( a  b )2
 AG   ab  0
2 2

19
 AG …..(i)
2ab  a  b  2 ab 
G  H  ab   ab    ab ( a  b )2  0
ab ab  ab
 
 GH …..(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get A  G  H
Note that the equality holds only when a = b

(2) A, G, H from a G.P., i.e. G 2  AH

a  b 2ab
AH    ab  ( ab )2  G 2
2 ab
Hence, G 2  AH

(3) The equation having a and b as its roots is x 2  2 Ax  G 2  0

The equation having a and b its roots is x 2  (a  b)x  ab  0
 ab 
 x 2  2 Ax  G 2  0  A  2 and G  ab 
 
The roots a, b are given by A  A 2  G 2

(4) If A, G, H are arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means between three given numbers a, b and c,
3G 3
then the equation having a, b, c as its roots is x 3  3 Ax 2  x  G3  0
H
1 1 1
 
ab c 1 a b c
A , G  (abc)1/3
and 
3 H 3
3G 3
 a  b  c  3 A, abc  G 3 and  ab  bc  ca
H
The equation having a, b, c as its roots is x 3  (a  b  c)x 2  (ab  bc  ca)x  abc  0
3G 3
 x 3  3 Ax 2  x  G3  0
H

20
25. Relation between A.P., G.P. and H.P.

 A when n  0
a n 1  b n 1 
(1) If A, G, H be A.M., G.M., H.M. between a and b, then  G when n  1 / 2
an  b n  H when n  1


(2) If A1 , A 2 be two A.M.’s; G1 , G 2 be two G.M.’s and H 1 , H 2 be two H.M.’s between two numbers a and
G1 G 2 A  A2
b then  1
H1 H 2 H1  H 2

(3) Recognization of A.P., G.P., H.P.: If a, b, c are three successive terms of a sequence.
ab a
Then if,  , then a, b, c are in A.P.
b c a
ab a
If,  , then a, b, c are in G.P.
b c b
ab a
If,  , then a, b, c are in H.P.
b c c

(4) If number of terms of any A.P./G.P./H.P. is odd, then A.M./G.M./H.M. of first and last terms is middle
term of series.

(5) If number of terms of any A.P./G.P./H.P. is even, then A.M./G.M./H.M. of middle two terms is
A.M./G.M./H.M. of first and last terms respectively.

(6) If pth, qth and rth terms of a G.P. are in G.P. Then p, q, r are in A.P.

(7) If a, b, c are in A.P. as well as in G.P. then a  b  c .

(8) If a, b, c are in A.P., then x a , x b , x c will be in G.P. (x  1)

21
26. Applications of Progressions.

There are many applications of progressions is applied in science and engineering. Properties of
progressions are applied to solve problems of inequality and maximum or minimum values of some
expression can be found by the relation among A.M., G.M. and H.M.

22
Mathematics

Quadratic Equations

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content

1. Polynomial.
2. Types of quadratic equation.
3. Solution of quadratic equation.
4. Nature of roots.
5. Root under particular conditions.
6. Relation between roots and coefficients.
7. Biquadratic equation.
8. Condition for common roots.
9. Properties of quadratic equation.
10. Quadratic expression.
11. Wavy curve method.
12. Position of roots of a quadratic
equation.
13. Descartes rule of signs.
14. Rational algebraic inequations.
15. Algebraic interpretation of rolle's
Theorem.
16. Equations and inequations on containing
absolute value.

1
1. Polynomial.

Algebraic expression containing many terms of the form cx n , n being a non-negative integer is called a polynomial. i.e.,
f (x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + ...... + an−1 x n−1 + an x n , where x is a variable, a0 , a1, a2 ....... an are constants and
an ≠ 0
Example: 4 x 4 + 3 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 5 x + 3 , 3x 3 + x 2 − 3x + 5 .

(1) Real polynomial: Let a0 , a1, a2 ....... an be real numbers and x is a real variable.
Then f (x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + ...... + an x n is called real polynomial of real variable x with real coefficients.
Example: 3 x 3 − 4 x 2 + 5 x − 4, x 2 − 2x + 1 etc. are real polynomials.

(2) Complex polynomial: If a0 , a1, a2 ....... an be complex numbers and x is a varying complex number.
Then f (x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + ...... + an x n is called complex polynomial of complex variable x with complex
coefficients.
Example: 3 x 2 − (2 + 4i)x + (5i − 4), x 3 − 5i x 2 + (1 + 2i)x + 4 etc. are complex polynomials.

(3) Degree of polynomial: Highest power of variable x in a polynomial is called degree of polynomial.
Example: f (x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ...... + an−1 x n−1 + an x n is a n degree polynomial.
f (x ) = 4 x 3 + 3 x 2 − 7 x + 5 is a 3 degree polynomial.
f (x ) = 3 x − 4 is single degree polynomial or linear polynomial.
f (x ) = bx is an odd linear polynomial.
A polynomial of second degree is generally called a quadratic polynomial. Polynomials of degree 3 and 4 are known as
cubic and biquadratic polynomials respectively.

(4) Polynomial equation: If f(x) is a polynomial, real or complex, then f(x) = 0 is called a polynomial equation.

2. Types of Quadratic Equation.

2
A quadratic polynomial f(x) when equated to zero is called quadratic equation.
Example: 3 x 2 + 7 x + 5 = 0, − 9 x 2 + 7 x + 5 = 0, x 2 + 2x = 0, 2x 2 = 0
or
An equation in which the highest power of the unknown quantity is two is called quadratic equation.

Quadratic equations are of two types:

(1) Purely quadratic equation: A quadratic equation in which the term containing the first degree of the unknown
quantity is absent is called a purely quadratic equation.
i.e. ax 2 + c = 0 where a, c ∈ C and a ≠ 0

(2) Affected quadratic equation: A quadratic equation which contains terms of first as well as second degrees of the
unknown quantity is called an affected quadratic equation.
i.e. ax 2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c ∈ C and a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0.

(3) Roots of a quadratic equation : The values of variable x which satisfy the quadratic equation is called roots of
quadratic equation.

Important Tips

F An equation of degree n has n roots, real or imaginary.

F Surd and imaginary roots always occur in pairs in a polynomial equation with real coefficients i.e. if 2 – 3i is a
root of an equation, then 2 + 3i is also its root. Similarly if 2 + 3 is a root of given equation, then 2 − 3 is also its
root.
F An odd degree equation has at least one real root whose sign is opposite to that of its last term (constant term),
provided that the coefficient of highest degree term is positive.
F Every equation of an even degree whose constant term is negative and the coefficient of highest degree term is
positive has at least two real roots, one positive and one negative.

3. Solution of Quadratic Equation.

(1) Factorization method: Let ax 2 + bx + c = a(x − α )(x − β ) = 0 . Then x = α and x = β will satisfy the given
equation.
Hence, factorize the equation and equating each factor to zero gives roots of the equation.
Example: 3x 2 − 2x + 1 = 0 ⇒ (x − 1)(3x + 1) = 0
x = 1, − 1 /3
3
(2) Hindu method (Sri Dharacharya method): By completing the perfect square as
b c
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ⇒ x 2 + x+ =0
a a
2 2
⎛ b ⎞ ⎡⎛ b ⎞ b 2 − 4 ac ⎤ − b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Adding and subtracting ⎜ ⎟ , ⎢⎜ x + ⎟ − ⎥ = 0 which gives, x =
⎝ 2a ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ 2a ⎠ 4 a 2 ⎥⎦ 2a

Hence the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0) has two roots, given by

− b + b 2 − 4 ac − b − b 2 − 4ac
α= , β =
2a 2a

Note: Every quadratic equation has two and only two roots.

4. Nature of Roots.

In quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , the term b 2 − 4ac is called discriminant of the equation, which plays an
important role in finding the nature of the roots. It is denoted by Δ or D.
(1) If a, b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0, then: (i) If D < 0, then equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has non-real complex roots.
−b + D −b − D
(ii) If D > 0, then equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has real and distinct roots, namely α = , β =
2a 2a
and then ax 2 + bx + c = a (x − α )(x − β ) …..(i)
−b
(iii) If D = 0, then equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has real and equal roots α = β =
2a

and then ax 2 + bx + c = a (x − α )2 …..(ii)

To represent the quadratic expression ax 2 + bx + c in form (i) and (ii), transform it into linear factors.
(iv) If D ≥ 0, then equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has real roots.

(2) If a, b, c ∈ Q, a ≠ 0, then: (i) If D > 0 and D is a perfect square ⇒ roots are unequal and rational.
(ii) If D > 0 and D is not a perfect square ⇒ roots are irrational and unequal.

(3) Conjugate roots: The irrational and complex roots of a quadratic equation always occur in pairs. Therefore
(i) If one root be α + iβ then other root will be α − iβ .
(ii) If one root be α + β then other root will be α − β .

(4) If D1 and D2 be the discriminants of two quadratic equations,then

(i) If D 1 + D 2 ≥ 0 , then
4
(a) At least one of D 1 and D 2 ≥ 0 .
(b) If D 1 < 0 then D 2 > 0

(ii) If D 1 + D 2 < 0 , then

(a) At least one of D 1 and D 2 < 0 .
(b) If D 1 > 0 then D 2 < 0 .

5. Roots under Particular Conditions.

For the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 .

(1) If b = 0 ⇒ roots are of equal magnitude but of opposite sign.

(2) If c = 0 ⇒ one root is zero, other is − b /a .

(3) If b = c = 0 ⇒ both roots are zero.

(4) If a = c ⇒ roots are reciprocal to each other.

a > 0 c < 0⎫
(5) If ⎬ ⇒ roots are of opposite signs.
a < 0 c > 0⎭

a > 0 b > 0 c > 0⎫

(6) If ⎬ ⇒ both roots are negative, provided D ≥ 0 .
a < 0 b < 0 c < 0⎭

a > 0 b < 0 c > 0⎫

(7) If ⎬ ⇒ both roots are positive, provided D ≥ 0 .
a < 0 b > 0 c < 0⎭

(8) If sign of a = sign of b ≠ sign of c ⇒ greater root in magnitude, is negative.

(9) If sign of b = sign of c ≠ sign of a ⇒ greater root in magnitude, is positive.

(10) If a + b + c = 0 ⇒ one root is 1 and second root is c/a.

(11) If a = b = c = 0 , then equation will become an identity and will be satisfied by every value of x.

5
(12) If a = 1 and b, c ∈ I and the root of equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are rational numbers, then these roots must be
integers.

Important Tips

F If an equation has only one change of sign, it has one +ve root and no more.
F If all the terms of an equation are +ve and the equation involves no odd power of x, then all its roots are complex.

6. Relations between Roots and Coefficients.

(1) Relation between roots and coefficients of quadratic equation: If α and β are the roots of
quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , (a ≠ 0) then
−b coefficient of x
Sum of roots = S = α + β = =−
a coefficient of x 2

c constantterm
Product of roots = P = α . β = =
a coefficient of x 2

If roots of quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0) are α and β then

b 2 − 4ac ± D
(i) (α − β ) = (α + β )2 − 4αβ = ± =
a a
b 2 − 2ac
(ii) α 2 + β 2 = (α + β )2 − 2αβ =
a2
b b 2 − 4 ac ± b D
(iii) α 2 − β 2 = (α + β ) (α + β )2 − 4αβ = − =
a2 a2
b(b 2 − 3ac)
(iv) α 3 + β 3 = (α + β )3 − 3αβ (α + β ) = −
a3
± (b 2 − ac) b 2 − 4 ac
(v) α 3 − β 3 = (α − β )3 + 3αβ (α − β ) = (α + β )2 − 4αβ {(α + β )2 − αβ } =
a3

6
 2
4 4 2 2 2⎛ b 2 − 2ac ⎞
2 c2
(vi) α + β = {(α + β ) − 2αβ } − 2α β = ⎜⎜ 2
⎟ −2
⎟
⎝ a ⎠ a2

± b(b 2 − 2ac) b 2 − 4 ac
(vii) α 4 − β 4 = (α 2 − β 2 )(α 2 + β 2 ) =
a4
b 2 − ac
(viii) α 2 + αβ + β 2 = (α + β )2 − αβ =
a2
α β α 2 + β 2 (α + β )2 − 2αβ b 2 − 2ac
(ix) + = = =
β α αβ αβ ac
bc
(x) α 2 β + β 2α = αβ (α + β ) = −
a2
2 2
⎛α ⎞ ⎛β⎞ a 4 + β 4 (α 2 + β 2 )2 − 2α 2 β 2 b 2 D + 2a 2 c 2
(xi) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = = =
⎝β⎠ ⎝α ⎠ α 2β 2 α 2β 2 a 2c 2

(2) Formation of an equation with given roots: A quadratic equation whose roots are α and β is given by
(x − α )(x − β ) = 0
∴ x 2 − (α + β )x + αβ = 0 i.e. x 2 − (sum of roots)x + (product of roots) = 0
∴ x 2 − Sx + P = 0

(3) Equation in terms of the roots of another equation: If α, β are roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , then the
equation whose roots are
(i) –α, –β ⇒ ax 2 − bx + c = 0 (Replace x by – x)
(ii) 1 /α , 1 /β ⇒ cx 2 + bx + a = 0 (Replace x by 1/x)
(iii) α n , β n ; n ∈ N ⇒ a(x 1 /n )2 + b(x 1 /n ) + c = 0 (Replace x by x 1 /n )
(iv) kα, kβ ⇒ ax 2 + kbx + k 2 c = 0 (Replace x by x/k)
(v) k + α , k + β ⇒ a(x − k)2 + b(x − k) + c = 0 (Replace x by (x – k))
α β
(vi) , ⇒ k 2 ax 2 + kbx + c = 0 (Replace x by kx)
k k
(vii) α 1 /n , β 1 /n ; n ∈ N ⇒ a(x n )2 + b(x n ) + c = 0 (Replace x by x n )

(4) Symmetric expressions: The symmetric expressions of the roots α, β of an equation are those expressions in α and β,
which do not change by interchanging α and β. To find the value of such an expression, we generally express that in
terms of α + β and αβ.
Some examples of symmetric expressions are:
(i) α 2 + β 2

(ii) α 2 + αβ + β 2
7
 1 1
(iii) +
α β

α β
(iv) +
β α
(v) α 2 β + β 2α

2 2
⎛α ⎞ ⎛β⎞
(vi) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
⎝β ⎠ ⎝α ⎠

(vii) α 3 + β 3

(viii) α 4 + β 4

7. Biquadratic Equation.

If α, β, γ, δ are roots of the biquadratic equation ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0 , then

c c
S 1 = α + β + γ + δ = −b /a , S 2 = α . β + α .γ + αδ + βγ + β .δ + γδ = (−1)2 =
a a
d
or S 2 = (α + β )(γ + δ ) + αβ + γδ = c /a , S 3 = αβγ + βγδ + γδα + αβδ = (−1)3 = −d /a
a
e e
or S 3 = αβ (γ + δ ) + γδ (α + β ) = −d /a and S 4 = α . β .γ .δ = (−1)4 =
a a

8. Condition for Common Roots.

(1) Only one root is common: Let α be the common root of quadratic equations a1 x 2 + b1 x + c1 = 0 and
a2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2 = 0 .
∴ a1α 2 + b1α + c1 = 0 , a2α 2 + b2α + c 2 = 0

8
 α2 α 1 α2 α 1
By Crammer’s rule : = = or = =
− c1 b1 a1 − c1 a1 b1 b1c 2 − b2c1 a2c1 − a1c 2 a1b2 − a2b1
− c 2 b2 a2 − c2 a2 b2
a2c1 − a1c 2 b1c 2 − b2c1
∴α= = ,α ≠0
a1b2 − a2b1 a2c1 − a1c 2
∴ The condition for only one root common is (c1a2 − c 2 a1 )2 = (b1c 2 − b 2 c1 )(a1b 2 − a2 b1 )

a1 b1 c 1
(2) Both roots are common: Then required condition is = = .
a2 b 2 c 2

Important Tips

F To find the common root of two equations, make the coefficient of second degree term in the two equations equal
and subtract. The value of x obtained is the required common root.
F Two different quadratic equations with rational coefficient can not have single common root which is complex or
irrational as imaginary and surd roots always occur in pair.

9. Properties of Quadratic Equation.

(1) If f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs then at least one or in general odd number of roots of the equation f (x ) = 0 lie
between a and b.
Y Y
f(a) = +ve f(a) = +ve

x=b A x=b
O x=a X x=a B X

f(b) = –ve f(b) = –ve

(2) If f (a) = f (b) then there exists a point c between a and b such that f ʹ(c) = 0 , a < c < b .
Y
Q

O a b X
A B
As is clear from the figure, in either case there is a point P or Q at x = c where tangent is parallel to x-axis
i.e. f ʹ(x ) = 0 at x = c .

9
(3) If α is a root of the equation f (x ) = 0 then the polynomial f (x ) is exactly divisible by (x − α ) or (x − α ) is factor of
f (x ).

(4) If the roots of the quadratic equations ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , a2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2 = 0 are in the same ratio
⎛ α α ⎞
⎜⎜ i.e. 1 = 2 ⎟⎟ then b12 /b 22 = a1c1 /a2 c 2 .
⎝ β1 β 2 ⎠

(k + 1)2 b 2
(5) If one root is k times the other root of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 then = .
k ac

10. Quadratic Expression.

An expression of the form ax 2 + bx + c , where a, b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0 is called a quadratic expression in x. So in general,

quadratic expression is represented by f (x ) = ax 2 + bx + c or y = ax 2 + bx + c .

(1) Graph of a quadratic expression: We have y = ax 2 + bx + c = f (x )

2 2
⎡⎛ b ⎞ D ⎤ D ⎛ b ⎞
y = a⎢⎜ x + ⎟ − 2⎥ ⇒ y+ = a⎜ x + ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ 2a ⎠ 4 a ⎥⎦ 4a ⎝ 2a ⎠
D b
Now, let y + = Y and X = x +
4a 2a
1
Y = a.X 2 ⇒ X 2 = Y
a
(i) The graph of the curve y = f (x ) is parabolic.
b
(ii) The axis of parabola is X = 0 or x + = 0 i.e. (parallel to y-axis).
2a
(iii) (a) If a > 0, then the parabola opens upward.

(b) If a < 0, then the parabola opens downward.

x axis

a > 0, D < 0 a < 0, D < 0

x axis

10
(iv) Intersection with axis
−b ± D
(a) X-axis: For x axis, y = 0 ⇒ ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ⇒ x =
2a
−b ± D
For D > 0, parabola cuts x-axis in two real and distinct point’s i.e. x = .
2a
For D = 0, parabola touches x-axis in one point, x = −b /2a .
a<0 D>0

x-axis

x-axis
a>0 D>0

a<0 D=0
x-axis

x-axis
a>0 D=0

For D < 0, parabola does not cut x-axis(i.e. imaginary value of x).

a<0 D<0
x-axis

a>0 D<0 x-axis

(b) y-axis: For y axis x = 0 , y = c

(2) Maximum and minimum values of quadratic expression: Maximum and minimum value of quadratic expression can
be found out by two methods:

(i) Discriminant method: In a quadratic expression ax 2 + bx + c .

4 ac − b 2 D
(a) If a > 0, quadratic expression has least value at x = −b /2a . This least value is given by =− .
4a 4a
2
4 ac − b D
(b) If a < 0, quadratic expression has greatest value at x = −b /2a . This greatest value is given by =− .
4a 4a
(ii) Graphical method: Vertex of the parabola Y = aX 2 is X = 0 , Y = 0
11
 b D
i.e., x + = 0, y + = 0 ⇒ x = −b /2a , y = − D /4 a
2a 4a
Hence, vertex of y = ax 2 + bx + c is (−b /2a, − D /4a)
b ⎛ b ⎞ D
(a) For a > 0, f(x) has least value at x = − . This least value is given by f ⎜ − ⎟=− .
2a ⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a a>0

⎛ b ⎞ D
(b) For a < 0, f(x) has greatest value at x = −b /2a . This greatest value is given by f ⎜ − ⎟=− .
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a vertex

vertex
(3) Sign of quadratic expression: Let f (x ) = ax 2 + bx + c or y = ax 2 + bx + c
Where a, b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0, for some values of x, f(x) may be positive, negative or zero. a<0

This gives the following cases:

(i) a > 0 and D < 0, so f (x ) > 0 for all x ∈ R i.e., f (x ) is positive for all real values of x.
(ii) a < 0 and D < 0, so f (x ) < 0 for all x ∈ R i.e., f(x) is negative for all real values of x.
(iii) a > 0 and D = 0 so, f (x ) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R i.e., f(x) is positive for all real values of x except at vertex, where f (x ) = 0 .
(iv) a < 0 and D = 0 so, f (x ) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ R i.e. f(x) is negative for all real values of x except at vertex, where f (x ) = 0 .
(v) a > 0 and D > 0
Let f (x ) = 0 have two real roots α and β (α < β ), then f (x ) > 0 for all x ∈ (−∞, α ) ∪ (β , ∞) and f (x ) < 0 for all
x ∈ (α , β ).
(vi) a < 0 and D > 0
Let f (x ) = 0 have two real roots α and β (α < β ),
Then f (x ) < 0 for all x ∈ (−∞, α ) ∪ (β , ∞) and f (x ) > 0 for all x ∈ (α , β )

11. Wavy Curve Method.

Let f (x ) = (x − a1 )k1 (x − a2 )k2 (x − a3 )k3 .......( x − an−1 )kn−1 (x − an )kn …..(i)

Where k1 , k 2 , k 3 ..., k n ∈ N and a1 , a2 , a3 , ......, an are fixed natural numbers satisfying the condition
a1 < a2 < a3 ..... < an−1 < an

12
First we mark the numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , ......, an on the real axis and the plus sign in the interval of the right of the largest
of these numbers, i.e. on the right of an . If k n is even then we put plus sign on the left of an and if k n is odd then we put
minus sign on the left of an . In the next interval we put a sign according to the following rule :
When passing through the point an−1 the polynomial f(x) changes sign if k n−1 is an odd number and the polynomial f(x) has
same sign if k n−1 is an even number. Then, we consider the next interval and put a sign in it using the same rule. Thus, we
consider all the intervals. The solution of f (x ) > 0 is the union of all intervals in which we have put the plus sign and the
solution of f (x ) < 0 is the union of all intervals in which we have put the minus sign.

12. Position of Roots of a Quadratic Equation.

Let f (x ) = ax 2 + bx + c , where a, b, c ∈ R be a quadratic expression and k, k1 , k 2 be real numbers such that k1 < k 2 .
−b + D −b − D
Let α, β be the roots of the equation f (x ) = 0 i.e. ax 2 + bx + c = 0 . Then α = , β = where D is
2a 2a
the discriminant of the equation.

(1) Condition for a number k (If both the roots of f(x) = 0 are less than k)

a>0 (–b/2a, –D/4a)

f(k)
k
–b/2a α –b/2a β x-axis
α β k x-axis
f(k)
a<0
(–b/2a, –D/4a)

(i) D ≥ 0 (roots may be equal) (ii) a f (k) > 0 (iii) k > −b /2a , where α ≤ β
(2) Condition for a number k (If both the roots of f(x) = 0 are greater than k)

a>0 (–b/2a, –D/4a)

f(k)
k
–b/2a α –b/2a
13
β x-axis
k α β x-axis
f(k)
a<0
(–b/2a, –D/4a)
(i) D ≥ 0 (roots may be equal) (ii) a f (k) > 0 (iii) k < −b /2a , where α ≤ β
(3) Condition for a number k (If k lies between the roots of f(x) = 0)

(i) D > 0 (ii) a f (k) < 0 , where α < β

(4) Condition for numbers k1 and k2 (If exactly one root of f(x) = 0 lies in the interval (k1, k2))

a>0 k1 f(k2)
f(k1)
x axis α (k ) β
2

f(k1)
k1 α f(k2) (k2) β x-axis
a<0

(i) D > 0 (ii) f (k1 )f (k 2 ) < 0 , where α < β .

(5) Condition for numbers k1 and k2 (If both roots of f(x) = 0 are confined between k1 and k2)
(–b/2a, –D/4a)

a>0
f(k1) f(k2) k1 k2
α β

k1 α β k2
a<0

(–b/2a, –D/4a)

(i) D ≥ 0 (roots may be equal) (ii) a f (k1 ) > 0 (iii) a f (k 2 ) > 0

(iv) k1 < −b /2a < k 2 , where α ≤ β and k1 < k 2
(6) Condition for numbers k1 and k2 (If k1 and k2 lie between the roots of f(x) = 0)

a>0
α k1 k2 β x-axis
k1 k2
α β x-axis a<0
f(k1) f(k2)

(i) D > 0 (ii) a f (k1 ) < 0 (iii) a f (k 2 ) < 0 , where

α<β

14
13. Descarte's Rule of Signs.

The maximum number of positive real roots of a polynomial equation f (x ) = 0 is the number of changes of sign from
positive to negative and negative to positive in f(x).
The maximum number of negative real roots of a polynomial equation f (x ) = 0 is the number of changes of sign from
positive to negative and negative to positive in f (− x ).

14. Rational Algebraic Inequations.

(1) Values of rational expression P(x)/Q(x) for real values of x, where P(x) and Q(x) are quadratic expressions: To find
a1 x 2 + b1 x + c1
the values attained by rational expression of the form for real values of x, the following algorithm will
a2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2
explain the procedure :

Algorithm
Step I: Equate the given rational expression to y.
Step II: Obtain a quadratic equation in x by simplifying the expression in step I.
Step III: Obtain the discriminant of the quadratic equation in Step II.
Step IV: Put Discriminant ≥ 0 and solve the inequations for y. The values of y so obtained determines the set of values
attained by the given rational expression.

(2) Solution of rational algebraic inequations: If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial in x, then the inequations
P (x ) P (x ) P (x ) P (x )
> 0, < 0, ≥ 0 and ≤ 0 are known as rational algebraic inequations.
Q (x ) Q (x ) Q (x ) Q (x )
15
To solve these inequations we use the sign method as explained in the following algorithm.

Algorithm
Step I: Obtain P(x) and Q(x).
Step II: Factorize P(x) and Q(x) into linear factors.
Step III: Make the coefficient of x positive in all factors.
Step IV: Obtain critical points by equating all factors to zero.

Step V: Plot the critical points on the number line. If there are n critical points, they divide the number line into (n + 1)
regions.
P (x )
Step VI: In the right most region the expression bears positive sign and in other regions the expression bears
Q (x )
positive and negative signs depending on the exponents of the factors.

15. Algebraic Interpretation of Rolle’s Theorem.

Let f(x) be a polynomial having α and β as its roots, such that α < β . Then, f (α ) = f (β ) = 0 . Also a polynomial function
is everywhere continuous and differentiable. Thus f(x) satisfies all the three conditions of Rolle ’s Theorem. Consequently
there exists γ ∈ (α , β ) such that f ʹ(γ ) = 0 i.e. f ʹ(x ) = 0 at x = γ . In other words x = γ is a root of f ʹ(x ) = 0 . Thus
algebraically Rolle ’s Theorem can be interpreted as follows.
Between any two roots of polynomial f(x), there is always a root of its derivative f ʹ(x ).

Lagrange’s theorem: Let f(x) be a function defined on [a b] such that

(i) f(x) is continuous on [a b] and
f (b) − f (a)
(ii) f(x) is differentiable on (a, b), then c ∈ (a, b), such that f ʹ(c) =
b−a
Lagrange’s identity: If a1 , a 2 , a3 , b1 , b 2 , b 3 ∈ R then :

(a12 + a22 + a32 )(b12 + b 22 + b 32 ) − (a1b1 + a2 b 2 + a3 b 3 )2 = (a1b 2 − a2b1 )2 + (a2 b 3 − a3 b 2 )2 + (a3 b1 − a1b 3 )2

16
16. Equation and Inequation containing Absolute Value.

(1) Equations containing absolute values

⎧ x , if x ≥ 0
By definition, | x | = ⎨
⎩− x , if x < 0
Important forms containing absolute value:
Form I: The equation of the form | f (x ) + g (x )| =| f (x )| + | g (x )| is equivalent of the system f (x ).g (x ) ≥ 0 .
Form II: The equation of the form | f1 (x )| + | f2 (x )| + | f3 (x )| +...... | fn (x )| = g (x ) …..(i)
Where f1 (x ), f2 (x ), f3 (x )...... fn (x ), g(x ) are functions of x and g(x) may be a constant.
Equations of this form can be solved by the method of interval. We first find all critical points of f1 (x ), f2 (x )..... fn (x ). If
coefficient of x is +ve, then graph starts with +ve sign and if it is negative, then graph starts with negative sign. Then
using the definition of the absolute value, we pass form equation (i) to a collection of system which do not contain the
absolute value symbols.

(2) Inequations containing absolute value

By definition, |x| < a ⇒ − a < x < a (a > 0), | x | ≤ a ⇒ − a ≤ x ≤ a ,

|x| > a ⇒ x < −a or x > a and | x | ≥ a ⇒ x ≤ −a or x ≥ a

17
Mathematics

Permutations & Combinations

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content

1. The factorial.
2. Exponent of prime p in n !
3. Fundamental principles of counting.
4. Definition of permutation.
5. Number of permutations without repetition.
6. Number of permutations with repetition.
7. Conditional permutations.
8. Circular permutations.
9. Definition.
10. Number of combinations without repetition.
11. Number of combinations with repetition and all possible
selections.
12. Conditional combinations.
13. Division into groups.
14. Derangement.
15. Some important results for geometrical problems.
16. Multinomial theorem.
17. Number of divisors.

1
 Permutations

1. The Factorial.

Factorial notation: Let n be a positive integer. Then, the continued product of first n natural numbers is
called factorial n, to be denoted by n ! or n . Also, we define 0 ! = 1.
When n is negative or a fraction, n ! is not defined.
Thus, n ! = n (n – 1) (n – 2) ......3.2.1.

Deduction: n ! = n(n – 1) (n – 2) (n – 3) ......3.2.1

= n[(n  1)(n  2)(n  3)......3.2.1] = n [(n  1) !]
Thus, 5!  5  (4!), 3!  3  (2!) and 2!  2  (1 !)
Also, 1!  1  (0!)  0!  1 .

2. Exponent of Prime p in n !

Let p be a prime number and n be a positive integer. Then the last integer amongst 1, 2, 3, .......(n – 1), n
n  n  n
which is divisible by p is   p , where  p  denote the greatest integer less than or equal to p .
p  
 10  12  15 
For example:    3 ,    2,    5 etc.
3 5 3
Let E p (n) denotes the exponent of the prime p in the positive integer n. Then,
 n   n   n 
E p (n !)  E p (1.2.3.......... (n  1) n) = Ep  p.2 p.3 p.......   p  =    E p  1 .2 .3 ......   
 p  p   p 
[ Remaining integers between 1 and n are not divisible by p]
n 
Now the last integer amongst 1, 2, 3,.....   Which is divisible by p is
p
n / p   n   n   n   n 
 p    2    p   E p  p, 2 p, 3 p.... 2  p  Because the remaining natural numbers from 1 to  p 
  p     p    
n   n    n 
are not divisible by p =     2   E p  1 .2 .3 ......  2  
p p   
  p 

2
 n   n   n   n 
Similarly we get E p (n !)      2    3   ..... S 
p p  p  p 
where S is the largest natural number. Such that p S  n  p S 1 .

3. Fundamental Principles of Counting.

(1) Addition principle: Suppose that A and B are two disjoint events (mutually exclusive); that is, they
never occur together. Further suppose that A occurs in m ways and B in n ways. Then A or B can occur in
m + n ways. This rule can also be applied to more than two mutually exclusive events.

(2) Multiplication principle: Suppose that an event X can be decomposed into two stages A and B. Let
stage A occur in m ways and suppose that these stages are unrelated, in the sense that stage B occurs in
n ways regardless of the outcome of stage A. Then event X occur in mn ways. This rule is applicable even
if event X can be decomposed in more than two stages.

Note: The above principle can be extended for any finite number of operations and may be stated as under :

If one operation can be performed independently in m different ways and if second operation can be
performed independently in n different ways and a third operation can be performed independently in p
different ways and so on, then the total number of ways in which all the operations can be performed in
the stated order is (m × n × p × .....)

4. Definition of Permutation.

The ways of arranging or selecting a smaller or an equal number of persons or objects at a time from a
given group of persons or objects with due regard being paid to the order of arrangement or selection
are called the (different) permutations.
For example : Three different things a, b and c are given, then different arrangements which can be made
by taking two things from three given things are ab, ac, bc, ba, ca, cb.
Therefore the number of permutations will be 6.

3
5. Number of Permutations without Repetition.

(1) Arranging n objects, taken r at a time equivalent to filling r places from n things

r-places: 1 2 3 4 r
Number of choices: n (n–1)(n – 2 )(n – 3) n – (r–1)

The number of ways of arranging = The number of ways of filling r places.

n(n  1)(n  2).....(n  r  1)((n  r)!) n!

= n(n  1)(n  2).......(n  r  1) =   n Pr
(n  r)! (n  r)!

(2) The number of arrangements of n different objects taken all at a time = n Pn  n!

n!
Note: n
P0   1; n Pr  n . n 1 Pr 1
n!
1
0 !  1;  0 or (r)!  (r  N )
(r)!

6. Number of Permutations with Repetition.

(1) The number of permutations (arrangements) of n different objects, taken r at a time, when each
object may occur once, twice, thrice,........upto r times in any arrangement = The number of ways of filling
r places where each place can be filled by any one of n objects.
r – places: 1 2 3 4 r
Number of choices: n
n n n n
The number of permutations = The number of ways of filling r places = (n)r

(2) The number of arrangements that can be formed using n objects out of which p are identical (and of
one kind) q are identical (and of another kind), r are identical (and of another kind) and the rest are
n!
distinct is .
p!q!r!

4
7. Conditional Permutations.

(1) Number of permutations of n dissimilar things taken r at a time when p particular things always occur
n p
= C r  p r!

(2) Number of permutations of n dissimilar things taken r at a time when p particular things never occur
= n p
C r r!

(3) The total number of permutations of n different things taken not more than r at a time, when each
n(n r  1)
thing may be repeated any number of times, is .
n 1

(4) Number of permutations of n different things, taken all at a time, when m specified things always
come together is m ! (n  m  1) !

(5) Number of permutations of n different things, taken all at a time, when m specified things never
come together is n !m !  (n  m  1)!

(6) Let there be n objects, of which m objects are alike of one kind, and the remaining (n  m ) objects are
alike of another kind. Then, the total number of mutually distinguishable permutations that can be
n!
formed from these objects is .
(m !)  (n  m ) !

Note: The above theorem can be extended further i.e., if there are n objects, of which p 1 are alike of one kind; p 2
are alike of another kind; p 3 are alike of 3rd kind;......: p r are alike of rth kind such that p1  p 2  ......  p r  n ;
n!
then the number of permutations of these n objects is .
( p 1 !)  ( p 2 !)  ......  ( p r !)

5
Important Tips

 Gap method: Suppose 5 males A, B, C, D, E are arranged in a row as × A × B × C × D × E ×. There

will be six gaps between these five. Four in between and two at either end. Now if three females P, Q, R
are to be arranged so that no two are together we shall use gap method i.e., arrange them in between
these 6 gaps. Hence the answer will be 6 P3 .
 Together: Suppose we have to arrange 5 persons in a row which can be done in 5 ! = 120 ways.
But if two particular persons are to be together always, then we tie these two particular persons with a
string. Thus we have 5 – 2 + 1 (1 corresponding to these two together) = 3 +1 = 4 units, which can be
arranged in 4! ways. Now we loosen the string and these two particular can be arranged in 2 ! ways. Thus
total arrangements = 24 × 2 = 48.
Never together = Total – Together = 120 – 48 = 72.
Ways. Hence the required number of ways = 6 × 3 = 18.

8. Circular Permutations.

So far we have been considering the arrangements of objects in a line. Such permutations are known as
linear permutations.
Instead of arranging the objects in a line, if we arrange them in the form of a circle, we call them, circular
permutations.
In circular permutations, what really matters is the position of an object relative to the others.
Thus, in circular permutations, we fix the position of the one of the objects and then arrange the other
objects in all possible ways.

There are two types of circular permutations:

(i) The circular permutations in which clockwise and the anticlockwise arrangements give rise to different
permutations, e.g. seating arrangements of persons round a table.

6
(ii) The circular permutations in which clockwise and the anticlockwise arrangements give rise to same
permutations, e.g. arranging some beads to form a necklace.
Look at the circular permutations, given below:

A A

D B B D

C C

Suppose A, B, C, D are the four beads forming a necklace. They have been arranged in clockwise and
anticlockwise directions in the first and second arrangements respectively.
Now, if the necklace in the first arrangement be given a turn, from clockwise to anticlockwise, we obtain
the second arrangement. Thus, there is no difference between the above two arrangements.

(1) Difference between clockwise and anticlockwise arrangement : If anticlockwise and clockwise
order of arrangement are not distinct e.g., arrangement of beads in a necklace, arrangement of flowers
(n  1)!
in garland etc. then the number of circular permutations of n distinct items is
2
(2) Theorem on circular permutations
Theorem 1: The number of circular permutations of n different objects is (n  1) !
Theorem 2: The number of ways in which n persons can be seated round a table is (n  1)!
Theorem 3: The number of ways in which n different beads can be arranged to form a necklace, is
1
(n  1)! .
2

Note: When the positions are numbered, circular arrangement is treated as a linear arrangement.
In a linear arrangement, it does not make difference whether the positions are numbered or not.

7
 Combinations

9. Definition.

Each of the different groups or selections which can be formed by taking some or all of a number of
objects, irrespective of their arrangements, is called a combination.

Suppose we want to select two out of three persons A, B and C.

We may choose AB or BC or AC.

Clearly, AB and BA represent the same selection or group but they give rise to different arrangements.

Clearly, in a group or selection, the order in which the objects are arranged is immaterial.

Notation: The number of all combinations of n things, taken r at a time is denoted by C (n, r) or
n
n
C r or   .
r

(1) Difference between a permutation and combination : (i) In a combination only selection is made
whereas in a permutation not only a selection is made but also an arrangement in a definite order is
considered.

(ii) In a combination, the ordering of the selected objects is immaterial whereas in a permutation, the
ordering is essential. For example A, B and B, A are same as combination but different as permutations.

(iii) Practically to find the permutation of n different items, taken r at a time, we first select r items from n
items and then arrange them. So usually the number of permutations exceeds the number of
combinations.

(iv) Each combination corresponds to many permutations. For example, the six permutations ABC, ACB,
BCA, BAC, CBA and CAB correspond to the same combination ABC.

Note: Generally we use the word ‘arrangements’ for permutations and word “selection” for combinations.

8
10. Number of Combinations without Repetition.

The number of combinations (selections or groups) that can be formed from n different objects taken
n!
r(0  r  n) at a time is n C r 
r !(n  r)!

Let the total number of selections (or groups) = x. Each group contains r objects, which can be arranged in r !
Ways. Hence the number of arrangements of r objects = x  (r!) . But the number of arrangements = n Pr .
n
Pr n!
 x  (r!)  n Pr  x  x n Cr .
r! r !(n  r) !

Important Tips
 n
Cr is a natural number.  n C0 nCn  1, nC1  n
 n
Cr n Cn r  n
Cr  n Cr 1  n1 Cr
 n
C x  n C y  x  y or x  y  n  n . n1 Cr1  (n  r  1)n Cr1
 If n is even then the greatest value of n C r is n C n / 2 .  If n is odd then the greatest value
n n
of n Cr is or .
C n 1 Cn 1
2 2
n r 1
n
n n 1 Cr
 n
Cr  . C r 1  n

r C r 1 r

 n
C0  C1  C2  .....  Cn  2
n n n n
 C0 nC2 n C4  ...... nC1 nC3 nC5  .....  2n 1
n

2n 1
 C0  2n 1C1  2n 1C2  .....  2n 1Cn  2 2n  nCn n 1Cn n  2Cn n  3Cn  .... 2n 1Cn 2nCn 1

n! 1
Note: Number of combinations of n dissimilar things taken all at a time n Cn    1 , ( 0 !  1) .
n !(n  n) ! 0 !

9
11. Number of Combinations with Repetition and All Possible Selections.

(1) The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time when any object may be repeated
any number of times.
= coefficient of x r in (1  x  x 2  .......  x r )n = coefficient of x r in (1  x )n  n r 1 C r

(2) The total number of ways in which it is possible to form groups by taking some or all of n things at a
time is 2 n  1 .

(3) The total number of ways in which it is possible to make groups by taking some or all out of
n  (n1  n 2  ....) things, when n1 are alike of one kind, n 2 are alike of second kind, and so on is
{(n1  1)(n 2  1)......}  1 .

(4) The number of selections of r objects out of n identical objects is 1.

(5) Total number of selections of zero or more objects from n identical objects is n  1 .

(6) The number of selections taking at least one out of a1  a2  a3  ......  an + k objects, where a1 are
alike (of one kind), a 2 are alike (of second kind) and so on...... a n are alike (of nth kind) and k are distinct
= [(a1  1)(a 2  1)(a 3  1).......(an  1)] 2 k  1 .

12. Conditional Combinations.

(1) The number of ways in which r objects can be selected from n different objects if k particular objects
are
n k n k
(i) Always included = C r k (ii) Never included = Cr
(2) The number of combinations of n objects, of which p are identical, taken r at a time is
n p
= C r  n  p C r 1  n  p C r 2  .......  n  p C 0 if r  p and
n p
= C r  n  p C r 1  n  p C r 2  .......  n  p C r  p if r  p

10
13. Division into Groups.

Case I: (1) The number of ways in which n different things can be arranged into r different groups is
n r 1 n 1
Pn or n ! C r 1 According as blank group are or are not admissible.

(2) The number of ways in which n different things can be distributed into r different group is
r n  r C1 (r  1)n  r C 2 (r  2)n  .........  (1)n1 n Cr 1 or Coefficient of x n is n ! (e x  1)r
Here blank groups are not allowed.

(3) Number of ways in which m × n different objects can be distributed equally among n persons (or
(mn)!n ! (mn)!
numbered groups) = (number of ways of dividing into groups) × (number of groups) ! = 
(m !)n n! (m!)n
.
Case II: (1) The number of ways in which (m  n) different things can be divided into two groups which
(m  n)!
contain m and n things respectively is, m n C m . n C n  ,m  n .
m !n!
Corollary: If m  n , then the groups are equal size. Division of these groups can be given by two types.

Type I: If order of group is not important: The number of ways in which 2n different things can be
(2n)!
divided equally into two groups is
2!(n!) 2
Type II: If order of group is important: The number of ways in which 2n different things can be divided
(2n)! 2n!
equally into two distinct groups is 2
 2! 
2!(n!) (n!)2

(2) The number of ways in which (m + n + p) different things can be divided into three groups which
(m  n  p)!
contain m, n and p things respectively is m n  p C m . n  p C n . p C p  ,m  n  p
m !n ! p !
Corollary: If m  n  p , then the groups are equal size. Division of these groups can be given by two
types.
Type I: If order of group is not important: The number of ways in which 3p different things can be
(3 p)!
divided equally into three groups is
3!( p!)3

11
Type II: If order of group is important: The number of ways in which 3p different things can be
(3 p)! (3 p)!
divided equally into three distinct groups is 3
t 3!
3!( p!) ( p!)3

Note: If order of group is not important: The number of ways in which mn different things can be divided equally
mn!
into m groups is
(n!)m m !
If order of group is important: The number of ways in which mn different things can be divided equally into m
(mn)! (mn)!
distinct groups is m
 m!  .
(n!) m! (n!)m

14. Derangement.

Any change in the given order of the things is called a derangement.

If n things form an arrangement in a row, the number of ways in which they can be deranged so that no
 1 1 1 1
one of them occupies its original place is n ! 1     ......  (1)n .  .
 1! 2! 3! n !

15. Some Important Results for Geometrical Problems.

(1) Number of total different straight lines formed by joining the n points on a plane of which m (< n)
are collinear is n C 2  m C 2  1 .

(2) Number of total triangles formed by joining the n points on a plane of which m (< n) are collinear is
n
C 3 m C 3 .

(3) Number of diagonals in a polygon of n sides is n C 2  n .

(4) If m parallel lines in a plane are intersected by a family of other n parallel lines. Then total number of
mn(m  1)(n  1)
parallelograms so formed is m C 2 n C 2 i.e
4
12
(5) Given n points on the circumference of a circle, then

(i) Number of straight lines = n C 2 (ii) Number of triangles = n C 3 (iii) Number of quadrilaterals = n C 4 .

(6) If n straight lines are drawn in the plane such that no two lines are parallel and no three lines are
concurrent. Then the number of part into which these lines divide the plane is = 1  n .

n
(7) Number of rectangles of any size in a square of n  n is r
r 1
3
and number of squares of any size is

r
r 1
2
.

np
(8) In a rectangle of n  p (n  p) number of rectangles of any size is (n  1)( p  1) and number of
4
n
squares of any size is  (n  1  r)(p  1  r) .
r 1

16. Multinomial Theorem.

Let x 1 , x 2 , ......., x m be integers. Then number of solutions to the equation x 1  x 2  ......  x m  n

.....(i)

Subject to the condition a1  x 1  b1 , a 2  x 2  b 2 ,......., am  x m  b m .....(ii)

is equal to the coefficient of x n in

(x a1  x a1 1  ......  x b1 )(x a2  x a2 1  .....  x b2 )......( x am  x am 1  .....  x bm ) ......(iii)

This is because the number of ways, in which sum of m integers in (i) equals n, is the same as the number
of times x n comes in (iii).

13
(1) Use of solution of linear equation and coefficient of a power in expansions to find the number
of ways of distribution:

(i) the number of integral solutions of x 1  x 2  x 3  ......  x r  n where x 1  0, x 2  0, ...... x r  0 is the

same as the number of ways to distribute n identical things among r persons.
This is also equal to the coefficient of x n in the expansion of (x 0  x 1  x 2  x 3  ......) r
r
 1 
= coefficient of x n in   = coefficient of x in (1  x )
n r

1  x 
 r(r  1) 2 r(r  1)(r  2)......(r  n  1) n
= coefficient of x n in 1  rx  x  ......  x  .......
 2! n!
r(r  1)(r  2)....(r  n  1) (r  n  1)! n r 1
   C r 1
n! n!(r  1)!

(ii) The number of integral solutions of x 1  x 2  x 3  .....  x r  n where x 1  1, x 2  1,....... x r  1 is same

as the number of ways to distribute n identical things among r persons each getting at least 1. This also
equal to the coefficient of x n in the expansion of (x 1  x 2  x 3  ......) r
r
 x 
= coefficient of x in n
 = coefficient of x in x (1  x )
n r r

1  x 
 r (r  1) 2 r (r  1)(r  2).....(r  n  1) n 
= coefficient of x n in x r 1  rx  x  .....  x  ..... 
 2! n! 
 r(r  1) 2 r(r  1)(r  2).....(r  n  1) n 
= coefficient of x n  r in 1  rx  x  .....  x  ..... 
 2! n! 
r(r  1) (r  2)......(r  n  r  1) r(r  1) (r  2).....(n  1) (n  1) !
= = =  n 1 Cr 1 .
(n  r) ! (n  r)! (n  r)!(r  1)!

14
17. Number of Divisors.

Let N  p11 . p 2 2 . p 3 3 ...... p k k , where p1 , p 2 , p 3 ,...... p k are different primes and  1 ,  2 ,  3 ,......,  k are
natural numbers then:

(1) The total number of divisors of N including 1 and N is = ( 1  1) ( 2  1) ( 3  1)....( k  1)

(2) The total number of divisors of N excluding 1 and N is = ( 1  1) ( 2  1) ( 3  1).....( k  1)  2
(3) The total number of divisors of N excluding 1 or N is = (1  1)( 2  1)( 3  1).....(k  1)  1
(4) The sum of these divisors is
 (p10  p12  p 32  ......  p11 )(p 20  p12  p 22  ...  p2 2 ).....( pk0  pk1  pk2  ....  pk k )

(5) The number of ways in which N can be resolved as a product of two factors is
1
 2 (1  1)( 2  1)....( k  1), If N is not a perfect square
1
 [(1  1)( 2  1).....( k  1)  1], If N is a perfect square
2

(6) The number of ways in which a composite number N can be resolved into two factors which are
relatively prime (or co-prime) to each other is equal to 2 n 1 where n is the number of different factors in
N.

Important Tips

 All the numbers whose last digit is an even number 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 are divisible by 2.
 All the numbers sum of whose digits are divisible by 3, is divisible by 3 e.g. 534. Sum of the digits is
12, which are divisible by 3, and hence 534 is also divisible by 3.
 All those numbers whose last two-digit number is divisible by 4 are divisible by 4 e.g. 7312, 8936,
are such that 12, 36 are divisible by 4 and hence the given numbers are also divisible by 4.
 All those numbers, which have either 0 or 5 as the last digit, are divisible by 5.
 All those numbers, which are divisible by 2 and 3 simultaneously, are divisible by 6. e.g., 108, 756
etc.
 All those numbers whose last three-digit number is divisible by 8 are divisible by 8.
 All those numbers sum of whose digit is divisible by 9 are divisible by 9.
 All those numbers whose last two digits are divisible by 25 are divisible by 25 e.g., 73125, 2400 etc.

15
Mathematics

Binomial Theorem

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content

1. Binomial theorem.
2. Binomial theorem for positive integral index.
3. Some important expansions.
4. General term.
5. Independent term or constant term.
6. Number of terms in the expansion of (a + b + c)n and (a
+ b + c + d)n.
7. Middle term.
8. To determine a particular term in the expansion.
9. Greatest term and greatest coefficient.
10. Properties of binomial coefficients.
11. An important theorem.
12. Multinomial theorem (For positive integral index).
13. Binomial theorem for any index.
14. Three/four consecutive terms or coefficients.
15. Some important points.
16. First principle of mathematical induction.

1
1. Binomial Expression.

An algebraic expression consisting of two terms with +ve or – ve sign between them is called a binomial
expression.
 p q  1 4 
For example: (a  b), (2 x  3 y),  2  4  ,   3  etc.
x x  x y 

2. Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Index.

The rule by which any power of binomial can be expanded is called the binomial theorem.
If n is a positive integer and x, y  C then
(x  y)n  n C 0 x n 0 y 0  n C1 x n 1 y 1  n C 2 x n  2 y 2  ........  n C r x n r y r  ......  n C n 1 xy n 1  n C n x 0 y n
n
i.e., (x  y )n   n Cr . x n r .y r .....(i)
r 0

n!
Here n C 0 , n C1 , n C 2 ,...... n C n are called binomial coefficients and n C r  for 0  r  n .
r !(n  r) !

Important Tips
 The number of terms in the expansion of (x  y)n are (n + 1).
 The expansion contains decreasing power of x and increasing power of y. The sum of the powers
of x and y in each term is equal to n.
 The binomial coefficients n C0 , n C1 , n C2 ........ equidistant from beginning and end are equal i.e.,
n
Cr n Cn r .

 (x  y)n  Sum of odd terms + sum of even terms.

2
3. Some Important Expansions.

(1) Replacing y by – y in (i), we get,

(x  y)n  n C 0 x n 0 .y 0  n C1 x n 1 .y 1  n C 2 x n  2 . y 2 ....  (1)r n C r x n r .y r  ....  (1)n n C n x 0 .y 
n
i.e., (x  y)n   (1)r n C r x n r .y r .....(ii)
r 0

The terms in the expansion of (x  y)n are alternatively positive and negative, the last term is positive or
negative according as n is even or odd.

(2) Replacing x by 1 and y by x in equation (i) we get,

n
(1  x )n  n C 0 x 0  n C1 x 1  n C 2 x 2  ......  n C r x r  ......  n C n x n i.e., (1  x )n  
r 0
n
Cr x r

This is expansion of (1  x) in ascending power of x.

n

(3) Replacing x by 1 and y by – x in (i) we get,

(1  x )n  n C 0 x 0  n C1 x 1  n C 2 x 2  ......  (1)r n C r x r  ....  (1)n n Cn x n i.e.,
n
(1  x )n   (1)
r 0
r n
Cr x r

(4) (x  y)n  (x  y)n  2 [n C 0 x n y 0  n C 2 x n 2 y 2  n C 4 x n 4 y 4  .......] and

(x  y)n  (x  y)n  2 [n C1 x n 1 y 1  n C 3 x n 3 y 3  n C 5 x n 5 y 5  .......]

(5) The coefficient of (r  1)th term in the expansion of (1  x)n is n Cr .

(6) The coefficient of x r in the expansion of (1  x)n is n Cr .

3
Note: If n is odd, then (x  y)n  (x  y)n and (x  y)n  (x  y)n , both have the same number of terms equal to
n 1
 .
 2 

n  n
If n is even, then (x  y)n  (x  y)n has   1  terms and (x  y)n  (x  y)n has terms.
2  2

4. General Term.

(x  y)n  n C 0 x n y 0  n C1 x n 1 y 1  n C 2 x n  2 y 2  .....  n C r x n r y r  ....  n C n x 0 y n

The first term = n C 0 x n y 0
The second term = n C1 x n 1 y 1 . The third term = n C 2 x n  2 y 2 and so on
The term n C r x n r y r is the (r  1)th term from beginning in the expansion of (x  y)n .
Let Tr  1 denote the (r + 1)th term  Tr 1  n C r x n r y r
This is called general term, because by giving different values to r, we can determine all terms of the
expansion.
In the binomial expansion of (x  y)n , Tr 1  (1)r n C r x n r y r
In the binomial expansion of (1  x )n , Tr 1 n Cr x r
In the binomial expansion of (1  x )n , Tr 1  (1)r nCr x r

Note: In the binomial expansion of (x  y )n , the pth term from the end is (n  p  2)th term from beginning.

Important Tips
 In the expansion of (x  y)n , n  N
Tr 1  n  r  1  y
 
Tr  r x
n(n  1)
 The coefficient of x n 1 in the expansion of (x  1)(x  2).......( x  n)  
2
n(n  1)
 The coefficient of x n 1 in the expansion of (x  1)(x  2).....( x  n) 
2

4
5. Independent Term or Constant Term.

Independent term or constant term of a binomial expansion is the term in which exponent of the variable is
zero.
Condition: (n  r) [Power of x] + r. [Power of y] = 0, in the expansion of [ x  y]n .

6. Number of Terms in the Expansion of (a + b + c) n and (a + b + c + d) n.

(a  b  c)n can be expanded as : (a  b  c)n  {(a  b)  c}n

 (a  b)n  n C1 (a  b)n 1 (c)1  n C 2 (a  b)n 2 (c)2  .....  n C n c n
 (n  1) term  n term  (n  1)term  ...  1term

(n  1)(n  2)
 Total number of terms = (n  1)  (n)  (n  1)  ......  1  .
2

(n  1)(n  2)(n  3)
Similarly, Number of terms in the expansion of (a  b  c  d )n  .
6

7. Middle Term.

The middle term depends upon the value of n.

(1) When n is even, then total number of terms in the expansion of (x  y )n is n  1 (odd). So there is
th
n 
only one middle term i.e.,   1  term is the middle term. T n 
n Cn / 2 x n / 2 y n / 2
2   2 1 
 

(2) When n is odd, then total number of terms in the expansion of (x  y )n is n  1 (even). So, there are
th th n 1 n 1
 n 1 n3
two middle terms i.e.,   and   are two middle terms. T n 1   C n 1 x n 2 y 2 and
 2   2   
 2  2

n 1 n 1
T n  3   n C n 1 x 2 y 2
 
 2  2

5
Note: When there are two middle terms in the expansion then their binomial coefficients are equal.

Binomial coefficient of middle term is the greatest binomial coefficient.

8. To Determine a Particular Term in the Expansion.

n  m
n
 1 
In the expansion of  x     , if x m occurs in Tr 1 , then r is given by n  r(   )  m  r 
 x  

Thus in above expansion if constant term which is independent of x, occurs in Tr 1 then r is determined
by

n
n  r(   )  0  r 


9. Greatest Term and Greatest Coefficient.

(1) Greatest term: If Tr and Tr 1 be the rth and (r  1)th terms in the expansion of (1  x)n , then
Tr 1 n
C xr n r 1
 n r r 1  x
Tr C r 1 x r
Tr 1
Let numerically, Tr 1 be the greatest term in the above expansion. Then Tr 1  Tr or 1
Tr
n r 1 (n  1)
 | x |  1 or r  | x| ......(i)
r (1 | x |)
Now substituting values of n and x in (i), we get r  m  f or r  m

Where m is a positive integer and f is a fraction such that 0  f  1 .

When n is even Tm 1 is the greatest term, when n is odd Tm and Tm 1 are the greatest terms and both are
equal.

6
Short cut method: To find the greatest term (numerically) in the expansion of (1  x)n .
x (n  1)
(i) Calculate m =
x 1
(ii) If m is integer, then Tm and Tm 1 are equal and both are greatest term.
(iii) If m is not integer, there T[m ]1 is the greatest term, where [.] denotes the greatest integral part.

(2) Greatest coefficient

(i) If n is even, then greatest coefficient is n Cn / 2
(ii) If n is odd, then greatest coefficient are n C n 1 and n C n  3
2 2

Important Tips
 For finding the greatest term in the expansion of (x  y)n . we rewrite the expansion in this form
n
 y
(x  y )n  x n 1   .
 x
n
Greatest term in (x + y)n  x n . Greatest term in 1  
y
 x

10. Properties of Binomial Coefficients.

In the binomial expansion of (1  x )n , (1  x )n  n C 0  n C1 x  n C 2 x 2  .....  n C r x r  ....  n C n x n .

Where n C 0 , n C1 , n C 2 ,......, n C n are the coefficients of various powers of x and called binomial
coefficients, and they are written as C 0 , C1 , C 2 , .....C n .

Hence, (1  x )n  C 0  C1 x  C 2 x 2  .....  C r x r  .....  C n x n .....(i)

(1) The sum of binomial coefficients in the expansion of (1  x)n is 2 n .

Putting x  1 in (i), we get 2 n  C 0  C1  C 2  .....  C n .....(ii)
(2) Sum of binomial coefficients with alternate signs : Putting x  1 in (i)

We get, 0  C 0  C1  C 2  C 3  ...... …..(iii)

7
(3) Sum of the coefficients of the odd terms in the expansion of (1  x)n is equal to sum of the
coefficients of even terms and each is equal to 2n 1 .

From (iii), we have C 0  C 2  C 4  .....  C1  C 3  C 5  ........ ......(iv)

i.e., sum of coefficients of even and odd terms are equal.

From (ii) and (iv), C0  C2  C4  .....  C1  C3  C5  .....  2n 1 ......(v)

n n 1 n n  1 n2
(4) n Cr  Cr 1  . Cr  2 and so on.
r r r 1

n
1  1 C C C
(5) Sum of product of coefficients: Replacing x by in (i) we get 1    C0  1  22  ... nn  ....
x  x  x x x
(vi)

(1  x )2 n  C C 
Multiplying (i) by (vi), we get  (C0  C1 x  C 2 x 2  ......)  C0  1  22  ..... 
xn  x x 
Now comparing coefficient of x r on both sides.

We get, 2n
Cn  r  C0 Cr  C1Cr 1  ......Cn r .Cn .....(vii)

(6) Sum of squares of coefficients: Putting r  0 in (vii), we get 2n

Cn  C02  C12  ......Cn2

(7) nCr nCr 1 n 1Cr

8
11. An Important Theorem.

If ( A  B)n = I  f where I and n are positive integers, n being odd and 0  f  1 then (I  f ). f  K n
where A  B 2 = K  0 and A  B  1 .

Note: If n is even integer then ( A  B)n  ( A  B)n  I  f  f 

Hence L.H.S. and I are integers.

 f  f  is also integer;  f  f   1 ;  f   (1  f )
Hence (I  f ) (1  f )  (I  f ) f  = ( A  B)n ( A  B)n = ( A  B 2 )n = K n .

12. Multinomial Theorem (For positive integral index).

If n is positive integer and a1 , a 2 , a 3 , ....an  C then

 n !n
n!
(a1  a 2  a 3  ...  am )n  a1n1 a 2n2 ...amnm
1 2 !n 3 !...n m !

Where n1 , n 2 , n 3 ,.....nm are all non-negative integers subject to the condition, n1  n2  n3  .....nm  n .
n!
(1) The coefficient of a1n1 .a 2n2 .....a mnm in the expansion of (a1  a2  a3  ....am )n is
n1 ! n2 ! n3 !....nm !

n!
(2) The greatest coefficient in the expansion of (a1  a 2  a3  ....am )n is m r
(q!) [(q  1)!]r
Where q is the quotient and r is the remainder when n is divided by m.

(3) If n is +ve integer and a1 , a 2 ,.....am  C, a1n1 . a 2n2 .........amnm then coefficient of x r in the expansion of

 n !n
n!
(a1  a2 x  .....am x m 1 )n is
1 2 !n 3 !.....n m !

Where n1 , n 2 .....nm are all non-negative integers subject to the condition: n1  n 2  .....nm  n and
n 2  2n 3  3n 4  ....  (m  1)nm  r .

(4) The number of distinct or dissimilar terms in the multinomial expansion (a1  a 2  a3  ....am )n is
n m 1
Cm 1 .

9
13. Binomial Theorem for any Index.

n(n  1)x 2 n(n  1) (n  2) 3 n(n  1) ......(n  r  1) r

Statement: (1  x )n  1  nx   x  ....  x  ...terms up to 
2! 3! r!

When n is a negative integer or a fraction, where  1  x  1 , otherwise expansion will not be possible.

If x  1 , the terms of the above expansion go on decreasing and if x be very small a stage may be
reached when we may neglect the terms containing higher power of x in the expansion, then
(1  x )n  1  nx .

Important Tips

 Expansion is valid only when 1  x  1 .

C r cannot be used because it is defined only for natural number, so C r will be written as
n
 n

(n) (n  1)......( n  r  1)
r!
 The number of terms in the series is infinite.
n
If first term is not 1, then make first term unity in the following way, (x  y)n  x n 1   , if 1.
y y

 x x

n(n  1)(n  2)......(n  r  1) r

General term: Tr 1  x
r!

Some important expansions:

n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2)......(n  r  1) r
(i) (1  x )n  1  nx  x  .......  x  ......
2! r!
n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2).....(n  r  1)
(ii) (1  x )n  1  nx  x  .......  ( x )r  .......
2! r!
n(n  1) 2 n(n  1) (n  2) 3 n(n  1)......(n  r  1) r
(iii) (1  x )n  1  nx  x  x  .....  x  .....
2! 3! r!

n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3 n(n  1)......(n  r  1)

(iv) (1  x )n  1  nx  x  x  .....  ( x )r  ......
2! 3! r!

(a) Replace n by 1 in (iii): (1  x )1  1  x  x 2  .....  x r  ...... , General term, Tr 1  x r

(b) Replace n by 1 in (iv): (1  x )1  1  x  x 2  x 3  .....  ( x )r  ...... , General term, Tr 1  ( x )r .

(c) Replace n by 2 in (iii): (1  x )2  1  2 x  3 x 2  .....  (r  1)x r  ..... , General term, Tr 1  (r  1)x r .

10
(d) Replace n by 2 in (iv): (1  x )2  1  2 x  3 x 2  4 x 3  ......  (r  1)( x )r  .....

General term, Tr 1  (r  1) ( x )r .

(r  1) (r  2) r
(e) Replace n by 3 in (iii): (1  x )  3  1  3 x  6 x 2  10 x 3  .....  x  ..........
2!

General term, Tr 1  (r  1) (r  2) / 2!. x r

(r  1) (r  2)
(f) Replace n by 3 in (iv): (1  x ) 3  1  3 x  6 x 2  10 x 3  .....  ( x )r  .....
2!
(r  1)(r  2)
General term, Tr 1  ( x )r
2!

14. Three / Four Consecutive terms or Coefficients.

(1) If consecutive coefficients are given: In this case divide consecutive coefficients pair wise. We get
equations and then solve them.

(2) If consecutive terms are given : In this case divide consecutive terms pair wise i.e. if four consecutive
Tr Tr 1 Tr  2
terms be Tr , Tr 1 , Tr  2 , Tr  3 then find , ,  1 , 2 , 3 (say) then divide 1 by  2 and  2 by  3
Tr 1 Tr  2 Tr  3
and solve.

11
15. Some Important Points.

(1) Pascal's Triangle:

1 (x  y )0
1 1 (x  y)1
1 2 1 (x  y)2
1 3 3 1 (x  y)3
1 4 6 4 1 (x  y)4
1 5 10 10 5 1 (x  y)5

Pascal's triangle gives the direct binomial coefficients.

Example: (x  y)4  1 x 4  4 x 3 y  6 x 2 y 2  4 xy 3  y 4

(2) Method for finding terms free from radical or rational terms in the expansion of
N r r

(a 1/ p
b 1/q N
)  a, b  prime numbers: Find the general term Tr 1  C r (a
N 1 / p N r
) (b )  Cr a
1/q r N p
.b q

Putting the values of 0  r  N , when indices of a and b are integers.

Note: Number of irrational terms = Total terms – Number of rational terms.

16. First Principle of Mathematical Induction.

The proof of proposition by mathematical induction consists of the following three steps:
Step I: (Verification step): Actual verification of the proposition for the starting value “i”
Step II: (Induction step): Assuming the proposition to be true for “k”, k  i and proving that it is true for
the value (k + 1) which is next higher integer.
Step III: (Generalization step): To combine the above two steps
Let p(n) be a statement involving the natural number n such that
(i) p(1) is true i.e. p(n) is true for n = 1.
(ii) p(m + 1) is true, whenever p(m) is true i.e. p(m) is true  p(m + 1) is true.

Then p(n) is true for all natural numbers n.

12
17. Second Principle of Mathematical Induction.

The proof of proposition by mathematical induction consists of following steps:

Step I: (Verification step): Actual verification of the proposition for the starting value i and (i + 1).
Step II: (Induction step) : Assuming the proposition to be true for k – 1 and k and then proving that it is
true for the value k + 1; k  i + 1.
Step III: (Generalization step): Combining the above two steps.

Let p(n) be a statement involving the natural number n such that

(i) p(1) is true i.e. p(n) is true for n = 1 and
(ii) p(m + 1) is true, whenever p(n) is true for all n, where i  n  m

Then p(n) is true for all natural numbers.

For a  b, The expression a n  b n is divisible by

(a) a + b if n is even.
(b) a – b is n if odd or even.

18. Some Formulae based on Principle of Induction.

For any natural number n

n(n  1)
(i)  n  1  2  3  .......  n  2
(ii)

n(n  1)(2n  1)
 n 2  1 2  2 2  3 2  .......  n 2 
6

(iii)  n 3  1 3  2 3  3 3  ......  n 3 
n 2 (n  1)2
4
  n
2

13
19. Divisibility Problems.

To show that an expression is divisible by an integer

(i) If a, p, n, r are positive integers, then first of all we write a pnr  a pn . ar  (a p )n . ar .

(ii) If we have to show that the given expression is divisible by c.S

Then express, a p  [1  (a p  1] , if some power of (a p  1) has c as a factor.

a p  [2  (a p  2)] , if some power of (a p  2) has c as a factor.

a p  [K  (a p  K)], if some power of (a p  K) has c as a factor.

14
Mathematics

Exponential & Logarithmic Series

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content

1. Definition (The number e).

2. Properties of e.
3. Exponential series.
4. Exponential function ax where a > 0.
5. Some important results from exponential series.
6. Some standard results.
7. Logarithmic series.
8. Some important results from the logarithmic series.
9. Difference between the exponential and logarithmic
series.

1
 Exponential Series

1. Definition (The number e).

n
 1
The limiting value of  1   when n tends to infinity is denoted by e
 n
n
 1 1 1 1 1
i.e., e = e  lim 1    1      .........  = 2.71 (Nearly)
n  n 1! 2! 3! 4 !

2. Properties of e.

1 1
(1) e lies between 2.7 and 2.8. i.e., 2.7 < e < 2.8 (since  n 1 for n  2 )
n! 2
(2) The value of e correct to 10 places of decimals is 2.7182818284
(3) e is an irrational (incommensurable) number
(4) e is the base of natural logarithm (Napier logarithm) i.e. ln x  loge x and log10 e is known as

Napierian constant. log10 e  0.43429448 , ln x  2.303 log10 x

 1 
 since ln x  log10 x . loge 10 and loge 10   2 .30258509 
 log10 e 

3. Exponential Series.


x x2 x3 xr

xn
For x  R , e x  1     ......   ...... or e x 
1! 2! 3! r! n 0
n!

The above series known as exponential series and e x is called exponential function. Exponential function
is also denoted by exp. i.e. exp A  e A ;  exp x  e x

2
4. Exponential Function ax, where a > 0.

x
 a x  e loge a  e x loge a
x x2 x3 xr
ax  e x ....(i) , where   log e a . We have, e x  1    ........   ........ 
1! 2! 3! r!
x 2x2 3x3 rxr
Replacing x by  x in this series, e  x  1     .....   .....
1! 2! 3! r!
log e a (loge a)2 2 (loge a)r x r
Hence from (i), a x  1  x x  .......   ........ 
1! 2! r!

5. Some Important Results from Exponential Series.

We have the exponential series


x x2 xn
(1) e x  1  
1! 2!
 ........   
n 0 n!
…..(i)


x x2 x3 xn
(2) Replacing x by –x in (i), we obtain e  x  1   
1! 2! 3!
 ...... 
n 0
(1)n 
n!
…..(ii)


1 1 1 1
(3) Putting x  1 in (i) and (ii), we get, e  1     ...... 
1! 2! 3! n 0 n!

(1)n

1 1 1
e 1  1     ...... 
1! 2! 3! n 0 n!


e x  e x x2 x4 x6 x 2n
(4) From (i) and (ii), we obtain
2
1
2!
 
4 ! 6!
 ....... 
n 0 (2n)!


e x  e x x3 x5 x 2 n 1
2
x 
3! 5!
 .......  
n 0 (2n  1)!

e  e 1 
e  e 1 

 
1 1 1 1 1 1
(5)  1    .......  ,  1    ....... 
2 2! 4 ! n  0 (2n)! 2 3! 5! n  0 (2n  1)!

3
  

  r!
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Note: e  1      .........    e 2     .........  
1! 2! 3! 4 ! r 1 r! 2! 3! 4 ! r2

6. Some Standard results.

  

 n!  (n  1)!   (n  k )!  e
1 1 1
(1)
n 0 n 0 n 0

 n!  1!  2!  3! ..........   e  1
1 1 1 1
(2)
n 1

 n!  2!  3!  4!  .........  e  2
1 1 1 1
(3)
n2

 (n  1)!  1!  2!  3!  .........  e  1
1 1 1 1
(4)
n 0

 (n  2)!  2!  3!  4!  .........  e  2
1 1 1 1
(5)
n 0

 (n  1)!  2!  3!  4!  .........  e  2
1 1 1 1
(6)
n 1

 
e  e 1
  (2n  2)!
1 1 1 1 1
(7)  1     .........   
n 0 (2n)! 2! 4 ! 6! 2 n 1

 
e  e 1
 
1 1 1 1 1
(8)     .........   
n 1 (2n  1)! 1! 3! 5! 2 n 0 (2n  1)!

x x2 x3 xn
(9) e x  1     .........   ......... 
1! 2! 3! n!
xn 1
 Tn 1  General term in the expansion of e x  and coefficient of x n in e x 
n! n!

4
 2
x x x3 xn
(10) e  x  1     ........  (1)n  ........ 
1! 2! 3! n!
xn (1)n
 Tn 1  General term in the expansion of e  x  (1)n and coefficient of x n in e  x 
n! n!

(ax) (ax)2 (ax)3 (ax)n

(11) e ax  1     .........   ......... 
1! 2! 3! n!
(ax)n an
 Tn 1  General term in the expansion of e ax  and coefficient of x n in e ax 
n! n!

 

 n!  e   n!
n n
(12)
n 0 n 1

 
n2 n2
(13)  n!  2e   n!
n 0 n 1

 
n3 n3
(14) 
n 0 n!
 5e  
n 1 n!

 
n4 n4
(15) 
n 0 n!
 15 e  
n 1 n!

5
 Logarithmic Series

7. Logarithmic Series.
An expansion for log e (1  x ) as a series of powers of x which is valid only when,| x |  1 ,
x2 x3 x4
Expansion of loge (1  x ); if | x |  1, then log e (1  x )  x     ........ 
2 3 4

8. Some Important Results from the Logarithmic Series.

(1) Replacing x by  x in the logarithmic series, we get

x2 x3 x4 x2 x3 x4
log e (1  x )   x     ........  or  log e (1  x )  x     ........ 
2 3 4 2 3 4

x 2 x4 
(2) (i) log e (1  x )  log e (1  x )  log e (1  x 2 )  2    ........ , (1  x  1)
 2 4 
 x3 x5  1  x   x3 x5 
(ii) log e (1  x )  log e (1  x )  2  x    ........  or log e    2x    ........ 
 3 5  1  x   3 5 

(3) The series expansion of loge (1  x ) may fail to be valid if |x| is not less than 1. It can be proved that the
logarithmic series is valid for x=1. Putting x=1 in the logarithmic series.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
We get, log e 2  1       ........      ........ 
2 3 4 5 6 1 .2 3.4 5.6

(4) When x  1 , the logarithmic series does not have a sum. This is in conformity with the fact that log
(1-1) is not a finite quantity.

6
9. Difference between the Exponential and Logarithmic Series.

x x2 x3
(1) In the exponential series e x  1     ..........  all the terms carry positive signs whereas in
1! 2! 3!
x2 x3 x4
the logarithmic series log e (1  x )  x     ........  the terms are alternatively positive and
2 3 4
negative.

(2) In the exponential series the denominator of the terms involve factorial of natural numbers. But in the
logarithmic series the terms do not contain factorials.

(3) The exponential series is valid for all the values of x. The logarithmic series is valid when |x|< 1.

7
Mathematics

Determinants

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Table of Content

1. Definition.
2. Expansion of determinants.
3. Evaluation of determinants.
4. Properties of determinants.
5. Minors and cofactors.
6. Product of two determinants.
7. Summation of determinants.
8. Differentiation and integration of determinants.
9. Application in solving a system of linear equations.
10. Application in co-ordinate geometry.
11. Some special determinants.

1
1. Definition.

(1) Consider two equations, a1 x  b1 y  0 .....(i) and a 2 x  b 2 y  0 .....(ii)

Multiplying (i) by b 2 and (ii) by b 1 and subtracting, dividing by x, we get, a1 b 2  a 2 b1  0
a1 b1
The result a1 b 2  a 2 b1 is represented by
a2 b2
Which is known as determinant of order two and a1 b 2  a 2 b1 is the expansion of this determinant. The
horizontal lines are called rows and vertical lines are called columns.
Now let us consider three homogeneous linear equations
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  0 , a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  0 and a 3 x  b 3 y  c 3 z  0
Eliminated x, y, z from above three equations we obtain
a1 (b 2 c 3  b 3 c 2 )  b1 (a 2 c 3  a3 c 2 )  c1 (a 2 b 3  a3 b 2 )  0 .....(iii)
a1 b1 c1
The L.H.S. of (iii) is represented by a 2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
It contains three rows and three columns, it is called a determinant of third order.

Note: The number of elements in a second order is 2 2  4 and the number of elements in a
third order determinant is 3 2  9 .

(2) Rows and columns of a determinant: In a determinant horizontal lines counting from top 1st, 2nd,
3rd,….. respectively known as rows and denoted by R1 , R 2 , R 3 , ...... and vertical lines counting left to
right, 1st, 2nd, 3rd,….. respectively known as columns and denoted by C1 , C 2 , C 3 ,.....

(3) Shape and constituents of a determinant: Shape of every determinant is square. If a determinant of
n order then it contains n rows and n columns.
i.e., Number of constituents in determinants = n2

(4) Sign system for expansion of determinant: Sign system for order 2, order 3, order 4, are given by
   
  
     
,    , , .....
     
  
   

2
2. Expansion of Determinants.

Unlike a matrix, determinant is not just a table of numerical data but (quite differently) a short hand way
of writing algebraic expression, whose value can be computed when the values of terms or elements are
known.

a1 b1
(1) The 4 numbers a1 , b1 , a 2 , b 2 arranged as is a determinant of second order. These numbers
a2 b2
a1 b1
are called elements of the determinant. The value of the determinant is defined as
a2 b2
 a1 b 2  a 2 b1 .
The expanded form of determinant has 2! terms.

a1 b1 c1
(2) The 9 numbers ar , b r , c r (r  1, 2, 3) arranged as a 2 b2 c 2 is a determinant of third order. Take
a3 b3 c3
any row (or column); the value of the determinant is the sum of products of the elements of the row (or
column) and the corresponding determinant obtained by omitting the row and the column of the
element with a proper sign, given by the rule (1)i j , where i and j are the number of rows and the
number of columns respectively of the element of the row (or the column) chosen.

a1 b1 c1
b c2 a c2 a b2
Thus a 2 b2 c 2 = a1 2  b1 2  c1 2
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
a3 b3 c3
The diagonal through the left-hand top corner which contains the element a1 , b 2 , c 3 is called the leading
diagonal or principal diagonal and the terms are called the leading terms. The expanded form of determinant
has 3! terms.

3
Short cut method or Sarrus diagram method: To find the value of third order determinant, following
method is also useful

a1
b1 c1 b1
a1
a2 b2
a2 b2 c2
=

b3
a3 b3
c3 a3

Taking product of R.H.S. diagonal elements positive and L.H.S. diagonal elements negative and adding
them. We get the value of determinant as  a1 b 2 c 3  b1 c 2 a3  c1 a 2 b 3  c1 b 2 a3  a1 c 2 b 3  b1 a 2 c 3

Note: This method does not work for determinants of order greater than three.

3. Evaluation of Determinants.

If A is a square matrix of order 2, then its determinant can be easily found. But to evaluate determinants
of square matrices of higher orders, we should always try to introduce zeros at maximum number of
places in a particular row (column) by using the properties and then we should expand the determinant
along that row (column).

We shall be using the following notations to evaluate a determinant:

(1) R i to denote i th row.
(2) R i  R j to denote the interchange of i th and j th rows.

(3) R i  R i  R j to denote the addition of  times the elements of j th row to the corresponding
elements of i th row.
(4) R i ( ) to denote the multiplication of all element of i th row by  .
Similar notations are used to denote column operations if R is replaced by C.

4
4. Properties of Determinants.

P-1: The value of determinant remains unchanged, if the rows and the columns are interchanged.
a1 b1 c1 a1 a2 a3
If D  a 2 b2 c 2 and D'  b1 b2 b 3 . Then D'  D, D and D' are transpose of each other.
a3 b3 c3 c1 c2 c3

Note: Since the determinant remains unchanged when rows and columns are interchanged, it is obvious that any
theorem which is true for ‘rows’ must also be true for ‘columns’.

P-2: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant be interchanged, the determinant is unaltered in
numerical value but is changed in sign only.
a1 b 1 c 1 a2 b 2 c 2
Let D  a 2 b 2 c 2 and D'  a1 b1 c1 . Then D'  D
a3 b 3 c 3 a3 b 3 c 3

P-3: If a determinant has two rows (or columns) identical, then its value is zero.
a1 b1 c1
Let D  a1 b1 c1 . Then, D = 0
a2 b2 c2

P-4: If all the elements of any row (or column) be multiplied by the same number, then the value of
determinant is multiplied by that number.
a1 b 1 c 1 ka 1 kb 1 kc 1
Let D  a 2 b 2 c 2 and D   a 2 b 2 c 2 . Then D'  kD
a3 b 3 c 3 a3 b 3 c3

P-5: If each element of any row (or column) can be expressed as a sum of two terms, then the
determinant can be expressed as the sum of the determinants.
a1  x b1  y c1  z a1 b1 c1 x y z
e.g., a2 b2 c2 = a2 b2 c 2 + a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

5
P-6: The value of a determinant is not altered by adding to the elements of any row (or column) the
same multiples of the corresponding elements of any other row (or column)
a1 b1 c1 a1  ma 2 b1  mb 2 c1  mc 2
e.g., D  a 2 b2 c 2 and D'  a2 b2 c2 . Then
a3 b3 c3 a 3  na1 b 3  nb1 c 3  nc1
D'  D

Note: It should be noted that while applying P-6 at least one row (or column) must remain unchanged.

P-7 : If all elements below leading diagonal or above leading diagonal or except leading diagonal
elements are zero then the value of the determinant equal to multiplied of all leading diagonal elements.

a1 b1 c1 a1 0 0 a1 0 0
e.g., 0 b2 c 2  a2 b2 0  0 b2 0  a1 b 2 c 3
0 0 c3 a3 b3 c3 0 0 c3

P-8: If a determinant D becomes zero on putting x   , then we say that (x   ) is factor of determinant.

x 25
e.g., if D  x2 4 . At x  2, D  0 (because C 1 and C 2 are identical at x  2 )
9
x3 16 8

Hence (x  2) is a factor of D.

Note: It should be noted that while applying operations on determinants then at least one row (or column) must
remain unchanged or Maximum number of operations = order or determinant –1

It should be noted that if the row (or column) which is changed by multiplied a non-zero number, then the
determinant will be divided by that number.

6
5. Minors and Cofactors.

(1) Minor of an element: If we take the element of the determinant and delete (remove) the row and
column containing that element, the determinant left is called the minor of that element. It is denoted by
M ij
a11 a12 a13 M 11 M 12 M 13
Consider the determinant   a 21 a 22 a 23 , then determinant of minors M  M 21 M 22 M 23 ,
a 31 a 32 a 33 M 31 M 32 M 33
a 22 a 23 a a 23
Where M 11  minor of a11  , M 12  minor of a12  21
a 32 a 33 a31 a33
a 21 a 22
M 13  Minor of a13 
a 31 a 32

Similarly, we can find the minors of other elements. Using this concept the value of determinant can be
  a11 M 11  a12 M 12  a13 M 13
or,   a 21 M 21  a 22 M 22  a 23 M 23 or,   a31 M 31  a32 M 32  a33 M 33 .

(2) Cofactor of an element: The cofactor of an element aij (i.e. the element in the i th row and j th
column) is defined as (1)i j times the minor of that element. It is denoted by C ij or A ij or Fij .
Cij  (1)i j M ij
a11 a12 a13 C11 C12 C13
If   a 21 a 22 a 23 , then determinant of cofactors is C  C 21 C 22 C 23 , where
a 31 a 32 a 33 C 31 C 32 C 33

C11  (1)11 M 11   M 11 , C12  (1)1 2 M 12   M 12 and C13  (1)13 M 13   M 13

Similarly, we can find the cofactors of other elements.

Note: The sum of products of the element of any row with their corresponding cofactor is equal to the value of
determinant i.e.   a11 C11  a12 C12  a13 C13  a11 C11  a 21 C 21  a 31 C 31
Where the capital letters C11 , C12 , C13 etc. denote the cofactors of a11 , a12 , a13 etc.
 In general, it should be noted
ai1 C j1  ai2 C j 2  ai3 C j3  0, if i  j or a1i C1 j  a 2i C 2 j  a 3 i C 3 j  0, if i  j
 If ' is the determinant formed by replacing the elements of a determinant  by their corresponding cofactors,
then if   0 , then C  0 , '  n 1 , where n is the order of the determinant.

7
6. Product of two Determinants.

Let the two determinants of third order be,

a1 b1 c1 1 1  1
D1  a2 b2 c2 and D2   2  2  2 . Let D be their product.
a3 b3 c3 3 3  3

(1) Method of multiplying (Row by row): Take the first row of D1 and the first row of D2 i.e. a1 , b1 , c1
and 1 , 1 ,  1 multiplying the corresponding elements and add. The result is a11  b1 1  c1 1 is the
first element of first row of D.
Now similar product first row of D1 and second row of D2 gives a1 2  b1  2  c1 2 is the second
element of first row of D, and the product of first row D1 and third row of D2 gives a1 3  b1  3  c1 3 is
the third element of first row of D. The second row and third row of D is obtained by multiplying second
row and third row of D1 with 1st, 2nd , 3rd row of D2 , in the above manner.
a1 b1 c1 1 1  1 a1 1  b1  1  c1 1 a1 2  b1  2  c1 2 a1 3  b1  3  c1 3
Hence, D  a 2 b2 c2   2  2  2  a 2 1  b 2  1  c 2 1 a 2 2  b 2  2  c 2 2 a 2 3  b 2  3  c 2 3
a3 b3 c3 3 3  3 a 3 1  b 3  1  c 3  1 a 3  2  b 3  2  c 3  2 a 3 3  b 3  3  c 3  3

Note: We can also multiply rows by columns or columns by rows or columns by columns.

7. Summation of Determinants.

f (r) a l
Let  r  g(r) b m , where a, b, c, l, m and n are constants, independent of r.
h(r) c n

 f (r)
r 1
a l
n n
Then, 
r 1
r   g(r)
r 1
b m . Here function of r can be the elements of only one row or one
n

 h(r)
r 1
c n

column.

8
8. Differentiation and Integration of Determinants.

(1) Differentiation of a determinant:

(i) Let (x ) be a determinant of order two. If we write (x ) | C1 C2 | , where C1 and C 2 denote the 1st
and 2nd columns, then
' (x )  C'1 C2  C1 C2
Where C' i denotes the column which contains the derivative of all the functions in the i th column C i .
R1 R '1 R1
In a similar fashion, if we write (x )  , then   (x )  
R2 R2 R 2

(ii) Let (x ) be a determinant of order three. If we write (x )  C1 C2 C3 , then

' (x )  C'1 C2 C3  C1 C'2 C3  C1 C2 C '3
R1 R '1 R1 R1
and similarly if we consider (x )  R 2 , then ' (x )  R2  R '2  R2
R3 R3 R3 R '3

(iii) If only one row (or column) consists functions of x and other rows (or columns) are constant, viz.
f1 (x ) f2 (x ) f3 (x )
Let (x )  b1 b2 b3 ,
c1 c2 c3
n n n
f '1 (x ) f '2 (x ) f '3 (x ) f1 (x ) f2 (x ) f3 (x )
Then ' (x )  b1 b2 b3 and in general  (x )  b1
n
b2 b3
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3

Where n is any positive integer and f n (x ) denotes the n th derivative of f (x ) .

9
9. Application of Determinants in solving a system of Linear Equations.

a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d 1 

Consider a system of simultaneous linear equations is given by a2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d 2  .....(i)
a 3 x  b 3 y  c 3 z  d 3 

A set of values of the variables x, y, z which simultaneously satisfy these three equations is called a
solution. A system of linear equations may have a unique solution or many solutions, or no solution at
all, if it has a solution (whether unique or not) the system is said to be consistent. If it has no solution, it
is called an inconsistent system.

If d1  d 2  d 3  0 in (i) then the system of equations is said to be a homogeneous system. Otherwise it

is called a non-homogeneous system of equations.

Theorem 1: (Cramer’s rule) the solution of the system of simultaneous linear equations

a1 x  b1 y  c1 .....(i) and a2 x  b 2 y  c 2 .....(ii)

D1 D a b1 c1 b1 a1 c1
is given by x  , y  2 , where D  1 , D1  and D2  , provided that
D D a2 b2 c2 b2 a2 c2
D0

a1 b1  a1 b1 
Note: Here D  is the determinant of the coefficient matrix  .
a2 b2  a2 b 2 

The determinant D1 is obtained by replacing first column in D by the column of the right hand side

of the given equations. The determinant D 2 is obtained by replacing the second column in D by the
right most column in the given system of equations.

10
(1) Solution of system of linear equations in three variables by Cramer’s rule:

Theorem 2: (Cramer’s Rule) the solution of the system of linear equations

a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d 1 .....(i)

a2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d 2 .....(ii)

a3 x  b 3 y  c 3 z  d 3 .....(iii)

a1 b1 c1
D D2 D3
is given by x  1 , y and z  , where D  a 2 b2 c2 ,
D D D
a3 b3 c3

d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
D1  d 2 b2 c 2 , D2  a 2 d2 c 2 , and D3  a 2 b2 d 2 , Provided that D  0
d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3

Note: Here D is the determinant of the coefficient matrix. The determinant D1 is obtained by replacing the
elements in first column of D by d 1 , d 2 , d 3 . D 2 is obtained by replacing the element in the second column of D by
d 1 , d 2 , d 3 and to obtain D 3 , replace elements in the third column of D by d 1 , d 2 , d 3 .

Theorem 3: (Cramer’s Rule) let there be a system of n simultaneous linear equation n unknown given by
a11 x 1  a12 x 2  ....  a1n x n  b1
a 21 x 1  a 22 x 2  ....  a 2 n x n  b 2
  
a n1 x 1  a n 2 x 2  ....  a nn x n  b n
a11 a12  a1 n
a 21 a 22  a 2n
Let D  and let D j , be the determinant obtained from D after replacing the j th
 
a n1 an 2  a nm
b1
b2 D1 D D
column by . Then, x 1  , x 2  2 , ....., x n  n , Provided that D  0
 D D D
bn

11
(2) Conditions for consistency

Case 1: For a system of 2 simultaneous linear equations with 2 unknowns

(i) If D  0 , then the given system of equations is consistent and has a unique solution given by
D D
x  1 ,y  2 .
D D

(ii) If D  0 and D1  D2  0 , then the system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions.

(iii) If D  0 and one of D1 and D 2 is non-zero, then the system is inconsistent.

Case 2: For a system of 3 simultaneous linear equations in three unknowns

(i) If D  0 , then the given system of equations is consistent and has a unique solution given by
D D D
x  1 , y  2 and z  3
D D D

(ii) If D  0 and D1  D2  D3  0 , then the given system of equations is consistent with infinitely many
solutions.

(iii) If D  0 and at least one of the determinants D1 , D2 , D3 is non-zero, then given of equations is
inconsistent.

(3) Algorithm for solving a system of simultaneous linear equations by Cramer’s rule (Determinant
method)

Step 1: Obtain D, D1 , D2 and D 3

Step 2: Find the value of D. If D  0 , then the system of the equations is consistent has a unique
solution. To find the solution, obtain the values of D1 , D2 and D 3 . The solutions is given by
D1 D D
x , y  2 and z  3 . If D  0 go to step 3.
D D D

12
Step 3: Find the values of D1 , D2 , D3 . If at least one of these determinants is non-zero, then the system
is inconsistent. If D1  D2  D3  0, then go to step 4

Step 4: Take any two equations out of three given equations and shift one of the variables, say z on the right
hand side to obtain two equations in x, y. Solve these two equations by Cramer’s rule to obtain x, y, in terms
of z.

Note: The system of following homogeneous equations a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  0 , a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  0 ,

a 3 x  b 3 y  c 3 z  0 is always consistent.

a1 b1 c1
If   a 2 b2 c 2  0 , then this system h
a3 b3 c3

As the unique solution x  y  z  0 known as trivial

10. Application of Determinants in Co-ordinate Geometry.

(1) Area of triangle whose vertices are (x r , y r ); r  1, 2, 3 is

x1 y1 1
1 1
  [ x 1 (y 2  y 3 )  x 2 (y 3  y 1 )  x 3 (y 1  y 2 )]  x2 y2 1
2 2
x3 y3 1
(2) If ar x  br y  cr  0, (r  1, 2, 3) are the sides of a triangle, then the area of the triangle is given by
2
a1 b1 c1
1
 a2 b2 c2 , where C1  a2 b 3  a3 b 2 , C 2  a3 b1  a1b 3 , C 3  a1b 2  a2 b1 are the
2 C1 C 2 C 3
a3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1
cofactors of the elements c1 , c 2 , c 3 respectively in the determinant a2 b2 c2 .
a3 b3 c3

13
 x y 1
(3) The equation of a straight line passing through two points (x 1 , y1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) is x 1 y1 1 0
x2 y2 1

a1 b1 c1
(4) If three lines ar x  br y  cr  0 ; (r  1, 2, 3) are concurrent if a 2 b2 c2  0
a3 b3 c3

(5) If ax 2  2hxy  by 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0 represents a pair of straight lines then

a h g
abc  2 fgh  af  bg  ch  0  h b f
2 2 2

g f c
(6) The equation of circle through three non-collinear points A(x 1 , y1 ), B(x 2 , y 2 ), C(x 3 , y 3 ) is
x2  y2 x y 1
x 12  y 12 x1 y1 1
0
x 22  y 22 x2 y2 1
x 32  y 32 x3 y3 1

11. Some Special Determinants.

(1) Symmetric determinant: A determinant is called symmetric determinant if for its every element
a h g
aij  a ji  i, j e.g., h b f
g f c

(2) Skew-symmetric determinant: A determinant is called skew symmetric determinant if for its every
0 3 1
element aij   a ji  i, j e.g.,  3 0 5
1 5 0

Note: Every diagonal element of a skew symmetric determinant is always zero.

The value of a skew symmetric determinant of even order is always a perfect square and that of odd order is always
zero.

14
 0 a
(ii)  0  a 2  a 2 (Perfect square)
a 0

0 ab e  f
(iii) b  a 0 lm  0
f e m l 0

(3) Cyclic order: If elements of the rows (or columns) are in cyclic order.

i.e.

1 a a2
(i) 1 b b 2  (a  b)(b  c)(c  a)
1 c c2

a b c 1 1 1
(ii) a2 b2 c  a2
2
b2 c 2  (a  b)(b  c)(c  a)(ab  bc  ca)
bc ca ab a3 b3 c3

a bc abc a a2 a3
(iii) b ca abc  b b 2 b 3  abc(a  b)(b  c)(c  a)
c ab abc c c2 c3

1 1 1
(iv) a b c  (a  b)(b  c)(c  a)(a  b  c)
a3 b3 c3

a b c
(v) b c a  (a 3  b 3  c 3  3 abc)
c a b

Note: These results direct applicable in lengthy questions (As behavior of standard results)
15
Mathematics

Matrices

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content

1. Definition.
2. Order of a matrix.
3. Equality of matrices.
4. Types of matrices.
5. Addition and subtraction of matrices.
6. Scalar multiplication of matrices.
7. Multiplication of matrices.
8. Positive integral powers of a matrix.
9. Matrix polynomial.
10. Transpose of a matrix.
11. determinants of a matrix.
12. Special types of matrices.
13. Adjoint of a square matrix.
14. Inverse of a matrix.
15. Elementary transformation or Elementary operations of
a matrix.
16. Elementary matrix.
17. Rank of matrix.
18. Echelon form of a matrix.
1
19. System of simultaneous linear equations.
20. Solution of a non-homogeneous system of linear
equations.
21. Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
22. Geometrical transformations.
23. Matrices of rotations of axes.

2
1. Definition.

A rectangular arrangement of numbers (which may be real or complex numbers) in rows and columns, is
called a matrix. This arrangement is enclosed by small ( ) or big [ ] brackets. The numbers are called the
elements of the matrix or entries in the matrix. A matrix is represented by capital letters A, B, C etc. and
its elements by small letters a, b, c, x, y etc. The following are some examples of matrices:
a 
1 4  2  i 3 2 
A  , B  , C  [1, 4, 9] , D   g , E  [l]
2 3   1  3  i  5
 h 

2. Order of a Matrix.

A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m×n or simply m×n matrix (read as 'an
m by n matrix). A matrix A of order m×n is usually written in the following manner

 a11 a12 a13 ...a1 j ...a1n 

a a 22 a 23 ...a 2 j ...a 2 n 
 21
 ..... ..... ..... ..... .....  i  1, 2,.....m
A  or A  [a ij ]m n , where
 a i1 ai2 a i3 ...a ij ...a in  j  1, 2,.....n
 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 
 
a m 1 am 2 am 3 ...a mj ...a mn 

3  1 5 
Here aij denotes the element of ith row and jth column. Example: order of matrix   is 2×3
6 2  7 

Note: A matrix of order m×n contains mn elements. Every row of such a matrix contains n elements and every
column contains m elements.

3
3. Equality of Matrices.

Two matrix A and B are said to be equal matrix if they are of same order and their corresponding
1 6 3  a a 2 a 3 
elements are equal Example: If A    and B   1  are equal matrices.
5 2 1  b1 b 2 b 3 

Then a1  1, a 2  6, a3  3, b1  5, b 2  2, b 3  1

4. Types of Matrices.

(1) Row matrix: A matrix is said to be a row matrix or row vector if it has only one row and any number
of columns. Example: [5 0 3] is a row matrix of order 1× 3 and [2] is a row matrix of order 1×1.

(2) Column matrix: A matrix is said to be a column matrix or column vector if it has only one column
 2
and any number of rows. Example:  3  is a column matrix of order 3×1 and [2] is a column matrix of
  6 
order 1×1. Observe that [2] is both a row matrix as well as a column matrix.

(3) Singleton matrix: If in a matrix there is only one element then it is called singleton matrix.
Thus, A  [aij]mn is a singleton matrix if m  n  1 Example: [2], [3], [a], [–3] are singleton matrices.

(4) Null or zero matrix: If in a matrix all the elements are zero then it is called a zero matrix and it is
generally denoted by O. Thus A  [aij ]mn is a zero matrix if aij  0 for all i and j.

0 0  0 0 0 
Example: [0],  ,  , [0 0] are all zero matrices, but of different orders.
0 0  0 0 0 

(5) Square matrix: If number of rows and number of columns in a matrix are equal, then it is called a square
 a11 a12 a13 
matrix. Thus A  [aij ]m n is a square matrix if m  n . Example : a 21 a 22 a 23  is a square matrix of order
a 31 a 32 a 33 
3×3
4
(i) If m  n then matrix is called a rectangular matrix.

(ii) The elements of a square matrix A for which i  j, i.e. a11 , a22 , a33 ,....ann are called diagonal elements
and the line joining these elements is called the principal diagonal or leading diagonal of matrix A.

(iii) Trace of a matrix: The sum of diagonal elements of a square matrix. A is called the trace of matrix A ,
n
which is denoted by tr A. tr A  a
i1
ii  a11  a 22  ...ann

Properties of trace of a matrix: Let A  [aii ]nn and B  [bij ]nn and  be a scalar

(i) tr(A)   tr( A)

(ii) tr( A  B)  tr( A)  tr (B)
(iii) tr( AB)  tr(BA)
(iv) tr ( A)  tr ( A' ) or tr ( A T )
(v) tr (In )  n
(vi) tr (0)= 0
(vii) tr ( AB)  tr A . tr B

(6) Diagonal matrix: If all elements except the principal diagonal in a square matrix are zero, it is called
a diagonal matrix. Thus a square matrix A  [aij] is a diagonal matrix if aij  0, when i  j .

2 0 0 
Example: 0 3 0  is a diagonal matrix of order 3×3, which can be denoted by diag [2, 3, and 4]
0 0 4 

Note: No element of principal diagonal in a diagonal matrix is zero.

 Number of zeros in a diagonal matrix is given by n 2  n where n is the order of the matrix.
 A diagonal matrix of order n  n having d1 , d 2 ,....., d n as diagonal elements is denoted by diag [d 1 , d 2 ,..., d n ] .

5
(7) Identity matrix: A square matrix in which elements in the main diagonal are all '1' and rest are all
zero is called an identity matrix or unit matrix. Thus, the square matrix A  [aij ] is an identity matrix, if
1, if i  j
aij  
0, if i  j
We denote the identity matrix of order n by In .
 1 0 0
1 0   
Example: [1],   ,  0 1 0  are identity matrices of order 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
 0 1   0 0 1
 

(8) Scalar matrix : A square matrix whose all non-diagonal elements are zero and diagonal elements are
 , if i  j
equal is called a scalar matrix. Thus, if A  [aij ] is a square matrix and aij   , then A is a scalar
0, if i  j
matrix.
5 0 0 
1 0   
Example: [2],  , 0 5 0  are scalar matrices of order 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
 0 1  0 0 5 
 

Note: Unit matrix and null square matrices are also scalar matrices.

(9) Triangular Matrix: A square matrix [aij ] is said to be triangular matrix if each element above or below
the principal diagonal is zero. It is of two types
(i) Upper Triangular matrix: A square matrix [aij ] is called the upper triangular matrix, if aij  0 when i  j .

3 1 2
Example: 0 4 3  is an upper triangular matrix of order 3×3.
0 0 6 

(ii) Lower Triangular matrix: A square matrix [aij ] is called the lower triangular matrix, if aij  0 when i<
j.
1 0 0 
Example:  2 3 0  is a lower triangular matrix of order 3×3.
4 5 2 

6
 n(n  1)
Note: Minimum number of zeros in a triangular matrix is given by where n is order of matrix.
2
 Diagonal matrix is both upper and lower triangular.
 A triangular matrix a  [aij ]nn is called strictly triangular if aij  0 for 1  i  n

5. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices.

If A  [aij ]m n and B  [b ij ]m n are two matrices of the same order then their sum A+B is a matrix whose
each element is the sum of corresponding elements. i.e. A  B  [aij  b ij ]mn

5 2 1 5   5  1 2  5  6 7 
Example: If A  1 3  and B   2 2  , then A  B  1  2 3  2   3 5 
  
4 1  3 3  4  3 1  3  7 4 

Similarly, their subtraction A  B is defined as A  B  [aij  b ij ]mn

 5  1 2  5  4  3
i.e. in above example A  B  1  2 3  2     1 1 
4  3 1  3   1  2 
Note: Matrix addition and subtraction can be possible only when matrices are of the same order.

Properties of matrix addition: If A, B and C are matrices of same order, then

(i) A  B  B  A (Commutative law)
(ii) ( A  B)  C  A  (B  C) (Associative law)
(iii) A  O  O  A  A, Where O is zero matrix which is additive identity of the matrix.
(iv) A  ( A)  0  ( A)  A , where ( A) is obtained by changing the sign of every element of A, which is
additive inverse of the matrix.
A  B  A  C
(v)   B  C (Cancellation law)
B  A  C  A

7
6. Scalar Multiplication of Matrices.

Let A  [aij ]m n be a matrix and k be a number, then the matrix which is obtained by multiplying every
element of A by k is called scalar multiplication of A by k and it is denoted by kA.
2 4  10 20 
Thus, if A  [aij ]m n , then kA  Ak  [ka ij ]mn . Example: If A   3 1  , then 5 A  15
  5 
4 6   20 30 
Properties of scalar multiplication:
If A, B are matrices of the same order and ,  are any two scalars then
(i) ( A  B)  A  B (ii) (  )A  A  A
(iii) (A)  ( A)  (A) (iv) (A)  (A)   ( A)

Note: All the laws of ordinary algebra hold for the addition or subtraction of matrices and their multiplication by
scalars.

7. Multiplication of Matrices.

Two matrices A and B are conformable for the product AB if the number of columns in A (pre-multiplier)
is same as the number of rows in B (post multiplier).Thus, if A  [aij ]m n and B  [b ij ]n p are two matrices
of order m×n and n  p respectively, then their product AB is of order m  p and is defined as
n
( AB)ij  a
r 1
ir b rj

 b1 j 
b 
 [ai1 ai 2 ...ain ] 2 j  = (ith row of A)(jth column of B) .....(i), where i=1, 2, ..., m and j=1, 2, ...p
 
b nj 
Now we define the product of a row matrix and a column matrix.
b 1 
 
Let A  a1 a 2 ....an  be a row matrix and B  b 2  be a column matrix.
  
b n 
Then AB  a1b1  a2 b 2  ....  an bn  …(ii). Thus, from (i),
( AB)ij  Sum of the product of elements of ith row of A with the corresponding elements of jth column of
B.

8
Properties of matrix multiplication

If A,B and C are three matrices such that their product is defined, then
(i) AB  BA (Generally not commutative)
(ii) ( AB)C  A(BC) (Associative Law)
(iii) IA  A  AI Where I is identity matrix for matrix multiplication
(iv) A(B  C)  AB  AC (Distributive law)
(v) If AB  AC 
 BC (Cancellation law is not applicable)
(vi) If AB= 0 It does not mean that A= 0 or B = 0, again product of two non zero matrix may be a zero
matrix.

Note: If A and B are two matrices such that AB exists, then BA may or may not exist.
 The multiplication of two triangular matrices is a triangular matrix.
 The multiplication of two diagonal matrices is also a diagonal matrix and
diag (a1 , a 2 ,....an )  diag (b1 , b 2 ,....b n )  diag (a1 b1 , a 2 b 2 ,....an b n )
 The multiplication of two scalar matrices is also a scalar matrix.
 If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then

(i) ( A  B)2  A 2  B 2  AB  BA
(ii) ( A  B 2 )  A 2  B 2  AB  BA
(iii) ( A  B)(A  B)  A 2  B 2  AB  BA
(iv) ( A  B)(A  B)  A 2  B 2  AB  BA
(v) A(B)  ( A)B  ( AB)

8. Positive Integral Powers of a Matrix.

The positive integral powers of a matrix A are defined only when A is a square matrix. Also then
A 2  A. A , A 3  A. A. A  A 2 A . Also for any positive integers m ,n.
(i) A m A n  A m n
(ii) ( A m )n  A mn  ( A n )m
(iii) I n  I, I m  I
(iv) A 0  In Where A is a square matrix of order n.

9
9. Matrix Polynomial.

Let f (x )  a0 x n  a1 x n 1  a 2 x n 2  ...  an 1 x  an be a polynomial and let A be a square matrix of order n.

Then f ( A)  a0 A n  a1 A n 1  a 2 A n 2  ...  an 1 A  an In is called a matrix polynomial.

Example: If f (x )  x 2  3 x  2 is a polynomial and A is a square matrix, then A 2  3 A  2 I is a matrix

polynomial.

10. Transpose of a Matrix.

The matrix obtained from a given matrix A by changing its rows into columns or columns into rows is
called transpose of Matrix A and is denoted by A T or A  .
From the definition it is obvious that if order of A is m×n, then order of A T is n×m
 a1 b1 
a a3 
is a 2 b 2 
a2
Example: Transpose of matrix  1 
b1 b2 b 3  2 3
a 3 b 3  32

Properties of transpose: Let A and B be two matrices then

(i) ( A T )T  A
(ii) ( A  B)T  A T  B T , A and B being of the same order
(iii) (kA )T  kA T , k be any scalar (real or complex)
(iv) ( AB)T  B T A T , A and B being conformable for the product AB
(v) ( A1 A 2 A 3 ..... An 1 An )T  An An 1 ....... A 3 A 2 A1
T T T T T

(vi) I T  I

10
11. Determinant of a Matrix.

 a11 a12 a13 

If A  a 21 a 22 a 23  be a square matrix, then its determinant, denoted by |A| or Det (A) is defined as
a 31 a 32 a 33 

a11 a12 a13

| A |  a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33

Properties of determinant of a matrix

(i) | A | Exists  A is square matrix

(ii) | AB | | A || B |

(iii) | A T | | A |

(iv) | kA |  k n | A |, If A is a square matrix of order n

(v) If A and B are square matrices of same order then |AB|=|BA|

(vi) If A is a skew symmetric matrix of odd order then | A |  0

(vii) If A  diag (a1 , a 2 ,.....an ) then | A |  a1 a 2 ...an

(viii)| A | n | A n |, n  N .

12. Special Types of Matrices.

(1) Symmetric and skew-symmetric matrix

(i) Symmetric matrix: A square matrix A  [aij] is called symmetric matrix if aij  a ji for all i, j or A T  A

a h g 
Example:  h b f 
 g f c 

11
Note: Every unit matrix and square zero matrix are symmetric matrices.

n(n  1)
 Maximum number of different elements in a symmetric matrix is
2

(ii) Skew-symmetric matrix: A square matrix A  [aij] is called skew- symmetric matrix if aij  a ji for all i,
j

 0 h g

or A   A . Example:   h 0
T
f 
 g  f 0 

Note: All principal diagonal elements of a skew- symmetric matrix are always zero because for any diagonal
element. aij  aij  aij  0
 Trace of a skew symmetric matrix is always 0.

Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices:

(i) If A is a square matrix, then A  A T , AA T , A T A are symmetric matrices, while A  A T is skew- symmetric
matrix.

(ii) If A is a symmetric matrix, then  A, KA, A T , A n , A 1 , B T AB are also symmetric matrices, where n  N ,
K  R and B is a square matrix of order that of A

(iii) If A is a skew-symmetric matrix, then

(a) A 2 n is a symmetric matrix for n  N ,
(b) A 2 n 1 is a skew-symmetric matrix for n  N ,
(c) kA is also skew-symmetric matrix, where k  R ,
(d) B T AB is also skew- symmetric matrix where B is a square matrix of order that of A.

(iv) If A, B are two symmetric matrices, then

(a) A  B, AB  BA are also symmetric matrices,
(b) AB  BA is a skew- symmetric matrix,
(c) AB is a symmetric matrix, when AB  BA .

(v) If A,B are two skew-symmetric matrices, then

(a) A  B, AB  BA are skew-symmetric matrices,
(b) AB  BA is a symmetric matrix.

12
(vi) If A a skew-symmetric matrix and C is a column matrix, then C T AC is a zero matrix.

(vii) Every square matrix A can uniquelly be expressed as sum of a symmetric and skew-symmetric matrix
i.e.
1  1 
A   ( A  A T )   ( A  A T ) .
2  2 

(2) Singular and Non-singular matrix: Any square matrix A is said to be non-singular if | A |  0, and a
square matrix A is said to be singular if| A |  0 . Here | A | (or det(A) or simply det |A| means
corresponding determinant of square matrix A.
2 3 2 3
Example: A    then| A |   10  12  2  A is a non-singular matrix.
4 5  4 5

(3) Hermitian and skew-Hermitian matrix: A square matrix A  [aij ] is said to be hermitian matrix if
 3 3  4 i 5  2i 
 a b  ic 
aij  a ji i. j i.e. A  A . Example: 

 , 3  4 i 5  2  i are Hermitian matrices.
b  ic d 
 5  2i  2  i 2 

Note: If A is a Hermitian matrix then aii  aii  aii is real i, thus every diagonal element of a Hermitian matrix
must be real.
 A Hermitian matrix over the set of real numbers is actually a real symmetric matrix and a square matrix, A=|aij| is

said to be a skew-Hermitian if aij  a ji . i, j i.e. A   A .

 3i  3  2i  1  i 
 0  2  i 
Example:   ,  3  2i  2i  2  4 i are skew-Hermitian matrices.
 2  i 0   1i
 2  4i 0 
 If A is a skew-Hermitian matrix, then aii  aii  aii  aii  0 i.e. aii must be purely imaginary or zero.
 A skew-Hermitian matrix over the set of real numbers is actually a real skew-symmetric matrix.

(4) Orthogonal matrix: A square matrix A is called orthogonal if AA T  I  A T A i.e. if A 1  A T

 cos   sin    cos  sin  
Example: A    is orthogonal because A 1     AT
 sin  cos    sin  cos  
In fact every unit matrix is orthogonal.

(5) Idempotent matrix: A square matrix A is called an idempotent matrix if A 2  A .

1 / 2 1 / 2  1 / 4  1 / 4 1 / 4  1 / 4  1 / 2 1 / 2 
Example:   is an idempotent matrix, because A 2      A.
1 / 2 1 / 2  1 / 4  1 / 4 1 / 4  1 / 4  1 / 2 1 / 2 

13
 1 0  0 0 
Also, A    and B    are idempotent matrices because A 2  A and B 2  B .
0 0  0 1 
In fact every unit matrix is indempotent.

(6) Involutory matrix: A square matrix A is called an involutory matrix if A 2  I or A 1  A

1 0  1 0 
Example: A    is an involutory matrix because A 2   I
0 1  0 1 
In fact every unit matrix is involutory.

(7) Nilpotent matrix: A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix if there exists a p  N such that
Ap  0
0 0  0 0 
Example: A    is a nilpotent matrix because A  0 0   0
2
(Here P = 2)
 1 0   

(8) Unitary matrix: A square matrix is said to be unitary, if A' A  I since | A  | | A | and | A ' A | | A '|| A |
therefore if A  A=I, we have | A '|| A |  1
Thus the determinant of unitary matrix is of unit modulus. For a matrix to be unitary it must be non-
singular.
Hence A  A  I  A A   I

(9) Periodic matrix: A matrix A will be called a periodic matrix if A k 1  A where k is a positive integer. If,
however k is the least positive integer for which Ak 1  A, then k is said to be the period of A.

 f (x ) g(x ) dA  f (x ) g (x )

(10) Differentiation of a matrix: If A    then  is a differentiation of matrix
h(x ) l(x )  dx h(x ) l(x ) 
A.
 x 2 sin x  dA 2 x cos x 
Example: If A    then 
2 x 2  dx  2 0 
(11) Submatrix : Let A be m×n matrix, then a matrix obtained by leaving some rows or columns or both,
2 1 0 
of A is called a sub matrix of A. Example : If A'  3 2 2  and 
2 2 
 are sub matrices of matrix
5 3 
 2 5 3 
 2 1 0  1
A  3 2 2 4 
 2 5 3 1 

(12) Conjugate of a matrix: The matrix obtained from any given matrix A containing complex number
as its elements, on replacing its elements by the corresponding conjugate complex numbers is called

14
 1  2i 2  3i 3  4 i
conjugate of A and is denoted by A . Example: A  4  5 i 5  6 i 6  7 i  then
 8 7  8i 7 
 1  2i 2  3i 3  4 i
A  4  5 i 5  6 i 6  7 i
 8 7  8i 7 

Properties of conjugates:
 
(i) A  A

(ii)  A  B   A  B

(iii) (A)   A,  being any number

(iv) ( AB)  A B , A and B being conformable for multiplication.

(13) Transpose conjugate of a matrix: The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called
transposed conjugate of A and is denoted by A  . The conjugate of the transpose of A is the same as the
transpose of the conjugate of A i.e. ( A)  ( A )  A .

If A  [aij ]mn then A  [b ji ]nm where b ji  a ij i.e. the ( j, i)th element of A   the conjugate of (i, j)th element of
A.

1  2i 2  3i 3  4 i  1  2i 4  5 i 8 
Example: If A  4  5 i 5  6 i 6  7 i  , then A   2  3i 5  6 i 7  8 i
   
 8 7  8i 7  3  4 i 6  7 i 7 

Properties of transpose conjugate

(i) ( A  )  A

(ii) ( A  B)  A   B 

(iii) (kA )  K A , K being any number

(iv) ( AB)  B A

15
13. Adjoint of a Square Matrix.

Let A  [aij ] be a square matrix of order n and let C ij be cofactor of aij in A. Then the transpose of the
matrix of cofactors of elements of A is called the adjoint of A and is denoted by adj A
Thus, adj A  [C ij ]T  (adj A)ij  C ji  cofactor of a ji in A.
T
 a11 a12 a13   C11 C12 C13  C11 C 21 C 31 
If A  a 21 a 22 
a 23 , then adj A  C 21 C 22 C 23   C12
 C 22 C 32 ;
a 31 a 32 a 33  C 31 C 32 C 33  C13 C 23 C 33 

Where C ij denotes the cofactor of a ij in A.

p q
Example: A   , C11  s, C12  r, C 21  q, C 22  p
r s
T
 s  r  s  q
 adj A     
 q p   r p 

Note: The adjoint of a square matrix of order 2 can be easily obtained by interchanging the diagonal elements and
changing signs of off diagonal elements.

16
Mathematics

Binary Operations

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Table of Content

1. Definition.
2. Types of binary operations.
3. Identity and Inverse elements.
4. Composition table.

1
1. Definition.

A binary operation on a non-empty set A is a mapping which associates with each ordered pair (a, b) of
elements of A, a uniquely defined element c  A. This is a mapping from the product set A × A to A.
Symbolically, a map: A  A  A, is called a binary operation on the set A.
The image of the element (a, b)  A  A is denoted by a * b. If a set A is closed with respect to the
composition, then we say that * is a binary operation on the set A.
Let, a  N, b  N  a + b  N for all a, b  N.
Multiplication on N is also a binary operation, since a  N, b  N  a  b  N for all a, b  N
But subtraction on N is not a binary operation, since 3  N, 5  N but 3 – 5 = – 2  N.

Note: It is obvious that addition as well as multiplication are binary operations on each one of the sets Z (of
integer), Q (of rational number), R (of real number) and C (of all complex number).
 Subtraction is a binary operation on each of the sets Z, Q, R and C. But it is not binary operation on N.
 Division is not a binary operation on any of sets N, Z, Q, R and C.

2. Types of Binary Operation.

(1) Commutative binary operation: A binary operation * on a set S is said to be commutative if

a * b = b * a for all a, b  S
Addition and multiplication are commutative binary operations on Z but the subtraction is not a
commutative binary operation, since 2 – 3  3 – 2.

(2) Associative binary operation: A binary operation * on a set S is said to be associative if

(a * b) * c = a * (b * c) for all a, b, c  S
Addition and multiplication are associative binary operations on N, Z, Q, R and C. But subtraction is not
an associative binary operation on Z, Q, R and C.

(3) Distributive binary operation: Let * and o be two binary operations on a set S. Then * is said to be
(i) Left distributive over o if a * (b o c) = (a * b) o (a * c) for all a, b, c  S;

(ii) Right distributive over o if (b o c) * a = (b * a) o (c * a) for all a, b, c  S.

If * is both left and right distributive over o, then * is said to be distributive over o.
Example: The multiplication () on Z is distributive over addition (+) on Z, since

2
a  (b + c) = a  b + a  c and (b + c)  a = b  a + c  a for all a, b, c  Z.
But addition is not distributive over multiplication.

3. Identity and Inverse elements

(1) Identity element: Let * be a binary operation on a set S. An element e  S is said be an identity
element for the binary operation * if a * e = a = e * a for all a  S.
For addition on Z, 0 is the identity element, since a + 0 = a = 0 + a for all a  Z.
For multiplication on R, 1 is the identity element, since 1  a = a = a × 1 for all a  R.

(2) Inversible element for a binary operation with identity: An element a of a set A is said to be
inversible for a binary operation * with identity e if  b  A such that a * b = e = b * a.
Also, then b is said to be an inverse of a and is denoted by a–1. The inversible elements in A are also
called the units in A. The identity element is always inversible and is its own inverse, since e * e = e * e =
e. Thus e–1 = e.

4. Composition Table

A binary operation on a finite set can be completely described by means of a table known as a
composition table. Let S  {a1 , a2 , ....., an } be a finite set and * be a binary operation on S. Then the
composition table for * is constructed in the manner indicated below.
We write the elements a1, a2, ….. ,an of the set S in the top horizontal row and the left vertical column in
the same order. Then we put down the element ai * aj at the intersection of the row headed by ai (1  i 
n) and the column headed by a j (1  j  n) to get the following table.

* a1 a2 ….. ai ….. aj ….. an

3
 a1 a1 * a1 a1 * a2 ….. a1 * ai ….. a1 * aj ….. a1 * an
a2 a2 * a1 a2 * a2 ….. a2 * ai ….. a2 * aj ….. a2 * an


ai ai * a1 ai * a2 ….. ai * ai ….. ai * aj ….. ai * an



aj aj * a1 aj * a2 ….. aj * ai ….. aj * aj ….. aj * an



an an * a1 an * a2 ….. an * ai ….. an * aj ….. an * an

From the composition table we infer the following results:

(1) If all the entries of the table are elements of set S and each element of S appears once and only once
in each row and in each column, then the operation is a binary operation. Sometimes we also say that
the binary operation is well defined which means that the operation * associates each pair of elements of
S to a unique element of S, i.e. S is closed under the operation *.

(2) If the entries in the table are symmetric with respect to the diagonal which starts at the upper left
corner of the table and terminates at the lower right corner, we say that the binary operation is
commutative on S, otherwise it is said to be not commutative on S.

(3) If the row headed by an element say aj, coincides with the row at the top and the column headed by
aj coincides with the column on extreme left, then aj is the identity element for the binary operation * on
S.

(4) If each row except the topmost row or each column except the left most column contains the identity
element then every element of S is invertible with respect to *. To find the inverse of an element say aj,
we consider row (or column) headed by ai. Then we determine the position of identity element e in this
row (or column). If e appears in the column (or row) headed by aj, then ai and aj are inverse of each
other.

It should be noted that the composition table is helpless to determine associativity of the binary
operation. This has to be verified for each possible trial.

4
Mathematics

Regular Cartesian Co-ordinates

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Cartesian co-ordinates of a point.
3. Polar co-ordinates.
4. Distance formulae.
5. Geometrical conditions.
6. Section formulae.
7. Some points of a triangle.
8. Area of some geometrical figures.
9. Transformation of axes.
10. Locus.

1
1. Introduction.

Co-ordinates of a point are the real variables associated in an order to a point

Y
to describe its location in some space. Here the space is the two dimensional Quadrant II Quadrant I

plane. The work of describing the position of a point in a plane by an ordered (–,+) (+,+)
pair of real numbers can be done in different ways.
XQuadrant III O Quadrant IV X
The two lines XOX' and YOY' divide the plane in four quadrants. XOY, YOX', X'
(–,–) (+,–)
OY', Y'OX are respectively called the first, the second, the third and the fourth
quadrants. We assume the directions of OX, OY as positive while the directions Y'
of OX', OY' as negative.

Quadrant x-coordinate y-coordinate point

First quadrant + + (+,+)
Second quadrant – + (–,+)
Third quadrant – – (–,–)
Fourth quadrant + – (+,–)

2. Cartesian Co-ordinates of a Point.

This is the most popular co-ordinate system.

Let us consider two intersecting lines XOX' and YOY', which are perpendicular to each other. Let P be any
point in the plane of lines. Draw the rectangle OLPM with its adjacent sides
Y
OL,OM along the lines XOX', YOY' respectively. The position of the point P can x P(x, y)
be fixed in the plane provided the locations as well as the magnitudes of OL, M y
OM are known. X
X
O L

Axis of x: The line XOX' is called axis of x. Y

Axis of y: The line YOY' is called axis of y.
Co-ordinate axes: x axis and y axis together are called axis of co-ordinates or axis of reference.
Origin: The point ‘O’ is called the origin of co-ordinates or the origin.
Oblique axes: If both the axes are not perpendicular then they are called as oblique axes.
2
Let OL = x and OM = y which are respectively called the abscissa (or x-coordinate) and the ordinate (or
y-coordinate). The co-ordinate of P are (x, y).

Note: Co-ordinates of the origin is (0, 0).

 The y co-ordinate of every point on x-axis is zero.
 The x co-ordinate of every point on y-axis is zero.

3. Polar Co-ordinates.

Let OX be any fixed line which is usually called the initial line and O be a fixed point on it. If distance of any
point P from the O is 'r' and XOP   , then (r,  ) are called the polar co-ordinates Y P(r,)
of a point P.
r
If (x, y) are the Cartesian co-ordinates of a point P, then

x  r cos  ; y  r sin  and r  x 2  y 2 X O
X

y
  tan 1  
x
Y'

4. Distance Formula.

The distance between two points P(x 1 , y 1 ) and Q(x 2 , y 2 ) is given by

PQ  (PR)2  (QR )2  (x 2  x 1 )2  (y 2  y1 )2 Y Q

P R
Note:  The distance of a point M (x 0 , y 0 ) from origin O (0, 0) X O X

OM  (x 02  y 02 ) .
If distance between two points is given then use  sign. Y

When the line PQ is parallel to the y-axis, the abscissa of point P and Q will be equal i.e, x1  x 2 ;
 PQ | y 2  y 1 |

When the segment PQ is parallel to the x-axis, the ordinate of the points P and Q will be equal i.e., y 1  y 2 .
Therefore PQ | x 2  x1 |

(1) Distance between two points in polar co-ordinates: Let O be the pole and OX be the initial line.
Let P and Q be two given points whose polar co-ordinates are (r1 , 1 ) and (r2 , 2 ) respectively.
3
Then OP  r1 , OQ  r2
POX   1 and QOX   2 P(r1,
Then POQ  (1   2 )
(1-2)
Q(r2,
(OP )2  (OQ )2  (PQ)2 r1
In POQ, from cosine rule cos( 1   2 ) 
2OP . OQ 1
2
r2
O
 (PQ)2  r12  r22  2r1r2 cos(1   2 ) O X
M
 PQ  r12  r22  2r1r2 cos(1   2 )

Note: Always taking  1 and  2 in radians.

5. Geometrical Conditions.

(1) Properties of triangles

(i) In any triangle ABC, AB  BC  AC and | AB  BC |  AC .
(ii) The ABC is equilateral  AB  BC  CA .
(iii) The ABC is a right angled triangle  AB 2  AC 2  BC 2 or AC 2  AB 2  BC 2 or BC 2  AB 2  AC 2 .
(iv) The ABC is isosceles  AB  BC or BC  CA or AB  AC .

D  C

(2) Properties of quadrilaterals

A B
(i) The quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram if and only if
(a) AB  DC, AD  BC , or (b) the middle points of BD and AC are the same,

In a parallelogram diagonals AC and BD are not equal and   .
2
(ii) The quadrilateral ABCD is a rectangle if and only if
(a) AB  CD, AD  BC and AC 2  AB 2  BC 2 or, (b) AB  CD, AD  BC, AC  BD or, (c) the middle
points of AC and BD are the same and AC=BD. (    / 2 )
D C


A B

4
(iii) The quadrilateral ABCD is a rhombus (but not a square) if and only if (a) AB  BC  CD  DA and
AC  BD or, (b) the middle points of AC and BD are the same and AB  AD but AC  BD . (   / 2)

D C


A B
(iv) The quadrilateral ABCD is a square if and only if
(a) AB  BC  CD  DA and AC  BD or (b) the middle points of AC and BD are the same and
AC  BD, (   / 2) , AB  AD .
D C


A B

Note: Diagonals of square, rhombus, rectangle and parallelogram always bisect each other.
 Diagonals of rhombus and square bisect each other at right angle.
 Four given points are collinear, if area of quadrilateral is zero .

6. Section Formulae.

If P(x , y) divides the join of A(x 1 , y 1 ) and B(x 2 , y 2 ) in the ratio m 1 : m 2 (m 1 , m 2  0)

(1) Internal division: If P(x , y) divides the segment AB internally in the ratio of m 1 : m 2
PA m1
 
PB m 2 (x2,y2)
B
The co-ordinates of P(x , y) are
m1 x 2  m 2 x1 m y  m 2 y1 P (x, y)
x and y  1 2 (x1,y1)
m1  m 2 m1  m 2 A

5
(2) External division: If P(x , y) divides the segment AB externally in the ratio of m 1 : m 2
PA m 1
  P(x, y)
PB m 2
(x2, y2)
m x  m 2 x1 m y  m 2 y1
The co-ordinates of P(x , y) are x  1 2 and y  1 2 B
m1  m 2 m1  m 2 (x1,y1)
A

x 2  x1
Note: If P(x , y ) divides the join of A(x 1 , y 1 ) and B(x 2 , y 2 ) in the ratio  : 1(  0) , then x  ;
 1
y 2  y1
y . Positive sign is taken for internal division and negative sign is taken for external division.
 1

 x  x 2 y1  y 2 
The midpoint of AB is  1 ,  [Here m 1 : m 2 :: 1 : 1 ]
 2 2 

For finding ratio, use ratio  : 1 . If  is positive, then divides internally and if  is negative, then divides
externally.

Straight line ax  by  c  0 divides the join of points A(x 1 , y 1 ) and B(x 2 , y 2 ) in the ratio
 ax 1  by 1  c 
   .
 ax 2  by 2  c 
If ratio is –ve then divides externally and if ratio is +ve then divides internally.

6
7. Some points of a Triangle.

(1) Centroid of a triangle: The centroid of a triangle is the point of intersection

of its medians. The centroid divides the medians in the ratio 2 : 1 (Vertex :
A(x1,y1)

base) 2
E
F 1 1
2 2
G 1
If A(x 1 , y 1 ) , B(x 2 , y 2 ) and C(x 3 , y 3 ) are the vertices of a triangle. If G be the B C
(x2,y2) D (x3,y3)
centroid upon one of the median (say) AD, then AG : GD = 2 : 1
 x  x 2  x 3 y1  y 2  y 3 
 Co-ordinate of G are  1 , 
 3 3 

(2) Circumcentre: The circumcentre of a triangle is the point of intersection of the perpendicular
bisectors of the sides of a triangle. It is the center of the circle which passes A(x1,y1)
through the vertices of the triangle and so its distance from the vertices of the
triangle is the same and this distance is known as the circum-radius of the F E
triangle.
O
Let vertices A, B, C of the triangle ABC be (x1 , y1 ), (x 2 , y 2 ) and (x 3 , y 3 ) and let
(x2,y2)B D C(x3,y3)
circumcentre be O(x, y) and then (x, y) can be found by solving
(OA) 2  (OB) 2  (OC ) 2
i.e., (x  x1 )2  (y  y1 )2  (x  x 2 )2  (y  y 2 )2  (x  x 3 )2  (y  y 3 )2

Note: If a triangle is right angle, then its circumcentre is the midpoint of hypotenuse.

If angles of triangle i.e., A, B, C and vertices of triangle A(x1 , y1 ), B(x 2 , y 2 ) and C (x 3 , y 3 ) are given, then
circumcentre of the triangle ABC is
 x 1 sin 2 A  x 2 sin 2 B  x 3 sin 2C y 1 sin 2 A  y 2 sin 2 B  y 3 sin 2C 
 , 
 sin 2 A  sin 2 B  sin 2C sin 2 A  sin 2 B  sin 2C 

(3) Incentre: The incentre of a triangle is the point of intersection of internal bisector of the angles. Also
it is a center of a circle touching all the sides of a triangle.
 ax  bx 2  cx 3 ay1  by 2  cy 3 
Co-ordinates of incentre  1 , 
 ab c ab c 
Where a, b, c are the sides of triangle ABC.

7
(4) Excircle: A circle touches one side outside the triangle and other two extended sides then circle is
known as excircle. Let ABC be a triangle then there are three excircles with three
excentres. Let I1 , I 2 , I 3 opposite to vertices A,B and C respectively. If vertices of I3 A I2

triangle are A(x1 , y1 ), B(x 2 , y 2 ) and C (x 3 , y 3 ) then

B C
  ax 1  bx 2  cx 3  ay1  by 2  cy 3 
I1   ,  I1
 ab c abc 
 ax  bx 2  cx 3 ay1  by 2  cy 3   ax  bx 2  cx 3 ay1  by 2  cy 3 
I 2   1 ,  , I3   1 , 
 ab c ab c   ab c ab c 

BD AB c
Note: Angle bisector divides the opposite sides in the ratio of remaining sides e.g.  
DC AC b
 Incentre divides the angle bisectors in the ratio (b  c) : a, (c  a) : b and (a  b) : c
 Excentre: Point of intersection of one internal angle bisector and other two external angle bisector is called as
excentre. There are three excentres in a triangle. Co-ordinate of each can be obtained by changing the sign of a,b,c
respectively in the formula of in-center.

(5) Orthocentre: It is the point of intersection of perpendiculars drawn from vertices on opposite sides
(called altitudes) of a triangle and can be obtained by solving the equation A (x1, y1)
of any two altitudes.
Here O is the orthocentre since AE  BC , BF  AC and CD  AB
then OE  BC, OF  AC, OD  AB D F
O
Solving any two we can get coordinate of O.
B C
E (x3, y3)
(x2, y2)

Note: If a triangle is right angled triangle, then orthocentre is the point where right angle is formed.
If the triangle is equilateral then centroid, incentre, orthocentre, circum-centre coincides.

Orthocentre, centroid and circum-centre are always collinear and centroid divides the line joining orthocentre and
circum-centre in the ratio 2 : 1

In an isosceles triangle centroid, orthocentre, incentre, circum-centre lie on the same line.

8
8. Area of some Geometrical figures.

(1) Area of a triangle: The area of a triangle ABC with vertices A(x1 , y1 ); B(x 2 , y 2 ) and C(x 3 , y 3 ) . The area
of triangle ABC is denoted by ‘’and is given as
A (x1, y1)
x1 y1 1
1 1
  x2 y2 1  (x1 (y 2  y 3 )  x 2 (y 3  y1 )  x 3 (y1  y 2 )
2 2
x3 y3 1

In equilateral triangle
B C
(x3, y3)
(x2, y2)
3 2
(i) Having sides a, area is a .
4
(p 2 )
(ii) Having length of perpendicular as 'p' area is .
3

Note: If a triangle has polar co-ordinates (r1 , 1 ), (r2 ,  2 ) and (r3 ,  3 ) then its area

1
 [r1r2 sin( 2  1 )  r2r3 sin( 3   2 )  r3 r1 sin(1   3 )]
2
If area is a rational number. Then the triangle cannot be equilateral.

(2) Collinear points: Three points A(x 1 , y 1 ); B(x 2 , y 2 ); C(x 3 , y 3 ) are collinear. If area of triangle is zero,
x1 y1 1 x1 y1 1
1
i.e., (i)   0  x2 y2 1  0  x 2 y2 1  0
2
x3 y3 1 x3 y3 1

(ii) AB  BC  AC or AC  BC  AB or AC  AB  BC

(3) Area of a quadrilateral: If (x1 , y1 );(x 2 , y 2 );(x 3 , y 3 ) and (x 4 , y 4 ) are vertices of a quadrilateral, then its
1
Area  [(x 1 y 2  x 2 y 1 )  (x 2 y 3  x 3 y 2 )  (x 3 y 4  x 4 y 3 )  (x 4 y 1  x 1 y 4 )]
2

9
Note: If two opposite vertex of rectangle are (x 1 , y1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) , then its area is (y 2  y1 )(x 2  x1 ) .

It two opposite vertex of a square are A(x1 , y1 ) and C(x 2 , y 2 ) , then its area is
1 1
 AC 2  [(x 2  x 1 )2  (y 2  y1 )2 ]
2 2

(4) Area of polygon: The area of polygon whose vertices are (x 1 , y 1 ); (x 2 , y 2 );(x 3 , y 3 );....(x n, y n ) is

1
 | {( x 1 y 2  x 2 y 1 )  (x 2 y 3  x 3 y 2 )  ....  (x n y 1  x 1 y n )}|
2

or Stair method: Repeat first co-ordinates one time in last for down arrow use positive sign and for up
arrow use negative sign.

x1 y1
x2 y2
x3 y3
1 1
 Area of polygon = | : : |  | {( x1y 2  x 2 y 3  ....  x n y1 )  (y1 x 2  y 2 x 3  ....  yn x1 )}|
2 2
: :
xn yn
x1 y1

9. Transformation of Axes.

(1) Shifting of origin without rotation of axes: Let P  (x , y) with respect to axes OX and OY.
Let O'  ( ,  ) with respect to axes OX and OY and let P  (x ' , y ' ) with respect to axes O'X' and O'Y',
where OX and O'X' are parallel and OY and O'Y' are parallel. Y

Then x  x ', y  y '   or x '  x  , y '  y   Y

Thus if origin is shifted to point ( ,  ) without rotation of axes, then new P(x, y)
(x', y')
equation of curve can be obtained by putting x   in place of x and y   in (, )
y
X
place of y. O x
X
O
x

10
(2) Rotation of axes without changing the origin: Let O be the origin. Let P  (x , y) with respect to
axes OX and OY and let P  (x ' , y ' ) with respect to axes OX and OY where Y
Y'
X ' OX  YOY '  
Then x  x ' cos   y ' sin  P (x,y)
(x,y)
y  x ' sin   y ' cos  y
 y
and x '  x cos   y sin  X'
x

y '   x sin   y cos  x XX
O

The above relation between (x , y) and (x ' , y ' ) can be easily obtained with the help of following table

x y

x'  cos  sin

y'   sin cos 

(3) Change of origin and rotation of axes: If origin is changed to O' ( ,  )

and axes are rotated about the new origin O ' by an angle  in the anticlock- Y

wise sense such that the new co-ordinates of P(x , y) become (x ' , y ' ) Y'

then the equations of transformation will be x    x ' cos   y ' sin  and P(x, y)
(x', y')
y    x ' sin   y ' cos 
X'

O

O
X

(4) Reflection (Image of a point): Let (x , y ) be any point, then its image with respect to
(i) x axis  (x ,y) (ii) y-axis  ( x , y) (iii) origin  ( x ,y) (iv) line y  x  (y, x )

11
10. Locus.

Locus: The curve described by a point which moves under given condition or conditions is called its
locus.

Equation to the locus of a point: The equation to the locus of a point is the relation, which is satisfied
by the coordinates of every point on the locus of the point.

Algorithm to find the locus of a point

Step I: Assume the coordinates of the point say (h, k) whose locus is to be found.

Step II: Write the given condition in mathematical form involving h , k.

Step III: Eliminate the variable (s), if any.

Step IV: Replace h by x and k by y in the result obtained in step III. The equation so obtained is the locus
of the point which moves under some stated condition (s)

Note: Locus of a point P which is equidistant from the two point A and B is a straight line and is a perpendicular
bisector of line AB.
 In above case if PA = kPB where k  1 , then the locus of P is a circle.
 Locus of P if A and B is fixed.

(a) Circle, if APB = constant


(b) Circle with diameter AB , if APB 
2
(c) Ellipse, if PA +PB = constant
(d) Hyperbola, if PA – PB = constant

12
Mathematics

Straight Line

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content

1. Definition.
2. Slope (gradient) of a line.
3. Equations of straight line in different forms.
4. Equation of parallel and perpendicular lines to a given
line.
5. General equation of a straight line and its transformation
in standard forms.
6. Selection of co-ordinates of a point on a straight line.
7. Point of intersection of two lines.
8. General equation of lines through the intersection of two
given lines.
9. Angle between two non-parallel lines.
10. Equation of straight line through a given point making a
given angle with a given line.
11. A line equally inclined with two lines.
12. Equations of the bisectors of the angles between two
straight lines.
13. Length of perpendicular.
14. Position of a point with respect to a line.
1
15. Position of two points with respect to a line.
16. Concurrent lines.
17. Reflection on the surface.
18. Image of point in different cases.
19. Some important results.

2
1. Definition.

The straight line is a curve such that every point on the line segment joining any two points on it lies on
it. The simplest locus of a point in a plane is a straight line. A line is determined uniquely by any one of
the following:
(1) Two different points (because we know the axiom that one and only one straight line passes through
two given points)
(2) A point and a given direction.

Y Y
Y

45o 45º 45º 45º 45º

O X O X
Unique line through Unique line through a given O X
two given points Infinite number of lines
point with a given direction Infinite number of lines
with a given direction
through a given point

Thus, to determine a line uniquely, two geometrical conditions are required.

2. Slope (Gradient) of a Line.

The trigonometrical tangent of the angle that a line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis in
anticlockwise sense is called the slope or gradient of the line. Y Y
The slope of a line is generally denoted by m. Thus, m = tan 
B
 
(1) Slope of line parallel to x – axis is m  tan 0  0 . o
X
B
O
X O X

A Y X Y A
(2) Slope of line parallel to y – axis is m  tan 90 o   .

(3) Slope of the line equally inclined with the axes is 1 or –1.

y 2  y1
(4) Slope of the line through the points A(x 1 , y 1 ) and B(x 2 , y 2 ) is taken in the same order.
x 2  x1

a
(5) Slope of the line ax  by  c  0, b  0 is  .
b

3
(6) Slope of two parallel lines are equal.
(7) If m 1 and m 2 be the slopes of two perpendicular lines, Then m1 .m 2  1 .


Note: m can be defined as tan  for 0     and  
2
 If three points A, B, C are collinear, then
Slope of AB = Slope of BC = Slope of AC

3. Equations of Straight line in Different forms.

(1) Slope form: Equation of a line through the origin and having slope m is y = mx.
Y
B
(2) One point form or Point slope form: Equation of a line through the point
(x1 , y1 ) and having slope m is y  y1  m(x  x1 ) .  c
X' X
A O

(3) Slope intercept form: Equation of a line (non-vertical) with slope m and Y'

cutting off an intercept c on the y-axis is y = mx + c.

The equation of a line with slope m and the x-intercept d is y  m(x  d )

(4) Intercept form: If a straight line cuts x-axis at A and the y-axis at B then OA and OB are known as the
intercepts of the line on x-axis and y-axis respectively.
Y
The intercepts are positive or negative according as the line meets with positive
or negative directions of the coordinate axes. B

In the figure, OA = x-intercept, OB = y-intercept. b

A
Equation of a straight line cutting off intercepts a and b on x–axis and y–axis X'
O a
X

x y
respectively is   1 . Y'
a b
Note: If given line is parallel to X axis, then X-intercept is undefined.
 If given line is parallel to Y axis, then Y-intercept is undefined.

4
(5)Two point form: Equation of the line through the points A (x1 , y1 ) and B(x 2 , y 2 ) is
y 2  y1
(y  y1 )  (x  x 1 ) . In the determinant form it is gives as:
x 2  x1
x y 1
x1 y1 1 = 0 is the equation of line. (x2, y2)

x2 y2 1
O
(x1,y1)

(6) Normal or perpendicular form: The equation of the straight line upon Y
which the length of the perpendicular from the origin is p and this perpendicular
makes an angle  with x-axis is x cos  y sin   p .

Y' BpP X
O A

Y'

(7) Symmetrical or parametric or distance form of the line: Equation of a line passing through
(x 1 , y1 ) and making an angle  with the positive direction of x-axis is
Y
x  x 1 y  y1
 r, (x1,y1) r
cos  sin  A  P(x, y)

Where r is the distance between the point P (x, y) and A(x 1 , y1 ) .

X' 
The coordinates of any point on this line may be taken as O
X

(x1  r cos  , y1  r sin  ) , known as parametric co-ordinates, ‘r’ is called the

Y'
parameter.

Note: Equation of x-axis  y = 0

Equation a line parallel to x-axis (or perpendicular to y-axis) at a distance ‘b’ from it  y  b
Y

b
X' X
O

Y

5
Equation of y-axis  x = 0
Equation of a line parallel to y-axis (or perpendicular to x-axis) at a distance ‘a’ from it  x  a
Y

a
X' X
O

Y’

4. Equation of Parallel and Perpendicular lines to a given Line.

(1) Equation of a line which is parallel to ax  by  c  0 is ax  by    0

(2) Equation of a line which is perpendicular to ax  by  c  0 is bx  ay    0

The value of  in both cases is obtained with the help of additional information given in the problem.

5. General equation of a Straight line and its Transformation in Standard

forms.

General form of equation of a line is ax  by  c  0 , its

a c a c
(1) Slope intercept form: y   x  , slope m   and intercept on y-axis is, C  
b b b b

x y  c  c
(2) Intercept form:   1 , x intercept is =    and y intercept is =   
c/a c/b  a   b

(3) Normal form: To change the general form of a line into normal form, first take c to right hand side
and make it positive, then divide the whole equation by a 2  b 2 like
ax by c a b c
   , where cos    , sin    and p 
a2  b 2 a2  b 2 a2  b 2 a2  b 2 a2  b 2 a2  b 2

6
6. Selection of Co-ordinate of a Point on a Straight line.

(1) If the equation of the straight line be ax  by  c  0 , in order to select a point on it, take the x co-
a  c
ordinate according to your sweet will. Let x   ; then a  by  c  0 or y   ;
b

 a  c 
   ,  is a point on the line for any real value of  . If   0 is taken then the point will be
 b 
 c
 0,  .
 b

 c 
Similarly a suitable point can be taken as   ,0  .
 a 

(2) If the equation of the line be x  c then a point on it can be taken as (c,  ) where  has any real
value.

In particular (c, 0) is a convenient point on it when   0 .

(3) If the equation of the line be y  c then a point on it can be taken as (, c) where  has any real
value.

In particular (0, c) is a convenient point on it when   0 .

7. Point of Intersection of Two lines.

Let a1 x  b1y  c1 =0 and a2 x  b2 y  c2  0 be two non-parallel lines. If (x , y ) be the co-ordinates of their
point of intersection, then a1 x   b1y  c1  0 and a2 x   b 2 y   c 2  0
 b1 b2 c1 c2 
 
 b c  b 2 c1 c1 a 2  c 2 a1   c1 c2 a1 a2 
Solving these equation, we get (x , y )   1 2  
a 2 
, ,
 a1 b 2  a 2 b1 a1 b 2  a 2 b1   a1 a2 a1
 b1 b2 b1 b 2 


7
Note: Here lines are not parallel, they have unequal slopes, then a1b2  a2b1  0 .
In solving numerical questions, we should not remember the co-ordinates (x , y ) given above, but we solve the
equations directly.

8. General equation of Lines through the Intersection of Two given Lines.

If equation of two lines P  a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 and Q  a2 x  b2 y  c 2  0 , then the equation of the lines

passing through the point of intersection of these lines is P   Q  0 or a1 x  b1 y  c 
(a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 )  0 ; Value of  is obtained with the help of the additional information given in the
problem.

9. Angle between Two non-parallel Lines.

Let  be the angle between the lines y  m 1 x  c1 and y  m 2 x  c 2 .

and intersecting at A.
y=m1x + c1

Where, m 1 = tan  and m 2 = tan  y=m2x + c2

         
O
tan   tan 
 tan  
1  tan  tan 

m1  m 2
   tan 1 .
1  m1m 2

(1) Angle between two straight lines when their equations are given: The angle  between the lines
a2 b1  a1b 2
a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 and a2 x  b2 y  c2  0 is given by, tan   .
a1a2  b1b 2

(i) Condition for the lines to be parallel: If the lines a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 and a2 x  b2 y  c2  0 are
a1 a2 a b
parallel then, m1  m 2    1  1 .
b1 b2 a2 b 2

8
(ii) Condition for the lines to be perpendicular: If the lines a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 and a2 x  b2 y  c2  0
a1 a2
are perpendicular then, m1m 2  1    1  a1a2  b1b2  0 .
b1 b2

(iii) Conditions for two lines to be coincident, parallel, perpendicular and intersecting: Two lines
a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 and a2 x  b2 y  c2  0 are,
a1 b c
(a) Coincident, if  1  1
a2 b 2 c 2

a1 b c
(b) Parallel, if  1  1
a2 b 2 c 2

a1 b
(c) Intersecting, if  1
a2 b 2

(d) Perpendicular, if a1a2  b1b2  0

10. Equation of Straight line through a given point making a given Angle with a
given Line.

Since straight line L makes an angle (   ) with x-axis, then equation of line L is
y  y1  tan(   )(x  x1 ) and straight line L makes an angle (   ) with x-
L
axis, then equation of line L is
 y  y1  tan(   )(x  x1 ) y = mx+c

Where m  tan  

L
 ( – )
Hence, the equation of the straight lines which pass through a given point O X

(x1 , y1 ) and make a given angle  with given straight line y  mx  c are
m  tan 
y  y1  (x  x 1 )
1  m tan 

9
11. A Line equally inclined with two lines.

Let the two lines with slopes m 1 and m 2 be equally inclined to a line with slope m
 m m   m m 
then ,  1    2  m2
m
 1  m1m   1  m 2m 

m1
Note: Sign of m in both brackets is same. 

12. Equations of the bisectors of the Angles between two Straight lines.

The equation of the bisectors of the angles between the lines a1 x  b1y  c1  0 and a2 x  b2 y  c2  0 are
a1 x  b1 y  c1 a2 x  b 2 y  c 2
given by,  .....(i)
a12  b12 a22  b22

Algorithm to find the bisector of the angle containing the origin:

Let the equations of the two lines a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 and a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2  0 . To find the bisector of the
angle containing the origin, we proceed as follows:

Step I: See whether the constant terms c 1 and c 2 in the equations of two lines positive or not. If not,
then multiply both the sides of the equation by –1 to make the constant term positive.

a1 x  b1 y  c1 a2 x  b 2 y  c 2
Step II: Now obtain the bisector corresponding to the positive sign i.e.,  .
a12  b12 a 22  b 22

This is the required bisector of the angle containing the origin.

Note: The bisector of the angle containing the origin means the bisector of the angle between the lines which
contains the origin within it.

10
(1) To find the acute and obtuse angle bisectors

Let  be the angle between one of the lines and one of the bisectors given by (i). Find tan  . If| tan  |  1 ,
then this bisector is the bisector of acute angle and the other one is the bisector of the obtuse angle.

If | tan  | > 1, then this bisector is the bisector of obtuse angle and other one is the bisector of the acute
angle.

(2) Method to find acute angle bisector and obtuse angle bisector
(i) Make the constant term positive, if not. (ii) Now determine the sign of the expression a1 a 2  b1 b 2 .

(iii) If a1 a 2  b1 b 2  0 , then the bisector corresponding to “+” sign gives the obtuse angle bisector and
the bisector corresponding to “–” sign is the bisector of acute angle between the L1
lines.
Acute bisector
(iv) If a1 a 2  b1 b 2  0 , then the bisector corresponding to “+” and “–” sign given P(x, y)
the acute and obtuse angle bisectors respectively.
L2
Note: Bisectors are perpendicular to each other. Obtuse bisector

If a1 a 2  b1 b 2  0 , then the origin lies in obtuse angle and if a1 a 2  b1 b 2  0 , then the origin lies in acute
angle.

Length of Perpendicular.

(1) Distance of a point from a line: The length p of the perpendicular from the point (x 1 , y1 ) to the line
| ax1  by1  c |
ax  by  c  0 is given by p  .
a2  b 2
c
Note: Length of perpendicular from origin to the line ax  by  c  0 is .
a2  b 2
Length of perpendicular from the point (x 1 , y1 ) to the line x cos   y sin   p is x 1 cos   y 1 sin   p .

11
(2) Distance between two parallel lines: Let the two parallel lines be ax  by  c1  0 and ax  by  c 2  0 .
| c1  c 2 |
First Method: The distance between the lines is d  . ax + by + c1 = 0
(a  b )
2 2

ax + by + c2 = 0


Second Method: The distance between the lines is d  , where ax + by + c1 = 0
(a  b 2 )
2

(i)  | c1  c 2 | if they be on the same side of origin.

(ii)  | c1 |  | c 2 | if the origin O lies between them. ax + by + c2 = 0

.O (0, 0)

Third method: Find the coordinates of any point on one of the given line, preferably putting x  0 or
y  0 . Then the perpendicular distance of this point from the other line is the ax + by + c1 = 0
required distance between the lines.
.O (0, 0)

Note:: Distance between two parallel lines ax  by  c1  0 and kax  kby  c 2  0 is

ax + by + c2 = 0
c
c1  2
k
a2  b 2
Distance between two non-parallel lines is always zero.

13. Position of a Point with respect to a Line.

Let the given line be ax  by  c  0 and observing point is (x 1 , y1 ) , then

(i) If the same sign is found by putting in equation of line x  x 1 , y  y1 and x  0 , y  0 then the point
(x 1 , y1 ) is situated on the side of origin.
(ii) If the opposite sign is found by putting in equation of line x  x 1 , y  y1 and x  0 , y  0 then the
point (x 1 , y1 ) is situated opposite side to origin.

12
14. Position of Two points with respect to a Line.

Two points (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) are on the same side or on the opposite side of the straight line
ax  by  c  0 according as the values of ax1  by 1  c and ax 2  by 2  c are of the same sign or
opposite sign.

15. Concurrent Lines.

Three or more lines are said to be concurrent lines if they meet at a point.

First method: Find the point of intersection of any two lines by solving them simultaneously. If the point
satisfies the third equation also, then the given lines are concurrent.

Second method: The three lines a1 x  b1y  c1  0 , a2 x  b2 y  c2  0 and a3 x  b3 y  c3  0 are

a1 b1 c1
concurrent if, a2 b2 c2  0
a3 b3 c3

Third method: The condition for the lines P  0 , Q  0 and R  0 to be concurrent is that three
constants a, b, c (not all zero at the same time) can be obtained such that aP  bQ  cR  0 .

i.e.,  1 , 1 
1 1
They pass through the intersection of the lines 4 x  1  0 and 3 y  1  0 i.e., x  , y 
4 3 4 3

13
16. Reflection on the Surface.

Here IP = Incident Ray N

I R
PN = Normal to the surface

Normal
PR = Reflected Ray Reflected ray
Incident ray
 
Then, IPN  NPR  
Tangent
Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection P
Surface

17. Image of a Point in Different cases.

(1) The image of a point with respect to the line mirror: The image of A (x1, y1)
A(x1 , y1 ) with respect to the line mirror ax  by  c  0 be B (h, k) is given by, ax+by+c = 0

h  x1 k  y1  2(ax1  by1  c)
 
a b a2  b 2

B (h, k)

(2) The image of a point with respect to x-axis: Let P(x , y) be any point and P (x , y) its image after
reflection in the x-axis, then
x = x (  O is the mid point of P and P ) Y
P(x, y)
y = – y

O

O P(x, y) X

14
(3) The image of a point with respect to y-axis: Let P(x , y) be any point and P(x , y) its image after
reflection in the y-axis
then x  x (  O is the midpoint of P and P ) Y
y  y P (x,y) P(x, y)
O

X O X
Y

(4) The image of a point with respect to the origin: Let P(x , y) be any
point and P(x , y) be its image after reflection through the origin, then Y P(x, y)

x   x (  O is the mid point of P and P )

y   y N
X P(x,y) O M X

Y
(5) The image of a point with respect to the line y = x: Let P(x , y) be any point and P(x , y) be its
image after reflection in the line y  x , then
P(x, y)
x  y (  O is the midpoint of P and P ) Y
y=x O
y  x 45º
P(x, y)

X O X

(6) The image of a point with respect to the line y = x tan  :

P(x, y)

Let P(x , y) be any point and P(x , y) be its image after reflection in the line Y O
y=x tan 
y  x tan then 
P(x, y)

x   x cos 2  y sin 2 ( O is the midpoint of P and P )

X O X
y  x sin 2  y cos 2
Y

15
18. Some Important Results.
1 (c1  c 2 )2
(1) Area of the triangle formed by the lines y  m1 x  c1 , y  m 2 x  c 2 , y  m 3 x  c3 is  .
2 m1  m 2

c2
(2) Area of the triangle made by the line ax  by  c  0 with the co-ordinate axes is .
2 | ab |

2c 2
(3) Area of the rhombus formed by the lines ax  by  c  0 is
ab

(4) Area of the parallelogram formed by the lines a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 ; a2 x  b 2 y  c 2  0 , a1 x  b1 y  d 1

(d1  c1 )(d 2  c 2 )
and a2 x  b 2 y  d 2  0 is .
a1b 2  a 2 b1

(5) The foot of the perpendicular (h, k ) from (x 1 , y1 ) to the line ax  by  c  0 is given by
h  x 1 k  y1  (ax1  by1  c)
  . Hence, the coordinates of the foot of perpendicular is
a b a2  b 2
 b 2 x 1  aby1  ac a 2 y1  abx1  bc 
 , 
 a2  b 2 a2  b 2 
 

p1 p 2
(6) Area of parallelogram A  , where p 1 and p 2 are the distances between parallel sides and  is
sin 
the angle between two adjacent sides.

x y
(7) The equation of a line whose mid-point is (x 1 , y1 ) in between the axes is  2
x 1 y1

(8) The equation of a straight line which makes a triangle with the axes of centroid (x 1 , y1 ) is
x y
 1.
3 x 1 3 y1

16
Mathematics

Conic Section - Ellipse

Table of Content

1. Definition.
2. Standard equation of the Ellipse.
3. Equation of Ellipse in other forms.
4. Parametric form of the Ellipse.
5. Special form of an Ellipse.
6. Position of a point with respect to an Ellipse.
7. Intersection of a line and an ellipse.
8. Equation of tangent in different forms.
9. Equation of pair of tangents SS1 = T2.
10. Equations of normal in different forms.
11. Auxiliary circle.
12. Properties of Eccentric angles of the co-normal points.
13. Chord of contact.
14. Equation of chord with mid-point (x1, y1).
15. Equation of the chord joining two points on an Ellipse.
16. Pole and Polar.
17. Diameter.
18. Subtangent and Subnormal.
19. Concyclic points.
1
20. Reflection property of an Ellipse.

2
1. Definition.

An ellipse is the locus of a point which moves in such a way that its distance from a fixed point is in
constant ratio (<1) to its distance from a fixed line. The fixed point is called the focus and fixed line is
called the directrix and the constant ratio is called the eccentricity of the ellipse, denoted by (e).
In other words, we can say an ellipse is the locus of a point which moves in a plane so that the sum of its
distances from two fixed points is constant and is more than the distance between the two fixed points.
Let S ( ,  ) is the focus, ZZ  is the directrix and P is any point on the ellipse. Then by definition,
SP
 e  SP  e .PM
PM Z
Ax  By  C

Directrix
P(x,y)

Ax+By+C=0
(x   ) 2  (y   ) 2  e
A2  B2
S(, )
Squaring both sides, ( A 2  B 2 )[(x   )2  (y   )2 ]  e 2 ( Ax  By  C)2 Z
Focus

Note: The condition for second degree equation in x and y to represent an ellipse is that h 2  ab  0 and
  abc  2 fgh  af 2  bg 2  ch 2  0

2. Standard equation of the Ellipse.

Let S be the focus, ZM be the directrix of the ellipse and P(x , y) is any point on the ellipse, then by
SP

Directrix
Y
definition
Directrix

 e  (SP )2  e 2 (PM)2 M (0,b) p(x,y)

PM
Z C MZ X
x
2
2 y2
a X
A S(–ae,0) S(ae,0) A Axis
(x  ae)  (y  0)  e   x   2  2
2 2
1 (–a,0) (a,0)
e  a a (1  e 2 ) (0,–b) B
x=–a/e Y x=a/e
x2 y2
2
 2  1 , where b 2  a 2 (1  e 2 )
a b
x2 y2
Since e  1 , therefore a 2 (1  e 2 )  a 2  b 2  a 2 . Some terms related to the ellipse   1, a  b :
a2 b 2

3
(1) Centre: The point which bisects each chord of the ellipse passing through it, is called center (0, 0)
denoted by C. Y
L1 B PL
M M
X' C Z
N S A X
Z A S
L1 B P L

Y

(2) Major and minor axes: The diameter through the foci, is called the major axis and the diameter
bisecting it at right angles is called the minor axis. The major and minor axes are together called
principal axes.
Length of the major axis AA  2a , Length of the minor axis BB'  2b
x2 y2
The ellipse   1, is symmetrical about both the axes.
a2 b 2

(3) Vertices: The extremities of the major axis of an ellipse are called vertices.
The coordinates of vertices A and A  are (a, 0) and (–a, 0) respectively.

(4) Foci: S and S  are two foci of the ellipse and their coordinates are (ae, 0) and (–ae, 0) respectively.
Distance between foci S S   2ae .

a
(5) Directrices: ZM and Z M  are two directrices of the ellipse and their equations are x  and
e
a 2a
x  respectively. Distance between directrices ZZ   .
e e

x2 y2
(6) Eccentricity of the ellipse: For the ellipse  1,
a2 b2
2
 Minor axis 
2
b2 4b 2  2b 
we have b  a (1  e )  e  1  2  1  2  1    ; e  1  
2 2 2 2

a 4a  2a   Major axis 
This formula gives the eccentricity of the ellipse.

(7) Ordinate and double ordinate: Let P be a point on the ellipse and let PN be perpendicular to the
major axis AA’ such that PN produced meets the ellipse at P  . Then PN is called the ordinate of P and
PNP  the double ordinate of P.
y2 h2 b
If abscissa of P is h, then ordinate of P, 2
 1  2
y  (a 2  h  ) (For first quadrant)
b a a

4
 b
And ordinate of P  is y  (a 2  h 2 ) (For fourth quadrant)
a
 b   b 
Hence coordinates of P and P  are  h, (a 2  h 2 )  and  h, (a 2  h 2 )  respectively.
 a   a 

(8) Latus-rectum: Chord through the focus and perpendicular to the major axis is called its latus rectum.
The double ordinates L L  and L1 L1 are latus rectum of the ellipse.
2b 2  b2    b2 
Length of latus rectum LL '  L1 L1  and end points of latus-rectum are L   ae,  , L'   ae,
 


a  a   a 
 b2    b2 
and L1    ae,  ; L1 '    ae,
 


 a   a 

(9) Focal chord: A chord of the ellipse passing through its focus is called a focal chord.

(10) Focal distances of a point: The distance of a point from the focus is its focal distance. The sum of
the focal distances of any point on an ellipse is constant and equal to the Y
length of the major axis of the ellipse. M
B P
M
2 2 X C Z
x y
Let P(x 1 , y 1 ) be any point on the ellipse 2
 2 1 Z A S S A X
a b B
a  a  Y
SP  ePM  e   x 1   a  ex 1 and S ' P  ePM '  e   x 1   a  ex 1
e  e 
 SP  S ' P  (a  ex 1 )  (a  ex 1 )  2a  AA'  major axis.

5
3. Equation of Ellipse in other form.
x2 y2
In the equation of the ellipse 2
 2
 1, if a  b or a 2  b 2 (denominator of x 2 is Y
a b y=b/e Z K
greater than that of y ), then the major and minor axis lie along x-axis and
2
y- A(0,b)

axis respectively. But if a  b or a  b (denominator of x is less than that of y ),

2 2 2 2
(0,be)
then the major axis of the ellipse lies along the y-axis and is of length 2b and the X X
B C (0,0) B
minor axis along the x-axis and is of length 2a. (–a,0) (a,0)

(0,–be)
S
The coordinates of foci S and S’ are (0, be) and (0, – be) respectively.
The equation of the directrices ZK and Z ' K ' are y  b / e and eccentricity e is A(0,– b)
y=–b/e Z K
a2 Y
given by the formula a 2  b 2 (1  e 2 ) or e  1 
b2

Difference between both ellipse will be clear from the following table.

Ellipse x 2 y2 
 2  2  1
a b 
Basic fundamentals
For a > b For b > a
Centre (0, 0) (0, 0)
Vertices (a, 0) (0,  b)
Length of major axis 2a 2b
Length of minor axis 2b 2a
Foci (ae, 0) (0, be )
Equation of directrices x  a / e y  b / e
Relation in a, b and e b  a (1  e )
2 2 2
a 2  b 2 (1  e 2 )
Length of latus rectum 2b 2 2a 2
a b
Ends of latus-rectum  2   a2 
  ae , b   ,be 
 a   b 
   

Parametric equations (a cos , b sin ) (a cos , b sin ) (0    2 )

Focal radii SP  a  ex 1 and S ' P  a  ex 1 SP  b  ey 1 and S ' P  b  ey 1
Sum of focal radii 2a 2b
SP  S ' P 
Distance between foci 2ae 2be

6
 Distance between 2a/e 2b/e
directrices
Tangents at the vertices x = –a, x = a y = b, y = –b

4. Parametric form of the Ellipse.

x2 y2
Let the equation of ellipse in standard form will be given by  1
a2 b 2
Then the equation of ellipse in the parametric form will be given by x  a cos  , y  b sin  , where  is the
eccentric angle whose value vary from 0    2 . Therefore coordinate of any point P on the ellipse will
be given by (a cos  , b sin  )

5. Special forms of an Ellipse.

(1) If the centre of the ellipse is at point (h, k ) and the directions of the axes are parallel to the
(x  h)2 (y  k )2
coordinate axes, then its equation is  1
a2 b2
If we shift the origin at (h, k) without rotating the coordinate axes, then x  X  h and y  Y  k
(lx  my  n)2 (mx  ly  p)2
(2) If the equation of the curve is   1 where lx  my  n  0 and
a2 b2
lx  my  n mx  ly  p
mx  ly  P  0 are perpendicular lines, then we substitute  X,  Y , to put the
l m
2 2
l2  m 2
equation in the standard form.

7
6. Position of a point with respect to an Ellipse.

x2 y2
Let P(x 1 , y 1 ) be any point and let   1 is the equation of an ellipse. The point lies outside, on or
a2 b 2
x 12 y 12
inside the ellipse as if S 1    1  0,  0,  0
a2 b2
P(outside)
P(on)
P(inside)
X
C

7. Intersection of a Line and an Ellipse.

x2 y2
Let the ellipse be  1 ......(i) and the given line be y  mx  c ......(ii)
a2 b 2

x 2 (mx  c) 2
Eliminating y from equation (i) and (ii), then  1
a2 b2

i.e., (a 2 m 2  b 2 )x 2  2mca 2 x  a 2 (c 2  b 2 )  0

The above equation being a quadratic in x, its discriminant  4 m 2 c 2 a 4  4 a 2 (a 2 m 2  b 2 )(c 2  b 2 )


 b 2 (a 2 m 2  b 2 )  c 2 
Hence the line intersects the ellipse in two distinct points if a 2 m 2  b 2  c 2 in one point if
c 2  a 2 m 2  b 2 and does not intersect if a 2 m 2  b 2  c 2 .

8
8. Equations of Tangent in Different forms.

x2 y2
(1) Point form: The equation of the tangent to the ellipse   1 at the point (x 1 , y 1 ) is
a2 b 2
xx 1 yy 1
2
 1
a b2

x2 y
(2) Slope form: If the line y  mx  c touches the ellipse 2
 2  1 , then c 2  a 2 m 2  b 2 . Hence, the
a b
straight line y  mx  a 2 m 2  b 2 always represents the tangents to the ellipse.

x2 y
Points of contact: Line y  mx  a 2 m 2  b 2 touches the ellipse   1 at
a2 b 2

  a 2m  b2 
 , 
 2 2 
 a m b a2m 2  b 2 
2

x y
(3) Parametric form: The equation of tangent at any point  (a cos  , b sin  ) is cos   sin   1
a b

x2 y2
Note: The straight line lx  my  n  0 touches the ellipse 2
 2  1 , if a 2 l 2  b 2 m 2  n 2 .
a b
x2 y2
The line x cos   y sin   p touches the ellipse 2
 2  1 , if a 2 cos 2   b 2 sin 2   p 2 and that point of
a b
 a 2 cos  b 2 sin  
contact is  , .

 p p 
Two tangents can be drawn from a point to an ellipse. The two tangents are real and distinct or coincident or
imaginary according as the given point lies outside, on or inside the ellipse.
The tangents at the extremities of latus-rectum of an ellipse intersect on the corresponding directrix.

9
Important Tips

x 2 y2
 A circle of radius r is concentric with the ellipse  1, then the common tangent is inclined to
a2 b 2

r b  2 2 
the major axis at an angle tan 1  2 2  .
 a r 

 The locus of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from centre upon any tangent to the ellipse
2
y2
 2  1 is (x 2  y 2 )2  a 2 x 2  b 2 y 2 or r 2  a2 cos2   b 2 sin2  (in polar coordinates)
x
2
a b
x 2 y2
 The locus of the mid points of the portion of the tangents to the ellipse   1 intercepted
a2 b 2
between the axes is a2 y 2  b 2 x 2  4 x 2 y 2 .
 The product of the perpendiculars from the foci to any tangent of an ellipse is equal to the square of
the semi minor axis, and the feet of these perpendiculars lie on the auxiliary circle.

9. Equation of Pair of Tangents SS1 = T2.

x2 y2
Pair of tangents: Let P(x 1 , y 1 ) be any point lying outside the ellipse   1 and let a pair of
a2 b 2
tangents PA, PB can be drawn to it from P.
Then the equation of pair of tangents PA and PB is SS 1  T 2 A
2 2
x y
where S  2
 2 1  0 P(x1,y1)
a b B
x 12 y 12
S1  2
 2
1  0
a b
xx 1 yy 1
T  1  0
a2 b2

10
Director circle: The director circle is the locus of points from which perpendicular tangents are drawn to the
ellipse.
Let P(x 1 , y 1 ) be any point on the locus. Equation of tangents through P(x 1 , y 1 ) is given by SS 1  T 2

 x2 y2   x 12 y 12   xx 1 yy 1 2
  
 
i.e.,  2  2  1   2  2  1    2  2  1 P(x1,y1)
a b  a b  a b 
B 90°
They are perpendicular, So coeff. of x 2  coeff. of y 2  0 A A
C
 1 1  x 12  
y 12 x 12 
y 12 B
  2  2    1       0 or x 12  y 12  a 2  b 2
a 
b  a 2 2 4
b 
4
b  a
Hence locus of P(x1 , y1 ) i.e., equation of director circle is x 2  y 2  a 2  b 2

10. Equations of Normal in Different forms.

x2 y2 a2 x b 2y
(1) Point form: The equation of the normal at (x 1 , y 1 ) to the ellipse   1 is   a2  b 2 .
a2 b 2 x1 y1

Tangent
P(x1,y1)

Normal

Q(x2,y2)

x2 y2
(2) Parametric form: The equation of the normal to the ellipse   1 at (a cos  , b sin  ) is
a2 b 2
ax sec   by cosec  a 2  b 2 .

x2 y2
(3) Slope form: If m is the slope of the normal to the ellipse   1 , then the equation of normal is
a2 b 2
m (a 2  b 2 )
y  mx 
a2  b 2m 2
  a2  mb 2 
The coordinates of the point of contact are  , 
 2 
 a b m a2  b 2m 2 
2 2

11
 x2 y2 m 2 (a 2  b 2 ) 2
Note: If y  mx  c is the normal of   1 , then condition of normality is c 2
 .
a2 b 2 (a 2  b 2 m 2 )
2
x2 y2 a2 b 2  a2  b 2 
The straight line lx  my  n  0 is a normal to the ellipse   1, if 2  2   2
 .

a2 b2 l m  n 
Four normals can be drawn from a point to an ellipse.

Important Tips

 If S be the focus and G be the point where the normal at P meets the axis of an ellipse, then
SG  e.SP , and the tangent and normal at P bisect the external and internal angles between the focal
distances of P.
Y Normal
P(x1,y1)

X S C G S T
X

Y

 Any point P of an ellipse is joined to the extremities of the major axis then the portion of a directrix
intercepted by them subtends a right angle at the corresponding focus.
 With a given point and line as focus and directrix, a series of ellipse can be described. The locus of
the extremities of their minor axis is a parabola.
 The equations to the normals at the end of the latera recta and that each passes through an end of
the minor axis, if e 4  e 2  1  0
 If two concentric ellipse be such that the foci of one be on the other and if e and e’ be their
e 2  e 2  1
eccentricities. Then the angle between their axes is cos1 .
ee

12
11. Auxiliary Circle.

The circle described on the major axis of an ellipse as diameter is called an auxiliary circle of the ellipse.
x2 y2 Y
If   1 is an ellipse, then its auxiliary circle is x 2  y 2  a 2
a2 b 2 P(x,y)

x2 y2 X X
Eccentric angle of a point: Let P be any point on the ellipse  1. C M
a2 b 2
Draw PM perpendicular from P on the major axis of the ellipse and produce Y
MP to meet the auxiliary circle in Q. Join CQ. The angle XCQ   is called
the eccentric angle of the point P on the ellipse.
Note that the angle XCP is not the eccentric angle of point P.

12. Properties of Eccentric angles of the Co-normal points.

x2 y2
(1) The sum of the eccentric angles of the co-normal points on the ellipse   1 is equal to odd multiple
a2 b 2
of  .
(2) If  ,    are the eccentric angles of three points on the ellipse, the normals at which are concurrent,
then sin(   )  sin(   )  sin(   )  0 .
(3)Co-normal points lie on a fixed curve: Let P(x 1 , y 1 ), Q(x 2 , y 2 ) , R(x 3 , y 3 ) and S (x 4 , y 4 ) be co-normal
points, then PQRS lie on the curve (a 2  b 2 )xy  b 2 kx  a  hy  0
Q(x2,y2)
This curve is called Apollonian rectangular hyperbola. P(x1,y1)

T(h,k)

R(x3,y3) S(x4,y4)

Note: The feet of the normals from any fixed point to the ellipse lie at the intersections of the apollonian
rectangular hyperbola with the ellipse.

13
Important Tips

x2 y2
 The area of the triangle formed by the three points, on the ellipse  1, whose eccentric angles
a2 b2
        
are  , and  is 2ab sin  sin  sin .
 2   2   2 
x2 y2 e 2 sin 2
 The eccentricity of the ellipse   1 is given by 2 cot w  , where w is one of the angles
a2 b 2 (1  e 2 )

between the normals at the points whose eccentric angles are  and  .
2

13. Chord of Contact.

If PQ and PR be the tangents through point P(x1 , y1 ) to the ellipse Y
2 2
x y xx yy Q
2
 2  1, then the equation of the chord of contact QR is 21  21  1 P(x1,y1)
a b a b X
X’ C
or T  0 at ( x 1 , y 1 ) R

Y

14. Equation of Chord with Midpoint (x1, y1) .

x2 y2
The equation of the chord of the ellipse   1, whose mid point be (x 1 , y1 ) is T  S 1 , where
a2 b 2
xx 1 yy 1 x 12 y 12
T   1  0 , S 1   1  0 Q(x2,y2)
a2 b2 a2 b 2
P (x1,y1)

R(x3,y3)

14
15. Equation of the Chord joining two points on an Ellipse.

x2 y2
Let P(a cos , b sin  ) ; Q(a cos  , b sin  ) be any two points of the ellipse   1 . Then, the equation of
a2 b 2
b sin   b sin 
the chord joining these two points is y  b sin   (x  a cos )
a cos   a cos
Thus, the equation of the chord joining two points having eccentric angles  and  on the ellipse
x2 y2 x     y        
 2  1 is cos   sin    cos 
 2  b  2   2 
2
a b a

Note: If the chord joining two points whose eccentric angles are  and  cut the major axis of an ellipse at a
  ca
distance ‘c’ from the center, then tan tan  .
2 2 ca
If  and  be the eccentric angles of the extremities of a focal chord of an ellipse of eccentricity e, then
  1e
tan tan   0.
2 2 1e

16. Pole and Polar.

Let P(x 1 , y1 ) be any point inside or outside the ellipse. A chord through P intersects the ellipse at A and B
respectively. If tangents to the ellipse at A and B meet at Q (h,k) then locus of Q is called polar of P with
respect to ellipse and point P is called pole.
Q(h,k) A
Q(h,k) A
A Polar
Polar P(x1,y1) B A
B Pole B
T B
Pole P(x1,y1) Q

x2 y2
Equation of polar: Equation of polar of the point (x 1 , y 1 ) with respect to ellipse   1 is given by
a2 b 2
xx 1 yy 1
2
 1 (i.e. T  0 )
a b2

15
 x2 y2
Coordinates of pole: The pole of the line lx  my  n  0 with respect to ellipse   1 is
a2 b 2
  a2l  b 2m 
P  ,  P
 n n  Q
R
Q
R

Note: The polar of any point on the directrix, passes through the focus.
Any tangent is the polar of its own point of contact.

Properties of pole and polar

(1) If the polar of P(x 1 , y 1 ) passes through Q(x 2 , y 2 ) , then the polar of Q(x 2 , y 2 ) goes through P(x 1 , y 1 )
and such points are said to be conjugate points.

(2) If the pole of a line l1 x  m1 y  n1  0 lies on the another line l2 x  m 2 y  n 2  0 , then the pole of the
second line will lie on the first and such lines are said to be conjugate lines.

(3) Pole of a given line is same as point of intersection of tangents at its extremities.

17. Diameter of the Ellipse.

Definition: The locus of the mid- point of a system of parallel chords of an ellipse is called a diameter and
the chords are called its double ordinates i.e. A line through the centre of an ellipse is called a diameter of the
ellipse.
The point where the diameter intersects the ellipse is called the vertex of the diameter.

x2 y2 Y
Equation of a diameter to the ellipse   1 : Let y  mx  c be a y=mx+c
a2 b2
x2 y2 X
system of parallel chords of the ellipse   1 , where m is a constant and X
a2 b 2
c is a variable. Y

16
 x 2 y2 b2
The equation of the diameter bisecting the chords of slope m of the ellipse   1 is y   x,
a2 b 2 a 2m
which is passing through (0, 0).

Conjugate diameter: Two diameters of an ellipse are said to be conjugate diameter if each bisects all
chords parallel to the other.
Conjugate diameter of circle i.e. AA  and BB  are perpendicular to each other. B Y A
Hence, conjugate diameter of ellipse are PP  and QQ  . Hence, angle between
Q P
90°
 X
X
conjugate diameters of ellipse  90 o . P
C
Q
A B
Now the coordinates of the four extremities of two conjugate diameters are
P(a cos , b sin  ); P (a cos ,b sin  ) ; Q(a sin , b cos  );Q (a sin ,b cos  ) Y

b2
If y  m 1 x and y  m 2 x be two conjugate diameters of an ellipse, then m 1 m 2 
a2

(1) Properties of diameters

(i) The tangent at the extremity of any diameter is parallel to the chords it bisects or parallel to the conjugate
diameter.
(ii) The tangent at the ends of any chord meet on the diameter which bisects the chord.

(2) Properties of conjugate diameters

(i) The eccentric angles of the ends of a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse differ by a right angle,

i.e.    
2
D
(ii) The sum of the squares of any two conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse
A A
is constant and equal to the sum of the squares of the semi axes of the C

ellipse, i.e. CP 2  CD 2  a 2  b 2 P D

(iii) The product of the focal distances of a point on an ellipse is equal to the square of the semi-
diameter which is conjugate to the diameter through the point,
i.e., SP .S P  CD 2 D

(iv) The tangents at the extremities of a pair of conjugate diameters form a parallelogram whose area is
S C S
constant and equal to product of the axes, i.e. P Y
D
Q
Area of parallelogram  (2a)(2b) = Area of rectangle contained under major M
D P
and minor axes. X
R R
X
C
P D
Q Y

17
(v) The polar of any point with respect to ellipse is parallel to the diameter to the one on which the point
lies. Hence obtain the equation of the chord whose mid-point is (x 1, y 1 ) , i.e. chord is T  S 1 .

(3) Equi-conjugate diameters: Two conjugate diameters are called equi-conjugate, if their lengths are
equal i.e. (CP )2  (CD )2
 a 2 cos 2   b 2 sin 2   a 2 sin 2   b 2 cos 2 
 a 2 (cos 2   sin 2  )  b 2 (cos 2   sin 2  )  0  (a 2  b 2 )(cos2   sin 2  )  0
 3
 (a 2  b 2 )  0 ,  cos 2  0 . So,   or
4 4
(a 2  b 2 )
 (CP )  (CD )  for equi-conjugate diameters.
2

Important Tips

x2 y2 x2 y2
 If the point of intersection of the ellipses   1 and   1 be at the extremities of the
a2 b2 2 2
a2 b2
conjugate diameters of the former, then  2
 2
2

 The sum of the squares of the reciprocal of two perpendicular diameters of an ellipse is constant.
 In an ellipse, the major axis bisects all chords parallel to the minor axis and vice-versa, therefore
major and minor axes of an ellipse are conjugate diameters of the ellipse but they do not satisfy the
condition m1 . m 2  b 2 / a2 and are the only perpendicular conjugate diameters.

18
18. Subtangent and Subnormal.
Let the tangent and normal at P(x 1 , y1 ) meet the x-axis at A and B respectively.
x2 y2 a2
Length of sub tangent at P(x 1 , y1 ) to the ellipse   1 is DA  CA  CD   x1
a2 b 2 x1
x2 y2 Y
Length of sub-normal at P(x 1, y1 ) to the ellipse   1 is A
a2 b 2 P(x1,y1)
X
 b 2
 b 2
BD  CD  CB  x 1   x 1  2 x 1   2 x 1  (1  e 2 )x 1 . X C B D A
 a  a
Y

Note: The tangent and normal to any point of an ellipse bisects respectively the internal and external angles
between the focal radii of that point.

19. Concyclic points.

Any circle intersects an ellipse in two or four points. They are called concyclic points and the sum of their
eccentric angles is an even multiple of  .

Q() P()

R() S()

If  ,  . ,  be the eccentric angles of the four concyclic points on an ellipse, then         2n ,
where n is any integer.

Note: The common chords of a circle and an ellipse are equally inclined to the axes of the ellipse.

19
Important Tips
 The centre of a circle x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0 passing through the three points, on an ellipse
x2 y2  a2  b 2 
  1 (whose eccentric angles are a,  ,  ) is  g    cos   cos   cos   cos(     )and
2 2 
a b  4a 
 b 2  a2 
 f    sin  sin   sin  sin(     )

 4a 
 and DCD are conjugate diameters of an ellipse and  is the eccentric angles of P. Then the
P CP
eccentric angles of the point where the circle through P, P , D again cuts the ellipse is  / 2  3 .

20. Reflection property of an Ellipse.

Let S and S  be the foci and PN the normal at the point P of the ellipse, then SP S   SQ S  . Hence if
an incoming light ray aimed towards one focus strike the concave side of the B Tangent Light
Q P
mirror in the shape of an ellipse then it will be reflected towards the other
ray

X
focus. X A
S C N S A
Normal
B
Reflected ray

20
Mathematics

Conic Section - Hyperbola

Table of Content

1. Definition.
2. Standard equation of the hyperbola.
3. Conjugate hyperbola.
4. Special form of hyperbola.
5. Auxiliary circle of hyperbola.
6. Position of a point with respect to a hyperbola.
7. Intersection of a line and a hyperbola.
8. Equations of tangent in different forms.
9. Equation of pair of tangents.
10. Equations of normal in different forms.
11. Equation of chord of contact of tangents drawn from a
point to a hyperbola.
12. Equation of the chord of the hyperbola whose mid-point
(x1, y1) is given.
13. Equations of the chord joining two points on the
hyperbola.
14. Pole and Polar.
15. Diameter of the hyperbola.
16. Subtangent and Subnormal of the hyperbola.
1
17. Reflection property of the hyperbola.
18. Asymptotes of hyperbola.
19. Rectangular or equilateral hyperbola.
20. Intersection of a circle and rectangular hyperbola.

2
1. Definition.

A hyperbola is the locus of a point in a plane which moves in the plane in such a way that the ratio of its
distance from a fixed point in the same plane to its distance from a fixed line is Z

always constant which is always greater than unity.

P
Fixed point is called focus, fixed straight line is called directrix and the constant M

Directrix
ratio is called eccentricity of the hyperbola. Eccentricity is denoted by e and e >
1. S(Focus)
A hyperbola is the particular case of the conic Z

ax 2  2hxy  by 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0
When , abc  2 fgh  af 2  bg 2  ch 2  0 i.e.,   0 and h2  ab .

Let S (h, k ) is the focus, directrix is the line ax  by  c  0 and the eccentricity is e. Let P(x1 , y1 ) be a
point which moves such that SP  e.PM
ax1  by 1  c
 (x 1  h)2  (y 1  k )2  e .
a2  b 2
 (a 2  b 2 )[(x 1  h)2  (y1  k )2 ]  e 2 (ax1  by1  c)2
Hence, locus of (x 1 , y1 ) is given by (a 2  b 2 )[(x  h)2  (y  k )2 ]  e 2 (ax  by  c)2
Which is a second degree equation to represent a hyperbola (e > 1).

2. Standard equation of the Hyperbola.

Let S be the focus, ZM be the directrix and e be the eccentricity of the hyperbola, then by definition,
SP
  e  (SP )2  e 2 (PM)2 Y
Q
PM L1 M P
L
M
2
2
a (x,y) N
 (x  a.e )  (y  0)  e  x  
2 2 axis
X X
 e (–ae,0)S (–a,0) A Z C Z S (ae,0)
Directrix
Directrix

x2 y2 x2 y2
 2  1 , where b 2  a 2 (e 2  1) L1 L
  1  Q
a 2 a 2 (e 2  1) a 2
b x=–a/e Y x=a/e

This is the standard equation of the hyperbola.

3
 x2 y2
Some terms related to hyperbola: Let the equation of hyperbola is  1
a2 b 2

(1) Centre : All chords passing through C are bisected at C. Here C (0,0)

(2) Vertex: The point A and A where the curve meets the line joining the foci S and S  are called vertices
of hyperbola. The co-ordinates of A and A are (a, 0) and (– a, 0) respectively.

(3) Transverse and conjugate axes: The straight line joining the vertices A and A is called transverse
axis of the hyperbola. The straight line perpendicular to the transverse axis and passing through the
centre is called conjugate axis.
Here, transverse axis = AA   2a
Conjugate axis = BB   2b

x2 y2
(4) Eccentricity: For the hyperbola  1
a2 b 2
2 2
 2b   Conjugate axis 
We have b  a (e  1) , e  1     1  
2 2 2

 2a   T ransverse axis 

(5) Double ordinates: If Q be a point on the hyperbola, QN perpendicular to the axis of the hyperbola
and produced to meet the curve again at Q  . Then QQ  is called a double ordinate at Q.
 b   b 
If abscissa of Q is h, then co-ordinates of Q and Q  are  h, h 2  a 2  and  h,  h2  a2 
 a   a 
respectively.

(6) Latus-rectum: The chord of the hyperbola which passes through the focus and is perpendicular to its
transverse axis is called latus-rectum.
2b 2  b2 
Length of latus-rectum L L   L1 L1   2a(e 2  1) and end points of latus-rectum L ae, ;

a  a 
 b2   b2   b2 
L  ae, ; L1   ae ,  ; L1   ae,   respectively.
    
 a   a   a 

(7) Foci and directrices: The points S (ae, 0) and S (ae, 0) are the foci of the hyperbola and ZM and
a a
Z M  are two directrices of the hyperbola and their equations are x 
and x   respectively.
e e
Distance between foci S S  2ae and distance between directrices ZZ  2a / e .
 

4
(8) Focal chord: A chord of the hyperbola passing through its focus is called a focal chord.

(9) Focal distance: The difference of any point on the hyperbola from the focus is called the focal distance of the
point.
 a  a
From the figure, SP  ePM  e  x 1    ex 1  a , S P  ePM   e  x 1   = ex 1  a
 e  e

The difference of the focal distance of a point on the hyperbola is constant and is equal to the length of
transverse axis.

| S P  SP |  2a  AA   Transverse axis

3. Conjugate Hyperbola.

The hyperbola whose transverse and conjugate axis are respectively the conjugate and transverse axis of
a given hyperbola is called conjugate hyperbola of the given hyperbola.

Hyperbola x2 y2 x2 y2
2 2
or x 2  y 2  1 Y
 1   1
Fundamentals 2 2 2 2
a b a b a b
S
Centre (0, 0) (0, 0) (0,–b)

Length of transverse 2a 2b Z B(0,b) y= b/e

axis
X C X
Length of conjugate 2b 2a Z y= –b/e
axis B (0,–b)

Foci ( ae, 0) (0,  be ) S

Equation of directrices x  a / e y  b / e (0,–b)

Y
Eccentricity  a2  b 2   a2  b 2 
e   
 e  
 a
2
  b2 
 
Length of latus rectum 2b 2 2a 2
a b
Parametric co- (a sec , b tan  ) , 0    2 (b sec , a tan  ), 0    2
ordinates
Focal radii SP  ex 1  a & SP  ey 1  b & S P  ey 1  b
S P  ex 1  a
Difference of focal radii 2a 2b
(S P  SP )

5
 Tangents at the x  a, x  a y  b, y  b
vertices
Equation of the y 0 x 0
transverse axis
Equation of the conjugate x 0 y 0
axis

1 1
Note: If e and e  are the eccentricities of a hyperbola and its conjugate, then  2 1.
e 2
e
The foci of a hyperbola and its conjugate are concyclic.

4. Special form of Hyperbola.

If the center of hyperbola is (h, k) and axes are parallel to the co-ordinate axes, then its equation is
(x  h)2 (y  k )2
  1 . By shifting the origin at (h, k) without rotating the co-ordinate axes, the above
a2 b2
X2 Y 2
equation reduces to   1 , where x  X  h, y  Y  k .
a2 b 2

5. Auxiliary circle of Hyperbola.

x2 y2
Let   1 be the hyperbola with center C and transverse axis A A . Y
a2 b 2 Q
(x,y)
P
Therefore circle drawn with center C and segment A A as a diameter is 
90o
N
X
(– a,0)A (0,0)C A(a,0) X
x2 y2
called auxiliary circle of the hyperbola 2    1
a b
Y
 Equation of the auxiliary circle is x 2  y 2  a 2

Let QCN  

Here P and Q are the corresponding points on the hyperbola and the auxiliary circle (0    2 )

6
(1) Parametric equations of hyperbola: The equations x  a sec  and y  b tan  are known as the
x2 y2
parametric equations of the hyperbola   1 . This ( a sec  , b tan  ) lies on the hyperbola for all
a2 b 2
values of  .

Position of points Q on auxiliary circle and the

corresponding point P which describes the hyperbola and
0    2
 varies from Q(a cos φ, a sin φ) P(a sec φ, b tan φ)
 I I
0 to
2
 II III
to 
2
3 III II
 to
2
3 IV IV
to 2
2

Note: The equations x  a cosh  and y  b sin h  are also known as the parametric equations of the hyperbola
x2 y2
and the co-ordinates of any point on the hyperbola   1 are expressible as (a cos h  , b sin h ), where
a2 b 2
e   e  e   e 
cos h   and sin h   .
2 2

6. Position of a point with respect to a Hyperbola.

x2 y2
Let the hyperbola be  1. Y P (outside)
a2 b 2
P
(on)
x2 y2 P(inside)
Then P(x 1 , y1 ) will lie inside, on or outside the hyperbola  1 X
A C A
X
a2 b 2
x 12 y12
according as   1 is positive, zero or negative.
a2 b 2 Y

7
7. Intersection of a Line and a Hyperbola.

x2 y2
The straight line y  mx  c will cut the hyperbola   1 in two points may be real, coincident or
a2 b 2
imaginary according as c 2 , ,  a 2 m 2  b 2 .

x2 y2
Condition of tangency: If straight line y  mx  c touches the hyperbola   1 , then
a2 b 2
c 2  a 2m 2  b 2 .

8. Equations of Tangent in Different forms.

x2 y2 xx yy
(1) Point form: The equation of the tangent to the hyperbola 2
 2  1 at (x 1 , y1 ) is 21  21  1 .
a b a b

x2 y2
(2) Parametric form: The equation of tangent to the hyperbola   1 at (a sec  , b tan  ) is
a2 b 2
x y
sec   tan   1
a b

x2 y2
(3) Slope form: The equations of tangents of slope m to the hyperbola   1 are
a2 b 2
 a 2m b2 
y  mx  a 2 m 2  b 2 and the co-ordinates of points of contacts are   , .
 
 a 2m 2  b 2 a 2m 2  b 2 

x2 y2
Note: If the straight line lx  my  n  0 touches the hyperbola   1 , then a 2 l 2  b 2 m 2  n 2 .
a2 b 2

x2 y2
If the straight line x cos  y sin   p touches the hyperbola  1,
a2 b 2

then a 2 cos 2   b 2 sin 2   p 2

Two tangents can be drawn from an outside point to a hyperbola.

8
Important Tips

x 2 y2 y2 x2
 For hyperbola  1 and  1, the equation of common tangent is y   x  a2  b 2 ,
a2 b 2 a2 b 2
 a2 b2  (a 2  b 2 )
points of contacts are 

;  and length of common tangent is 2. .
 a2  b 2 a 2  b 2  a2  b 2
x 2 y2
 If the line y  mx  a 2m 2  b 2 touches the hyperbola  1 at the point (a sec , b tan  ) , then
a2 b 2
 b 
  sin1  .
 am 

9. Equation of Pair of Tangents.

x2 y2
If P(x 1 , y 1 ) be any point outside the hyperbola   1 then a pair of tangents PQ, PR can be drawn to it
a2 b 2
Y
from P.
Q
The equation of pair of tangents PQ and PR is SS 1  T 2
T (h,k)
X X
A C P A
x2 y2 x2 y2 xx yy (x1,y1)
where, S  2  2  1 , S 1  12  12  1 , T  21  21  1 R
a b a b a b
Y

Director circle: The director circle is the locus of points from which perpendicular tangents are drawn to
x2 y2
the given hyperbola. The equation of the director circle of the hyperbola   1 is x 2  y 2  a 2  b 2
a2 b 2
Y
P (h, k)
90o

X X
A C A

Y

9
10. Equations of Normal in Different forms.
x2 y2 a2 x b 2y
(1) Point form: The equation of normal to the hyperbola 2
 2
 1 at ( x ,
1 1y ) is   a2  b 2 .
a b x 1 y 1

x2 y2
(2) Parametric form: The equation of normal at (a sec  , b tan ) to the hyperbola   1 is
a2 b 2
ax cos  by cot = a 2  b 2 Y Tangent
P(x1,y1)
(3) Slope form: The equation of the normal to the hyperbola Normal

x2 y2 m (a 2  b 2 ) X X
  1 in terms of the slope m of the normal is y  mx  A C A
a2 b 2 a 2  b 2m 2
Y

x2 y2
(4) Condition for normality: If y  mx  c is the normal of  1
a2 b 2
m (a 2  b 2 ) m 2 (a 2  b 2 )2
then c   or c 2  , which is condition of normality.
a 2  m 2b 2 (a 2  m 2 b 2 )

 a2 mb 2 
(5) Points of contact: Co-ordinates of points of contact are   , 
 
 a 2  b 2m 2 a 2  b 2m 2 
x2 y2 a2 b 2 (a 2  b 2 )2
Note: If the line lx  my  n  0 will be normal to the hyperbola   1 ,then   .
a2 b 2 l2 m 2 n2

Important Tip
 In general, four normals can be drawn to a hyperbola from any point and if ,  ,  ,  be the eccentric
angles of these four co-normal points, then        is an odd multiple of  .
x 2 y2
 If  ,  ,  are the eccentric angles of three points on the hyperbola.  1 , the normals at which
a2 b 2
are concurrent, then, sin(   )  sin(   )  sin(  )  0
 If the normal at P meets the transverse axis in G, then SG  e . SP . Also the tangent and normal
bisect the angle between the focal distances of P.
x 2 y2
 The feet of the normals to  1 from (h, k ) lie on a2 y(x  h)  b 2 x (y  k )  0 .
a2 b 2

10
11. Equation of Chord of Contact of Tangents drawn from a Point to a
Hyperbola.

x2 y2
Let PQ and PR be tangents to the hyperbola   1 drawn from any external point P (x 1 , y 1 ) .
a2 b 2
Y
Then equation of chord of contact QR is
Q
xx 1 yy 1
or  2 1 X X
a2 b A C P A
(x1,y1)
or T  0 (At x 1 , y 1 ) R
Y

12. Equation of the Chord of the Hyperbola whose Midpoint (x1, y1) is given.

x2 y2
Equation of the chord of the hyperbola   1 , bisected at the given Y
a2 b2
Q (x2,y2)
xx 1 yy 1 x 12 y 12
point (x 1 , y 1 ) is  1 =  1 X
P X
a2 b2 a2 b2 C A (x1,y1)
R (x3,y3)
i.e., T  S 1
Y

x2 y2
Note: The length of chord cut off by hyperbola   1 from the line y  mx  c is
a2 b 2
2ab [c 2  (a 2 m 2  b 2 )](1  m 2 )
(b 2  a 2 m 2 )

11
13. Equation of the Chord joining Two points on the Hyperbola.

The equation of the chord joining the points P(a sec 1 , b tan 1 ) and Q(a sec  2 , b tan  2 ) is

b tan 2  b tan 1
y  b tan 1  (x  a sec 1 )
a sec 2  a sec 1

x     2  y  1   2     2 
cos 1   sin    cos 1 
a  2  b  2   2 

Note: If the chord joining two points (a sec  1 , b tan  1 ) and (a sec  2 , b tan  2 ) passes through the focus of the
x2 y2   1e
hyperbola  2  1 , then tan 1 tan 2  .
a 2
b 2 2 1 e

14. Pole and Polar.

Let P be any point inside or outside the hyperbola. If any straight line drawn through P interesects the
hyperbola at A and B. Then the locus of the point of intersection of the tangents to the hyperbola at A
and B is called the polar of the given point P with respect to the hyperbola and the point P is called
the pole of the polar.
The equation of the required polar with (x 1 , y 1 ) as its pole is
A
xx 1 yy 1
 2 1 (h,k) Q
A Pole
a2 b Polar P(x1,y1)
X X
B
Q
B

Note: Polar of the focus is the directrix.

Any tangent is the polar of its point of contact.
x2 y2
(1) Pole of a given line : The pole of a given line lx  my  n  0 with respect to the hyperbola   1 is
a2 b 2
Q (h, k) B
 a 2l b 2m 
(x 1 , y 1 )    ,  A
 n n  Polar
X X
Pole
P
(x1,y1) A B
Q

12
(2) Properties of pole and polar
(i) If the polar of P(x 1 , y 1 ) passes through Q(x 2 , y 2 ) , then the polar of Q(x 2 , y 2 ) goes through P(x 1 , y 1 )
and such points are said to be conjugate points.
(ii) If the pole of a line lx  my  n  0 lies on the another line lx  m y  n  0 then the pole of the
second line will lie on the first and such lines are said to be conjugate lines.
(iii) Pole of a given line is same as point of intersection of tangents as its extremities.

Important Tips
x2 y2
 If the polars of (x1 , y1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) with respect to the hyperbola  1 are at right angles, then
a2 b2
x1 x 2 a4
 4 0
y1 y 2 b

15. Diameter of the Hyperbola.

The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords of a hyperbola is called a diameter and the
point where the diameter intersects the hyperbola is called the vertex of the Y (x1,y1)
diameter.
P

x2 y2
Let y  mx  c a system of parallel chords to   1 for different chords X C
X
a2 b 2
R(h,k)
b2x
then the equation of diameter of the hyperbola is y  2 , which is passing Q
a m
Y (x2,y
through (0, 0)

Conjugate diameter: Two diameters are said to be conjugate when each bisects all chords parallel to the
others.
b2
If y  m 1 x , y  m 2 x be conjugate diameters, then m 1 m 2  .
a2

Note: If a pair of diameters be conjugate with respect to a hyperbola, they are conjugate with respect to its
conjugate hyperbola also.
In a pair of conjugate diameters of a hyperbola. Only one meets the curve in real points.
x2 y2
The condition for the lines AX 2  2 HXY  BY 2  0 to be conjugate diameters of   1 is a 2 A  b 2 B .
a2 b 2

13
Important Tips
x2 y2
 If CD is the conjugate diameter of a diameter CP of the hyperbola 2
 1, where P is
a b2
(a sec , b tan  ) then coordinates of D is (a tan , b sec  ) , where C is (0, 0).

16. Subtangent and Subnormal of the Hyperbola.

Let the tangent and normal at P(x 1 , y 1 ) meet the x-axis at A and B respectively. Y
2 (x1, y1)
a
Length of subtangent AN  CN  CA  x 1  P
x1
X B X
C
(a 2  b 2 ) b2 A N
Length of subnormal BN  CB  CN  x1  x1 = x 1  (e  1)x 1
2

a2 a2
Y

17. Reflection property of the Hyperbola.

If an incoming light ray passing through one focus (S) strike convex side of the hyperbola then it will get
reflected towards other focus (S ) Y
M Light ray

TPS   LPM   L
Reflected ray

P Normal
X A X
(–ae,0)S A C S (ae,0) N
T
Tangent

Y

14
18. Asymptotes of a Hyperbola.

An asymptote to a curve is a straight line, at a finite distance from the origin, to which the tangent to a
curve tends as the point of contact goes to infinity.
x2 y2 b x y
The equations of two asymptotes of the hyperbola 2
 2  1 are y   x or   0 .
a b a a b
x2 y2 x 2 y2
Note: The combined equation of the asymptotes of the hyperbola   1 is  0.
a2 b 2 a2 b 2
When b  a i.e. the asymptotes of rectangular hyperbola x 2  y 2  a 2 are y   x , which are at right angles.
A hyperbola and its conjugate hyperbola have the same asymptotes.
The equation of the pair of asymptotes differ the hyperbola and the Y
conjugate hyperbola by the same constant only i.e. Hyperbola – Asymptotes Asymptotes
= Asymptotes – Conjugated hyperbola or, B

 x 2 y2   x 2 y2   x 2 y2   x 2 y2  X
A
X
 2  2  1   2  2    2  2    2  2  1 . A C
a       
 b  a b  a b  a b  B

Y
The asymptotes pass through the centre of the hyperbola.
The bisectors of the angles between the asymptotes are the coordinate axes.
x2 y2 b
The angle between the asymptotes of the hyperbola S  0 i.e., 2
 2  1 is 2 tan 1 or 2 sec 1 e .
a b a
Asymptotes are equally inclined to the axes of the hyperbola.

Important Tips

 The parallelogram formed by the tangents at the extremities of conjugate diameters of a hyperbola
has its vertices lying on the asymptotes and is of constant area. Y

Area of parallelogram QRQ R   4(Area of parallelogram QDCP) = 4 ab  Constant RM

D Q

P
 The product of length of perpendiculars drawn from any point on the hyperbola X
P
C X
2 2 2 2
x y
to the asymptotes is a b
.
R
 1 Q
D

a 2
b 2
a b
2 2
Y

15
19. Rectangular or Equilateral Hyperbola.

(1) Definition: A hyperbola whose asymptotes are at right angles to each other is called a rectangular
hyperbola. The eccentricity of rectangular hyperbola is always 2 .
The general equation of second degree represents a rectangular hyperbola if   0, h 2  ab
and coefficient of x 2 + coefficient of y 2 = 0

x2 y2 b
The equation of the asymptotes of the hyperbola 2
 2  1 are given by y   x .
a b a
b  b
  
a  a 2b / a 2ab
The angle between these two asymptotes is given by tan     2 .
b  b  1 b /a
2 2
a  b2
1  
a a 
 2ab 
If the asymptotes are at right angles, then    / 2  tan   tan   tan
 a2  b 2  0
2 a b
2 2
2
 a  b  2a  2b . Thus the transverse and conjugate axis of a rectangular hyperbola are equal and the
equation is x 2  y 2  a 2 . The equations of the asymptotes of the rectangular hyperbola are
y   x i.e., y  x and y   x . Clearly, each of these two asymptotes is inclined at 45  to the transverse
axis.

(2) Equation of the rectangular hyperbola referred to its asymptotes as the axes of coordinates:
Referred to the transverse and conjugate axis as the axes of coordinates, the equation of the rectangular
hyperbola is
x 2  y 2  a2 …..(i)
The asymptotes of (i) are y = x and y = – x. Each of these two asymptotes is inclined at an angle of 45 
with the transverse axis, So, if we rotate the coordinate axes through an angle of   / 4 keeping the
origin fixed, then the axes coincide with the asymptotes of the hyperbola and
X Y Y X
x  X cos( / 4 )  Y sin( / 4 )  and y  X sin   / 4   Y cos( / 4 )  .
2 2 Y
Substituting the values of x and y in (i),
XY=c2
2 2
 X Y  Y  X  a 2
We obtain the       a  XY  2  XY  c
2 2
X X
 2   2  O

a2
Where c 2  . Y
2

This is transformed equation of the rectangular hyperbola (i).

16
(3) Parametric co-ordinates of a point on the hyperbola XY = c2 : If t is non–zero variable, the
coordinates of any point on the rectangular hyperbola xy  c 2 can be written as (ct, c / t) . The point
(ct, c / t) on the hyperbola xy  c 2 is generally referred as the point ‘t’.
For rectangular hyperbola the coordinates of foci are (a 2 , 0) and directrices are x  a 2 .
For rectangular hyperbola xy  c 2 , the coordinates of foci are (c 2 ,  c 2 ) and directrices are
x  y  c 2 .

(4) Equation of the chord joining points t1 and t2 : The equation of the chord joining two points
c c

 c  c c t 2 t1
 ct1 ,  and  ct2 ,  on the hyperbola xy  c is y  
2
(x  ct1 )  x  y t1 t 2  c (t1  t 2 ) .
 t1   t2  t1 ct2  ct1

(5) Equation of tangent in different forms

(i) Point form: The equation of tangent at (x1 , y1 ) to the hyperbola xy  c 2 is xy 1  yx 1  2c 2 or
x y
 2
x1 y 1
 c x
(ii) Parametric form : The equation of the tangent at  ct,  to the hyperbola xy  c 2 is  yt  2c .On
 t t
c
replacing x 1 by ct and y1 by on the equation of the tangent at (x1 , y1 ) i.e. xy 1  yx 1  2c 2 we get
t
x
 yt  2c .
t

 2ct t 2c 
Note: Point of intersection of tangents at ' t1 ' and ' t2 ' is  1 2
, 
 t1  t 2 t1  t 2 

(6) Equation of the normal in different forms:

(i) Point form : The equation of the normal at (x1 , y1 ) to the hyperbola xy  c 2 is xx 1  yy 1  x12  y12 . As
 dy  y
discussed in the equation of the tangent, we have    1
 ( x 1 , y 1)
dx x1
1 x
So, the equation of the normal at (x1 , y1 ) is y  y1  ( x  x 1 )  y  y1  1 ( x  x 1 )
 dy  y1
 
 dx ( x 1 , y 1 )
 yy 1  y12  xx 1  x12  xx 1  yy 1  x12  y12
This is the required equation of the normal at (x1 , y1 ) .

17
  c
(ii) Parametric form: The equation of the normal at  ct,  to the hyperbola xy  c 2 is
 t
xt  yt  ct  c  0 . On replacing x 1 by ct and y1 by c / t in the equation.
3 4

yc c2
We obtain xx 1  yy 1  x12  y12 , xct   c 2 t 2  2  xt 3  yt  ct 4  c  0
t t

 c
Note: The equation of the normal at  ct,  is a fourth degree in t. So, in general, four normals can be drawn from
 t
a point to the hyperbola xy  c 2

 c 1
If the normal at  ct,  on the curve xy  c meets the curve again in ' t  ' then; t  3 .
2

 t t
 c {t1 t 2 (t12  t1 t 2  t 22 )  1} c {t13 t 23  (t12  t1 t 2  t 22 )} 
Point of intersection of normals at ' t1 ' and ' t 2 ' is  , 
 t1 t 2 (t1  t 2 ) t1 t 2 (t1  t 2 ) 
 

Important Tips

 A triangle has its vertices on a rectangular hyperbola; then the orthocentre of the triangle also lies on
the same hyperbola.
 All conics passing through the intersection of two rectangular hyperbolas are themselves rectangular
hyperbolas.
 An infinite number of triangles can be inscribed in the rectangular hyperbola xy  c 2 whose all sides
touch the parabola y 2  4 ax .

20. Intersection of a Circle and a Rectangular Hyperbola.

If a circle x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  k  0 cuts a rectangular hyperbola xy  c 2 in A, B, C and D and the

parameters of these four points be t1 , t 2 , t 3 and t 4 respectively; then
2g k
(1) (i)  t1   (ii)  t1 t 2 
c c2
 2f 1 2f
(iii)  t1 t 2 t 3  (iv) t1 t 2 t 3 t 4  1 (v)  
c t1 c

18
  c  c 
(2) Orthocentre of ABC is H   ct 4 ,  but D is  ct 4 , 
 t 4   t4 
Hence H and D are the extremities of a diagonal of rectangular hyperbola.


c c  1   g f
(3) Centre of mean position of four points is   t1 ,   i.e.,   ,  

4 4  t1 
  2 2
 Centers of the circles and rectangular hyperbola are (– g, – f) and (0, 0); midpoint of centers of circle
 g f
and hyperbola is   ,   . Hence the center of the mean position of the four points bisects the
 2 2
distance between the centers of the two curves (circle and rectangular hyperbola)
(4) If the circle passing through ABC meet the hyperbola in fourth points D; then center of circle is (–g, –
f)
c 
 1  c1 1 1  
i.e.,   t1  t 2  t 3   ;     t1 t 2 t 3  

2  t1 t 2 t 3  2  t1 t 2 t 3 

19
Mathematics

Conic Section - Parabola

Table of Content

1. Definition.
2. Standard equation of the parabola.
3. Some other standard forms of Parabola.
4. Special form of parabolas.
5. Parametric equations of a parabola.
6. Position of a point and a line with respect to a parabola.
7. Equation of tangent in different forms.
8. Point of intersection of tangents at any two points on the
parabola.
9. Equation of pair of tangents from a point to a parabola.
10. Equations of normal in different forms.
11. Point of intersection of normals at any points on the
parabola.
12. Relation between 't1' and 't2' if normal at 't1' meets the
parabola again at 't2'.
13. Co-normal points.
14. Circle through co-normal points.
15. Equation of the chord of contact of tangent to a
parabola.
1
16. Equation of the chord of the parabola which is bisected
at a given point.
17. Equation of the chord joining any points on the parabola.
18. Diameter of the parabola.
19. Length of tangent sub-tangent, normal and subnormal.
20. Pole and Polar.
21. Characteristics of pole and polar.
22. Reflection property of a parabola.

2
1. Definition.

A parabola is the locus of a point which moves in a plane such that its distance from a fixed point (i.e.,
focus) in the plane is always equal to its distance from a fixed straight line (i.e., directrix) in the same
plane.

General equation of a parabola: Let S be the focus, ZZ' be the directrix and let P be any point on the
parabola. Then by definition,
Z
SP  PM ( e  1)
M P(x,y)
Ax  By  C
(x   )  (y   ) 

Ax+By+C=0
2 2

Directrix
A2  B2
 
S(, )
Or ( A 2  B 2 ) (x   )2  (y   )2  ( Ax  By  C)2 Focus
Z

2. Standard equation of the Parabola.

Let S be the focus ZZ ' be the directrix of the parabola and (x , y ) be any point on parabola.
Let AS  AK  a( 0) then coordinate of S is (a, 0) and the equation of KZ is x  a or x  a  0
Now SP  PM  (SP ) 2  (PM) 2
Z Y
 (x  a)  (y  0)  (a  x )
2 2 2
L P(x,y)
K
 y  4 ax
2 X A S (a,0)
X
Directrix

Which is the equation of the parabola in its standard form. L

P
Z Y y2=4ax

Some terms related to parabola

Y (a, 2a) Q
L
Focal chord
M P
x=a Double ordinate
Directrix
Focal distance
Vertex Focus
X
Z A S(a,0) Axis
Latus rectum
x+a=0

F
L
Y (a,–2a)
)
3
For the parabola y 2  4 ax ,

(1) Axis: A straight line passes through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of
parabola.
For the parabola y 2  4 ax, x-axis is the axis. Here all powers of y are even in y 2  4 ax. Hence parabola
y 2  4 ax is symmetrical about x-axis.

(2) Vertex: The point of intersection of a parabola and its axis is called the vertex of the parabola. The
vertex is the middle point of the focus and the point of intersection of axis and the directrix.
For the parabola y 2  4 ax, A(0,0) i.e., the origin is the vertex.

(3) Double-ordinate: The chord which is perpendicular to the axis of parabola or parallel to directrix is
called double ordinate of the parabola.
Let QQ ' be the double-ordinate. If abscissa of Q is h then ordinate of Q, y 2  4 ah or y  2 ah
(for I st Quadrant) and ordinate of Q ' is y  2 ah (for IVth Quadrant). Hence coordinates of Q and Q' are
(h, 2 ah) and (h,  2 ah) respectively.

(4) Latus-rectum: If the double-ordinate passes through the focus of the parabola, then it is called latus-
rectum of the parabola.
Coordinates of the extremeties of the latus rectum are L(a, 2a) and L' (a,  2a) respectively.
Since LS  L' S  2a Length of latus rectum LL '  2(LS )  2(L' S )  4 a .

(5) Focal Chord: A chord of a parabola which is passing through the focus is called a focal chord of the
parabola. Here PP' and LL' are the focal chords.

(6) Focal distance (Focal length): The focal distance of any point P on the parabola is its distance from
the focus S i.e., SP.
Here, Focal distance SP = PM = x  a

Note :  If length of any double ordinate of parabola y 2  4 ax is 2l, then coordinates of end points of
 l2   l2 
this double ordinate are  , l  and 
 4a  .
,l 
 4a   

4
Important Tips

The area of the triangle inscribed in the parabola y 2  4 ax is where y 1 , y 2 y 3 are

1
 ( y1 ~ y 2 )(y 2 ~ y 3 )(y 3 ~ y1 ),
8a
the ordinate of the vertices
 The length of the side of an equilateral triangle inscribed in the parabola y 2  4 ax is 8a 3 (one angular
point is at the vertex).

3. Some other standard forms of Parabola.

(1) Parabola opening to left (2) Parabola opening upwards (3) Parabola opening down
wards
(i.e. y 2  4 ax ); (a > 0) (i.e. x 2  4 ay) ; (a>0) (i.e. x 2  4 ay ); (a > 0)

Y
L Y
P M Y
x-a=0

X Z M y–a=0
X
S(–a,0) A Z S(0, a)
L L
A
X X
L P
Y P
X X
A
L L
S(0, -a)

y+a=0 Z M
Y Y

5
 Important terms y 2  4 ax y 2  4 ax x 2  4 ay x 2  4 ay
Coordinates of vertex (0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0)
Coordinates of focus (a, 0) (–a, 0) (0, a) (0, –a)
Equation of the x  a x a y  a y=a
directrix
Equation of the axis y 0 y 0 x 0 x 0
Length of the 4a 4a 4a 4a
latusrectum
Focal distance of a x a ax y a ay
point P(x , y)

4. Special form of Parabola (y – k)2 = 4a(x – h).

The equation of a parabola with its vertex at (h, k) and axis as parallel to x-axis is (y  k )2  4 a(x  h)
If the vertex of the parabola is ( p, q) and its axis is parallel to y-axis, then the x=h–a
Y
equation of the parabola is (x  p)  4 b(y  q)
2
a
X
Z A (h,k) S
When origin is shifted at A' (h, k ) without changing the direction of axes, its
Directrix
equation becomes (y  k )2  4 a(x  h) or (x  p)2  4 b(y  q) X A
X
Y

Equation of Parabola V Axis Fo Dire Equation Len

e cu ctri of L.R. gth
rt s x of
e L.R.
x
(y  K)2  4 a(x  h) (h, k ) y k (h  a, k ) x ah  0 x ah 4a

(x  p)2  4 b(y  q) ( p, q ) xp ( p, b  q ) y b q  0 y bq 4b

6
Important Tips

 y 2  4 a(x  a) is the equation of the parabola whose focus is the origin and the axis is x-axis.
 y 2  4 a(x  a) is the equation of parabola whose axis is x-axis and y-axis is directrix.
 x  4 a(y  a) is
2
the equation of parabola whose focus is the origin and the axis is y-axis.
 x 2  4 a(y  a) is the equation of parabola whose axis is y-axis and the directrix is x-axis.
 The equation to the parabola whose vertex and focus are on x-axis at a distance a and a'
respectively from the origin is y 2  4(a'a)(x  a) .
 The equation of parabola whose axis is parallel to x-axis is x  Ay 2  By  C and y  Ax 2  Bx  C is a
parabola with its axis parallel to y-axis.

5. Parametric equations of a Parabola.

The simplest and the best form of representing the coordinates of a point on the parabola y 2  4 ax is
(at2 2at) because these coordinates satisfy the equation y 2  4 ax for all values of t. The equations
x  at2 , y  2at taken together are called the parametric equations of the parabola y 2  4 ax , t being the
parameter.

The following table gives the parametric coordinates of a point on four standard forms of the parabola
and their parametric equation.

Parabola y 2  4 ax y 2  4 ax x 2  4 ay x 2  4 ay
Parametric (at 2 ,2at) (2at, at 2 ) ( 2at,  at2 )
Coordinates (at 2 ,2at)
Parametric x  at 2 x  at 2 x  2at x  2at ,
Equations y  2at y  2at y  at 2 y  at 2

Note: The parametric equation of parabola (y  k )2  4 a(x  h) are x  h  at 2 and y  k  2at

7
6. Position of a point and a Line with respect to a Parabola.

(1) Position of a point with respect to a parabola: The point P(x 1 , y 1 ) lies Y (on)
P
outside on or inside the parabola y  4 ax according as
2
P
(Outside) P(inside)
y12  4 ax1 , , or  0 X

(2) Intersection of a line and a parabola: Let the parabola be y 2  4 ax .....(i)

And the given line be y  mx  c .....(ii)
Eliminating y from (i) and (ii) then (mx  c) = 4 ax or m x  2 x (mc  2a)  c  0
2 2 2 2
.....(iii)
This equation being quadratic in x, gives two values of x. It shows that every straight line will cut the
parabola in two points, may be real, coincident or imaginary, according as discriminate of (iii) >, = or <
0
 The line y  mx  c does not intersect, touches or intersect a parabola y 2  4 ax , according as
a
c , , 
m

7. Equation of Tangent in Different forms.

(1) Point Form: The equation of the tangent to the parabola y 2  4 ax at a point (x 1 , y 1 ) is
yy 1  2a(x  x1 )

P(x1,y1)

Q(x2,y2)

8
 Equation of tangent of all other standard parabolas at (x1, y1)
Equation of parabolas Tangent at (x1, y1)
y 2  4 ax yy 1  2a(x  x1 )

x 2  4 ay xx 1  2a(y  y1 )

x 2  4 ay xx 1  2a(y  y1 )

Note: The equation of tangent at (x 1 , y 1 ) to a curve can also be obtained by replacing x 2 by xx 1 , y 2 by yy 1 , x by

x  x1 y  y1 xy 1  x 1 y
, y by and xy by provided the equation of curve is a polynomial of second degree in x
2 2 2
and y.

 
(2) Parametric form: The equation of the tangent to the parabola y 2  4 ax at at 2 ,2at is ty  x  at 2

Equations of tangent of all other standard parabolas at 't'

Equations of parabolas Parametric co-ordinates Tangent at 't'
't'
y 2  4 ax (at 2 ,2at) ty   x  at 2

x 2  4 ay (2at, at 2 ) tx  y  at 2

x 2  4 ay (2at,  at 2 ) tx  y  at 2

 a 2a 
(3) Slope Form: The equation of a tangent of slope m to the parabola y 2  4 ax at 2  is
m , m 
 
a
y  mx 
m

9
 Equation of Point of contact in Equation of tangent Condition of
parabolas terms of slope (m) in terms of slope Tangency
(m)
y 2  4 ax  a 2a  a a
 2,  y  mx  c
m m  m m

y 2  4 ax  a 2a  a a
  2 ,  y  mx  c
 m m m m

x 2  4 ay (2am, am 2 ) y  mx  am 2 c  am 2

x 2  4 ay (2am,am 2 ) y  mx  am 2 c  am 2

Important Tips
 If the straight line lx  my  n  0 touches the parabola y 2  4 ax then l n  am 2 .
 If the line x cos   y sin  p touches the parabola y 2  4 ax, then P cos   a sin2   0 and point of contact
is (a tan 2 ,2a tan  )

If the line  1 touches the parabola y 2  4 a(x  b) , then m 2 (l  b)  al 2  0

x y
 
l m

8. Point of intersection of Tangents at any two points on the Parabola.

The point of intersection of tangents at two points P(at12 ,2at1 ) and Q(at22 ,2at2 ) on the parabola y 2  4 ax
is (at1 t 2 , a(t1  t 2 )) . Y

The locus of the point of intersection of tangents to the parabola y  4 ax 2

(at1t2,a(t1+t2))
P

which meet at an angle  is (x  a)2 tan 2   y 2  4 ax . X

R O
X

Director circle: The locus of the point of intersection of perpendicular Y

tangents to a conic is known as its director circle. The director circle of a

parabola is its directrix.

10
Note: Clearly, x-coordinates of the point of intersection of tangents at P and Q on the parabola is the G.M of the x-
coordinate of P and Q and y-coordinate is the A.M. of y-coordinate of P and Q.
The equation of the common tangents to the parabola y 2  4 ax and x 2  4 by is
1 1 2 2
R [at1t2,a(t1+t2)]
a3 x b3y a b3
3 0

The tangents to the parabola y 2  4 ax at P(at12 ,2at1 ) and Q(at22 ,2at2 ) intersect at R.
1 2
Then the area of triangle PQR is a (t1  t 2 )3
2

9. Equation of Pair of Tangents from a point to a Parabola.

If y 12  4 ax1  0 , then any point P(x 1 , y 1 ) lies out side the parabola and a pair of tangents PQ, PR can be
drawn to it from P Y

The combined equation of the pair of the tangents drawn from a point to a Q

parabola is SS '  T 2 where S  y 2  4 ax; S '  y12  4 ax1 and T  yy 1  2a(x  x 1 ) X

(x1,y1)P
O X
R

Y

Note: The two tangents can be drawn from a point to a parabola. The two tangent are real and distinct or
coincident or imaginary according as the given point lies outside, on or inside the parabola.

Important Tips

 Tangents at the extremities of any focal chord of a parabola meet at right angles on the directrix.
 Area of the triangle formed by three points on a parabola is twice the area of the triangle formed by
the tangents at these points.
 If the tangents at the points P and Q on a parabola meet in T, then ST is the geometric mean
between SP and SQ, i.e. ST 2  SP .SQ
 Tangent at one extremity of the focal chord of a parabola is parallel to the normal at the other
extremity.
3 a1 / 3 b 1 / 3
 The angle of intersection of two parabolas y 2  4 ax and x 2  4 by is given by tan 1
2(a 2 / 3  b 2 / 3 )

11
10. Equations of Normal in Different forms.

(1) Point form: The equation of the normal to the parabola y 2  4 ax at a point (x 1 , y 1 ) is
y1
y  y1   (x  x 1 ) P(x1,y1)
2a
Tangent
Normal

Equation of normals of all other standard parabolas at (x1, y1)

Equation of parabolas Normal at (x1, y1)
y  4 ax
2
y  y1 
y1
(x  x 1 )
2a
x 2  4 ay y  y1  
2a
(x  x 1 )
x1

x 2  4 ay y  y1 
2a
(x  x 1 )
x1

(2) Parametric form: The equation of the normal to the parabola y 2  4 ax at (at 2 ,2at) is y  tx  2at  at 3

Equations of normal of all other standard parabola at 't'

Equations of parabolas Parametric co- Normals at 't'
ordinates
y 2  4 ax (at 2 ,2at) y  tx  2at  at 3

x 2  4 ay (2at, at 2 ) x  ty  2at  at 3
x 2  4 ay (2at,at 2 ) x  ty  2at  at 3

12
(3) Slope form: The equation of normal of slope m to the parabola y 2  4 ax is y  mx  2am  am 3 at
the point (am 2 ,2am) .

Equations of normal, point of contact, and condition of normality in terms of slope (m)
Equations of Point of contact in Equations of normal Condition of
parabola terms of slope (m) in terms of slope (m) normality
y 2  4 ax (am 2 ,2am) y  mx  2am  am 3 c  2am  am 3

y 2  4 ax (am 2 ,2am) y  mx  2am  am 3 c  2am  am 3

x 2  4 ay  2a a  a a
 , 2 y  mx  2a  2
c  2a 
 m m  m m2

x 2  4 ay  2a a  a a
 , 2  y  mx  2a  2
c  2a 
m m  m m2

Note: The line lx  my  n  0 is a normal to the parabola y 2  4 ax if al(l 2  2m 2 )  m 2 n  0

11. Point of intersection of normals at any two points on the Parabola.

If R is the point of intersection then point of intersection of normals at any two points P(at12 ,2at1 ) and
Q(at22 ,2at2 ) on the parabola y 2  4 ax is R [2a  a(t12  t 22  t1 t 2 ),  at1 t 2 (t1  t 2 )]

X R
A X

Y

13
12. Relation between 't1' and 't2' if Normal at 't1' meets the Parabola again at
't2' '

If the normal at the point P(at 12 ,2at1 ) meets the parabola y 2  4 ax again at Q(at22 ,2at2 ) , then
2
t 2  t 1  Y
t1
X X
A

Y

Important Tips

 If the normals at points (at12 ,2at) and (at22 ,2at2 ) on the parabola y 2  4 ax meet on the parabola then
t1 t 2  2

 If the normal at a point P(at 2 ,2at) to the parabola y 2  4 ax subtends a right angle at the vertex of the
parabola then t 2  2 .
 If the normal to a parabola y 2  4 ax , makes an angle  with the axis, then it will cut the curve again at
an angle tan 1  tan   .
1
2 
 The normal chord to a parabola y 2  4 ax at the point whose ordinate is equal to abscissa subtends a
right angle at the focus.
 If the normal at two points P and Q of a parabola y 2  4 ax intersect at a third point R on the curve.
Then the product of the ordinate of P and Q is 8a 2 .

14
13. Co-normal Points.

The points on the curve at which the normals pass through a common point are called co-normal points.
Q, R, S are co-normal points. The co- normal points are also called the feet of Y
Q
the normals.
P(x1,y1)
If the normal passes through point P(x 1 , y 1 ) which is not on parabola, then X
0
X

y 1  mx 1  2am  am 3  am 3  (2a  x 1 )m  y 1  0 ......(i) R

S
Which gives three values of m. Let three values of m are m 1 , m 2 and m 3 , Y

which are the slopes of the normals at Q, R and S respectively, then the coordinates of Q, R and S are
(am12 ,2am1 ), (am 22 ,2am 2 ) and (am 32,  2am 3 ) respectively. These three points are called the feet of the
normals.

(2a  x 1 )  y1
Now m 1  m 2  m 3  0 , m 1 m 2  m 2 m 3  m 3 m 1  and m 1 m 2 m 3 
a a
In general, three normals can be drawn from a point to a parabola.
(1) The algebraic sum of the slopes of three concurrent normals is zero.

(2) The sum of the ordinates of the co-normal points is zero.

(3) The centroid of the triangle formed by the co-normal points lies on the axis of the parabola.

(4) The centroid of a triangle formed by joining the foots of the normal of the parabola lies on its axis
 am 2  am 22  am 32 2am1  2am 2  2am 3   am 12  am 22  am 32 
and is given by  1 , =
  ,0 
 3 3   3 
(5) If three normals drawn to any parabola y 2  4 ax from a given point (h, k) be real, then h  2a for
a  1 , normals drawn to the parabola y 2  4 x from any point (h, k) are real, if h  2 .

(6) Out of these three at least one is real, as imaginary normals will always occur in pairs.

15
14. Circle through Co-normal points.

Equation of the circle passing through the three (co-normal) points on the parabola y 2  4 ax , normal at

which pass through a given point ( ,  ) ; is x 2  y 2  (2a   )x  y0
2
(1) The algebraic sum of the ordinates of the four points of intersection of a circle and a parabola is zero.
(2) The common chords of a circle and a parabola are in pairs, equally inclined to the axis of parabola.
(3) The circle through co-normal points passes through the vertex of the parabola.
(4) The centroid of four points; in which a circle intersects a parabola, lies on the axis of the parabola.

15. Equation of the Chord of contact of Tangents to a Parabola.

Let PQ and PR be tangents to the parabola y 2  4 ax drawn from any external point P(x 1 , y 1 ) then QR is
called the ‘Chord of contact’ of the parabola y 2  4 ax . Y

The chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point (x 1 , y 1 ) to the parabola Q

Chord of
y  4 ax is yy 1  2a(x  x 1 )
2 X O X
(x1,y1)P contact
R
The equation is same as equation of the tangents at the point (x 1 , y 1 ) .
Y'

Note: The chord of contact joining the point of contact of two perpendicular tangents always passes through focus.

If tangents are drawn from the point (x 1 , y 1 ) to the parabola y 2  4 ax, then the
1
length of their chord of contact is (y 12  4 ax 1 )(y 12  4 a 2 ) P(x1,y1)
| a|

The area of the triangle formed by the tangents drawn from (x1 , y1 ) to y 2  4 ax
(y 12  4 ax 1 )3 / 2
and their chord of contact is .
2a

16
16. Equation of the Chord of the Parabola which is bisected at a given point.

The equation of the chord at the parabola y 2  4 ax bisected at the point (x 1 , y 1 ) is given by T  S 1,
where T  yy 1  2a(x  x 1 ) and S 1  y 12  4ax1 . i.e., yy 1  2a(x  x 1 )  y 12  4 ax1 Q(x2,y2)

P(x1,y1)

R(x3,y3)

17. Equation of the Chord joining any two points on the Parabola.

Let P(at12 ,2at1 ), Q(at22, ,2at2 ) be any two points on the parabola y 2  4 ax . Then, the equation of the chord

joining these points is, y  2at1 

2at 2  2at1
(x  at12 ) or y  2at1 
2

t1  t 2

x  at12 or
at 22  at12
y(t1  t 2 )  2 x  2at1 t 2

(1) Condition for the chord joining points having parameters t1and t2 to be a focal chord: If the
chord joining points (at12 ,2at1 ) and (at 22 ,2at 2 ) on the parabola passes through its focus, then (a,0) satisfies
1
the equation y(t1  t 2 )  2 x  2at1 t 2  0  2a  2at1 t 2  t1 t 2  1 or t 2  
t1

(2) Length of the focal chord: The length of a focal chord having parameters t 1 and t 2 for its end points is
a(t 2  t1 )2 .

 a  2a 
Note: If one extremity of a focal chord is (at12 ,2at1 ) ,then the other extremity (at 22 ,2at 2 ) becomes  
 t 2 , t  by
 1 1 
virtue of relation t1 t 2  1 .

a 
If one end of the focal chord of parabola is (at ,2at) ,then other end will be 
2
,  2at  and length of chord
t 
2

2
 1
 a t   .
 t
The length of the chord joining two point ' t1 ' and ' t 2 ' on the parabola y 2  4 ax is a(t1  t 2 ) (t1  t 2 )2  4

4
The length of intercept made by line y  mx  c between the parabola y 2  4 ax is a(1  m 2 )(a  mc) .
m2
17
Important Tips

 The focal chord of parabola y 2  4 ax making an angle  with the x-axis is of length 4 a cos ec 2 .
 The length of a focal chord of a parabola varies inversely as the square of its distance from the
vertex.
4 l1 l 2
 If l1 and l2 are the length of segments of a focal chord of a parabola, then its latus-rectum is
l1  l 2
 The semi latus rectum of the parabola y 2  4 ax is the harmonic mean between the segments of any
focal chord of the parabola.

18. Diameter of a Parabola.

The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords is called a diameter and in case of a
parabola this diameter is shown to be a straight line which is parallel to the P(x1,y1)
Y
axis of the parabola. y=mx+c
The equation of the diameter bisecting chords of the parabola y 2  4 ax of X
P(h,k)
X
A
2a Diameter
slope m is y 
m Y Q(x2,y2)

Note: Every diameter of a parabola is parallel to its axis.

The tangent at the end point of a diameter is parallel to corresponding system of parallel chords.
The tangents at the ends of any chord meet on the diameter which bisects the chord.

19. Length of Tangent, Sub tangent, Normal and Subnormal.

Let the parabola y 2  4 ax . Let the tangent and normal at P(x 1 , y 1 ) meet the axis of parabola at T and G
respectively, and tangent at P(x 1 , y 1 ) makes angle  with the positive direction of x-axis.
A(0, 0) is the vertex of the parabola and PN  y . Then,
(x1,y1)
(1) Length of tangent  PT  PN cosec   y 1 cosec  Y
P
yy1=2a(x+x1)
(2) Length of normal  PG  PNcosec (90 o   )  y 1 sec  X
 S(a,0)
X
T(–x1,0) A N G(x1,2a,0)
(3) Length of subtangent  TN  PN cot  y 1 cot (x1,0)

y2=4ax
(4) Length of subnormal  NG  PN cot(90 o   )  y 1 tan Y

18
 2a
where , tan   m, [slope of tangent at P(x, y)]
y1

Length of tangent, subtangent, normal and subnormal to y2 = 4ax at (at2, 2at)

(1) Length of tangent at (at 2 ,2at)  2at cosec   2at (1  cot 2  )  2at 1  t 2

(2) Length of normal at (at 2 , 2at)  2at sec   2at (1  tan 2  )  2a t 2  t 2 tan 2   2a (t 2  1)

(3) Length of subtangent at (at 2 ,2at)  2at cot  2at 2

(4) Length of subnormal at (at 2 ,2at)  2at tan  2a

20. Pole and Polar.

The locus of the point of intersection of the tangents to the parabola at the ends of a chord drawn from
a fixed point P is called the polar of point P and the point P is called the pole of the polar.
Equation of polar: Equation of polar of the point (x 1 , y 1 ) with respect to parabola y 2  4 ax is same as
chord of contact and is given by yy 1  2a(x  x 1 )

(h,k) Q (h,k)
T Q
T Q
Pole R
P(x1,y1) Pole
Polar
P
R
T R
Polar (x1,y1) Q
R
T

(1) Polar of the focus is directrix: Since the focus is (a, 0)

Equation of polar of y 2  4 ax is y . 0  2a(x  a)  x  a  0, which is the directrix of the parabola
y 2  4 ax .

(2) Any tangent is the polar of its point of contact: If the point P(x1 y1 ) be on the parabola. Its polar and
tangent at P are identical. Hence the tangent is the polar of its own point of (x1,y1)
contact. P

Coordinates of pole: The pole of the line lx  my  n  0 with respect to the Q

Q

R
 n  2am 
parabola y 2  4 ax is  , . R
l l 

19
  y y y  y2 
(i) Pole of the chord joining (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) is  1 2 , 1  which is the same as the point of
 4a 2 
intersection of tangents at (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) .
(ii) The point of intersection of the polar of two points Q and R is the pole of QR.

21. Characteristics of Pole and Polar.

(1) Conjugate points: If the polar of P(x 1 , y 1 ) passes through Q(x 2 , y 2 ) , then the polar of Q(x 2 , y 2 ) goes
through P(x1 , y1 ) and such points are said to be conjugate points.
Two points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x 2 , y 2 ) are conjugate points with respect to the parabola y 2  4 ax , if
y 1 y 2  2a(x 1  x 2 ) .

(2) Conjugate lines: If the pole of a line ax  by  c  0 lies on the line a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 , then the pole of
the second line will lie on the first and such lines are said to be conjugate lines.
Two lines l1 x  m 1 y  n1  0 and l 2 x  m 2 y  n 2  0 are conjugate lines with respect to parabola y 2  4 ax
, if (l1 n 2  l 2 n1 )  2am1 m 2

Note: The chord of contact and polar of any point on the directrix always passes through focus.
The pole of a focal chord lies on directrix and locus of poles of focal chord is the directrix.
The poplars of all points on directrix always pass through a fixed point and this fixed point is focus.

20
Mathematics

Vectors
Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Representation of vectors.
3. Types of vector.
4. Rectangular resolution of a vector in two and three
dimensional system.
5. Properties of vectors.
6. Position vector.
7. Linear combination of vector.
8. Linear in dependence and dependence of vector.
9. Product of two vectors.
10. Vector or cross product of two vectors.
11. Moment of a force and couple.
12. Scalar triple product.
13. Vector triple product.
14. Scalar product of four vectors.
15. Vector product of four vectors.
16. Vector equations.

1
1. Introduction.

Vectors represent one of the most important mathematical systems, which is used to handle certain types
of problems in Geometry, Mechanics and other branches of Applied Mathematics, Physics and
Engineering.

Scalar and vector quantities: Physical quantities are divided into two categories – scalar quantities and
vector quantities. Those quantities which have only magnitude and which are not related to any fixed
direction in space are called scalar quantities, or briefly scalars. Examples of scalars are mass, volume,
density, work, temperature etc.

A scalar quantity is represented by a real number along with a suitable unit.

Second kind of quantities are those which have both magnitude and direction. Such quantities are called
vectors. Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, weight, force etc. are examples of vector
quantities.

2. Representation of Vectors.

Geometrically a vector is represented by a line segment. For example, a  AB . Here A is called the initial
point and B, the terminal point or tip.
Magnitude or modulus of a is expressed as | a | | AB |  AB . B

Note: The magnitude of a vector is always a non-negative real number. a

Every vector AB has the following three characteristics: A

Length: The length of AB will be denoted by | AB | or AB.

Support: The line of unlimited length of which AB is a segment is called the support of the vector AB .
Sense: The sense of AB is from A to B and that of BA is from B to A. Thus, the sense of a directed line
segment is from its initial point to the terminal point.

2
3. Types of Vector.

(1) Zero or null vector: A vector whose magnitude is zero is called zero or null vector and it is
represented by O .
The initial and terminal points of the directed line segment representing zero vector are coincident and
its direction is arbitrary.

(2) Unit vector: A vector whose modulus is unity, is called a unit vector. The unit vector in the direction
of a vector a is denoted by â , read as “a cap”. Thus, | aˆ |  1 .
a Vector a
aˆ  
| a | Magnitude of a

Note: Unit vectors parallel to x-axis, y-axis and z-axis are denoted by i, j and k respectively.
Two unit vectors may not be equal unless they have the same direction.

(3) Like and unlike vectors: Vectors are said to be like when they have the same sense of direction and
unlike when they have opposite directions.

(4) Collinear or parallel vectors: Vectors having the same or parallel supports are called collinear
vectors.

(5) Co-initial vectors: Vectors having the same initial point are called co-initial vectors.

(6) Co-planar vectors: A system of vectors is said to be coplanar, if their supports are parallel to the same
plane.

Note: Two vectors having the same initial point are always coplanar but such three or more vectors may or may not
be coplanar.

(7) Coterminous vectors: Vectors having the same terminal point are called coterminous vectors.

(8) Negative of a vector: The vector which has the same magnitude as the vector a but opposite
direction, is called the negative of a and is denoted by  a . Thus, if PQ  a , then QP  a .

3
(9) Reciprocal of a vector: A vector having the same direction as that of a given vector a but magnitude
equal to the reciprocal of the given vector is known as the reciprocal of a and is denoted by a 1 . Thus, if
1
| a |  a,| a 1 | 
a

Note: A unit vector is self-reciprocal.

(10) Localized and free vectors: A vector which is drawn parallel to a given vector through a specified
point in space is called a localized vector. For example, a force acting on a rigid body is a localized vector
as its effect depends on the line of action of the force. If the value of a vector depends only on its length
and direction and is independent of its position in the space, it is called a free vector.
(11) Position vectors: The vector OA which represents the position of the point A with respect to a fixed point
O (called origin) is called position vector of the point A. If (x, y, z) are co-ordinates of the point A, then
OA  x i  y j  zk .

(12) Equality of vectors: Two vectors a and b are said to be equal, if

(i) | a | | b |

(ii) They have the same or parallel support and

(iii) The same sense.

4. Rectangular resolution of a Vector in Two and Three dimensional systems.

(1) Any vector r can be expressed as a linear combination of two unit vectors i and j at right angle i.e.,
r  xi  yj

The vector x i and y j are called the perpendicular component vectors of r .

Y
P(x, y)
The scalars x and y are called the components or resolved parts of r in the
directions of x-axis and y-axis respectively and the ordered pair (x, y) is r
j
known as co-ordinates of point whose position vector is r .
X
O i
Also the magnitude of r  x 2  y 2 and if  be the inclination of r with the
x-axis, then   tan 1 (y / x )

(2) If the coordinates of P are (x, y, z) then the position vector of r can be written as r  x i  y j  zk .

4
The vectors x i, y j and zk are called the right angled components of r .

The scalars x , y, z are called the components or resolved parts of r in the directions of x-axis, y-axis and
z-axis respectively and ordered triplet (x, y, z) is known as coordinates of P whose position vector is r .

Also the magnitude or modulus of r | r |  x 2  y 2  z 2 Y

P(x, y, z)
Direction cosines of r are the cosines of angles that the vector r makes with
r
x x j
the positive direction of x, y and z-axes. cos   l   , O X
x y z
2 2 2 | r| k i

y y z z Z
cos   m   and cos   n  
x2  y2  z2 | r| x2  y2  z2 | r|

Clearly, l 2  m 2  n 2  1 . Here   POX ,   POY   POZ and i, j, k are the unit vectors along
OX , OY , OZ respectively.

5. Properties of Vectors.

(1) Addition of vectors

C
(i) Triangle law of addition: If two vectors are represented by two
consecutive sides of a triangle then their sum is represented by the third side
c = a+b
of the triangle, but in opposite direction. This is known as the triangle law of b

addition of vectors. Thus, if AB  a, BC  b and AC  c then AB  BC  AC a

A
i.e., a  b  c .

(ii) Parallelogram law of addition: If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, then their sum is represented by the diagonal of the B
parallelogram whose initial point is the same as the initial point of the given
vectors. This is known as parallelogram law of addition of vectors.
c = a+b
b

Thus, if OA  a , OB  b and OC  c O A
a
Then OA  OB  OC i.e., a  b  c , where OC is a diagonal of the
parallelogram OABC.

5
(iii) Addition in component form : If the vectors are defined in terms of i , j and k, i.e., if
a  a1 i  a 2 j  a 3 k and b  b1 i  b 2 j  b 3 k , then their sum is defined as
a  b  (a1  b1 )i  (a 2  b 2 )j  (a3  b 3 )k .

Properties of vector addition: Vector addition has the following properties.

(a) Binary operation: The sum of two vectors is always a vector.

(b) Commutativity: For any two vectors a and b , a  b  b  a
(c) Associativity: For any three vectors a, b and c , a  (b  c )  (a  b)  c
(d) Identity: Zero vector is the identity for addition. For any vector a , 0  a  a  a  0
(e) Additive inverse: For every vector a its negative vector  a exists such that a  (a )  (a )  a  0
i.e., (a ) is the additive inverse of the vector a.
(2) Subtraction of vectors: If a and b are two vectors, then their subtraction a  b is defined as
a  b  a  (b) where  b is the negative of b having magnitude equal to that of b and direction
opposite to b .
B

If a  a1 i  a 2 j  a 3 k and b  b1 i  b 2 j  b 3 k a+b
b
0 A

a
Then a  b  (a1  b1 )i  (a 2  b 2 )j  (a3  b 3 )k . –b
a+(–b)= a – b B

Properties of vector subtraction

(i) a  b  b  a
(ii) (a  b)  c  a  (b  c )
(iii) Since any one side of a triangle is less than the sum and greater than the difference of the other two
sides, so for any two vectors a and b, we have
(a) | a  b | | a |  | b | (b) | a  b | | a |  | b |
(c) | a  b | | a |  | b | (d) | a  b | | a | | b |

(3) Multiplication of a vector by a scalar : If a is a vector and m is a scalar (i.e., a real number) then
m a is a vector whose magnitude is m times that of a and whose direction is the same as that of a , if m
is positive and opposite to that of a , if m is negative.
 Magnitude of m a | m a |  m (magnitude of a ) = m | a |
Again if a  a1 i  a 2 j  a 3 k then m a  (ma1 )i  (ma 2 )j  (ma 3 )k

6
Properties of Multiplication of vectors by a scalar: The following are properties of multiplication of
vectors by scalars, for vectors a, b and scalars m, n
(i) m(a )  (m) a  (m a )
(ii) (m)(a )  m a
(iii) m (na )  (mn) a  n(m a )
(iv) (m  n) a  m a  na
(v) m (a  b)  m a  m b

(4) Resultant of two forces 

R P Q Q 

R
| R |  R  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos   

Q sin 
Where | P | = P, | Q |  Q , tan   P
P  Q cos 
P sin  sin   
Deduction: When | P | | Q | , i.e., P = Q, tan     tan ;   
P  P cos  1  cos  2 2
Hence, the angular bisector of two unit vectors a and b is along the vector sum a  b .

Important Tips

 The internal bisector of the angle between any two vectors is along the vector sum of the
corresponding unit vectors.
 The external bisector of the angle between two vectors is along the vector difference of the
corresponding unit vectors.

B(b)

External Internal
bisector bisector
A
O (a)

7
6. Position Vector.

If a point O is fixed as the origin in space (or plane) and P is any point, then OP is called P
the position vector of P with respect to O.
r
If we say that P is the point r , then we mean that the position vector of P is r with Origin

respect to some origin O.

O

(1) AB in terms of the position vectors of points A and B : If a and b are position vectors of points
A and B respectively. Then, OA  a, OB  b B

In OAB , we have OA  AB  OB  AB  OB  OA  b  a
 AB = (Position vector of B) – (Position vector of A) b

 AB = (Position vector of head) – (Position vector of tail) O A

a

(2) Position vector of a dividing point

(i) Internal division: Let A and B be two points with position vectors a and b respectively, and let C be
a point dividing AB internally in the ratio m : n. B
Then the position vector of C is given by n
m b  na C
OC  b
m n c m
O A
a

(ii) External division: Let A and B be two points with position vectors a and b respectively and let C be
a point dividing AB externally in the ratio m : n. C
Then the position vector of C is given by B
m b  na
OC  c
m n
b
O A
a
Important Tips
ab
 Position vector of the mid point of AB is
2
a b c
 If a, b, c are position vectors of vertices of a triangle, then position vector of its centroid is
3
 If a, b, c, d are position vectors of vertices of a tetrahedron, then position vector of its centroid is
a b c d
.
4

8
7. Linear Combination of Vectors.

A vector r is said to be a linear combination of vectors a, b, c ..... etc, if there exist scalars x, y, z etc.,
such that r  x a  y b  zc  ....
Examples: Vectors r1  2a  b  3c , r2  a  3 b  2c are linear combinations of the vectors a , b, c .

(1) Collinear and Non-collinear vectors: Let a and b be two collinear vectors and let x be the unit
vector in the direction of a . Then the unit vector in the direction of b is x or  x according as a and
b are like or unlike parallel vectors. Now, a | a | x̂ and b   | b | x
ˆ .
| a |   | a|  | a|
 a   | b | xˆ  a     b  a  b , where    .
| b |   | b|  | b|
Thus, if a, b are collinear vectors, then a   b or b   a for some scalar  .

(2) Relation between two parallel vectors

(i) If a and b be two parallel vectors, then there exists a scalar k such that a  k b .
i.e., there exist two non-zero scalar quantities x and y so that x a  y b  0 .
If a and b be two non-zero, non-parallel vectors then x a  y b  0  x  0 and y  0 .
a  0 , b  0
 or

Obviously x a  y b  0   x  0, y  0
 or

 a || b
(ii) If a  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k and b  b1 i  b 2 j  b 3 k then from the property of parallel vectors, we have
a1 a 2 a3
a || b   
b1 b 2 b 3

(3) Test of collinearity of three points: Three points with position vectors a, b, c are collinear iff there
exist scalars x, y, z not all zero such that x a  y b  zc  0 , where x  y  z  0 . If a  a1 i  a2 j ,
b  b1 i  b 2 j and c  c1 i  c 2 j , then the points with position vector a , b, c will be collinear iff
a1 a2 1
b1 b2 1  0.
c1 c2 1

9
(4) Test of coplanarity of three vectors: Let a and b two given non-zero non-collinear vectors. Then
any vectors r coplanar with a and b can be uniquely expressed as r  x a  y b for some scalars x and
y.
(5) Test of coplanarity of Four points: Four points with position vectors a, b, c , d are coplanar iff there
exist scalars x, y, z, u not all zero such that x a  y b  zc  ud  0 , where x  y  z  u  0 .
Four points with position vectors
a  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k , b  b1 i  b 2 j  b 3 k , c  c1 i  c 2 j  c 3 k , d  d1 i  d 2 j  d 3 k
a1 a2 a3 1
b1 b2 b3 1
will be coplanar, iff 0
c1 c2 c3 1
d1 d2 d3 1

8. Linear Independence and Dependence of Vectors.

(1) Linearly independent vectors: A set of non-zero vectors a 1 , a 2 ,.....a n is said to be linearly
independent, if x 1 a 1  x 2 a 2  .....  x n a n  0  x 1  x 2  .....  x n  0 .
(2) Linearly dependent vectors: A set of vectors a 1 , a 2 ,.....a n is said to be linearly dependent if there
exist scalars x 1 , x 2 ,......, x n not all zero such that x 1 a 1  x 2 a 2  .........  x n a n  0
Three vectors a  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k , b  b1 i  b 2 j  b 3 k and c  c1 i  c 2 j  c 3 k will be linearly dependent
a1 a2 a3
vectors iff b1 b2 b3  0 .
c1 c2 c3

Properties of linearly independent and dependent vectors

(i) Two non-zero, non-collinear vectors are linearly independent.
(ii) Any two collinear vectors are linearly dependent.
(iii) Any three non-coplanar vectors are linearly independent.
(iv) Any three coplanar vectors are linearly dependent.
(v) Any four vectors in 3-dimensional space are linearly dependent.

10
9. Product of Two Vectors.

Product of two vectors is processed by two methods. When the product of two vectors results is a scalar
quantity, then it is called scalar product. It is also known as dot product because we are putting a dot (.)
between two vectors.
When the product of two vectors results is a vector quantity then this product is called vector product. It
is also known as cross product because we are putting a cross (×) between
B
two vectors.
b

(1) Scalar or Dot product of two vectors : If a and b are two non-zero 
A
vectors and  be the angle between them, then their scalar product (or dot 0 a

product) is denoted by a . b and is defined as the scalar | a | | b | cos  , where

| a | and | b | are modulii of a and b respectively and 0     .

Important Tips
 a .b  R
 a . b | a | | b |

 a .b  0  angle between a and b is acute.

 a .b  0  angle between a and b is obtuse.
 The dot product of a zero and non-zero vector is a scalar zero.

(i) Geometrical Interpretation of scalar product: Let a and b be two vectors represented by OA and
OB respectively. Let  be the angle between OA and OB . Draw BLOA B
and AMOB . M

From s OBL and OAM , we have OL  OB cos  and OM  OA cos  . Here  A

OL and OM are known as projection of b on a and a on b respectively. O a L

Now a . b | a | | b | cos  =| a | (OB cos  ) = | a | (OL)

= (Magnitude of a )(Projection of b on a ) .....(i)
Again, a . b | a | | b | cos  | b | (| a | cos  ) =| b | (OA cos  ) | b | (OM )
a.b = (Magnitude of b) (Projection of a on b ) .....(ii)
Thus geometrically interpreted, the scalar product of two vectors is the product of modulus of either
vector and the projection of the other in its direction.

11
(ii) Angle between two vectors : If a, b be two vectors inclined at an angle  , then, a . b | a | | b | cos 
a.b  a.b 
 cos      cos 1  
| a || b | | a | | b | 
 a1 b 1  a 2 b 2  a 3 b 3 
If a  a1 i  a 2 j  a 3 k and b  b1 i  b 2 j  b 3 k ;   cos 1  

 a2  a2  a2 b 2  b 2  b 2
 1 2 3 1 2 3 

(2) Properties of scalar product

(i) Commutativity: The scalar product of two vector is commutative i.e., a . b  b . a .

(ii) Distributivity of scalar product over vector addition: The scalar product of vectors is distributive
over vector addition i.e.,
(a) a . (b  c )  a . b  a . c (Left distributivity)
(b) (b  c ). a  b . a  c . a (Right distributivity)

(iii) Let a and b be two non-zero vectors a . b  0  a b .

As i, j, k are mutually perpendicular unit vectors along the co-ordinate axes, therefore
i . j  j . i  0 ; j . k  k . j  0; k . i  i . k  0 .
(iv) For any vector a, a . a | a | 2 .

As i, j, k are unit vectors along the co-ordinate axes, therefore i . i | i | 2  1 , j . j | j | 2  1 and

k. k | k | 2  1

(v) If m is a scalar and a, b be any two vectors, then (m a ). b  m(a . b)  a . (m b)

(vi) If m, n are scalars and a, b be two vectors, then m a . nb  mn(a . b)  (mn a ). b  a . (mn b)

(vii) For any vectors a and b , we have (a) a . (b)  (a . b)  (a ). b (b) (a ). (b)  a . b

12
(viii) For any two vectors a and b , we have
(a) | a  b | 2  | a | 2  | b | 2  2a . b
(b) | a  b | 2  | a | 2  | b | 2  2a . b
(c) (a  b). (a  b)  | a | 2  | b | 2
(d) | a  b |  | a |  | b |  a|| b
(e) | a  b | 2  | a | 2  | b | 2  a b
(f) | a  b |  | a  b |  a b

(3) Scalar product in terms of components. If a  a1 i  a 2 j  a 3 k and b  b1 i  b 2 j  b 3 k ,

Then, a . b  a1 b1  a 2 b 2  a 3 b 3 . Thus, scalar product of two vectors is equal to the sum of the products
of their corresponding components. In particular, a . a  | a | 2  a12  a 22  a 32 .

(4) Components of a vector along and perpendicular to another vector: If a and B

b be two vectors represented by OA and OB . Let  be the angle between a and b .
b
Draw BMOA . In OBM , we have OB  OM  MB  b  OM  MB

A
Thus, OM and MB are components of b along a and perpendicular to a O M a

respectively.

 (a . b )   a .b   a .b  a  a .b 
Now, OM  (OM ) aˆ  (OB cos  ) aˆ = (| b | cos  ) aˆ = | b |  aˆ =   aˆ      a
 | a || b |  | a|   | a | | a | | a |
2 


 a .b 
 b  OM  MB  MB  b  OM  b   2
a

| a | 

a. b   a .b 
Thus, the components of b along and perpendicular to a are   a and b  
2  | a | 2
 a respectively.

| a |   

13
(5) Work done by a force: A force acting on a particle is said to do work if the particle is displaced in a
direction which is not perpendicular to the force.
B
The work done by a force is a scalar quantity and its measure is equal to the 
F
product of the magnitude of the force and the resolved part of the
displacement in the direction of the force. 
A
If a particle be placed at O and a force F represented by OB be acting on the O
particle at O. Due to the application of force F the particle is displaced in the
direction of OA . Let OA be the displacement. Then the component of OA in the direction of the force F is
| OA | cos  .
 Work done = | F | | OA | cos  F . OA  F .d , where d  OA Or Work done = (Force) . (Displacement)
If a number of forces are acting on a particle, then the sum of the works done by the separate forces is
equal to the work done by the resultant force.

10. Vector or Cross product of Two Vectors.

Let a, b be two non-zero, non-parallel vectors. Then the vector product a  b , in that order, is defined as
a vector whose magnitude is | a | | b | sin  where  is the angle between a
and b whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of a and b in such a
way that a, b and this direction constitute a right handed system. b

In other words, a  b | a | | b | sin  η̂ where  is the angle between a and 

O a
ˆ
b , η̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a and b such that a , b, η
form a right handed system.

(1) Geometrical interpretation of vector product: If a, b be two non-zero, non-parallel vectors

represented by OA and OB respectively and let  be the angle between them. Complete the
parallelogram OACB. Draw BLOA .
BL
In OBL, sin    BL  OB sin   | b | sin  ......(i) ˄
OB B C
ˆ = (OA)(BL) η̂
Now, a  b  | a | | b | sin  η b

= (Base  Height) η̂ = (area of parallelogram OACB ) η̂ 

= Vector area of the parallelogram OACB
L a A
O

14
Thus, a  b is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the area of the parallelogram having a and b as its
ˆ form a
adjacent sides and whose direction η̂ is perpendicular to the plane of a and b such that a , b, η
right handed system. Hence a  b represents the vector area of the parallelogram having adjacent sides
along a and b .

Thus, area of parallelogram OACB = | a  b | .

1 1 1
Also, area of OAB  area of parallelogram OACB = | a  b |  | OA  OB |
2 2 2

(2) Properties of vector product

(i) Vector product is not commutative i.e., if a and b are any two vectors, then a  b  b  a , however,
a  b  (b  a )

(ii) If a, b are two vectors and m is a scalar, then m a  b  m(a  b)  a  m b

(iii) If a, b are two vectors and m, n are scalars, then m a  nb  mn(a  b)  m (a  nb)  n(m a  b)

(iv) Distributivity of vector product over vector addition.

Let a , b, c be any three vectors. Then
(a) a  (b  c )  a  b  a  c (Left distributivity)

(b) (b  c )  a  b  a  c  a (Right distributivity)

(v) For any three vectors a , b, c we have a  (b  c )  a  b  a  c

(vi) The vector product of two non-zero vectors is zero vector iff they are parallel (Collinear) i.e.,
a  b  0  a || b, a, b are non-zero vectors.

It follows from the above property that a  a  0 for every non-zero vector a , which in turn implies that
i  i  j j  k  k  0

(vii) Vector product of orthonormal triad of unit vectors i, j, k using the definition of the vector product,
we obtain i  j  k, j  k  i, k  i  j , j  i  k, k  j  i, i  k  j

(viii) Lagrange's identity: If a, b are any two vector then | a  b | 2 | a | 2| b | 2 (a . b)2 or
| a  b | 2 (a . b)2 | a | 2| b | 2

15
(3) Vector product in terms of components: If a  a1i  a2 j  a3 k and b  b1i  b2 j  b3 k .

i j k
Then, a  b  (a2b3  a3b2 ) i  (a1b3  a3b1 )j  (a1b2  a2b1 ) k  a1 a2 a3 .
b1 b2 b3

| a  b|
(4) Angle between two vectors: If  is the angle between a and b , then sin  
| a || b |

Expression for sin  : If a  a1 i  a 2 j  a 3 k , b  b1i  b2 j  b3 k and  be angle between a and b , then

(a2b3  a3 b2 )2  (a1b3  a3 b1 )2  (a1b2  a2b1 )2

sin 2  
(a12  a22  a32 )(b12  b 22  b32 )

(5) (i) Right handed system of vectors: Three mutually perpendicular vectors a , b, c form a right
handed system of vector iff a  b  c , b  c  a , c  a  b b

Example: The unit vectors i , j , k form a right-handed system,

Y
a
i  j  k, j  k  i, k  i  j c
j

X
k i

(ii) Left handed system of vectors: The vectors a , b, c , mutually perpendicular to one another form a left
handed system of vector iff
c  b  a , a  c  b, b  a  c
a
b

16
(6) Vector normal to the plane of two given vectors: If a, b be two non-zero, nonparallel vectors and
ˆ Where η̂ is a unit vector  to the plane of a
let  be the angle between them. a  b | a | | b | sin  η
and b such that a , b, η from a right-handed system.

 (a  b ) | a  b | η ˆ  ab
ˆ  η
| a b|
ab ab
Thus, is a unit vector  to the plane of a and b . Note that  is also a unit vector 
| a  b| | a  b|
to the plane of a and b . Vectors of magnitude '  ' normal to the plane of a and b are given by
(a  b )
 .
| a  b|

11. Moment of a Force and Couple.

(1) Moment of a force

(i) About a point: Let a force F be applied at a point P of a rigid body. Then the moment of F about a

point O measures the tendency of F to turn the body about point O. If this r×F 

tendency of rotation about O is in anticlockwise direction, the moment is F

positive, otherwise it is negative. O

Q
r

Let r be the position vector of P relative to O. Then the moment or torque of 
P
H
F about the point O is defined as the vector M  r  F .
If several forces are acting through the same point P, then the vector sum of the moment of the separate
forces about O is equal to the moment of their resultant force about O.

(ii) About a line: The moment of a force F acting at a point P about a line L is a scalar given by
(r  F). aˆ where â is a unit vector in the direction of the line, and OP  r , where O is any point on the
line.
Thus, the moment of a force F about a line is the resolved part (component) along this line, of the
moment of F about any point on the line.

Note: The moment of a force about a point is a vector while the moment about a straight line is a scalar quantity.

17
(2) Moment of a couple: A system consisting of a pair of equal unlike parallel forces is called a couple.
The vector sum of two forces of a couple is always zero vector. 
F  A N

The moment of a couple is a vector perpendicular to the plane of couple and its 
r
magnitude is the product of the magnitude of either force with the perpendicular O
distance between the lines of the forces. B 
–F
M  r  F , where r  BA
| M | | BA  F | = | F | | BA | sin  , where  is the angle between BA and F

= | F | (BN ) | F | a
Where a  BN is the arm of the couple and +ve or –ve sign is to be taken according as the forces
indicate a counter-clockwise rotation or clockwise rotation.

18
Mathematics

3D – Co-ordinate Geometry
Table of Content

1. Co-ordinates of a point in space.

2. Distance formula.
3. Section formulas.
4. Triangle.
5. Volume of tetrahedron.
6. Direction cosines and Direction ratio.
7. Projection.
8. Angle between two lines.
9. Straight line in space.
10. Equation of line passing through two given points.
11. Changing unsymmetrical form to symmetrical form.
12. Angle between two lines.
13. Reduction of Cartesian form of the equation of a line to
vector form and vice-versa.
14. Intersection of two lines.
15. Foot of perpendicular from a point.
16. Shortest distance between two lines.
17. Definition of plane and its equations.
18. Equation of plane passing through the given point.
1
19. Foot of perpendicular from a point to a given plane.
20. Angle between two planes.
21. Equation of planes bisecting angle between two given
planes.
22. Image of a point in a plane.
23. Coplaner lines.
24. Equation of plane through a given line.
25. Transformation from unsymmetric from of the equation
of line to the symmetric form.
26. Intersection point of a line and plane.
27. Angle between line and plane.
28. Projection of a line on a plane.
29. Sphere.
30. General equation of sphere.
31. Equation of sphere of various types.
32. Section of a sphere by a plane.
33. Condition of tangency of a plane to a sphere.
34. Intersection of straight line and a sphere.
35. Angle of intersection of two spheres.

2
 System of Co-ordinates

1. Co-ordinates of a Point in Space.

(1) Cartesian Co-ordinates: Let O be a fixed point, known as origin and let OX, OY and OZ be three
mutually perpendicular lines, taken as x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively, in such a way that they form
a right-handed system.

Z
C E
k
F j P(x, y, z)
O Y
B
i
A D
X

The planes XOY, YOZ and ZOX are known as xy-plane, yz-plane and zx-plane respectively.
Let P be a point in space and distances of P from yz, zx and xy-planes be x, y, z
Z
respectively (with proper signs), then we say that co-ordinates of P are (x, y, z). Y
Also OA = x, OB = y, OC = z. X
O X

The three co-ordinate planes (XOY, YOZ and ZOX) divide space into eight parts and
these parts are called octants. Y Z

Signs of co-ordinates of a point: The signs of the co-ordinates of a point in three dimension follow the
convention that all distances measured along or parallel to OX, OY, OZ will be positive and distances
moved along or parallel to OX, OY, OZ will be negative.
The following table shows the signs of co-ordinates of points in various octant:

Octant OXYZ OXYZ OXYZ OXYZ OXYZ OXYZ OXYZ OXYZ

co-
ordinate
x + – + – + – + –
y + + – – + + – –
z + + + + – – – –

3
(2) Other methods of defining the position of any point P in space:

(i) Cylindrical co-ordinates: If the rectangular cartesian co-ordinates of P are (x, y, z), then those of N
are (x, y, 0) and we can easily have the following relations : x = u cos, y = u sin and z = z.
Hence, u 2  x 2  y 2 and   tan 1 (y / x ) .
Z
Y
Cylindrical co-ordinates of P  (u, , z)
P(x, y, z)
r (u, , z)

 (r, , )
O X
X 
u

Z N
Y
(x, y, 0)

(ii) Spherical polar co-ordinates: The measures of quantities r, ,  are known as spherical or three
dimensional polar co-ordinates of the point P. If the rectangular cartesian co-ordinates of P are (x, y, z)
then
z = r cos, u = r sin  x = u cos = r sin cos, y = u sin = r sin sin and z = r cos
u x 2  y2 y
Also r 2  x 2  y 2  z 2 and tan    ; tan  
z z x

Note: The co-ordinates of a point on xy-plane is (x, y, 0), on yz-plane is (0, y, z) and on zx-plane is (x, 0, z)
The co-ordinates of a point on x-axis is (x, 0, 0), on y-axis is (0, y, 0) and on z-axis is (0, 0, z)
Position vector of a point : Let i, j, k be unit vectors along OX, OY and OZ respectively. Then position vector of a

point P(x, y, z) is OP  x i  y j  zk .

2. Distance Formula.

(1) Distance formula: The distance between two points A(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) and B(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) is given by

AB  [(x 2  x 1 )2  (y 2  y 1 )2  (z 2  z 1 )2 ]

(2) Distance from origin: Let O be the origin and P(x, y, z) be any point, then OP  (x 2  y 2  z 2 ) .

4
(3) Distance of a point from co-ordinate axes: Let P(x, y, z) be any point in the space. Let PA, PB and
PC be the perpendiculars drawn from P to the axes OX, OY and OZ respectively. Z
C
Then, PA  (y 2  z 2 ) P(x,y,z)

PB  (z 2  x 2 ) O A
X
B
PC  (x  y )
2 2 Y N

3. Section Formulas.

(1) Section formula for internal division: Let P(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) and Q(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) be two points. Let R be a
point on the line segment joining P and Q such that it divides the join of P Z P(x1,y1,z1)
m1
and Q internally in the ratio m 1 : m 2 . Then the co-ordinates of R are 
r1
R(x,y,z)
m2
 Q(x2,y2,z2)
r
 m1 x 2  m 2 x 1 m1 y 2  m 2 y1 m1 z 2  m 2 z1  r
 , ,  . O
2
Y
 m1  m 2 m1  m 2 m1  m 2  X

(2) Section formula for external division: Let P(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) and Q(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) be two points, and let R be
a point on PQ produced, dividing it externally in the ratio m 1 : m 2 (m 1  m 2 ) . Then the co-ordinates of R
 m x  m 2 x 1 m1 y 2  m 2 y1 m1 z 2  m 2 z1 
are  1 2 , ,  .
 m1  m 2 m1  m 2 m1  m 2 

Note: Co-ordinates of the midpoint: When division point is the mid-point of PQ then ratio will be 1 : 1, hence
 x 1  x 2 y1  y 2 z1  z 2 
co-ordinates of the midpoint of PQ are  , , .
 2 2 2 

Co-ordinates of the general point: The co-ordinates of any point lying on the line joining points P(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 )
 kx 2  x 1 ky 2  y 1 kz 2  z 1 
and Q(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) may be taken as  , ,  , which divides PQ in the ratio k : 1. This is
 k 1 k 1 k 1 
called general point on the line PQ.

5
4. Triangle.

(1) Co-ordinates of the centroid

(i) If (x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ),(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) and (x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) are the vertices of a triangle, then co-ordinates of its centroid
 x  x 2  x 3 y1  y 2  y 3 z1  z 2  z 3 
are  1 , , .
 3 3 3 

(ii) If (x r , y r , z r ) ; r = 1, 2, 3, 4, are vertices of a tetrahedron, then co-ordinates of its centroid are

 x 1  x 2  x 3  x 4 y1  y 2  y 3  y 4 z1  z 2  z 3  z 4 
 , , .
 4 4 4 

(iii) If G (, , ) is the centroid of ABC, where A is (x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) , B is (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) , then C is

(3  x 1  x 2 , 3   y 1  y 2 , 3  z 1  z 2 ) .

(2) Area of triangle: Let A(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) , B(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) and C(x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) be the vertices of a triangle, then
y1 z1 1 x1 z1 1 x1 y1 1
1 1 1
x  y2 z2 1 , y  x2 z2 1 , z  x2 y2 1
2 2 2
y3 z3 1 x3 z3 1 x3 y3 1

Now, area of ABC is given by the relation   2x  2y  2z . A(x1,y1,z1)

i j k
1 1
Also,   | AB  AC |  x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1
2 2
x 3  x1 y 3  y1 z 3  z1
B(x2,y2,z2) C(x3,y3,z3)

(3) Condition of collinearity: Points A(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ), B(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) and C(x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) are collinear
x1  x 2 y  y2 z  z2
If  1  1
x 2  x 3 y2  y3 z2  z3

6
5. Volume of Tetrahedron.
x1 y1 z1 1
1 x2 y2 z2 1
Volume of tetrahedron with vertices (x r , y r , z r ) ; r = 1, 2, 3, 4, is V 
6 x3 y3 z3 1
x4 y4 z4 1

6. Direction cosines and Direction ratio.

(1) Direction cosines

(i) The cosines of the angle made by a line in anticlockwise direction with B
Z
positive direction of co-ordinate axes are called the direction cosines of that A P
line. 
O
 Y

If , ,  be the angles which a given directed line makes with the positive X
direction of the x, y, z co-ordinate axes respectively, then cos, cos, cos are
called the direction cosines of the given line and are generally denoted by l, m, n respectively.
Thus, l  cos  , m  cos  and n  cos  .
By definition, it follows that the direction cosine of the axis of x are respectively cos 0 o , cos 90 o , cos 90 o
i.e. (1, 0, 0). Similarly direction cosines of the axes of y and z are respectively (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1).

Relation between the direction cosines: Let OP be any line through the origin O which has direction
cosines l, m, n. Let P = (x, y, z) and OP = r. Then OP 2  x 2  y 2  z 2  r 2 .....(i)

From P draw PA, PB, PC perpendicular on the co-ordinate axes, so that

OA = x, OB = y, OC = z. Also, POA  , POB   and POC   .

x
From triangle AOP, l  cos    x  lr Z
r P(x,y,z)
C
z 
Similarly y  mr and z  nr . O 
Y
x  y B
Hence from (i), r 2 (l 2  m 2  n 2 )  x 2  y 2  z 2  r 2  l 2  m 2  n 2  1
A
X

or, cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   1 , or, sin 2   sin 2   sin 2   2

7
Note: If OP = r and the co-ordinates of point P be (x, y, z), then d.c.’s of line OP are x/r, y/r, z/r.
a b c
Direction cosines of r  ai  bj  ck are , , .
| r| | r| | r|
Since –1 ≤ cosx ≤ 1, x  R , hence values of l, m, n are such real numbers which are not less than – 1 and not
greater than 1. Hence d.c.' s  [1, 1] .
The direction cosines of a line parallel to any co-ordinate axis are equal to the direction cosines of the co-ordinate
axis.
The number of lines which are equally inclined to the co-ordinate axes is 4.
1
If l, m, n are the d.c.’s of a line, then the maximum value of lmn  .
3 3

Important Tips

 The angles , ,  are called the direction angles of line AB.

 The d.c.’s of line BA are cos ( – ), cos ( – ) and cos ( – ) i.e., –cos, –cos, –cos.
 Angles , ,  are not coplanar.
  +  +  is not equal to 360° as these angles do not lie in same plane.
 If P(x, y,z) be a point in space such that r  OP has d.c.’s l, m, n then x  l | r |, y  m | r |, z  n | r | .
 Projection of a vector r on the co-ordinate axes are l | r |, m | r |, n | r | .
 r | r | (li  m j  nk) and ˆr  li  m j  nk

(2) Direction ratio

(i) Three numbers which are proportional to the direction cosines of a line are called the direction ratio
of that line. If a, b, c are three numbers proportional to direction cosines l, m, n of a line, then a, b, c are
called its direction ratios. They are also called direction numbers or direction components.

l m n
Hence by definition, we have    k (say)  l = ak, m = bk, n = ck
a b c
1
 l 2  m 2  n 2  (a 2  b 2  c 2 )  k 2  k  
a2  b 2  c2
a b c
l , m , n
a b c
2 2 2
a b c
2 2 2
a  b2  c2
2

where the sign should be taken all positive or all negative.

Note: Direction ratios are not uniques, whereas d.c.’s are unique. i.e., a2  b 2  c 2  1

8
(ii) Let r  ai  bj  ck be a vector. Then its d.r.’s are a, b, c
| r|
If a vector r has d.r.’s a, b, c then r  (ai  b j  ck)
a2  b 2  c2

(iii) D.c.’s and d.r.’s of a line joining two points: The direction ratios of line PQ joining P(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) and
Q(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) are x 2  x 1  a , y 2  y 1  b and z 2  z 1  c (say).
Z Q(x2,y2,z2)
Then direction cosines are,
(x 2  x 1 ) (y 2  y 1 ) (z 2  z 1 ) P(x1,y1,z1)
l ,m  ,n  Y
(x 2  x 1 )2 (x 2  x 1 )2 (x 2  x 1 )2
x 2  x1 y  y1 z  z1 X
i.e., l  ,m  2 ,n  2 .
PQ PQ PQ

7. Projection.

(1) Projection of a point on a line: The projection of a point P on a line AB is the foot N of the
perpendicular PN from P on the line AB.
P
N is also the same point where the line AB meets the plane through P and
perpendicular to AB.
A B
N

(2) Projection of a segment of a line on another line and its length: The projection of the segment
AB of a given line on another line CD is the segment AB of CD where A and
B are the projections of the points A and B on the line CD. B
A 
The length of the projection A B. C
N
D
A B
A B   AN  AB cos

9
(3) Projection of a line joining the points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) on another line whose
direction cosines are l, m and n : Let PQ be a line segment where P  (x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) and Q  (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 )
and AB be a given line with d.c.’s as l, m, n. If the line segment PQ makes angle  with the line AB, then

Z Q
K M

N Q 
P
P
N
M K
O X
Y A P Q B

Projection of PQ is PQ = PQ cos  (x 2  x 1 ) cos   (y 2  y 1 ) cos   (z 2  z 1 ) cos 

 (x 2  x 1 )l  (y 2  y 1 )m  (z 2  z 1 )n

Important Tips

 For x-axis, l = 1, m =0, n=0.

Hence, projection of PQ on x-axis = x2 – x1, Projection of PQ on y-axis = y2 – y1 and Projection of PQ on
z-axis = z2 – z1
 If P is a point (x1, y1, z1), then projection of OP on a line whose direction cosines are l, m, n, is l1x1
+ m1y1 + n1z1, where O is the origin.
 If l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 are the d.c.’s of two concurrent lines, then the d.c.’s of the lines bisecting
the angles between them are proportional to l1  l2, m1  m2, n1  n2.

8. Angle between Two lines.

(1) Cartesian form: Let  be the angle between two straight lines AB and AC whose direction cosines
are l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m 2 , n2 respectively, is given by cos  l1l2  m1m 2  n1n2 . C

If direction ratios of two lines a1 , b1 , c1 and a 2 , b 2 , c 2 are given, then angle

B
a1 a 2  b1 b 2  c1 c 2
between two lines is given by cos   . 
a12  b12  c12 . a 22  b 22  c 22 A

10
Particular results: We have, sin 2   1  cos 2   (l12  m 12  n12 )(l22  m 22  n 22 )  (l1 l2  m 1 m 2  n1 n 2 )2
 (l1 m 2  l 2 m 1 )2  (m 1 n 2  m 2 n1 )2  (n1 l 2  n 2 l1 )2

 sin    (l1 m 2  l 2 m 1 )2 , which is known as Lagrange’s identity.

2 2 2
l1 m1 m1 n1 n1 l1
The value of sin can easily be obtained by the following form. sin    
l2 m2 n2 n2 n2 l2
When d.r.’s of the lines are given if a1 , b1 , c1 and a 2 , b 2 , c 2 are d.r.’s of given two lines, then angle 

(a1 b 2  a 2 b1 )2
between them is given by sin  
a12  b12  c12 a 22  b 22  c 22

Condition of perpendicularity: If the given lines are perpendicular, then   90 i.e. cos = 0
 l1 l 2  m 1 m 2  n1 n 2  0 or a1 a 2  b1 b 2  c1 c 2  0

Condition of parallelism: If the given lines are parallel, then   0 o i.e. sin = 0
 (l1 m 2  l 2 m 1 ) 2  (m 1 n 2  m 2 n1 ) 2  (n1 l 2  n 2 l1 ) 2  0 , which is true, only when
l1 m 2  l 2 m 1  0 , m 1 n 2  m 2 n1  0 and n1 l 2  n 2 l1  0
l1 m 1 n1
   .
l2 m 2 n 2
a1 b c
Similarly,  1  1 .
a2 b 2 c 2

1
Note: The angle between any two diagonals of a cube is cos 1  .
3
 2
The angle between a diagonal of a cube and the diagonal of a faces of the cube is cos 1  
 3 .
 
If a straight line makes angles , , ,  with the diagonals of a cube, then
4
cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   cos 2  
3
If the edges of a rectangular parallelopiped be a, b, c, then the angles between the two diagonals are
 a2  b 2  c2 
cos 1  2 2 
 a b c 
2

11
(2) Vector form: Let the vector equations of two lines be r  a 1  b 1 and r  a 2  b 2
As the lines are parallel to the vectors b 1 and b 2 respectively, therefore angle between the lines is same
as the angle between the vectors b 1 and b 2 . Thus if  is the angle between the given lines, then
b 1 .b 2
cos   .
| b 1 || b 2 |

Note: If the lines are perpendicular, then b 1 .b 2  0 .

If the lines are parallel, then b 1 and b 2 are parallel, therefore b 1  b 2 for some scalar 

The Straight Line

9. Straight line in Space.

Every equation of the first degree represents a plane. Two equations of the first degree are satisfied by the
co-ordinates of every point on the line of intersection of the planes represented by them. Therefore, the two
equations together represent that line. Therefore ax  by  cz  d  0 and ax  b y  c z  d   0 together
represent a straight line.

(1) Equation of a line passing through a given point

(i) Cartesian form or symmetrical form: Cartesian equation of a straight line passing through a fixed
x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1
point (x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) and having direction ratios a, b, c is   .
a b c
(ii) Vector form: Vector equation of a straight line passing through a fixed point with position vector a
and parallel to a given vector b is r  a  b .

Z b
A(a) P(r)

r
O
Y

12
Important Tips

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 The parametric equations of the line   are x  x1  a, y  y1  b, z  z1  c , where
a b c
 is the parameter.
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 The co-ordinates of any point on the line   are (x1  a, y1  b, z1  c) , where  
a b c
R.
 Since the direction cosines of a line are also direction ratios, therefore equation of a line passing
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
through (x1, y1, z1) and having direction cosines l, m, n is   .
l m n

 Since x, y and z-axes pass through the origin and have direction cosines 1, 0, 0; 0, 1, 0 and 0, 0, 1
x 0 y 0 z 0
respectively. Therefore, the equations are x-axis :   or y = 0 and z = 0.
1 0 0
x 0 y 0 z 0 x 0 y 0 z 0
y-axis :   or x = 0 and z = 0; z-axis :   or x = 0 and y = 0.
0 1 0 0 0 1

 In the symmetrical form of equation of a line, the coefficients of x, y, z are unity.

10. Equation of Line passing through two given points.

(i) Cartesian form: If A(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ), B(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) be two given points, the equations to the line AB are
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1
The co-ordinates of a variable point on AB can be expressed in terms of a parameter  in the form
x 2  x1 y  y1 z  z
x ,y  2 ,z  2 1
 1  1  1
 being any real number different from –1. In fact, (x, y, z) are the co-ordinates of the point which divides
the join of A and B in the ratio  : 1.

(ii) Vector form : The vector equation of a line passing through two points with position vectors a and b
is Z
r  a  (b  a )
A(a) B(b) P(r)

O Y

X
13
11. Changing Unsymmetrical form to Symmetrical form.

The unsymmetrical form of a line ax  by  cz  d  0, ax  b y  c z  d   0

b d   b d d a   d a
x y
Can be changed to symmetrical form as follows : ab   a b  ab   a b  z
b c   b c ca   c a ab   a b

12. Angle between Two lines.

Let the cartesian equations of the two lines be

x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x 2 y  y2 z  z2
  .....(i) and   .....(ii)
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
a1 a 2  b1 b 2  c1 c 2
cos  
a12  b12  c12 a 22  b 22  c 22

Condition of perpendicularity: If the lines are perpendicular, then a1 a 2  b1 b 2  c1 c 2  0

a1 b1 c
Condition of parallelism: If the lines are parallel, then   1 .
a2 b 2 c 2

13. Reduction of Cartesian form of the Equation of a line to Vector form and
vice versa.

x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1
Cartesian to vector: Let the Cartesian equation of a line be   ……(i)
a b c
This is the equation of a line passing through the point A(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) and having direction ratios a, b, c. In
vector form this means that the line passes through point having position vector a  x 1 i  y 1 j  z 1 k and
is parallel to the vector m  ai  bj  ck . Thus, the vector form of (i) is r  a  m or
r  (x 1 i  y 1 j  z 1 k)  (ai  bj  ck) , where  is a parameter.

Vector to cartesian: Let the vector equation of a line be r  a  m ……(ii)

Where a  x 1 i  y 1 j  z 1 k, m  ai  bj  ck and  is a parameter.

14
To reduce (ii) to Cartesian form we put r  x i  y j  zk and equate the coefficients of i, j and k as discussed
below.
Putting r  x i  y j  zk, a  x 1 i  y 1 j  z 1 k and m  ai  bj  ck in (ii), we obtain
xi  y j  zk  (x 1 i  y 1 j  z 1 k)  (ai  bj  ck)
Equating coefficients of i, j and k, we get x  x 1  a, y  y 1  b, z  z 1  c or
x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1
  
a b c

14. Intersection of Two lines.

Determine whether two lines intersect or not. In case they intersect, the following algorithm is used to
find their point of intersection.
x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1
Algorithm for cartesian form: Let the two lines be   ……(i)
a1 b1 c1
x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
And   ……(ii)
a2 b2 c2
Step I: Write the co-ordinates of general points on (i) and (ii). The co-ordinates of general points on (i)
x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
and (ii) are given by     and     respectively.
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
i.e., (a1   x 1 , b1   y 1  c1   z 1 ) and (a 2   x 2 , b 2   y 2 , c 2   z 2 )

Step II: If the lines (i) and (ii) intersect, then they have a common point.
a1   x 1  a 2   x 2 , b1   y 1  b 2   y 2 and c1   z 1  c 2   z 2 .

Step III: Solve any two of the equations in  and  obtained in step II. If the values of  and  satisfy the
third equation, then the lines (i) and (ii) intersect, otherwise they do not intersect.

Step IV: To obtain the co-ordinates of the point of intersection, substitute the value of  (or ) in the co-
ordinates of general point (s) obtained in step I.

15
15. Foot of perpendicular from a point A (, , ) to the line
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
  .
l m n

(1) Cartesian form

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
Foot of perpendicular from a point A(, , ) to the line   : If P be the foot of
l m n
perpendicular, then P is (lr  x 1 , mr  y 1 , nr  z 1 ) . Find the direction ratios
A(, , )
of AP and apply the condition of perpendicularity of AP and the given
line. This will give the value of r and hence the point P which is foot of
perpendicular.
P

Length and equation of perpendicular: The length of the perpendicular is the distance AP and its
equation is the line joining two known points A and P.

Note: The length of the perpendicular is the perpendicular distance of given point from that line.

Reflection or image of a point in a straight line: If the perpendicular PL from point P on the given line
be produced to Q such that PL = QL, then Q is known as the image or P

reflection of P in the given line. Also, L is the foot of the perpendicular or the
projection of P on the line. A B
L

Q(image)

(2) Vector form


Perpendicular distance of a point from a line: Let L is the foot of perpendicular drawn from P( ) on
the line r  a  b . Since r denotes the position vector of any point on the line r  a  b . So, let the
position vector of L be a  b .

 P()
   (a  α)b 
Then PL  a  α  b  (a  α)   b
2 
 | b| 

A B
The length PL, is the magnitude of PL , and required length of perpendicular. r = a+b L = (a+b)

Image of a point in a straight line : Let Q( ) is the image of P in r  a  b

16
 
  2(a  α ).b 
Then, β  2a   2
b.α

 | b|  
P()

A B
r=(a+b) L(a+b)


Q()(image)

16. Shortest distance between two straight lines.

(1) Skew lines: Two straight lines in space which are neither parallel nor intersecting are called skew
lines.
Thus, the skew lines are those lines which do not lie in the same plane. Q

l2 Line of shortest
distance

l1 P

(2) Line of shortest distance: If l1 and l2 are two skew lines, then the straight line which is perpendicular
to each of these two non-intersecting lines is called the “line of shortest distance.”

Note: There is one and only one line perpendicular to each of lines l1 and l2 .

(3) Shortest distance between two skew lines

x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x 2 y  y2 z  z2
(i) Cartesian form: Let two skew lines be   and  
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
Therefore, the shortest distance between the lines is given by
x 2  x 1 y 2  y1 z 2  z 1
l1 m1 n1
l2 m2 n2
d
(m1n2  m 2n1 )2  (n1l2  l1n2 )2  (l1m 2  l2m1 )2

17
(ii) Vector form: Let l1 and l 2 be two lines whose equations are l1 : r  a 1  b 1 and l2 : r  a 2  b 2
(b 1  b 2 ).(a 2  a 1 ) | [b 1 b 2 (a 2  a 1 )]
respectively. Then, shortest distance PQ  
| b1  b 2 | | b1  b 2 |

(4) Shortest distance between two parallel lines: The shortest distance between the parallel lines
| (a 2  a 1 )  b |
r  a 1  b and r  a 2  b is given by d  .
| b|

(5) Condition for two lines to be intersecting i.e. coplanar

x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
(i) Cartesian form: If the lines   and   intersect, then
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1
l1 m1 n1 0.
l2 m2 n2

(ii) Vector form: If the lines r  a 1  b 1 and r  a 2  b 2 intersect, then the shortest distance between
them is zero. Therefore, [b 1 b 2 (a 2  a 1 )]  0  [(a 2  a 1 ) b 1b 2 ]  0  (a 2  a 1 ).(b 1  b 2 )  0

Important Tips

 Skew lines are non-coplanar lines.

 Parallel lines are not skew lines.
 If two lines intersect, the shortest distance (SD) between them is zero.
 Length of shortest distance between two lines is always taken to be positive.
 Shortest distance between two skew lines is perpendicular to both the lines.

(6) To determine the equation of line of shortest distance: To find the equation of line of shortest
distance, we use the following procedure:

(i) From the given equations of the straight lines,

x  a1 y  b1 z  c1
i.e.     (say) ……(i)
l1 m1 n1

18
 x  a2 y  b 2 z  c 2
and     (say) ……(ii)
l2 m2 n2

Find the co-ordinates of general points on straight lines (i) and (ii) as
(a1  l1 , b1  m 1 , c1  n1 ) and (a 2  l 2 , b 2  m 2 , c 2  n 2 ) .

(ii) Let these be the co-ordinates of P and Q, the two extremities of the length of shortest distance.
Hence, find the direction ratios of PQ as (a2  l2 )  (a1  l1), (b2  m 2 )  (b1  m1), (c2  m 2 )  (c1  n1) .

(iii) Apply the condition of PQ being perpendicular to straight lines (i) and (ii) in succession and get two
equations connecting  and . Solve these equations to get the values of  and .

(iv) Put these values of  and  in the co-ordinates of P and Q to determine points P and Q.

(v) Find out the equation of the line passing through P and Q, which will be the line of shortest distance.

Note: The same algorithm may be observed to find out the position vector of P and Q, the two extremities of the
shortest distance, in case of vector equations of straight lines. Hence, the line of shortest distance, which passes
through P and Q, can be obtained.

19
 The Plane

17. Definition of plane and its equations.

If point P(x, y, z) moves according to certain rule, then it may lie in a 3-D region on a surface or on a line
or it may simply be a point. Whatever we get, as the region of P after applying the rule, is called locus of
P. Let us discuss about the plane or curved surface. If Q be any other point on it’s locus and all points of
the straight line PQ lie on it, it is a plane. In other words if the straight line PQ, however small and in
whatever direction it may be, lies completely on the locus, it is a plane, otherwise any curved surface.

(1) General equation of plane: Every equation of first degree of the form Ax  By  Cz  D  0
represents the equation of a plane. The coefficients of x, y and z i.e. A, B, C are the direction ratios of the
normal to the plane.

(2) Equation of co-ordinate planes Y

XOY-plane: z = 0 YOZ-plane
XOY-plane

YOZ -plane: x = 0 X
ZOX-plane: y = 0 ZOX-plane
Z

(3) Vector equation of plane

(i) Vector equation of a plane through the point A(a ) and perpendicular to the vector n is (r  a ).n  0
or r.n  a.n
A(a)
N
P(r) a
Note: The above equation can also be written as r.n  d , where d  a.n . This is
known as the scalar product form of a plane. r
n

(4) Normal form: Vector equation of a plane normal to unit vector n̂ and at a distance d from the
origin is r.n
ˆ d.
N P(r)
Note: If n is not a unit vector, then to reduce the equation r.n  d to normal form
n d d n
we divide both sides by |n| to obtain r   ˆ 
or r.n . d r
| n| | n| | n|
O

20
(5) Equation of a plane passing through a given point and parallel to two given vectors: The
equation of the plane passing through a point having position vector a and
C
parallel to b and c is r  a  b  c , where  and  are scalars. c
M P(r)

P(a)

(6) Equation of plane in various forms

(i) Intercept form: If the plane cuts the intercepts of length a, b, c on co-ordinate axes, then its equation
x y z
is    1.
a b c

(ii) Normal form: Normal form of the equation of plane is lx  my  nz  p ,

where l, m, n are the d.c.’s of the normal to the plane and p is the length of perpendicular from the
origin.

(7) Equation of plane in particular cases

(i) Equation of plane through the origin is given by Ax  By  Cz  0 .

i.e. if D = 0, then the plane passes through the origin.

(8) Equation of plane parallel to co-ordinate planes or perpendicular to co-ordinate axes

(i) Equation of plane parallel to YOZ-plane (or perpendicular to x-axis) and at a distance ‘a’ from it is x =
a.

(ii) Equation of plane parallel to ZOX-plane (or perpendicular to y-axis) and at a distance ‘b’ from it is y =
b.

(iii) Equation of plane parallel to XOY-plane (or perpendicular to z-axis) and at a distance ‘c’ from it is z =
c.

21
Important Tips

 Any plane perpendicular to co-ordinate axis is evidently parallel to co-ordinate plane and vice
versa.
AB  AC
 A unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing three points A, B, C is .
| AB  AC |

(9) Equation of plane perpendicular to co-ordinate planes or parallel to co-ordinate axes

(i) Equation of plane perpendicular to YOZ-plane or parallel to x-axis is By  Cz  D  0 .

(ii) Equation of plane perpendicular to ZOX-plane or parallel to y axis is Ax  Cz  D  0 .

(iii) Equation of plane perpendicular to XOY-plane or parallel to z-axis is Ax  By  D  0 .

(10) Equation of plane passing through the intersection of two planes

(i) Cartesian form: Equation of plane through the intersection of two planes
P  a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d 1  0 and Q  a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d 2  0 is P  Q  0 , where  is the parameter.

(ii) Vector form: The equation of any plane through the intersection of planes r.n 1  d 1 and r.n 2  d 2 is
r.(n 1  n 2 )  d 1  d 2 , where  is an arbitrary constant.

(11) Equation of plane parallel to a given plane

(i) Cartesian form: Plane parallel to a given plane ax  by  cz  d  0 is ax  by  cz  d   0 , i.e. only

constant term is changed.

(ii) Vector form: Since parallel planes have the common normal, therefore equation of plane parallel to
plane r.n  d 1 is r.n  d 2 , where d 2 is a constant determined by the given condition.

22
18. Equation of plane passing through the given point.

(1) Equation of plane passing through a given point: Equation of plane passing through the point
(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) is A(x  x 1 )  B(y  y1 )  C(z  z 1 )  0 , where A, B and C are d.r.’s of normal to the plane.

(2) Equation of plane through three points: The equation of plane passing through three non-collinear
x y z 1
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
x 1 y1 z1 1
points (x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) , (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) and (x 3 , y 3 , z 3 ) is  0 or x 2  x 1 y 2  y 1 z 2  z 1  0 .
x2 y2 z2 1
x 3  x 1 y 3  y1 z 3  z1
x 3 y3 z3 1

19. Foot of perpendicular from a point A (, , ) to a given plane ax + by + cz

+ d = 0.

If AP be the perpendicular from A to the given plane, then it is parallel to the normal, so that its equation
is
x  y   z  
  r (say)
a b c
Any point P on it is (ar  , br   , cr   ) . It lies on the given plane and we find the value of r and hence
the point P.

(1) Perpendicular distance

(i) Cartesian form : The length of the perpendicular from the point P(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) to the plane
ax1  by 1  cz 1  d
ax  by  cz  d  0 is .
a2  b 2  c2
Note: The distance between two parallel planes is the algebraic difference of perpendicular distances on the planes
from origin.
D2 ~ D1
Distance between two parallel planes Ax  By  Cz  D1  0 and Ax  By  Cz  D2  0 is .
A2  B2  C2

23
(ii) Vector form: The perpendicular distance of a point having position vector a from the plane r.n  d is
| a .n  d |
given by p 
| n|

(2) Position of two point’s w.r.t. a plane: Two points P(x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) and Q(x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) lie on the same or
opposite sides of a plane ax  by  cz  d  0 according to ax1  by1  cz1  d and ax 2  by 2  cz 2  d are
of same or opposite signs. The plane divides the line joining the points P and Q externally or internally
according to P and Q are lying on same or opposite sides of the plane.

20. Angle between two planes.

(1) Cartesian form: Angle between the planes is defined as angle between normals to the planes drawn
from any point. Angle between the planes a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1  0 and a2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d 2  0 is
 a1 a 2  b1 b 2  c1 c 2 
cos 1  
 2 
 (a1  b1  c1 )(a 2  b 2  c 2 ) 
2 2 2 2 2

Note: If a1 a 2  b1 b 2  c1 c 2  0 , then the planes are perpendicular to each other.

a1 b1 c1
If   , then the planes are parallel to each other.
a2 b 2 c 2

(2) Vector form: An angle  between the planes r1 .n 1  d1 and r2 .n 2  d 2 is given by

n 1 .n 2
cos   .
| n 1 || n 2 |

24
21. Equation of planes bisecting angle between two given planes.

(1) Cartesian form: Equations of planes bisecting angles between the planes a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d 1  0
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d 1 a2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d 2
and a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d  0 are  .
(a12  b12  c12 ) (a 22  b 22  c 22 )

Note: If angle between bisector plane and one of the plane is less than 45o, then it is acute angle bisector otherwise
it is obtuse angle bisector.
If a1 a 2  b1 b 2  c1 c 2 is negative, then origin lies in the acute angle between the given planes provided d 1 and d2
are of same sign and if a1 a 2  b1 b 2  c1 c 2 is positive, then origin lies in the obtuse angle between the given
planes.

(2) Vector form: The equation of the planes bisecting the angles between the planes r1 .n 1  d 1 and
| r.n 1  d 1 | | r.n 2  d 2 | r.n 1  d 1 r.n 2  d 2 d d
r2 .n 2  d 2 are  or  or r.(n ˆ 2)  1  2 .
ˆ1 n
| n1 | | n2 | | n1 | | n2 | | n1 | | n 2 |

22. Image of a point in a plane.

Let P and Q be two points and let  be a plane such that

(i) Line PQ is perpendicular to the plane , and
(ii) Mid-point of PQ lies on the plane .
Then either of the point is the image of the other in the plane .

To find the image of a point in a given plane, we proceed as follows

(i) Write the equations of the line passing through P and normal to the given plane as
x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1
  . P(x1,y1,z1)
a b c ax+by+cz+d=0
(ii) Write the co-ordinates of image Q as (x 1  ar, y 1 ,  br, z 1  cr) .
R
(iii) Find the co-ordinates of the mid-point R of PQ. 
Q
(iv) Obtain the value of r by putting the co-ordinates of R in the equation of (x1+ar,y1+br,z1+cr)

the plane.
(v) Put the value of r in the co-ordinates of Q.

25
23. Coplanar lines.

Lines are said to be coplanar if they lie in the same plane or a plane can be made to pass through them.

(1) Condition for the lines to be coplanar

x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
(i) Cartesian form: If the lines   and   are coplanar
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1
Then l1 m1 n1 0.
l2 m2 n2

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
The equation of the plane containing them is l1 m1 n1  0 or l1 m1 n1 0
l2 m2 n2 l2 m2 n2
.

(ii) Vector form: If the lines r  a 1  b 1 and r  a 2  b 2 are coplanar, then [a 1 b 1 b 2 ]  [a 2 b 1 b 2 ] and
the equation of the plane containing them is [r b 1 b 2 ]  [a 1 b 1 b 2 ] or [r b 1 b 2 ]  [a 2 b 1 b 2 ] .

Note: Every pair of parallel lines is coplanar.

Two coplanar lines are either parallel or intersecting.
The three sides of a triangle are coplanar.

Important Tips

 Division by plane : The ratio in which the line segment PQ, joining P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2), is
 ax  by  cz  d 
divided by plane ax  by  cz  d  0 is   1 1 1
.

 ax 2  by 2  cz 2  d 
 Division by co-ordinate planes : The ratio in which the line segment PQ, joining P(x1, y1, z1) and
Q(x2, y2, z2) is divided by co-ordinate planes are as follows :
(i) By yz-plane : –x1/x2 (ii) By zx-plane : –y1/y2 (ii) By xy-plane : –z1/z2

26
 Line and plane

24. Equation of plane through a given line.

x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1
(1) If equation of the line is given in symmetrical form as   , then equation of plane
l m n
is
a(x  x 1 )  b(y  y 1 )  c(z  z 1 )  0 …… (i)
where a, b, c are given by al  bm  cn  0 ……(ii)

(2) If equation of line is given in general form as a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d 1  0  a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d 2 , then the

equation of plane passing through this line is (a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1 )  (a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d 2 )  0 .

(3) Equation of plane through a given line parallel to another line: Let the d.c.’s of the other line be
l 2 , m 2 , n 2 . Then, since the plane is parallel to the given line, normal is perpendicular.
 al2  bm 2  cn 2  0 ……(iii)
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
Hence, the plane from (i), (ii) and (iii) is l1 m1 n1 0.
l2 m2 n2

25. Transformation from unsymmetric form of the equation of line to the

symmetric form.

If P  a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d 1  0 and Q  a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d 2  0 are equations of two non-parallel planes,

then these two equations taken together represent a line. Thus the equation of straight line can be
written as P  0  Q . This form is called unsymmetrical form of a line.
To transform the equations to symmetrical form, we have to find the d.r.’s of line and co-ordinates of a
point on the line.

27
26. Intersection point of a line and plane.

x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1
To find the point of intersection of the line   and the plane ax  by  cz  d  0 .
l m n
The co-ordinates of any point on the line
x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1
  are given by
l m n P
(x1+lr, y1+mr, z1+nr)
x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1
   r (say) or (x 1  lr, y 1  mr, z 1  nr) .....(i) ax+by+cz+d=0
l m n
If it lies on the plane ax  by  cz  d  0 , then
a(x1  lr)  b(y1  mr)  c(z1  n r)  d  0  (ax1  by 1  cz1  d )  r(al  bm  cn)  0
(ax 1  by 1  cz 1  d )
 r .
al  bm  cn

Substituting the value of r in (i), we obtain the co-ordinates of the required point of intersection.

Algorithm for finding the point of intersection of a line and a plane

Step I: Write the co-ordinates of any point on the line in terms of some parameters r (say).
Step II: Substitute these co-ordinates in the equation of the plane to obtain the value of r.
Step III: Put the value of r in the co-ordinates of the point in step I.

28
27. Angle between line and plane.

x  y   z 
(1) Cartesian form: The angle  between the line   , and the plane
l m n
al  bm  cn
ax  by  cz  d  0 , is given by sin   .
(a  b  c 2 ) (l 2  m 2  n 2 )
2 2

a b c
(i) The line is perpendicular to the plane if and only if   .
l m n

(ii) The line is parallel to the plane if and only if al  bm  cn  0 .

(iii) The line lies in the plane if and only if al  bm  cn  0 and a  b  c  d  0 .

b .n
(2) Vector form: If  is the angle between a line r  (a  b) and the plane r.n  d , then sin  
| b || n |
.

(i) Condition of perpendicularity: If the line is perpendicular to the plane, then it is parallel to the
normal to the plane. Therefore b and n are parallel.
(/2) –
So, b  n  0 or b = n for some scalar . n r=a+b


r.n.=d

(ii) Condition of parallelism: If the line is parallel to the plane, then it is perpendicular to the normal to
the plane. Therefore b and n are perpendicular. So, b.n = 0.

(iii) If the line r  a  b lies in the plane r.n = d, then (i) b.n = 0 and (ii) a.n = d.

29
28. Projection of a line on a plane.

If P be the point of intersection of given line and plane and Q be the foot of the perpendicular from any
point on the line to the plane then PQ is called the projection of given line on the given plane.
x  x 1 y  y1 z  z1
Image of line about a plane: Let line is   , plane is a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d  0 .
a1 b1 c1
Find point of intersection (say P) of line and plane. Find image (say Q) of point (x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) about the
plane. Line PQ is the reflected line.

Sphere

A sphere is the locus of a point which moves in space in such a way that its distance from a fixed point
always remains constant.
The fixed point is called the center and the constant distance is called the radius of the sphere.

P(r)

C(a)

29. General equation of sphere.

The general equation of a sphere is x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2wz  d  0 with centre (–u, –v, –w)

i.e. (–(1/2) coeff. of x, –(1/2) coeff. of y, –(1/2) coeff. of z) and, radius  u 2  v 2  w 2  d

From the above equation, we note the following characteristics of the equation of a sphere :
(i) It is a second degree equation in x, y, z;
(ii) The coefficients of x 2 , y 2 , z 2 are all equal;
(iii) The terms containing the products xy, yz and zx are absent.

30
Note: The equation x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2wz  d  0 represents,

(i) A real sphere, if u 2  v 2  w 2  d  0 .

(ii) A point sphere, if u 2  v 2  w 2  d  0 .
(iii) An imaginary sphere, if u 2  v 2  w 2  d  0 .

Important Tips

 If u 2  v 2  w 2  d  0 , then the radius of sphere is imaginary, whereas the centre is real. Such a
sphere is called “pseudo-sphere” or a “virtual sphere.
 The equation of the sphere contains four unknown constants u, v, w and d and therefore a sphere
can be found to satisfy four conditions.

30. Equation in sphere in various forms.

(1) Equation of sphere with given center and radius

(i) Cartesian form : The equation of a sphere with center (a, b, c) and radius R is
(x  a)2  (y  b)2  (z  c)2  R 2 ……(i)

If the centre is at the origin, then equation (i) takes the form x 2  y 2  z 2  R 2 ,
which is known as the standard form of the equation of the sphere.

(ii) Vector form: The equation of sphere with center at C(c) and radius ‘a’ is | r  c |  a .

(2) Diameter form of the equation of a sphere

(i) Cartesian form: If (x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) are the co-ordinates of the extremities of a diameter of
a sphere, then its equation is (x  x 1 )(x  x 2 )  (y  y 1 )(y  y 2 )  (z  z 1 )(z  z 2 )  0 .

31
(ii) Vector form: If the position vectors of the extremities of a diameter of a sphere are a and b, then its
equation is (r  a ).(r  b)  0 or | r | 2 r.(a  b)  a.b  0 .

31. Section of a sphere by a plane.

Consider a sphere intersected by a plane. The set of points common to both sphere and plane is called a
plane section of a sphere. The plane section of a sphere is always a circle. The
equations of the sphere and the plane taken together represent the plane
C
section.
Let C be the centre of the sphere and M be the foot of the perpendicular Q
P M
from C on the plane. Then M is the centre of the circle and radius of the circle
is given by PM  CP 2  CM 2
The centre M of the circle is the point of intersection of the plane and line CM which passes through C
and is perpendicular to the given plane.

Centre: The foot of the perpendicular from the centre of the sphere to the plane is the centre of the
circle.
(radius of circle)2 = (radius of sphere)2 – (perpendicular from centre of spheres on the plane)2

Great circle: The section of a sphere by a plane through the centre of the sphere is a great circle. Its
centre and radius are the same as those of the given sphere.

32. Condition of tangency of a plane to a sphere.

A plane touches a given sphere if the perpendicular distance from the centre of the sphere to the plane
is equal to the radius of the sphere.

(1) Cartesian form: The plane lx  my  nz  p touches the sphere

x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2wz  d  0 , if (ul  vm  wn  p)2  (l 2  m 2  n 2 )(u 2  v 2  w 2  d )

| a .n  d |
(2) Vector form: The plane r.n  d touches the sphere | r  a |  R if  R.
| n|

32
Important Tips

 Two spheres S 1 and S 2 with centres C1 and C 2 and radii r1 and r2 respectively
(i) Do not meet and lies farther apart iff | C1C2 |  r1  r2

(ii) Touch internally iff | C1C2 | | r1  r2 |

(iii) Touch externally iff | C1C2 |  r1  r2

(iv) Cut in a circle iff | r1  r2 | | C1C2 |  r1  r2

(v) One lies within the other if | C1C2 | | r1  r2 | .

When two spheres touch each other the common tangent plane is S1  S 2  0 and when they cut in a
circle, the plane of the circle is S1  S 2  0 ; coefficients of x 2 , y 2 , z 2 being unity in both the cases.
 Let p be the length of perpendicular drawn from the centre of the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  r 2 to the
plane Ax  By  Cz  D  0 , then
(i) The plane cuts the sphere in a circle iff p < r and in this case, the radius of circle is r 2  p 2 .

(ii) The plane touches the sphere iff p  r .

(iii) The plane does not meet the sphere iff p > r.
 Equation of concentric sphere : Any sphere concentric with the sphere
is x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2wz    0 , where  is some real which makes it
x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2wz  d  0
a sphere.

33
33. Intersection of straight line and a sphere.

Let the equations of the sphere and the straight line be x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2wz  d  0 .....(i)
x  y   z 
And   r (say) .....(ii)
l m n
Any point on the line (ii) is (  lr,   mr,   nr) .
If this point lies on the sphere (i) then we have,
(  lr)2  (  mr)2  (  nr)2  2u(  lr)  2v(  mr)  2w(  nr)  d  0
or, r 2 [l   m 2  n 2 ]  2r[l(u   )  m(v   )]  n(w   )]  ( 2   2   2  2u  2v   2w  d )  0 ....(iii)
This is a quadratic equation in r and so gives two values of r and therefore the line (ii) meets the sphere
(i) in two points which may be real, coincident and imaginary, according as root of (iii) are so.

Note: If l, m, n are the actual d.c.’s of the line, then l 2  m 2  n 2  1 and then the equation (iii) can be simplified.

34. Angle of intersection of two spheres.

The angle of intersection of two spheres is the angle between the tangent planes to them at their point
of intersection. As the radii of the spheres at this common point are normal to the tangent planes so this
angle is also equal to the angle between the radii of the spheres at their point of intersection.
If the angle of intersection of two spheres is a right angle, the spheres are said to be orthogonal.

Condition for orthogonality of two spheres

Let the equation of the two spheres be
x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2wz  d  0 .....(i)
and x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2v y  2wz  d   0 .....(ii)
If the sphere (i) and (ii) cut orthogonally, then 2uu   2vv   2ww   d  d , which is the required
condition.
Note: If the spheres x 2  y 2  z 2  a 2 and x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2wz  d  0 cut orthogonally, then
d  a2 .
r1r2
Two spheres of radii r1 and r2 cut orthogonally, then the radius of the common circle is
r12  r22

34
 Mathematics

Trigonometrical Ratio, Functions &

Identities
Table of Content

1. Definitions.
2. Systems of Measurement of Angles.
3. Relation between Three Systems of Measurement of an
Angle.
4. Relation between an Arc and an Angle.
5. Trigonometrical Ratios or Functions.
6. Trigonometrical Ratios of Allied Angles.
7. Trigonometrical Ratios for Various Angles.
8. Trigonometrical Ratios in terms of each other.
9. Trigonometrical Ratios of Sum and Difference of Two
Angles.
10. Trigonometrical Ratios of Sum and Difference of Three
Angles.
11. Transform the Product into Sum or Difference.
12. Trigonometrical Ratios of multiple of an Angle.
13. Trigonometrical Ratios of sub multiple of an Angle.
14. Maximum and Minimum value of a cos + b sin.
15. Conditional Trigonometrical Identities.

1
1. Definition.

(1) Angle: The motion of any revolving line in a plane from its initial position (initial side) to the final
position (terminal side) is called angle. The end point O about which the line rotates
is called the vertex of the angle. Terminal
B

(2) Measure of an angle: The measure of an angle is the amount of rotation from A
Initial side
the initial side to the terminal side.

(3) Sense of an angle: The sense of an angle is determined by the direction of rotation of the initial side
into the terminal side. The sense of an angle is said to be positive or negative according as the initial side
rotates in anticlockwise or clockwise direction to get the terminal side.

Positive Negative

(4) Right angle: If the revolving ray starting from its initial position to final position describes one
quarter of a circle. Then we say that the measure of the angle formed is a right angle.

(5) Quadrants: Let X' OX and YOY ' be two lines at right angles in the plane of the paper. These lines
divide the plane of paper into four equal parts. Which are known as quadrants.
Y
The lines X' OX and YOY ' are known as x-axis and y-axis. These two lines taken
together are known as the co-ordinate axes. II quadrant I quadrant

X
O
(6) Angle in standard position: An angle is said to be in standard position if its
III quadrant IV quadrant
vertex concides with the origin O and the initial side concides with OX i.e., the
positive direction of x-axis.

(7) Angle in a quadrant: An angle is said to be in a particular quadrant if the terminal side of the angle
in standard position lies in that quadrant.

(8) Quadrant angle: An angle is said to be a quadrant angle if the terminal side concides with one of the
axes.

2
2. System of Measurement of Angles

There are three system for measuring angles

(1) Sexagesimal or English system: Here a right angle is divided into 90 equal parts known as degrees.
Each degree is divided into 60 equal parts called minutes and each minute is further divided into 60
equal parts called seconds. Therefore, 1 right angle = 90 degree ( 90 o )
1o  60 minutes ( 60 ' )
1'  60 second ( 60' ' )

(2) Centesimal or French system : It is also known as French system, here a right angle is divided into
100 equal parts called grades and each grade is divided into 100 equal parts, called minutes and each
minute is further divided into 100 seconds. Therefore,
1 right angle = 100 grades ( 100 g )
1 grade = 100 minutes ( 100' )
1 minute = 100 seconds ( 100' ' )

(3) Circular system: In this system the unit of measurement is radian. One radian, written as 1 c , is the
measure of an angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of length equal to the radius of the
circle.

Consider a circle of radius r having centre at O. Let A be a point on the circle. Now cut off an arc AP
whose length is equal to the radius r of the circle. Then by the definition the measure of AOP is 1
radian ( 1c ) .

3
3. Relation between Three Systems of Measurement of an Angle.

Let D be the number of degrees, R be the number of radians and G be the number of grades in an
angle.
1
Now, 90 o = 1 right angle  1o  right angle
90
D D
 Do  right angles   right angles ……..(i)
90 90

2
Again,  radians = 2 right angles  1 radian  right angles

2R 2R
 R radians  right angles   right angles ……..(ii)
 

1
and 100 grades = 1 right angle  1 grade  right angle
100
G G
 G grades  right angles   right angles ……..(iii)
100 100

D G 2R
From (i), (ii) and (iii) we get,  
90 100 π
This is the required relation between the three systems of measurement of an angle.

180 o
Note: One radian    radians  180 o  1 radian = 57o 1744.8   57 o1745 .


4
4. Relation between an Arc and an Angle.

If s is the length of an arc of a circle of radius r, then the angle  (in radians) subtended by this arc at the
s
centre of the circle is given by   or s  rθ i.e., arc = radius × angle in radians B
r s

Sectorial area: Let OAB be a sector having central angle  C

and radius r. Then area of rC A
O
1 2
the sector OAB is given by r θ.
2

Important Tips

 The angle between two consecutive digits in a clock is 30o (= /6 radians). The hour hand rotates through an angle of 30o in
one hour.
 The minute hand rotate through an angle of 6o in one minute.

5. Trigonometrical Ratios or Functions.

In the right angled triangle OMP, we have base = OM = x, perpendicular =PM = y and hypotenuse = OP
=r. We define the following trigonometric ratio which are also known as trigonometric function.
Perpendicu lar y Base x
sin    cos   
Hypotenues r Hypotenues r Y
A
Perpendicu lar y Base x
tan    cot    , P(x, y)
Base x Perpendicu lar y
Hypotenues r Hypotenues r r
sec    cosec    y
Base x Perpendicu lar y

X
O x M

5
(1) Relation between trigonometric ratios (function)

(i) sin  .cosec   1

(ii) tan . cot  1

(iii) cos . sec   1

sin 
(iv) tan  
cos

cos
(v) cot  
sin 

(2) Fundamental trigonometric identities

(i) sin 2   cos 2   1

(ii) 1  tan 2   sec 2 

(iii) 1  cot 2   cosec 2

Important Tips
1
 If x  sec  + tan  , then  sec   tan  .
x
1
 If x  coesc  cot  , then  cosec  cot  .
x

(3) Sign of trigonometrical ratios or functions: Their signs depends on the quadrant in which the
terminal side of the angle lies.

y x y r
(i) In first quadrant: x  0, y  0  sin    0, cos   0, tan   0, cosec    0 ,
r r x y
r x
sec    0 and cot    0 . Thus, in the first quadrant all trigonometric functions are positive.
x y

6
 y x y r
(ii) In second quadrant: x  0, y  0  sin    0, cos   0, tan   0, cosec    0,
r r x y
r x
sec    0 and cot    0 . Thus, in the second quadrant sin and cosec function are positive and
x y
all others are negative.

y x y r
(iii) In third quadrant: x  0, y  0  sin    0, cos    0, tan    0, cosec    0 ,
r r x y
r x
sec    0 and cot    0 . Thus, in the third quadrant all trigonometric functions are negative
x y
except tangent and cotangent.

y x
(iv) In fourth quadrant: x  0, y  0  sin    0, cos   0, Y
r r II I quadrant
y r r x S A
tan    0, cosec    0 , sec    0 and cot    0 x < 0, y > 0 x > 0, y > 0
x y x y
sin and cosec are
All are positive
Thus, in the fourth quadrant all trigonometric functions are negative X’ positive
III quadrant O IV quadrant X
except cos and sec. T C
x < 0, y < 0 x > 0, y < 0
In brief : A crude aid to memorise the signs of trigonometrical ratio
tan and cot cos and sec
in different quadrant. "Add Sugar To Coffee".
are positive are positive
Y’

Important Tips
 First determine the sign of the trigonometric function.
 If  is measured from X OX i.e., {(  , 2 – )} then retain the original name of the function.
 3 
 If  is measured from Y OY i.e.,    ,    , then change sine to cosine, cosine to sine, tangent to cotangent, cot to
2 2 
tan, sec to cosec and cosec to sec.

7
(4) Variations in values of trigonometric functions in different quadrants: Let X' OX and YOY ' be
the coordinate axes. Draw a circle with center at origin O and radius Y
unity.
B (0,1)
M (x, y)
Let M (x , y) be a point on the circle such that AOM   then x  cos
Xy
and y  sin  ;  1  cos  1 and  1  sin   1 for all values of  .
x N
(–1, A X
II-Quadrant (S) I-Quadrant (A)
sin  decreases from 1 to 0 sin  increases from B(0, –1)
0 to 1
cos   decreases from 0 to – 1 cos   decreases from
1 to 0
tan   increases from –  to 0 tan   increases from 0
to 
cot   decreases from 0 to –  cot   decreases from
 to 0
sec   increases from –  to – 1 sec   increases from 1
to 
cosec   increases from 1 to  cosec   decreases from  to 1
III-Quadrant (T) IV-Quadrant (C)
sin  decreases from 0 sin  increases from –
to – 1 1 to 0
cos   increases from – 1 cos   increases from 0
to 0 to 1
tan   increases from 0 tan   increases from –
to   to 0
cot   decreases from  cot   decreases from 0 to – 
to 0
sec   decreases from – 1 sec   decreases from  to 1
to – 
cosec   increases from –  to – 1 cosec   decreases from – 1 to –


Note:   and –  are two symbols. These are not real number. When we say that tan increases from 0 to  for
  
as  varies from 0 to it means that tan  increases in the interval  0,  and it attains large positive values as
2  2

 tends to . Similarly for other trigonometric functions.
2
8
6. Trigonometrical Ratios of Allied Angles.

Two angles are said to be allied when their sum or difference is either zero or a multiple of 90 o .
(1) Trigonometric ratios of (–): Let a revolving ray starting from its initial Y
position OX , trace out an angle XOA   . Let P(x, y) be a point on OA A
such that OP = r. Draw PM  from P on x-axis. Angle XOA '   in the P(x,
r
clockwise sense. Let P ' be a point on OA ' such that OP '  OP. Clearly M 
X
and M  coincide and OMP is congruent to OMP ' then P ' are (x, – y). O – M
y y x y r
sin( )     sin  ; cos( )   cos  ; tan( )    tan  P (x, –
r r r x
Taking the reciprocal of these trigonometric ratios;
cosec (  )   cosec  , sec(  )  sec  and cot(  )   cot 

Note: A function f (x ) is said to be an even function if f ( x )  f (x ) for all x in its domain.

A function f (x ) is said to be an odd function if f ( x )   f (x ) for all x in its domain.
sin  , tan  , cot  , cosec  are odd functions and cos  , sec  are even functions.

(2) Trigonometric function of (90 –  ): Let the revolving line, starting from OA, P
trace out any acute angle AOP, equal to . From any point P, draw PM  to OA.
90o–
Three angles of a triangle are together equal to two right angles, and since OMP is a
right angle, the sum of the two angles MOP and OPM is right angle.  90o
OPM  90 o   O A
M
[When the angle OPM is consider, the line PM is the ‘base’ and MO is the
‘perpendicular’]
MO PM
sin(90 o   )  sin MPO   cos AOP  cos  , cos(90 o   )  cos MPO   sin AOP  sin 
PO PO
MO PM
tan(90 o   )  tan MPO   cot AOP  cot  , cot(90 o   )  cot MPO   tan AOP  tan 
PM MO
PO
cosec (90 o   )  cosec MPO   sec AOP  sec  ,
MO
PO
sec(90 o   )  sec MPO   cosec AOP  cosec 
PM

9
(3) Trigonometric function of (90+ ): Let a revolving ray OA starting from its initial position OX, trace
out an angle XOA   and let another revolving ray OA starting
Y
from the same initial position OX, first trace out an angle . So as to A
coincide with OA and then it revolves through an angle of 90 o in
(–y, x) P(x, y)
anticlockwise direction to form an angle XOA '  90 o   .  

Let P and P ' be points on OA and OA ' respectively such that X
O M
OP  OP '  r .
Draw perpendicular PM and PM ' from P and P ' respectively on Y

OX . Let the coordinates of P be (x, y). Then OM  x and PM  y

clearly, OM '  PM  y and P' M '  OM  x .
So the coordinates of P ' are –y, x
M ' P' x OM '  y
sin(90   )    cos , cos(90   )     sin 
OP ' r OP ' r
M ' P' x x
tan(90   )      cot  , cot(90   )   tan , sec(90   )  cosec  , cosec(90   )  sec 
OM '  y y

Allied angles ( θ ) (90 – ) ( 90  θ) (180  θ ) (180  θ ) (270  θ ) (270  θ) ( 360  θ)

or or or or or or or
Trigo. Ratio π  (π  θ) (π  θ)  3π   3π  (2 π  θ )
π   θ  θ
 θ  θ  2 
2  2   2 

sin – sin cos cos  sin – sin – cos – cos  – sin

cos cos sin – sin – cos – cos – sin sin cos

tan  – tan cot – cot – tan tan cot – cot – tan

Important Tips
 sinn  0, cos n  (1)n

 sin(n   )  (1)n sin , cos( n   )  (1)n cos

n 1
 n 
 sin     (1) 2 cos  , if n is odd
 2 

= (1)n / 2 sin , if n is even

n 1
 n 
cos     (1) 2 sin , if n is odd
  2 
 (–1)n / 2 cos , if n is even

10
7. Trigonometrical Ratios for Various Angles.

 0 /6 /4 /3 /2  3/2 2

sin 0 1/2 1/ 2 3 /2 1 0 –1 0
cos 1 3 /2 1/ 2 1/2 0 – 0 1
1
tan 0 1/ 3 1 3  0  0

8. Trigonometrical Ratios in terms of Each other.

sin cos tan cot sec cosec
sin tan  1 sec   1
2 1
sin 1  cos 2  1  tan  2
1  cot  2
sec  co sec 

cos 1 cot  1 cosec 2  1

1  sin2  cos sec 
1  tan 2  1  cot 2  cosec 
tan sin  1  cos 2  1 1
tan cot  sec 2   1
1  sin  2
cos  cosec 2  1
cot  1  sin 2  cos  1 1 cosec 2  1
sin  1  cos  2 tan  cot sec   1
2

sec 1 1 1  tan 2  1  cot 2  cosec 

sec
1  sin  2 cos  cot  cosec 2  1
cosec 1 1 1  tan 2  sec 
1  cot 2  cosec
sin  1  cos  2
tan  sec 2   1

11
Important Tips
 Values for some standard angles

3 1 3 1
sin15 o  cos 75 o  ; cos 15 o  sin 75 o  ; tan 15o  cot 75o  2  3 ;
2 2 2 2

5 1 5 1
sin18 o  cos 72o  ; cos 36 o  sin 54 o  ; tan 75o  cot 15o  2  3
4 4

1o 1o 2 2 1o 1o 2 2 1o 1o
sin 22  cos 67  , cos 22  sin 67  ; cot 22  tan 67  2 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1o 1o
tan 22  cot 67  2 1
2 2

9. Formulae for the Trigonometric Ratios of Sum and Differences of Two

Angles.

(1) sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B

(2) sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B

(3) cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B

(4) cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B

tan A  tan B
(5) tan(A  B) 
1  tan A tan B

tan A  tan B
(6) tan(A  B) 
1  tan A tan B

cot A cot B  1
(7) cot(A  B) 
cot A  cot B

cot A cot B  1
(8) cot(A  B) 
cot B  cot A

12
(9) sin( A  B). sin( A  B)  sin 2 A  sin 2 B  cos2 B  cos2 A

(10) cos( A  B). cos( A  B)  cos 2 A  sin 2 B  cos 2 B  sin 2 A

sin A sin B sin A cos B  cos A sin B sin( A  B)   

(11) tan A  tan B      A  n  , B  m  
cos A cos B cos A cos B cos A. cos B  2 

sin(B  A)  
(12) cot A  cot B   A  n , B  m   
sin A. sin B  2

10. Formulae for the Trigonometric Ratios of Sum and Differences of Three
Angles.

(1) sin( A  B  C)  sin A cos B cos C  cos A sin B cos C  cos A cos B sin C  sin A sin B sin C

or sin ( A  B  C)  cos A cos B cos C(tan A  tan B  tan C  tan A. tan B. tan C)

(2) cos( A  B  C)  cos A cos B cos C  sin A sin B cos C  sin A cos B sin C  cos A sin B sin C
cos( A  B  C)  cos A cos B cos C(1  tan A tan B  tan B tan C  tan C tan A)

tan A  tan B  tan C  tan A tan B tan C

(3) tan(A  B  C) 
1  tan A tan B  tan B tan C  tan C tan A
cot A cot B cot C  cot A  cot B  cot C
(4) cot(A  B  C) 
cot A cot B  cot B cot C  cotC. cot A  1

In general;

(5) sin( A1  A 2  ......  An ) = cos A1 cos A 2 ..... cos An (S 1  S 3  S 5  S 7  ...)

(6) cos( A1  A 2  ....  An )  cos A1 cos A 2 ... cos An (1  S 2  S 4  S 6 ....)

S 1  S 3  S 5  S 7  ....
(7) tan(A1  A 2  .....  A n ) 
1  S 2  S 4  S 6  ....
13
Where; S 1  tan A1  tan A 2  ....  tan An = The sum of the tangents of the separate angles.

S 2  tan A1 tan A 2  tan A1 tan A 3  .... = The sum of the tangents taken two at a time.

S 3  tan A1 tan A2 tan A3  tan A2 tan A3 tan A4  ... = Sum of tangents three at a time, and so on.

If A1  A 2  ....  An  A, then S 1  n tan A , S 2  n C 2 tan 2 A , S 3  n C 3 tan 3 A,....

(8) sin nA  cos n A(n C1 tan A  n C 3 tan 3 A  n C5 tan 5 A  ....)

(9) cos nA  cos n A(1  n C 2 tan 2 A  n C 4 tan 4 A  ...)

n
C1 tan A  n C 3 tan 3 A  n C 5 tan 5 A  ....
(10) tan nA 
1  n C 2 tan 2 A  n C 4 tan 4 A  n C 6 tan 6 A  ...

(11) sin nA  cos nA  cosn A(1 nC1 tan A nC2 tan 2 A nC3 tan 3 A nC4 tan 4 A nC5 tan5 A nC6 tan6 A  .....)

(12)
sin nA  cos nA  cos n A(1  n C1 tan A  n C 2 tan 2 A  n C 3 tan 3 A  n C 4 tan 4 A  n C 5 tan 5 A  n C 6 tan 6 A...)

sin{  (n  1) ( / 2)}. sin(n  / 2)

(13) sin( )  sin(   )  sin(  2  )  .....  sin(  (n  1) ) =
sin( / 2)

       
cos  (n  1) . sin n 
  2    2 
(14) cos( )  cos(   )  cos(  2  )  ....  cos(  (n  1) ) =

sin  
2

11. Formulae to Transform the Product into Sum or Difference.

(1) 2 sin A cos B  sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)

(2) 2 cos A sin B  sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)

(3) 2 cos A cos B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)

14
(4) 2 sin A sin B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)
Let A  B  C and A  B  D
CD CD
Then, A  and B 
2 2
Therefore, we find out the formulae to transform the sum or difference into product.

CD CD
(5) sin C  sin D  2 sin cos
2 2
CD CD
(6) sin C  sin D  2 cos sin
2 2
CD CD
(7) cos C  cos D  2 cos cos
2 2
CD DC CD CD
(8) cos C  cos D  2 sin sin  2 sin sin
2 2 2 2

Important Tips
1 1
 sin(60 o   ). sin sin(60 o   )  sin 3  cos(60   ). cos  cos(60 o   )  cos 3
4 4
o o
 tan(60  ). tan  tan(60  )  tan 3

sin 2 n A
 cos A. cos 2 A. cos 2 2 A. cos 2 3 A....... cos 2 n1 A  n , if A  n
2 sin A
= 1, if A  2n
= 1, if A  (2n  1)

12. Trigonometric Ratio of Multiple of an Angle.

2 tan A
(1) sin 2 A  2 sin A cos A 
1  tan 2 A
1  tan 2 A 
(2) cos 2 A  2 cos 2 A  1  1  2 sin 2 A  cos2 A  sin 2 A  ; where A  (2n  1) .
1  tan A
2
4
2 tan A
(3) tan 2 A 
1  tan 2 A

15
(4) sin 3 A  3 sin A  4 sin 3 A  4 sin(60 o  A). sin A. sin(60 o  A)

(5) cos 3 A  4 cos3 A  3 cos A  4 cos(60 o  A). cos A. cos(60 o  A)

3 tan A  tan 3 A
(6) tan 3 A   tan(60 o  A). tan A. tan(60 o  A) , where A  n   / 6
1  3 tan A
2

(7) sin 4  4 sin  . cos3   4 cos  sin 3  (8) cos 4  8 cos4   8 cos2   1

4 tan   4 tan 3 
(9) tan 4  (10) sin 5 A  16 sin 5 A  20 sin 3 A  5 sin A
1  6 tan 2   tan 4 

(11) cos 5 A  16 cos5 A  20 cos3 A  5 cos A

13. Trigonometric Ratio of Sub-multiple of an Angle.

 3
A A A A , If 2n    / 4  A / 2  2n  
(1) sin  cos  1  sin A or sin  cos   1  sin A i.e.,  4
2 2 2 2 
 , otherwise

 5
A A A A , If 2n    / 4  A / 2  2n  
(2) sin  cos  1  sin A or (sin  cos )   1  sin A i.e.,  4
2 2 2 2  , otherwise


A  tan 2 A  1  1 1  cos A 1  cos A

(3) (i) tan    , where A  (2n  1)
2 tan A 1  cos A sin A
A 1  cos A 1  cos A
(ii) cot   , where A  2n
2 1  cos A sin A

16
 A
The ambiguities of signs are removed by locating the quadrants in which lies or you can follow the
2
following figure,

sin + cos is +ve

sin
A – A is+ve
2 2
cos
sin A + cos is +ve
sin + cos A is –ve 2
2

sin – cos A is +ve sin A – cos is –ve
2 2

sin A + cos A is –ve

2 2

sin – cos is –ve

A 1  cos A
(4) tan 2  ; where A  (2n  1)
2 1  cos A

A 1  cos A
(5) cot 2  ; where A  2n
2 1  cos A

Important Tips
A n   (1)n A
 Any formula that gives the value of sin in terms of sin A shall also give the value of sine of .
2 2
A 2n   A
 Any formula that gives the value of cos in terms of cos A shall also give the value of cos of .
2 2
A n  A
 Any formula that gives the value of tan in terms of tan A shall also give the value of tan of .
2 2

17
14. Maximum and Minimum Value of a cos + b sin.

Let a  r cos  ……..(i) and b  r sin  ……..(ii)

Squaring and adding (i) and (ii), then a 2  b 2  r 2 or, r  a 2  b 2
 a sin   b cos  = r(sin  cos   cos  sin  ) = r sin(   )
But  1  sin   1 So,  1  sin(   )  1 ; Then  r  r sin(   )  r

Hence,  a 2  b 2  a sin   b cos   a 2  b 2

Then the greatest and least values of a sin   b cos  are respectively a 2  b 2 and  a 2  b 2 .

Note: sin 2 x  cosec 2 x  2, for every real x.

cos 2 x  sec 2 x  2, for every real x.

tan 2 x  cot 2 x  2 , for every real x.

Important Tips
Use of  (Sigma) and  (Pie) notation
 sin(A  B  C)   sin A cos B cos C   sin A , cos(A  B  C)   cos A   cos A sin B sin C ,
 tan A   tan A
tan( A  B  C)  . (  denotes summation)
1   tan A tan B
 sin  sin(   )  sin(  2  )  ......... n terms (  denotes product)
 n 1  nB
sin A  B  sin
sin[  (n  1) / 2] sin[n  / 2] n  2  2
 or  sin(A  r  1B)  .
sin( / 2) r 1 sin
B
2
cos[  (n  1) / 2] sin[n  / 2]
 cos   cos(   )  cos(  2  )  ......... n terms  or
sin[ / 2]
 n 1  nB
cos A  B  sin
n  2  2
 cos(A  r  1B)  .
r 1 B
sin
2
 sin A / 2  cos A / 2  2 sin / 4  A  2 cosA   / 4  .
    
 cos   cos   cos   cos(     )  4 cos cos cos .
2 2 2
    
 sin  sin   sin   sin(     )  4 sin sin sin .
2 2 2
 tan   2 tan 2  4 tan 4  8 cot 8  cot  .

18
15. Conditional Trigonometrical Identities.

We have certain trigonometric identities. Like, sin 2   cos 2   1 and 1  tan 2   sec 2  etc.
Such identities are identities in the sense that they hold for all value of the angles which satisfy the given
condition among them and they are called conditional identities.
If A, B, C denote the angles of a triangle ABC, then the relation A + B + C =  enables us to establish
many important identities involving trigonometric ratios of these angles.

(1) If A + B + C = , then A + B =  – C, B + C =  – A and C + A =  – B.

(2) If A + B + C = , then sin( A  B)  sin(  C)  sin C

Similarly, sin(B  C)  sin(  A)  sin A and sin(C  A)  sin(  B)  sin B

(3) If A  B  C   , then cos( A  B)  cos(  C)   cos C

Similarly, cos(B  C)  cos(  A)   cos A and cos(C  A)  cos(  B)   cos B

(4) If A + B + C = , then tan(A  B)  tan(  C)   tan C

Similarly, tan(B  C)  tan(  A)   tan A and tan(C  A)  tan(  B)   tan B

AB  C BC  A CA  B

(5) If A  B  C   , then   and   and  
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

 A B  C  C  A B  C  C
sin    sin     cos  , cos   cos    sin   ,
 2  2 2 2  2  2 2 2

 A B  C  C
tan   tan    cot 
 2  2 2 2

19
All problems on conditional identities are broadly divided into the following three types
1. Identities involving sine and cosine of the multiple or sub-multiple of the angles involved

Working Method
Step (i): Use C  D formulae.

Step (ii): Use the given relation (A + B + C = ) in the expression obtained in step-(i) such that a factor
can be taken common after using multiple angles formulae in the remaining term.

Step (iii): Take the common factor outside.

Step (iv): Again use the given relation (A + B + C =) within the bracket in such a manner so that we can
apply C  D formulae.
Step (v): Find the result according to the given options.

2. Identities involving squares of sine and cosine of multiple or sub-multiples of the angles
involved

Working Method
Step (i): Arrange the terms of the identity such that either sin 2 A  sin 2 B  sin( A  B). sin( A  B) or
cos 2 A  sin 2 B  cos( A  B). cos( A  B) can be used.

Step (ii): Take the common factor outside.

Step (iii): Use the given relation ( A  B  C   ) within the bracket in such a manner so that we can apply
C  D formulae.
Step (iv): Find the result according to the given options.

3. Identities for tangent and cotangent of the angles

Working Method
Step (i): Express the sum of the two angles in terms of third angle by using the given relation
(A  B  C   ) .
Step (ii): Taking tangent or cotangent of the angles of both the sides.

20
Step (iii): Use sum and difference formulae in the left hand side.
Step (iv): Use cross multiplication in the expression obtained in the step (iii).
Step (v): Arrange the terms as per the result required.

Important Tips

 Method of componendo and dividendo

p a
If  , then by componendo and dividendo
q b

pq ab q p ba p q ab qp b a

We can write  or  or  or  .
p q ab qp b a pq ab q p ba

21
Mathematics

Trigonometrical Equations &

Inequations
Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. General Solution of Standard Trigonometrical Equations.
3. General Solution of Some Particular Equations.
4. General Solution of Square of Trigonometrical Equation.
5. Solution in the case of Two Equations are given
(Simultaneously Solving Equations).
6. General Solution of the form a cos b sinc.
7. Some Particular Equations.
8. Method for Finding Principal Value.
9. Some Important Points to be taken in Case of while
Solving Trigonometrical Equations.
10. Miscellaneous Examples.
11. Periodic Functions.

1
1. Introduction.

An equation involving one or more trigonometrical ratio of an unknown angle is called a trigonometrical
 
equation i.e., sin x  cos 2 x  1 , (1  tan  )(1  sin 2 )  1  tan  ; | sec    |  2 etc.
 4
A trigonometric equation is different from a trigonometrical identities. An identity is satisfied for every
value of the unknown angle e.g., cos 2 x  1  sin 2 x is true x  R while a trigonometric equation is
satisfied for some particular values of the unknown angle.

(1) Roots of trigonometrical equation: The value of unknown angle (a variable quantity) which satisfies
1
the given equation is called the root of an equation e.g., cos   , the root is   60 o or   300 o
2
because the equation is satisfied if we put   60 o or   300 o .

(2) Solution of trigonometrical equations: A value of the unknown angle which satisfies the
trigonometrical equation is called its solution.
Since all trigonometrical ratios are periodic in nature, generally a trigonometrical equation has more
than one solution or an infinite number of solutions. There are basically three types of solutions:

(i) Particular solution: A specific value of unknown angle satisfying the equation.

(ii) Principal solution: Smallest numerical value of the unknown angle satisfying the equation
(Numerically smallest particular solution.)

(iii) General solution: Complete set of values of the unknown angle satisfying the equation. It contains
all particular solutions as well as principal solutions.
When we have two numerically equal smallest unknown angles, preference is given to the positive value
2   11 11 23 23
in writing the principal solution. e.g., sec   has , , , , , etc.
3 6 6 6 6 6 6

2
 
As its particular solutions out of these, the numerically smallest are and Y
6
  P
 but the principal solution is taken as   to write the general
6 6
/6
solution we notice that the position on P or P ' can be obtained by rotation X
O – /6
of OP or OP around O through a complete angle (2 ) any number of times
and in any direction (clockwise or anticlockwise)

 The general solution is   2k   ,k  Z .
6

2. General Solution of Standard Trigonometrical Equations.

(1) General solution of the equation sin  = sin: If sin   sin  or sin   sin   0
      
or, 2 sin   cos 0 
 2   2 
       
sin    0 or cos 0
 2   2 
    
or,  m  ; m  I or  (2m  1) ; m  I
2 2 2
   2m    ; m  I or   (2m  1)   ; m  I
  = (any even multiple of  ) +  or  = (any odd multiple of ) – 
θ  nπ  (1)n α ; n  I

Note: The equation cosec   cosec  is equivalent to sin   sin  . So these two equation having the same
general solution.

(2) General solution of the equation cos = cos : If cos  cos   cos  cos   0 
                 
 2 sin  . sin    0  sin    0 or sin  0,  n  ; n  I or
 2   2   2   2  2
 
 n ; n  I
2

   2n   ; n  I or   2n   ; n  I . for the general solution of cos   cos  , combine these two
result which gives θ  2nπ  α; n  I

3
Note: The equation sec   sec  is equivalent to cos  cos , so the general solution of these two
equations are same.

sin  sin 
(3) General solution of the equation tan  = tan  : If tan   tan   
cos  cos 
 sin  cos   cos  sin   0  sin(   )  0      n ; n  I θ  nπ  α; n  I

Note: The equation cot   cot  is equivalent to tan   tan  so these two equations having the same general
solution.

3. General Solution of Some Particular Equations.

 
(1) sin   0    n , cos   0    (2n  1) or n   , tan   0    n
2 2
  
(2) sin   1    (4 n  1) or 2n   , cos   1    2n , tan   1    (4 n  1) or
2 2 4

n 
4
 3 
(3) sin   1    (4 n  3) or 2n   , cos   1    (2n  1) , tan   1    (4 n  1) or
2 2 4

n 
4

(4) tan  = not defined    (2n  1) , cot  = not defined    n
2

cosec  = not defined    n , sec  = not defined    (2n  1) .
2

Important Tips
 For equations involving two multiple angles, use multiple and sub-multiple angle formulas, if
necessary.
 For equations involving more than two multiple angles (i) Apply C  D formula to combine the
two.(ii) Choose such pairs of multiple angle so that after applying the above formulae we get a common
factor in the equation.

4
4. General Solution of Square of Trigonometrical Equations.

(1) General solution of sin2 = sin2  : If sin 2   sin 2  or, 2 sin 2   2 sin 2  (Both the sides multiply by 2)
or, 1  cos 2  1  cos 2 or, cos 2  cos 2 , 2  2n  2 ; n  I , θ  nπ  α; n  I

(2) General solution of cos2  = cos2  : If cos 2   cos 2  or, 2 cos 2   2 cos 2  (multiply both the
side by 2) or, 1  cos 2  1  cos 2 or, 2  2n  2 ; θ  nπ  α; n  I

tan 2  tan 2 
(3) General solution of tan2  = tan2: If tan 2   tan 2  or, 
1 1

tan 2   1 tan 2   1
Using componendo and dividendo rule, 
tan 2   1 tan 2   1

1  tan 2  1  tan 2  1  tan 2  1  tan 2 

or  or  or cos 2  cos 2 , θ  nπ  α; n  I
1  tan 2  1  tan 2  1  tan 2  1  tan 2 

5. Solutions in the Case of Two Equations are given (Simultaneously Solving

Equation).

We may divide the problem into two categories. (1) Two equations in one ‘unknown’ satisfied
simultaneously. (2) Two equations in two ‘unknowns’ satisfied simultaneously.

(1) Two equations is one ‘unknown’: Two equations are given and we have to find the values of
variables  which may satisfy with the given equations.
(i) cos  cos  and sin   sin  , so the common solution is θ  2nπ  α, n  I
(ii) sin   sin  and tan   tan  , so the common solution is θ  2nπ  α, n  I
(iii) cos  cos  and tan   tan  , so the common solution is θ  2nπ  α, n  I

5
(2) System of equations (Two equations in two unknowns): Let f ( , )  0, g ( , )  0 be the system
of two equations in two unknowns.

Step (i): Eliminate any one variable, say  . Let    be one solution.
Step (ii): Then consider the system f (, )  0, g (, )  0 and use the method of two equations in one
variable.

Note: It is preferable to solve the system of equations quadrant wise.

6. General Solution of the form a cos + bsin = c.

In a cos   b sin   c, put a  r cos  and b  r sin  where r  a 2  b 2 and | c |  a 2  b 2

c
Then, r (cos cos  sin  sin  )  c  cos(   )   cos  (say) ..........(i)
a  b2
2

b
     2n     2n    , where tan   , is the general solution
a
c
Alternatively, putting a  r sin  and b  r cos  where r  a 2  b 2  sin(   )   sin 
a  b2
2

(say)
a
     n  (1)n     n  (1)n    , where tan   , is the general solution.
b

Note: ( a 2  b 2 )  a cos   b sin   ( a 2  b 2 )

b  c 
The general solution of a cos x  b sin x  c is x  2n   tan 1    cos 1  .
a  2 
 a b 
2

6
7. Some Particular Equations.

(1) Equation of the form a 0 sin n x  a 1 sin n 1 x cos x  a 2 sin n 2 x cos 2 x  ....  a n cos n x  0 : Here
a0 , a1 ..., an are real numbers and the sum of the exponents in sin x and cos x in each term is equal to n,
are said to be homogeneous with respect to sinx and cosx. For cos x  0, above equation can be written
as, a0 tan n x  a1 tan n 1 x  ...  an  0.

(2) A trigonometric equation of the form R( sin kx, cos nx, tan mx, cot lx)  0 : Here R is a rational
function of the indicated arguments and (k, l, m, n are natural numbers) can be reduced to a rational
equation with respect to the arguments sin x , cos x , tan x , and cot x by means of the formulae for
trigonometric functions of the sum of angles (in particular, the formulas for double and triple angles)
and then reduce equation of the given form to a rational equation with respect to the unknown,
x
t  tan by means of the formulas,
2
x x
2 tan 1  tan 2
sin x  2 , cos x  2,
2 x x
1  tan 1  tan 2
2 2

(3) Equation of the form R( sinx  cos x, sin x. cos x)  0 : where R is rational function of the arguments
in brackets, Put sin x  cos x  t ........(i) and use the following identity:
t2 1
(sin x  cos x )2  sin 2 x  cos 2 x  2 sin x cos x  1  2 sin x cos x  sin x cos x  …….(ii)
2
 t2 1
Taking (i) and (ii) into account, we can reduce given equation into; R  t, 0.
 2 
Similarly, by the substitution (sin x  cos x )  t, we can reduce the equation of the form;
 1  t2 
R(sin x  cos x , sin x cos x )  0 to an equation; R  t,   0.
 2 

7
8. Method for Finding Principal Value.

1
Suppose we have to find the principal value of  satisfying the equation sin    .
2
Since sin  is negative,  will be in 3rd or 4th quadrant. We can approach 3rd or 4th quadrant from two
directions. If we take anticlockwise direction the numerical value of the angle will
Y
be greater than . If we approach it in clockwise direction the angle will be
numerically less than . For principal value, we have to take numerically smallest
angle. So for principal value O
/6 X
/6

B A
(1) If the angle is in 1st or 2nd quadrant we must select anticlockwise direction
and if the angle is in 3rd or 4th quadrant, we must select clockwise direction.

(2) Principal value is never numerically greater than .


(3) Principal value always lies in the first circle (i.e., in first rotation). On the above criteria,  will be 
6
5  
or  . among these two  has the least numerical value. Hence  is the principal value of 
6 6 6
1
satisfying the equation sin    .
2

From the above discussion, the method for finding principal value can be summed up as follows:

(i) First draw a trigonometrical circle and mark the quadrant, in which the angle may lie.

(ii) Select anticlockwise direction for 1st and 2nd quadrants and select clockwise direction for 3rd and 4th
quadrants.

(iii) Find the angle in the first rotation.

(iv) Select the numerically least angle. The angle thus found will be principal value.

8
(v) In case, two angles one with positive sign and the other with negative sign qualify for the numerically
least angle, then it is the convention to select the angle with positive sign as principal value.

Important Tips
 Any trigonometric equation can be solved without using any formula. Find all angles in 0, 2  which
satisfy the equation and then add 2n to each.
 5 
For example: Consider the equation sin  , then   , Hence required solutions are   2n  ,
1
.
2 6 6 6
5
2n   .
6

9. Important Points to be taken in Case of While Solving Trigonometrical

Equations.

(1) Check the validity of the given equation, e.g., 2 sin   cos  4 can never be true for any  as the
value (2 sin   cos  ) can never exceeds 2 2  (1)2  5 . So there is no solution to this equation.


(2) Equation involving sec  or tan  can never have a solution of the form. (2n  1)
2
Similarly, equations involving cosec  or cot  can never have a solution of the form   n . The
corresponding functions are undefined at these values of .

(3) If while solving an equation we have to square it, then the roots found after squaring must be
checked whether they satisfy the original equation or not, e.g., Let x  3 . Squaring, we get x 2  9 
x  3 and  3 but x  3 does not satisfy the original equation x  3 . e.g., sin x  cos x  1
Square both sides, we get 1  sin 2 x  1  sin 2 x  0
n
 2 x  n or x , nI
2
 3  2    2 3
 Roots are ……, , , ,0, , , ,......
2 2 2 2 2 2

9
We find that 0 and  / 2 are roots but  and 3 / 2 do not satisfy the given equation as it leads to  1  1
 3 
Similarly 0 and are roots but  and   are not roots as it will lead to  1  1 .
2 2
As stated above, because of squaring we are solving the equations sin x  cos x  1 and
sin x  cos x  1 both. The rejected roots are for sin x  cos x  1 .

(4) Do not cancel common factors involving the unknown angle on L.H.S. and R.H.S. because it may
delete some solutions. e.g., In the equation sin  (2 cos   1)  sin  cos 2  if we cancel sin  on both sides
we get cos2   2 cos   1  0  (cos   1)2  0  cos   1    2n . But   n also satisfies the
equation because it makes sin   0 . So, the complete solution is   n , n  Z .

(5) Any value of x which makes both R.H.S. and L.H.S. equal will be a root but the value of x for which
   will not be a solution as it is an indeterminate form.
Hence, cos x  0 for those equations which involve tan x and sec x whereas sin x  0 for those which
involve cot x and cosec x .
Also exponential function is always +ve and loga x is defined if x  0 , x  0 and a  0, a  1
f (x )  ve always and not  i.e . (tan2 x )  tan x and not  tan x .

(6) Denominator terms of the equation if present should never become zero at any stage while solving
for any value of  contained in the answer.

(7) Sometimes the equation has some limitations also e.g., cot 2   cosec 2  1 can be true only if
cot 2   0 and cosec 2  1 simultaneously as cosec 2  1 . Hence the solution is   (2n  1) / 2 .

y z
(8) If xy  xz then x (y  z)  0  either x  0 or y  z or both. But   y  z only and not x  0 ,
x x
as it will make    . Similarly if ay  az , then it will also imply y  z only as a  0 being a constant.
Similarly x  y  x  z  y  z and x  y  x  z  y  z . Here we do not take x  0 as in the above
because x is an additive factor and not multiplicative factor.
When cos   0 , then sin   1 or  1 . We have to verify which value of sin  is to be chosen which
 1
satisfies the equation. cos   0     n    .
 2

10
(9) Student are advised to check whether all the roots obtained by them, satisfy the equation and lie in
the domain of the variable of the given equation.

10. Periodic Functions.

A function f(x) is called periodic function if there exists a least positive real number T such that
f (x  T )  f (x ). T is called the period (or fundamental period) of function f (x ) . Obviously, if T is the
period of f (x ), then f (x )  f (x  T )  f (x  2T )  f (x  3T )  .......... ..

(i) If f1 (x ) and f2 (x ) are two periodic functions of x having the same period T, then the function
af1 (x )  bf2 (x ) where a and b are any numbers, is also a periodic function having the same period T.

(ii) If T is the period of the periodic function f (x ) , then the function f (ax  b), where a( 0) and b are any
numbers is also a periodic function with period equal to T / a.

(iii) If T1 and T 2 are the periods of periodic functions f1 (x ) and f2 (x ) respectively, then the function
af1 (x )  bf2 (x ), where a and b are any numbers is also periodic and its period is T which is the L.C.M. of
T1 and T2 i.e. T is the least positive number which is divisible by T1 and T2 .

All trigonometric functions are periodic. The period of trigonometric function sin x , cos x , sec x and
cosec x is 2 because sin(x  2 )  sin x , cos( x  2 )  cos x etc.
The period of tan x and cot x is  because tan(x   )  tan x and cot(x   )  cot x
2
The period of the function which are of the type: sin ax, cos(ax  b);b cos ax is
a

The period of tan ax and cot ax is . Here |a| is taken so as the value of the period is positive real
| a|
number.

11
Some functions with their periods

Function Period
sin(ax  b), cos( ax  b), sec( ax  b), cosec (ax  b) 2 / a
tan( ax  b), cot(ax  b)  /a
| sin(ax  b)|, | cos( ax  b)|, | sec( ax  b)|, | cosec (ax  b)|  /a

| tan( ax  b) |, | cot(ax  b) |  /a

12
 Mathematics

Properties of Triangle & Solutions of

Triangle
Table of Content

1. Relation between Sides and Angle.

2. The law of Cosines or Cosine Rule.
3. Projection Formulae.
4. Theorem of the Medians.
5. Napier's Analogy.
6. Area of Triangle.
7. Half Angle Formulae.
8. Circle Connected with Triangle.
9. Pedal Triangle.
10. Ex-central Triangle.
11. Cyclic Quadrilateral.
12. Regular Polygon.
13. Solutions of Triangles.

1
1. Relation between Sides and Angles.

A triangle has six components, three sides and three angles. The three angles of a ABC are denoted by
letters A, B, C and the sides opposite to these angles by letters a, b and c respectively. Following are
some well-known relations for a triangle (say ABC )
A
 A  B  C  180 o (or )
 a  b  c, b  c  a, c  a  b
 | a  b |  c,| b  c |  a,| c  a |  b

Generally, the relations involving the sides and angles of a triangle are cyclic in nature, e.g. to obtain the
second similar relation to a  b  c , we simply replace a by b, b by c and c by a. So, to write all the
relations, follow the cycles given.

(1) The law of sines or sine rule: The sides of a triangle are proportional to the sines of the angles
a b c
opposite to them i.e. ,    k (say) A
sin A sin B sin C
A
More generally, if R be the radius of the circumcircle of the triangle
F c b
a b c
ABC,    2R O
sin A sin B sin C B D C
B C
a

sin A sin B sin C

Note: The above rule may also be expressed as  
a b c
The sine rule is very useful tool to express sides of a triangle in terms of sines of angle and vice-versa in the
a b c
following manner    K (Let)  a  K sin A, b  K sin B, c  K sin C .
sin A sin B sin C
sin A sin B sin C
Similarly,     (Let)  sin A  a, sin B  b, sin C  c.
a b c

2
2. The Law of Cosines or Cosine Rule.

In any triangle ABC, the square of any side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides
diminished by twice the product of these sides and the cosine of their included angle, that is for a
triangle ABC,

b 2  c 2  a2
(1) a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos A  cos A 
2bc
c 2  a2  b 2
(2) b 2  c 2  a 2  2ca cos B  cos B 
2ca
a2  b 2  c 2
(3) c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cos C  cos C 
2ab
a b c
Combining with sin A  , sin B  , sin C 
2R 2R 2R
abc abc abc
We have by division, tan A  , tan B  , tan C 
R(b  c  a )
2 2 2
R(c  a  b )
2 2 2
R(a  b 2  c 2 )
2

Where R, be the radius of the circum-circle of the triangle ABC.

3. Projection Formulae.
A

In any triangle ABC, b cos C  c cos B  k sin B cos C  k sin C cos B (from sine rule)
c b
= k[sin(B  C)]  k sin(  A)  k sin A  a
Similarly, we can deduct other projection formulae from sine rule. B C
a
(i) a  b cos c  c cos B (ii) b  c cos A  a cos C (iii) c  a cos B  b cos A
i.e., any side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the projection of other two sides on it.

3
4. Theorem of the Medians: (Apollonius Theorem)

In every triangle the sum of the squares of any two sides is equal to twice the square on half the third
side together with twice the square on the median that bisects the third
A
side.
b
For any triangle ABC, b 2  c 2  2(h 2  m 2 )  2{m 2  (a / 2)2 } by use of cosine c
m
rule.
 
If  be right angled, the mid point of hypotenuse is equidistant from the C
B h h
three vertices so that DA  DB  DC D

 b 2  c 2  a2 which is pythagoras theorem. This theorem is very useful for solving problems of height
and distance.

5. Napier's Analogy (Law of Tangents)

For any triangle ABC,

 A  B ab C  B C b c A
(1) tan   cot (2) tan   cot (3)
 2   a  b  2  2   b  c  2
C  A c a B
tan   cot
 2  c a 2

1 1
cos ( A  B) sin ( A  B)
ab 2 a  b 2
Note: Mollweide's formula: For any triangle,  ,  .
c 1 c 1
sin C cos C
2 2

4
6. Area of Triangle.

Let three angles of ABC are denoted by A, B, C and the sides opposite to these angles by letters a, b, c
respectively.

(1) When two sides and the included angle be given: The area of triangle ABC is given by,
1 1 1 1
  bc sin A  ca sin B  ab sin C i.e.,   (Product of two sides) × sine of included angle
2 2 2 2

(2) When three sides are given: Area of ABC    s(s  a)(s  b)(s  c)
ab c
where semiperimeter of triangle s 
2 A

abc c b
(3) When three sides and the circum-radius be given: Area of triangle   ,
4R
where R be the circum-radius of the triangle. B
a C

(4) When two angles and included side be given :

1 2 sin B sin C 1 2 sin A sin C 1 2 sin A sin B
 a  b  c
2 sin(B  C) 2 sin( A  C) 2 sin( A  B)

7. Half Angle Formulae.

If 2s shows the perimeter of a triangle ABC then, i.e., 2 s  a  b  c, then

A B C
(1) Formulae for sin , sin , sin :
2 2 2
A (s  b)(s  c) B (s  a)(s  c) C (s  a)(s  b)
(i) sin  (ii) sin  (iii) sin 
2 bc 2 ca 2 ab

5
 A B C
(2) Formulae for cos , cos , cos :
2 2 2
A s(s  a) B s(s  b) C s(s  c)
(i) cos  (ii) cos  (iii) cos 
2 bc 2 ca 2 ab

A B C
(3) Formulae for tan , tan , tan :
2 2 2
A (s  b)(s  c) B (s  c)(s  a) C (s  a)(s  b)
(i) tan  (ii) tan  (iii) tan 
2 s(s  a) 2 s(s  b) 2 s(s  c)
A A (s  b)(s  c) s(s  a) 2 2
Note: sin A  2 sin cos  2 . =   s(s  a)(s  b)(s  c) 
2 2 bc bc  bc  bc
2 2
Similarly sin B  , sin C 
ca ab
A (s  b)(s  c) B (s  c)(s  a) C (s  a)(s  b)
 tan  , tan  , tan 
2  2  2 

Important Tips
1/ 2
 (s  b)(s  c) (s  c)(s  a)  sc
= 
A B A B s
 tan tan .    cot cot 
2 2  s(s  a) s(s  b)  s 2 2 sc

s c   s b   s  a   s  c   s  b  s  a  c  s(s  c) 
1/ 2

=   =  = 
A B c C
 tan  tan          cot
2 2  s    s  a   s  b    s   (s  a)(s  b )  s  (s  a)(s  b)  s 2

c.( s  c)
Another form:
c
 (s  c)
{s(s  a)(s  b)(s  c)}1 / 2 s
A B ab
 tan  tan  (s  c)
2 2 s
A B
tan  tan
.
A B 2  c cot C
 cot  cot  2
2 2 A
tan tan
B sc 2
2 2

6
8. Circle Connected with Triangle.

(1) Circumcircle of a triangle and its radius

(i) Circumcircle : The circle which passes through the angular points of a triangle is called its
circumcircle. The centre of this circle is the point of intersection of perpendicular bisectors of the sides
and is called the circumcentre. Its radius is always denoted by R. The circumcentre may lie within, outside
or upon one of the sides of the triangle.
A
(ii) Circum-radius: The circum-radius of a ABC is given by
F
a b c abc
(a)   R (b) R  [  area of ABC ] O
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C 4 B D C

(2) Inscribed circle or incircle of a triangle and its radius

(i) In-circle or inscribed circle : The circle which can be inscribed within a triangle so as to touch each
of its sides is called its inscribed circle or in circle. The centre of this circle is the point of intersection of
the bisectors of the angles of the triangle. The radius of this circle is always denoted by r and is equal to
the length of the perpendicular from its centre to any one of the sides of triangle. A
(ii) In-radius : The radius r of the inscribed circle of a triangle ABC is given by A/2
 A B C
(a) r  (b) r  4 R sin sin sin E
s 2 2 2 r
F r
A B C
(c) , r  (s  b) tan , r  (s  c) tan
r  (s  a) tan I
2 2 2 r
C/2
D C
B C A C B A B
a sin sin b sin sin c sin sin
(d) r  2 2 ,r  2 2 ,r  2 2
A B C
cos cos cos
2 2 2
r
(e) cos A  cos B  cos C  1 
R

(3) Escribed circles of a triangle and their radii

(i) Escribed circle : The circle which touches the side BC and two sides AB and AC produced of a triangle
ABC is called the escribed circle opposite to the angle A. Its radius is denoted by r1 . Similarly, r2 and r3
denote the radii of the escribed circles opposite to the angles B and C respectively.
The centres of the escribed circles are called the ex-centres. The centre of the escribed circle opposite to
the angle A is the point of intersection of the external bisectors of angles B and C. The internal bisectors
of angle A also passes through the same point. The centre is generally denoted by I1
A
7

D
(ii) Radii of ex-circles: In any ABC , we have
  
(a) r1  , r2  , r3 
sa s b sc

A B C
(b) r1  s tan , r2  s tan , r3  s tan
2 2 2

B C C A A B
a cos cos b cos cos c cos cos
(c) r1  2 2 ,r 
2
2 2 ,r 
3
2 2
A B C
cos cos cos
2 2 2

(d) r1  r2  r3  r  4 R

1 1 1 1
(e)   
r1 r2 r3 r

1 1 1 1 a2  b 2  c 2
(f)    
r 2 r12 r22 r32 2

1 1 1 1
(g)   
bc ca ab 2 Rr

(h) r1r2  r2r3  r3r1  s 2

A B C
(i)   2 R 2 sin A. sin B. sin C  4 Rr cos
. cos . cos
2 2 2
A B C A B C A B C
(j) r1  4 R sin cos cos ; r2  cos . sin . cos ; r3  4 R cos cos sin
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

(4) Centroid (G) : Common point of intersection of medians of a triangle. Divides every median in the
ratio 2:1. Always lies inside the triangle.
A

B C
D
8
(5) Orthocentre of a triangle: The point of intersection of perpendicular drawn from the vertices on the
opposite sides of a triangle is called its orthocentre.

9. Pedal Triangle.

Let the perpendiculars AD, BE and CF from the vertices A, B and C on the opposite
A
sides BC, CA and AB of ABC respectively, meet at O. Then O is the orthocentre of
the ABC . The triangle DEF is called the pedal triangle of the ABC .
Othocentre of the triangle is the incentre of the pedal triangle. F E
O
O
If O is the orthocentre and DEF the pedal triangle of the ABC , where AD, BE, CF are
C
the perpendiculars drawn from A, B, C on the opposite sides BC, CA, AB respectively, B D

then
(i) OA  2 R cos A, OB  2 R cos B and OC  2 R cos C
(ii) OD  2 R cos B cos C, OE  2 R cos C cos A and OF  2 R cos A cos B

(1) Sides and angles of a pedal triangle: The angles of pedal triangle DEF are: A
180  2 A,180  2 B,180  2C and sides of pedal triangle are:
EF  a cos A or R sin 2 A ; FD  b cos B or R sin 2 B ; DE  c cos C or R sin 2C b cos B a cos B
c cos B

F E
If given ABC is obtuse, then angles are been represented by 2 A, 2 B, 2C  180 o
O
O
and the sides are a cos A, b cos B,  c cos C .
C
B 180 – 2A D
(2) Area and circum-radius and in-radius of pedal triangle
1
Area of pedal triangle = (Product of the sides) × (sine of included angle)
2
1 2
 R . sin 2 A. sin 2 B. sin 2C
2
EF R sin 2 A R
Circum-radius of pedal triangle =   .
2 sin FDE 2 sin(180 o  2 A) 2
1 2
R sin 2 A. sin 2 B. sin 2C
area of DEF
In-radius of pedal triangle = = 2 2 R cos A. cos B. cos C .
semi - perimeter of DEF 2 R sin A. sin B. sin C

9
Important Tips
 Circum-centre, Centroid and Orthocentre are collinear.
 In any right angled triangle, the orthocentre coincides with the vertex containing the right
angled.
 The mid-point of the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is equidistant from the three vertices
of the triangle.
 The mid-point of the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is the circumcentre of the triangle.
A
 The length of the medians AD, BE, CF of ABC are given by

b 2  c 2  2bc cos A , BE 
1 1 1 1 2
AD  2b 2  2c 2  a 2  2c 2  2a 2  b 2  c  a 2  2ca. cos B
2 2 2 2
F E
1 1
CF  2 a 2  2b 2  c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab. cos c G
2 2
 The distance between the circumcentre O and centroid G of ABC is given by B C
D
, Where H is the orthocentre of ABC .
1 1
OG  OH  R 1  8 cos A. cos B. cos C
3 3
 The distance between the orthocentre H and centroid G of EMBED Equation.3 is given by
EMBED Equation.3 HG  R 1  8 cos A. cos B. cos C .
2
3
 The distance between the circumcentre O and the incentre I of ABC given by
A B C
OI  R 1  8 sin . sin . sin
2 2 2

 If I1 is the centre of the escribed circle opposite to the angle B, then OI1  R 1  8 sin
A B C
. cos . cos
2 2 2

A B C
Similarly, OI2  R 1  8 cos . sin . cos , OI3  R 1  8 cos
A B C
. cos . sin
2 2 2 2 2 2

 Circle circumscribing the pedal triangle of a given triangle bisects the sides of the given triangle
and also the lines joining the vertices of the given triangle to the orthocentre of the given triangle.
This circle is known as "Nine point circle".
 Circumcentre of the pedal triangle of a given triangle bisects the line joining the circum-centre of
the triangle to the orthocentre.

10
10. Ex-central Triangle.

Let ABC be a triangle and I be the centre of incircle. Let I1 , I2 and I3 be the centres of the escribed
circles which are opposite to A, B, C respectively then I1 I2 I3 is
I3 I2
called the Ex-central triangle of ABC .
I1 I2 I3 is a triangle, thus the triangle ABC is the pedal triangle of 90o –
I 90o –
its ex-central triangle I1 I2 I3 . The angles of ex-central triangle B C
A B C
I1 I2 I3 are 90 o  , 90 o  ,90 o 
2 2 2
B C A
and sides are I1 I3  4 R cos ; I1 I2  4 R cos ; I2 I3  4 R cos I1 90o –
2 2 2

Area and circum-radius of the ex-central triangle

1
Area of triangle = (Product of two sides) × (sine of included angles)
2
1  B  C  A
  4 R cos  .  4 R cos   sin  90 o  
2  2  2  2
A B C
  8 R 2 cos . cos . cos
2 2 2
A
4 R cos
I2 I3 2
Circum-radius =   2R .
2 sin I 2 I1 I 3  A
2 sin  90 o  
 2

11
11. Cyclic Quadrilateral.

A quadrilateral PQRS is said to be cyclic quadrilateral if there exists a circle passing through all its four
vertices P, Q, R and S.
Let a cyclic quadrilateral be such that PQ  a, QR  b, RS  c and SP  d . Then Q  S  180 o and
A  C  180 o . Let 2 s  a  b  c  d
S
and = Area of cyclic quadrilateral PQRS
1 1 d c
= Area of PQR + Area of PRS = ab sin Q  cd sin S
2 2
P R
1 1 1
= ab sin Q  cd sin(  Q)  (ab  cd) sin Q a
2 2 2 b

1 Q
= (ab  cd ) sin Q ......(i)
2

In PQR and PRS ,

From cosine rule, PR 2  PQ 2  QR 2  2 PQ.QR cos Q = a2  b 2  2ab cos Q ......(ii)
and PR2  PS 2  RS 2  2 PS .RS cos S
PR 2  d 2  c 2  2cd cos(  Q)
PR 2  d 2  c 2  2cd cos Q ........(iii)

From (ii) and (iii) we have, = (s  a)(s  b)(s  c)(s  d ) ........(iv)

1
Therefore, (1) Area of cyclic quadrilateral = (ab  cd ) sin Q
2

(2) Area of cyclic quadrilateral = (s  a)(s  b)(s  c)(s  d ) , where 2 s  a  b  c  d

a2  b 2  c 2  d 2
(3) cos Q 
2(ab  cd )

(4) Circumradius of cyclic quadrilateral: Circum circle of quadrilateral PQRS is also the circumcircle of
PR
PQR . Hence circumradius of cyclic quadrilateral PQRS = R = circumradius of PQR  =
2 sin B
PR(ab  cd )
4

12
 (ac  bd )(ad  bc)
But PR 
(ab  cd )
1 1 (ac  bd )(ad  bc)(ab  cd)
Hence R  (ac  bd )(ad  bc)(ab  cd) 
4 4 (s  a)(s  b)(s  c)(s  d )

(5) Ptolemy's theorem: In a cyclic quadrilateral PQRS, the product of diagonals is equal to the sum of
the products of the length of the opposite sides i.e., According to Ptolemy's theorem, for a cyclic
quadrilateral PQRS PR.QS  PQ.RS  RQ.PS .

A
B

12. Regular Polygon.

A regular polygon is a polygon which has all its sides equal and all its angles equal.
 2n  4   2n  4  π
(1) Each interior angle of a regular polygon of n sides is    right angles =   radians.
 n   n  2

(2) The circle passing through all the vertices of a regular polygon is called its circumscribed circle.
If a is the length of each side of a regular polygon of n sides, then the radius R of the circumscribed
a π 
circle, is given by R .cosec  
2 n
O
F /n C
(3) The circle which can be inscribed within the regular polygon so as to touch all R R
r
its sides is called its inscribed circle.
A B
Again if a is the length of each side of a regular polygon of n sides, then the
a π 
radius r of the inscribed circle is given by r  .cot 
2 n

13
(4) The area of a regular polygon is given by   n × area of triangle OAB
1 π 
 n a 2 cot  (in terms of side)
4 n
π 
 nr 2 .tan   (in terms of in-radius)
n
n 2  2π 
 .R sin   (in terms of circum-radius)
2  n 

13. Solutions of Triangles.

Different formulae will be used in different cases and sometimes the same problem may be solved in
different ways by different formulae. We should, therefore, look for that formula which will suit the
problem best.
(1) Solution of a right angled triangle
(2) Solution of a triangle in general

(1) Solution of a right angled triangle

(i) When two sides are given: Let the triangle be right angled at C. Then we can determine the
remaining elements as given in the following table

Given Required
a, b a a
tan A  , B  90 o  A , c 
b sin A
a, c a
sin A  , b  c cos A, B  90 o  A
c

14
(ii) When a side and an acute angle are given : In this case, we can determine the remaining elements
as given in the following table

Given Required
a, A a
B  90 o  A, b  a cot A, c 
sin A
c, A B  90 o  A, a  c sin A, b  c cos A

(2) Solution of a triangle in general

(i) When three sides a, b and c are given in this case, the remaining elements are determined by using
the following formulae,   s(s  a)(s  b)(s  c) , where 2s  a  b  c = perimeter of triangle
2 2 2
sin A  , sin B  , sin C 
bc ac ab
A  B  C 
tan  , tan  , tan 
2 s(s  a) 2 s(s  b) 2 s(s  c)

(ii) When two sides a, b and the included angle C are given: In this case, we use the following
1 A  B ab C AB C a sin C
formulae   ab sin C ; tan  cot ;  90 o  and c 
2 2 ab 2 2 2 sin A

(iii) When one sides a and two angles A and B are given: In this case, we use the following formulae
to determine the remaining elements A  B  C  180 o  C  180 o  A  B
a sin B a sin C 1
b and c     ca sin B
sin A sin A 2

(iv) When two sides a, b and the angle A opposite to one side is given: In this case, we use the
b
following formulae sin B  sin A ..........(i)
a
a sin C
C  180 o  ( A  B), c 
sin A

15
Special Cases

C
Case I : When a is an acute angle
(a) If a  b sin A, there is no triangle. When a  b sin A, from (i), sin B  1, a
b b sin A
which is impossible. B
From the following figure, If AC  b, CAX  A , then perpendicular
CN  b sin A. Now taking C as centre, If we draw an arc of radius a then it A
A N X
will never intersect the line AX and hence no triangle ABC can be
constructed in this case.
(b) If a  b sin A , then only one triangle is possible which is right angled
at B. When a  b sin A, then from sine rule. sin B  1,  B  90 o C

from fig. It is clear that CB  a  b sin A

Thus, in this case, only one triangle is possible which is right angled at B. b a = b sinA
(c) If a  b sin A, then three possibilities
C
will arise:
b A 90o
a A
(i) a  b In this case, from sine rule X
b sinA B
A sin B  sin A ;  B  A or B  180  A
o
A X
N B
But B  180 o  A  A  B  180 o , which is not possible in a triangle.
 In this case, we get A  B .
Hence, if b  a  b sin A then only one isosceles triangle ABC is possible in which A  B .
(ii) a  b In the following figure, Let AC  b, CAX  A, and a  b, also a  b sin A .

Now taking C as centre, if we draw an arc of radius a, it will intersect AX at one point B and hence only
one ABC is constructed. Also this arc will intersect XA produced at B  and
C
ABC is also formed but this  is inadmissible (because CA B is an
a a
obtuse angle in this triangle) b
b sinA
Hence, if a  b and a  b sin A, then only one triangle is possible. A
B X
A N B
(iii) b  a (i.e., b  a  b sin A)
In fig. let AC  b, CAX  A . Now taking C as centre, if we draw an arc of C2 C
C1
radius a, then it will intersect AX at two points B1 and B 2 . Hence if b
a a
b  a  sin A, then there are two triangles.
b sinA
A
A B2 N B1 X

16
Case II : When A is an obtuse angle: In this case, there is only one triangle, if a  b

b b a

A
Case III: b  c and B  90 o N A B X

Again the circle with A as centre and b as radius will cut the line only in one point. So, only one triangle
is possible.
C

c A
B
b

Case IV: b  c and B  90 o

The circle with A as centre and b as radius will not cut the line in any point. So, no triangle is possible.
This is, sometimes called an ambiguous case.

a2  c 2  b 2
Alternative method: By applying cosine rule, we have cos B 
2ac
 a 2  (2c cos B)a  (c 2  b 2 )  0

 a  c cos B  (c cos B)2  (c 2  b 2 )

c A
 a  c cos B  b 2  (c sin B)2 B b

This equation leads to following cases:

Case I: If b  c sin B ,no such triangle is possible.

Case II: Let b  c sin B, there are further following case.

(a) B is an obtuse angle  cos B is negative. There exists no such triangle.

(b) B is an acute angle  cos B is positive. There exists only one such triangle.

Case III: Let b  c sin B . There are further following cases :

(a) B is an acute angle  cosB is positive.

In this case two values of a will exists if and only if c cos B  b 2  (c sin B)2 or c  b
17
Two such triangle is possible. If c  b, only one such triangle is possible.

(b) B is an obtuse angle  cosB is negative. In this case triangle will exist if and only if
b 2  (c sin B)2 | c cos B |  b  c . So, in this case only one such triangle is possible. If b  c there exists no
such triangle.

a sin B a sin C
Note: If one side a and two angles B and C are given, then A  180 o  (B  C) and b  ,c 
sin A sin A
If the three angles A, B, C are given. We can only find the ratios of the sides a, b, c by using sine rule (since there
are infinite similar triangle possible).

Important Tips
 A triangle which does not contain a right angle is called an oblique triangle.
 If triangle is an acute angled triangle means every angle is less than 90o.
 If triangle is an obtuse angled triangle means one of its angle is greater than 90o.
 If A and B are complementry angles then A + B = 90o.
 If A and B are supplementary angle, then A + B = 180o.
 (p  q)  (p  q)  (q  r)  (r  p)  0 , p(q  r)  p(q  r)  q(r  p)  r(p  q)  0 .

( p  a)(q  r)  p(q  r)  a(q  r)  0 .

18
Mathematics

Heights and Distances

Table of Content

1. Some Terminology Related to Heights and Distances.

 Angle of elevation and depression
 Method of Solving a Problem of Heights and Distances
 Geometrical Properties and Formulae for a Triangle
 North-east
 Bearing
 Problems on Two Dimensions
 Problems on Three Dimensions
 m-n cot theorem of Trigonometry

2. Some Properties Related to Circle.

3. Some Important Results.

1
This chapter deals with the applications of trigonometry to practical situations concerning measurement
of heights and distances which are otherwise not directly measurable By the use of trigonometry we can
measure the following:

(i) Height of tower or temple

(ii) (ii) Breadth of river
(iii) Distance between inaccessible points
(iv) (iv) Angle of vision etc.

1. Some Terminology Related to Heights and Distances.

We need to first define certain terms and state some properties before applying the principles of
trigonometry.

(1) Angle of elevation and depression: Let O and P be two points such that P is at higher level than O.
Let PQ, OX be horizontal lines through P and O, respectively. If an observer (or
Horizontal
eye) is at O and the object is at P, then XOP is called the angle of elevation of P Q Angle of P
as seen from O. This angle is also called the angular height of P from O.
Angle of
If an observer (or eye) is at P and the object is at O, then QPO is called the O Horizontal X
angle of depression of O as seen from P.

(2) Method of solving a problem of heights and distances

(i) Draw the figure neatly showing all angles and distances as far as possible.

(ii) Always remember that if a line is perpendicular to a plane then it is perpendicular to every line in that
plane.

(iii) In the problems of heights and distances we come across a right angled triangle in which one (acute)
angle and a side is given. Then to find the remaining sides, use trigonometrical ratios in which known
(given) side is used, i.e., use the formula.

(iv) In any triangle other than right angled triangle, we can use 'the sine rule'.

2
 a b c b 2  c2  a2
i.e., formula,   , or cosine formula i.e., cos A  etc.
sin A sin B sin C 2bc
(v) Find the length of a particular side from two different triangles containing that side common and
then equate the two values thus obtained.

(3) Geometrical properties and formulae for a triangle

(i) In a triangle the internal bisector of an angle divides the opposite side in the ratio of the arms of the
BD c
angle.  .
DC b A
A

(ii) In an isosceles triangle the median is perpendicular to the base b

c A/2 A/2
i.e., AD  BC . B C
90o
C D C
B c D b
B
(iii) In similar triangles the corresponding sides are proportional.

(iv) The exterior angle is equal to sum of interior opposite angles.

(4) North-east: North-east means equally inclined to north and east, south-east means equally inclined
to south and east. ENE means equally inclined to east and north-east.

N
NE
P1
P2 ENE
45o
45o
22.5o
W E
O 45o

P3

3
(5) Bearing: In the figure, if the observer and the object i.e., O and P be on the same level then bearing
is defined. To measure the ‘Bearing’, the four standard directions East, West, North and South are taken
as the cardinal directions. N
P

Angle between the line of observation i.e., OP and any one standard

direction– east, west, north or south is measured. W E
O
Thus, POE   is called the bearing of point P with respect to O measured
from east to north. In other words the bearing of P as seen from O is the
direction in which P is seen from O.
S

(6) Problem on two dimensions: If the actual figure is located in one plane, the problem is of two
dimensions. For direction in two dimensional figures, cross vertically as shown in the figure.

P N
N W
W

90o
90o O
A
E
E S
S
B

(7) Problems on three dimensions: If total actual figure is located in more than one plane, the problem
will be of three dimensions. For direction in three dimensional figures, cross
N
obliquely as shown. Clearly this oblique cross represents the horizontal plane.

If OP be a vertical tower perpendicular to the plane then it will be represented

W E
like the figure, clearly POA  90 o . If the observer at A moves in east direction.
We draw a line AB parallel to east to represent this movement. Clearly
OAB  90 o (angle between north and east).
S

4
(8) m-n cot theorem of trigonometry: (m  n) cot   m cot   n cot   n cot A  m cot B ( on the
right)

 

I II
A  B
m B
A D n

I II

Note: If  is on the left then angle in the right is    and cot      cot  . Hence in this case m- n theorem
becomes  (m  n) cot   m cot   n cot   n cot A  m cot B ( on the left).

2. Some Properties Related to Circle.

(1) Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal i.e., APB  AQB  ARB .

P
Q
R

A B

(2) Angles in the alternate segments of a circle are equal.

A
A


B 

 B 
C C T
O O

5
(3) If the line joining two points A and B subtends the greatest angle  at a point P then the circle, will
touch the straight line XX’ at the point P.
A

X X
P

(4) The angle subtended by any chord at the centre is twice the angle subtended P
by the same on any point on the circumference of the circle.


2

A B

3. Some Important Results.

(1) (2)

h
H

   x

a d

h sin(   )
a  h (cot   cot  ) =
sin  . sin 
h  a sin  sin  cosec (   ) and
d  h cot   a sin . cos  .cosec (   )

H  x cot  tan(   )

6
(3) (4)

h
  H
h  
d
A Q a B

h cot 
H
cot 
a  h(cot   cot  ) , where by
h  a sin . sin  .cosec (   ) and
d  h cot   a sin . cos  .cosec (   )

(5) (6)

H

 a 
H

h
H


H sin(   ) h cot  a sin(   )

h or H  H
cos  sin  cot   cot  sin(   )

(7) A (8) OP – Tower P

A–
y B – East h
N

B W E
O

d S
 
C x A
B
    h
d
AB  CD . Then, x  y tan 
 2  cot 2   cot 2 

7
 (9) P (10)
P

h
O


 
A
 a  Q

B A
B
AB h  AP sin   a sin . sin  .cosec (   ) and
h
cot   cot 
2 2
if AQ  d , then
d  AP cos   a cos . sin  .cosec (   )

(11) AP  a sin  .cosec (   )

P
AQ  a sin  .cosec (   ) Q
and apply,

PQ 2  AP 2  AQ 2  2 AP. AQ cos  
a B
A

Important Tips
 In the application of sine rule, the following point be noted. We are given one side a and some other
side x is to be found. Both these are in different triangles. We choose a A
common side y of these triangles. Then apply sine rule for a and y in one a 
triangle and for x and y for the other triangle and eliminate y. Thus, we will
B 
get unknown side x in terms of a. In the adjoining figure a is known side of y 
D

 ABC and x is unknown is side of triangle ACD. The common side of these 
x
triangle is AC = y (say) Now apply sine rule
C
a y x y
  …….. (i) and  ……..(ii)
sin sin  sin sin

x sin sin  a sin  sin

Dividing (ii) by (i) we get,  ;  x
a sin sin sin sin 

8
Mathematics

Inverse Trigonometrical Function

Table of Content

1. Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions.

 Meaning of Inverse Function
 Domain and Range of Inverse Functions
 Principal Values for Inverse Circular Functions
 Conversion Property
 General Values for Inverse Circular Functions

2. Formulas for Sum and Difference of Inverse Circular

Functions.
3. Inverse Trigonometric ratios of multiple angles.

1
The inverse of a function f : A  B exists if f is one-one onto i.e., a bijection and is given by
f (x )  y  f 1 (y)  x .
Consider the sine function with domain R and range [–1, 1]. Clearly this function is not a bijection and so
it is not invertible. If we restrict the domain of it in such a way that it becomes one–one, then it would
  
become invertible. If we consider sine as a function with domain  ,  and co-domain [–1, 1], then it
 2 2
is a bijection and therefore, invertible. The inverse of sine function is defined as sin 1 x    sin   x ,
  
where    ,  and x  [1, 1] .
 2 2

1. Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions.

(1) Meaning of inverse function

(i) sin   x  sin1 x  

(ii) cos   x  cos 1 x  

(iii) tan   x  tan 1 x  

(iv) cot   x  cot 1 x  

(v) sec   x  sec 1 x  

(vi) cosec   x  cosec 1 x  

(2) Domain and range of inverse functions Y (1, /2)

(i) If sin y  x , then y  sin 1 x , under certain condition.

y = sin–1x
 1  sin y  1; but sin y  x .  1  x  1
O
 
Again, sin y  1  y   and sin y  1  y  .
2 2
(–1, –/2)

 
Keeping in mind numerically smallest angles or real numbers.   y
2 2
2
These restrictions on the values of x and y provide us with the domain and range for the function
y  sin 1 x .
i.e., Domain : x  [1, 1]
  
Range: y   , 
 2 2

Y
(ii) Let cos y  x , then y  cos 1
x , under certain conditions  1  cos y  1 (–1, /2)

 1  x  1
cos y  1  y   y = cos–1x
X
cos y  1  y  0 O (1, 0)

 0  y   {as cos x is a decreasing function in [ 0,  ];

Hence cos   cos y  cos 0

These restrictions on the values of x and y provide us the domain and range for the function y  cos 1 x .
i.e. Domain: x  [1, 1]
Range: y  [0,  ]

(iii) If tan y  x , then y  tan 1 x , under certain conditions. y

  y = 2
Here, tan y  R  x  R ,    tan y     y
2 2
Thus, Domain x  R ; O x

  
Range y    , 
 2 2 y = –/2 y = tan–1x

(iv) If cot y  x , then y  cot 1 x

Under certain conditions, cot y  R  x  R;
y=
   cot y    0  y  
These conditions on x and y make the function, cot y  x one-one and onto so (0, /2)

that the inverse function exists. i.e., y  cot 1 x is meaningful. x

y = cot–1x
 Domain : x  R
Range : y  (0,  )

3
 
(v) If sec y  x , then y  sec 1 x , where | x |  1 and 0  y   , y 
2 (–1,)

Here, Domain: x  R  (1, 1)

y = /2
x
 
Range: y  [0,  ]   
2
(1,0)
y = sec–1x

y
(vi) If cosec y  x , then y  cosec 1 x
  (1, /2)
Where | x |  1 and  y ,y  0
2 2
Here, Domain  R  (1, 1) x

  
Range   ,   {0} (–1, –) O y = cosec–1x
 2 2

Function Domain (D) Range (R)

sin 1
x 1  x  1 or [1, 1]     
   or  , 
2 2  2 2
cos1 x 1  x  1 or [1, 1] 0     or [0,  ]

tan 1 x   x   i.e., x  R or (, )     

   or   , 
2 2  2 2
cot 1 x   x   i.e., x  R or (, ) 0     or (0,  )
sec 1
x x  1, x  1 or (,  1]  [1, )      
 , 0     or 0,    ,  
2 2 
2   
cosec 1 x x  1, x  1 or (,  1]  [1, )       
  0,    or  , 0    0, 
2 2  2   2

 
(3) sin 1 (sin )   , Provided that    ,
2 2
cos 1 (cos )   , Provided that 0    
 
tan 1 (tan )   , Provided that    ,
2 2
cot 1 (cot )   , Provided that 0    
 
sec 1 (sec  )   , Provided that 0    or  
2 2
 
cosec 1 (cosec  )   , Provided that     0 or 0   
2 2

4
(4) sin(sin 1 x )  x , Provided that  1  x  1 ,
cos(cos1 x )  x , Provided that  1  x  1
tan (tan 1 x )  x , Provided that    x  
cot(cot1 x )  x , Provided that    x  
sec(sec 1 x )  x , Provided that    x  1 or 1  x  
cosec (cosec –1 x )  x , Provided that    x  1 or 1  x  

(5) sin 1 ( x )   sin 1 x

cos 1 ( x )    cos 1 x ,
tan 1 ( x )   tan 1 x
cot 1 ( x )    cot 1 x
sec 1 ( x )    sec 1 x
cosec 1 ( x )  cosec –1 x


(6) sin 1 x  cos 1 x  , for all x  [1, 1]
2

tan 1 x  cot 1 x  , for all x  R
2

sec 1 x  cosec -1 x  , for all x  (,  1]  [1, )
2

Important Tips

 Here; sin1 x , cosec 1 x , tan 1 x belong to I and IV Quadrant. /2

 Here; cos1 x , sec 1 x , cot 1 x belong to I and II Quadrant. I II I

 I Quadrant is common to all the inverse functions.  0

 III Quadrant is not used in inverse function. IV


 IV Quadrant is used in the clockwise direction i.e.,  y0 –
2

5
(7) Principal values for inverse circular functions

Principal values for x  0 Principal values for x  0

 
0  sin 1 x    sin 1 x  0
2 2
 
0  cos 1 x   cos 1 x  
2 2
 
0  tan 1 x    tan 1 x  0
2 2
 
0  cot 1 x   cot 1 x  
2 2
 
0  sec 1 x   sec 1 x  
2 2
 
0  cosec 1 x    cosec 1 x  0
2 2

1  5  1  2 4  2 3
Thus sin 1    , not ; cos 1     not ; tan 1 ( 3 )   not ; cot 1 (1)  not
2 6 6  2 3 3 3 3 4

 etc.
4

Note: sin 1 x , cos 1 x , tan 1 x are also written as arc sin x , arc cos x and arc tan x respectively.
It should be noted that if not otherwise stated only principal values of inverse circular functions are to be
considered.

1 1
(8) Conversion property : Let, sin 1 x  y  x  sin y  cosec y     y  cosec –1  
x x
1 x2  
sin 1 x  cos 1 1  x 2  tan 1
x
 cot 1  sec 1 
1   cosec –1  1 
  x
1 x2 x  1x
2

 1 x2     
cos 1 x  sin 1 1  x 2  tan 1    sec 1 1  cosec –1  1   cot 1  x 
     
x x  1x   1x 
2 2
 
     
  cot 1  1   sec 1 1  x 2  cosec 1  1  x
2
tan 1 x  sin 1 
x   cos1  1 
    x  
 1 x   1 x  x
2 2
 

6
 1
Note: sin 1  1
  cosec x , for all x  (,1]  [1, )
 
x
1
1 
1
cos    sec 1 x , for all x  (, 1] [1, ) x
x
 1   cot x ,
1
for x  0
tan 1     1  – x2
 x     cot x , for x  0

(9) General values of inverse circular functions:

is x, then all the angles whose sine is x can be written as nx  (1)n  , where n  0, 1, 2,..... Therefore, the
general value of sin 1 x can be taken as n  (1)n  . The general value of sin 1 x is denoted by sin 1 x .
π π
Thus, we have sin 1 x  nπ  (1)n α,  1  x  1, if sin α  x and  α
2 2

Similarly, general values of other inverse circular functions are given as follows:

cos 1 x  2n   ,  1  x  1 ; If cos   x , 0    

 
tan 1 x  n  , x  R ; If tan   x,   
2 2
cot 1
x  n   , x  R ; If cot   x , 0    

sec 1 x  2n   , x  1 or x  1 ; If sec   x , 0     and 
2
 
cosec 1 x  n  (1)n, x  1 or x  1 ; If cosec   x ,    and x  0
2 2

2. Formulae for Sum and Difference of Inverse Trigonometric Function.

 x y 
(1) tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1   ; If x  0, y  0 and xy  1
 1  xy 
 x y 
(2) tan 1 x  tan 1 y    tan 1   ; If x  0, y  0 and xy  1
 1  xy 
 x y 
(3) tan 1 x  tan 1 y    tan 1   ; If x  0, y  0 and xy  1
 1  xy 

7
  x y 
(4) tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1   ; If xy  1
 1  xy 
 x y 
(5) tan 1  tan 1 y    tan 1   ; If x  0, y  0 and xy  1
 1  xy 
 x y 
(6) tan 1 x  tan 1 y    tan 1   ; If x  0, y  0 and xy  1
 1  xy 
 x  y  z  xyz 
(7) tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1 z  tan 1  
1  xy  yz  zx 
 S  S 3  S 5  .......... . 
(8) tan 1 x 1  tan 1 x 2  ..........  tan 1 x n  tan 1  1  ,
1  S 2  S 4  S 6  ........ 

Where S k denotes the sum of the products of x 1 , x 2 ,........, x n taken k at a time.

xy  1
(9) cot 1 x  cot 1 y  cot 1
yx
xy  1
(10) cot 1 x  cot 1 y  cot 1
yx

(11) sin 1 x  sin 1 y  sin 1 {x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 } ;

If  1  x , y  1 and x 2  y 2  1 or if xy  0 and x 2  y 2  1

(12) sin 1 x  sin 1 y    sin 1 {x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 }, If 0  x , y  1 and x 2  y 2  1

(13) sin 1 x  sin 1 y    sin 1 {x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 }, If  1  x ; y  0 and x 2  y 2  1

(14) sin 1 x  sin 1 y  sin 1 {x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 }, If  1  x ; y  1 and x 2  y 2  1 if or xy  0 and

x 2  y 2  1.

(15) sin 1 x  sin 1 y    sin 1 {x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 }, If 0  x  1,  1  y  0 and x 2  y 2  1 .

(16) sin 1 x  sin 1 y    sin 1 {x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 }, If  1  x  0, 0  y  1 and x 2  y 2  1 .

8
(17) cos 1 x  cos 1 y  cos 1 {xy  1  x 2 . 1  y 2 } , If  1  x , y  1 and x  y  0 .

(18) cos 1 x  cos 1 y  2  cos 1 {xy  1  x 2 1  y 2 } , If  1  x , y  1 and x  y  0

(19) cos 1 x  cos 1 y  cos 1 {xy  1  x 2 1  y 2 }, If  1  x , y  1, and x  y .

(20) cos 1 x  cos 1 y   cos 1 {xy  1  x 2 1  y 2 }, If  1  y  0, 0  x  1 and x  y .

Important Tips

 If tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1 z  , then xy  yz  zx  1 .
2

 If tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1 z   , then x  y  z  xyz .


 If sin1 x  sin1 y  sin1 z  , then x 2  y 2  z 2  2 xyz  1 .
2

 If sin1 x  sin1 y  sin1 z   , then x 1  x 2  y 1  y 2  z 1  z 2  2 xyz .

 If cos 1 x  cos 1 y  cos 1 z  3 , then xy  yz  zx  3 .
 If cos 1 x  cos 1 y  cos 1 z   , then x 2  y 2  z 2  2 xyz  1 .
3
 If sin1 x  sin1 y  sin1 z  , then xy  yz  zx  3 .
2

 If sin1 x  sin1 y   , then cos 1 x  cos 1 y     .

 If cos 1 x  cos 1 y   , then sin1 x  sin1 y     .

 If tan 1 x  tan 1 y  , then xy  1 .
2

 If cot 1 x  cot 1 y  , then xy  1 .
2

x 2 2 xy y2
If cos 1 then .
x y
  cos 1   , 2
 cos   2  sin2 
a b a ab b

9
3. Inverse Trigonometric Ratios of Multiple Angles.
1 1
(1) 2 sin 1 x  sin 1 (2 x 1  x 2 ) , If  x
2 2

1
(2) 2 sin 1 x    sin 1 (2 x 1  x 2 ), If  x 1
2

1
(3) 2 sin 1 x    sin 1 (2 x 1  x 2 ) , If  1  x 
2

1 1
(4) 3 sin 1 x  sin 1 (3 x  4 x 3 ), If x
2 2

1
(5) 3 sin 1 x    sin 1 (3 x  4 x 3 ) , If  x 1
2

1
(6) 3 sin 1 x    sin 1 (3 x  4 x 3 ), If  1  x  
2

(7) 2 cos 1 x  cos 1 (2 x 2  1) , If 0  x  1

(8) 2 cos 1 x  2  cos 1 (2 x 2  1) , if  1  x  0

1
(9) 3 cos 1 x  cos 1 (4 x 3  3 x ) If  x 1
2

1 1
(10) 3 cos 1 x  2  cos 1 (4 x 3  3 x ) , If  x
2 2
1
(11) 3 cos 1 x  2  cos 1 (4 x 3  3 x ) , If  1  x  
2

 2x 
(12) 2 tan 1 x  tan 1   , if  1  x  1
1  x 2 

 2x 
(13) 2 tan 1 x    tan 1   , If x  1
1  x 
2

10
  2x 
(14) 2 tan 1 x    tan 1   , If x  1
1  x 
2

 2x 
(15) 2 tan 1 x  sin 1   , If  1  x  1
1  x 
2

 2x 
(16) 2 tan 1 x    sin 1   , If x  1
1  x 
2

 2x 
(17) 2 tan 1 x    sin 1   , If x  1
1  x 
2

1  x 2 
(18) 2 tan 1 x  cos 1   , If 0  x  

1  x
2


1  x 2 
(19) 2 tan 1 x   cos 1   , If    x  0

1  x
2


 3x  x 3  1 1
(20) 3 tan 1 x  tan 1   , If
 x
 1  3x
2
 3 3

 3x  x 3  1
(21) 3 tan 1 x    tan 1   , If x 

 1  3x
2
 3

 3x  x 3  1
(22) 3 tan 1 x    tan 1   , If x  

 1  3x
2
 3

 x  x
(23) tan 1    sin 1
 a  x  a
2 2

 3a2 x  x 3  x
(24) tan 1  2 2 
 3 tan 1
 a(a  3 x )  a

 1  x2  1  x2   1
(25) tan 1     cos 1 x 2
 1  x 2  1  x 2  4 2
11
 1x 1
(26) tan 1  cos 1 x
1 x 2

12
Mathematics

Hyperbolic Functions
Table of Content

1. Definition.
2. Domain and Range of Hyperbolic Functions.
3. Graph of Real Hyperbolic Functions.
4. Formulae for Hyperbolic Functions.
5. Transformation of Hyperbolic Functions.
6. Expansion of Hyperbolic Functions.
7. Relation between Hyperbolic and Circular Functions.
8. Period of Hyperbolic Functions.
9. Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.
10. Separation of Inverse Trigonometric and Inverse
Hyperbolic Functions.

1
1. Definition.

We know that parametric co-ordinates of any point on the unit circle x 2  y 2  1 is (cos , sin  ) ; so that
these functions are called circular functions and co-ordinates of any point on unit hyperbola x 2  y 2  1
 e   e  e   e  
is  ,  i.e., (cosh  , sinh  ) . It means that the relation which exists amongst cos , sin 

 2 2 
and unit circle, that relation also exist amongst cosh  , sinh  and unit hyperbola. Because of this reason
these functions are called as Hyperbolic functions.
For any (real or complex) variable quantity x,
e x  e x
(1) sinh x  [Read as 'hyperbolic sine x']
2
e x  e x
(2) cosh x  [Read as 'hyperbolic cosine x']
2
sinh x e x  e  x
(3) tanh x  
cosh x e x  e  x
cosh x e x  e  x
(4) coth x  
sinh x e x  e  x
1 2
(5) cosech x   x
sinh x e  e  x
1 2
(6) sec h x   x
cosh x e  e  x

Note: sinh 0  0, cosh 0  1, tanh 0  0

2
2. Domain and Range of Hyperbolic Functions.

Let x is any real number

Function Domain Range

sinh x R R

cosh x R [1, )

tanh x R (1, 1)

coth x R0 R  [1, 1]

sech x R (0, 1]

cosech x R0 R0

3. Graph of Real Hyperbolic Functions.

(1) sinh x Y (2) cosh x

Y
(0, 1)
X X
O O

(3) tanh x Y (4) coth x Y

Y=1 y =1

O
X O X

y = –1
Y = –1

3
 Y Y

(5) cosech x (6) sech x

(0, 1)

O X O
X

4. Formulae for Hyperbolic Functions.

The following formulae can easily be established directly from above definitions

(1) Reciprocal formulae

1 1 1
(i) cosech x  (ii) sech x  (iii) coth x 
sinh x cosh x tanh x
sinh x cosh x
(iv) tanh x  (v) coth x 
cosh x sinh x

(2) Square formulae

(i) cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1 (ii) sec h 2 x  tanh 2 x  1
(iii) coth2 x  cosech 2 x  1 (iv) cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  cosh 2 x

(3) Expansion or Sum and difference formulae

(i) sinh(x  y)  sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y (ii) cosh (x  y)  cosh x cosh y  sinh x sinh y
tanh x  tanh y
(iii) tanh (x  y) 
1  tanh x tanh y

4
(4) Formulae to transform the product into sum or difference

xy x y
(i) sinh x  sinh y  2 sinh cosh
2 2

xy x y
(ii) sinh x  sinh y  2 cos h sin h
2 2

xy x y
(iii) cosh x  cosh y  2 cosh cosh
2 2

xy x y
(iv) cosh x  cosh y  2 sinh sinh
2 2

(v) 2 sinh x cosh y  sinh (x  y)  sinh (x  y)

(vi) 2 cosh x sinh y  sinh (x  y)  sinh (x  y)

(vii) 2 cosh x cosh y  cosh (x  y)  cosh (x  y)

(viii) 2 sinh x sinh y  cosh (x  y)  cosh (x  y)

(ix) cosh x  sinh x  e x

(x) cosh x  sinh x  e  x

(xi) (cosh x  sinh x )n  cosh nx  sinh nx

(5) Trigonometric ratio of multiple of an angle

2 tanh x
(i) sinh 2 x  2 sinh x cosh x =
1  tanh 2 x

1  tanh 2 x
(ii) cosh 2 x  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x = 2 cosh 2 x  1 = 1  2 sinh 2 x =
1  tanh 2 x

(iii) 2 cosh 2 x  cosh 2 x  1

(iv) 2 sinh 2 x  cosh 2 x  1

2 tanh x
(v) tanh 2 x 
1  tanh 2 x

(vi) sinh 3 x  3 sinh x  4 sinh 3 x

5
(vii) cosh 3 x  4 cosh 3 x  3 cosh x

3 tanh x  tanh 3 x
(viii) tanh 3 x 
1  3 tanh 2 x

(6)

(i) cosh x  sinh x  e x

(ii) cosh x  sinh x  e  x

(iii) (cosh x  sinh x )n  cosh nx  sinh nx

5. Transformation of a Hyperbolic Functions.

Since, cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1

1  sec h 2 x
 sinh x  cosh x  1 2
 sinh x 
sec h x

tanh x 1
 sinh x   sinh x 
1  tanh x 2
coth 2 x  1
1
Also, sinh x 
cosech x

In a similar manner we can express cosh x , tanh x , coth x ,................ in terms of other hyperbolic functions.

6
6. Expansion of Hyperbolic Functions.

e x  e x x3 x5 x7
(1) sinh x  x    ....
2 3! 5! 7!

e x  e x x2 x4 x6
(2) cosh x  1     ....
2 2! 4 ! 6!

e x  e x x3 17 7
(3) tanh x  x
 x   2x5  x  .....
e e
x
3 315
The expansion of coth x , cosech x does not exist because coth (0)  , cosech (0)   .

7. Relation between Hyperbolic and Circular Functions.

We have from Euler formulae,

e ix  cos x  i sin x ........(i) and e ix  cos x  i sin x ........(ii)
e ix  e ix
Adding (i) and (ii)  cos x 
2
e ix  e ix
Subtracting (ii) from (i)  sin x 
2i
e x  e x
Replacing x by ix in these values, we get cos(ix)   cosh x
2
 cos(ix)  cosh x

e x  e x  e x  e x 
sin(ix)   i  

2i  2 
 sin(ix)  i sinh x

sin(ix) i sinh x
Also tan(ix)  
cos(ix) cosh x
tan(ix)  i tanh x

7
 e ix  e ix
Similarly replacing x by ix in the definitions of sinh x and cosh x , we get cosh (ix)   cos x
2
sinh (ix) i sin x
Also, tanh (ix)    i tan x
cosh (ix) cos x

Thus, we obtain the following relations between hyperbolic and trigonometrical functions.

(1) sin(ix)  i sinh x (2) cos(ix)  cosh x

sinh (ix)  i sin x cosh(ix)  cos x
sinh x  i sin(ix) cosh x  cos (ix)
sin x  i sin h (ix) cos x  cos h (ix)

(3) tan(ix)  i tanh x (4) cot(ix)  i coth x

tanh(ix)  i tan x coth(ix)  i cot x
tanh x  i tan(ix) coth x  i cot(ix)
tan x  i tanh (ix) cot x  i coth(ix)
(5) sec(ix)  sechx (6) cosec (ix)  i cosech x
sec h(ix)  sec x cosech (ix)  i cosec x
sec hx  sec(ix) cosech x  i cosec (ix)
sec x  sech(ix) cosec x  i cosech (ix)

Important Tips
 For obtaining any formula given in (5)th article, use the following substitutions in the corresponding
formula for trigonometric functions.
sin x  i sinh x cos x  cosh x tan x  i tanh x

sin2 x   sinh2 x cos 2 x  cosh2 x tan 2 x   tanh 2 x

For example,
For finding out the formula for cosh 2 x in terms of tanh x , replace tan x by i tanh x and tan 2 x by tan 2 x by
 tanh 2 x in the following formula of trigonometric function of cos 2 x :
1  tan 2 x 1  tanh 2 x
cos 2 x  we get, cosh 2 x 
1  tan x
2
1  tanh 2 x

8
8. Period of Hyperbolic Functions.

If for any function f (x ), f (x  T )  f (x ), then f (x ) is called the Periodic function and least positive value of T
is called the Period of the function.
 sinh x  sinh(2i  x )
cosh x  cosh(2i  x )
and tanh x  tanh(i  x )
Therefore the period of these functions are respectively 2i, 2i and i . Also period of cosech x, sech x
and coth x are respectively 2i , 2i and i .

T 
Note: Remember that if the period of f (x ) is T, then period of f (nx ) will be  .
n
Hyperbolic function are neither periodic functions nor their curves are periodic but they show the algebraic
properties of periodic functions and having imaginary period.

9. Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.

If sinh y  x , then y is called the inverse hyperbolic sine of x and it is written as y  sinh 1 x . Similarly
cosech 1 x , cosh 1 x , tanh 1 x etc. can be defined.

(1) Domain and range of Inverse hyperbolic function

Function Domain Range

sinh 1
x R R

cosh 1 x [1, ) R

tanh 1 x (1, 1) R

coth1 x R – [–1, 1] R0

sech 1 x (0, 1] R

cosech 1 x R0 R0

9
(2) Relation between inverse hyperbolic function and inverse circular function
Method: Let sinh 1 x  y
 x  sinh y =  i sin(iy)  ix  sin(iy)  iy  sin 1 (ix)
 y  i sin 1 (ix)  sinh 1 x  i sin 1 (ix)

Therefore we get the following relations

(i) sinh 1 x  i sin 1 (ix)
(ii) cosh 1 x  i cos1 x
(iii) tanh 1 x  i tan 1 (ix)
(iv) sec h 1 x  i sec 1 x
(v) cosech –1 x  i cosec 1 (ix)

(3) To express any one inverse hyperbolic function in terms of the other inverse hyperbolic
functions
To express sinh 1 x in terms of the others
1 1
(i) Let sinh 1 x  y  x  sinh y  cosech y   y  cosec 1  
x x

(ii)  cosh y  1  sinh 2 y  1  x 2

 y  cosh 1 1  x 2  sinh 1 x  cosh 1 1  x 2

sinh y sinh y x
(iii)  tanh y   =
cosh y 1  sinh 2 y 1  x2

x x
 y  tanh 1  sinh 1 x  tanh 1
1 x 2
1  x2

1  sinh 2 y 1 x2
(iv)  coth y  
sinh y x

1 x2 1 x2
 y  coth1  sinh 1 x  coth1
x x

1 1 1
(v)  sec h y   
cosh y 1  sinh 2 y 1 x2

10
 1 1
y  sec h 1  sinh 1 x  sec h 1
1 x2 1 x2

1
(vi) Also, sinh 1 x  cosech 1  
x

From the above, it is clear that

1
coth1 x  tanh 1  
x

1
sec h 1 x  cosh 1  
x

1
cosech 1  sinh 1  
x

Note: If x is real then all the above six inverse functions are single valued.

(4) Relation between inverse hyperbolic functions and logarithmic functions

Method:

Let sinh 1 x  y

e y  e y 2x  4 x 2  4
 x  sinh y   e 2 y  2 xe y  1  0  e y   x  x2 1
2 2
But e y  0, y and x  x 2  1

 ey  x  x 2  1  y  log(x  x 2  1 )

 sinh 1 x  log(x  x 2  1 )

By the above method we can obtain the following relations between inverse hyperbolic functions and
principal values of logarithmic functions.
(i) sinh 1 x  log(x  x 2  1 ) (  x  )

(ii) cosh 1 x  log(x  x 2  1 ) (x  1)

11
 1 1  x 
(iii) tanh 1 x  log  | x|1
2 1  x 

1  x 1
(iv) coth1 x  log  | x|1
2  x 1 
1  1  x2 
(v) sec h 1 x  log  0  x 1
 x 
 
1  1  x2 
(vi) cosech 1 x  log  (x  0)
 x 
 

1
Note: Formulae for values of cosech –1 x , sec h –1 x and coth1 x may be obtained by replacing x by in the
x
values of sinh 1 x , cosh 1 x and tanh 1 x respectively.

10. Separation of Inverse Trigonometric and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.

If sin(  i ) = x  iy then (  i ) , is called the inverse sine of (x  iy) . We can write it as,

sin 1 (x  iy)    i

Here the following results for inverse functions may be easily established.
(1)

cos 1 (x 2  y 2 )  (1  x 2  y 2 ) 2  4 x 2 y 2   cosh 1 (x 2  y 2 )  (1  x 2  y 2 ) 2  4 x 2 y 2 

1 i
cos 1 (x  iy) 
2 
 
 2  


(2) sin 1 (x  iy)   cos 1 (x  iy)
2

cos 1 (x 2  y 2 )  (1  x 2  y 2 ) 2  4 x 2 y 2   cosh 1 (x 2  y 2 )  (1  x 2  y 2 ) 2  4 x 2 y 2 
1 i
= 
 
2 2   2  

1  2x  i  2y  1  2x  i  x 2  (1  y )2 
(3) tan 1 (x  iy)  tan 1    tanh 1 
2 
 = tan 1    log 2 2
1  x  y  2 1  x  y 1  x  y  x  (1  y ) 
2 2 2 2 2
2  2  4

12
(4) sin 1 (cos  i sin  )  cos 1 ( sin  )  i sinh 1 ( sin  ) or cos 1 ( sin  )  i log( sin   1  sin  )

(5) cos 1 (cos  i sin  )  sin 1 ( sin  )  i sinh 1 ( sin  ) or sin 1 ( sin  )  i log( sin   1  sin  )

 i  1  sin  
(6) tan 1 (cos  i sin  )   log  , (cos )  0
4 4  1  sin  
  1  1  sin  
and tan 1 (cos  i sin  )      log  , (cos )  0
 4 4  1  sin  
Since each inverse hyperbolic function can be expressed in terms of logarithmic function, therefore for
separation into real and imaginary parts of inverse hyperbolic function of complex quantities use the
appropriate method.

Note: Both inverse circular and inverse hyperbolic functions are many valued.

13
Mathematics

Probability
Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Definitions of various terms.
3. Classical definition of probability.
4. Some important remarks about coins, dice, playing cards.
5. Problems based on combination and permutation.
6. Odds in favor and odds against an event.
7. Addition theorems on probability.
8. Conditional probability.
9. Total probability and Baye's rule.
10. Binomial distribution.

1
1. Introduction.

Numerical study of chances of occurrence of events is dealt in probability theory.

The theory of probability is applied in many diverse fields and the flexibility of the theory provides
approximate tools for so great a variety of needs.
There are two approaches to probability viz. (i) Classical approach and (ii) Axiomatic approach.
In both the approaches we use the term ‘experiment’, which means an operation which can produce
some well-defined outcome(s). There are two types of experiments:

(1) Deterministic experiment: Those experiments which when repeated under identical conditions
produce the same result or outcome are known as deterministic experiments. When experiments in
science or engineering are repeated under identical conditions, we get almost the same result everytime.

(2) Random experiment: If an experiment, when repeated under identical conditions, do not produce
the same outcome every time but the outcome in a trial is one of the several possible outcomes then
such an experiment is known as a probabilistic experiment or a random experiment.
In a random experiment, all the outcomes are known in advance but the exact outcome is unpredictable.
For example, in tossing of a coin, it is known that either a head or a tail will occur but one is not sure if a
head or a tail will be obtained. So it is a random experiment.

2. Definitions of Various Terms.

(1) Sample space: The set of all possible outcomes of a trial (random experiment) is called its sample
space. It is generally denoted by S and each outcome of the trial is said to be a sample point.

Example: (i) If a dice is thrown once, then its sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(ii) If two coins are tossed together then its sample space is S = {HT, TH, HH, TT}.

2
(2) Event: An event is a subset of a sample space.

(i) Simple event: An event containing only a single sample point is called an elementary or simple event.
Example: In a single toss of coin, the event of getting a head is a simple event.
Here S = {H, T} and E = {H}

(ii) Compound events: Events obtained by combining together two or more elementary events are
known as the compound events or decomposable events.
For example, In a single throw of a pair of dice the event of getting a doublet, is a compound event
because this event occurs if any one of the elementary events (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6) occurs.

(iii) Equally likely events: Events are equally likely if there is no reason for an event to occur in
preference to any other event.
Example: If an unbiased die is rolled, then each outcome is equally likely to happen i.e., all elementary
events are equally likely.

(iv) Mutually exclusive or disjoint events: Events are said to be mutually exclusive or disjoint or
incompatible if the occurrence of any one of them prevents the occurrence of all the others.
Example: E = getting an even number, F = getting an odd number, these two events are mutually
exclusive, because, if E occurs we say that the number obtained is even and so it cannot be odd i.e., F
does not occur.
A1 and A2 are mutually exclusive events if A1  A 2   .

(v) Mutually non-exclusive events: The events which are not mutually exclusive are known as
compatible events or mutually nonexclusive events.

(vi) Independent events: Events are said to be independent if the happening (or non-happening) of one
event is not affected by the happening (or non-happening) of others.
Example: If two dice are thrown together, then getting an even number on first is independent to getting
an odd number on the second.

(vii) Dependent events: Two or more events are said to be dependent if the happening of one event
affects (partially or totally) other event.
Example: Suppose a bag contains 5 white and 4 black balls. Two balls are drawn one by one. Then two
events that the first ball is white and second ball is black are independent if the first ball is replaced

3
before drawing the second ball. If the first ball is not replaced then these two events will be dependent
because second draw will have only 8 exhaustive cases.

(3) Exhaustive number of cases: The total number of possible outcomes of a random experiment in a
trial is known as the exhaustive number of cases.
Example : In throwing a die the exhaustive number of cases is 6, since any one of the six faces marked
with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 may come uppermost.

(4) Favourable number of cases: The number of cases favourable to an event in a trial is the total
number of elementary events such that the occurrence of any one of them ensures the happening of the
event.
Example : In drawing two cards from a pack of 52 cards, the number of cases favourable to drawing 2 queens is
4
C2 .

(5) Mutually exclusive and exhaustive system of events: Let S be the sample space associated with a
random experiment. Let A1, A2, …..An be subsets of S such that
(i) Ai  A j   for i  j and (ii) A1  A 2  ....  An  S

Then the collection of events A1 , A 2 , ....., An is said to form a mutually exclusive and exhaustive system of
events.
If E1 , E 2 , ....., En are elementary events associated with a random experiment, then
(i) Ei  E j   for i  j and (ii) E1  E 2  ....  En  S

So, the collection of elementary events associated with a random experiment always form a system of
mutually exclusive and exhaustive system of events.
In this system, P( A1  A 2 .......  An )  P( A1 )  P( A 2 )  .....  P( An )  1 .

Important Tips
 Independent events are always taken from different experiments, while mutually exclusive events
are taken from a single experiment.
 Independent events can happen together while mutually exclusive events cannot happen
together.
 Independent events are connected by the word “and” but mutually exclusive events are
connected by the word “or”.

4
3. Classical definition of Probability.

If a random experiment results in n mutually exclusive, equally likely and exhaustive outcomes, out of
which m are favorable to the occurrence of an event A, then the probability of occurrence of A is given
by
m Number of outcomes favourable to A
P( A)  
n Number of totaloutcomes
It is obvious that 0 ≤ m ≤ n. If an event A is certain to happen, then m = n, thus P(A) = 1.
If A is impossible to happen, then m = 0 and so P(A) = 0. Hence we conclude that
0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1.
Further, if A denotes negative of A i.e. event that A doesn’t happen, then for above cases m, n; we shall
have
n m m
P( A )   1   1  P( A)
n n
 P( A)  P( A )  1 .

Notations: For two events A and B,

(i) A or A or AC stands for the non-occurrence or negation of A.
(ii) A  B stands for the occurrence of at least one of A and B.
(iii) A  B stands for the simultaneous occurrence of A and B.
(iv) A  B stands for the non-occurrence of both A and B.
(v) A  B stands for “the occurrence of A implies occurrence of B”.

4. Some important remarks about Coins, Dice, Playing cards and Envelopes.

(1) Coins: A coin has a head side and a tail side. If an experiment consists of more than a coin, then coins
are considered to be distinct if not otherwise stated.
Number of exhaustive cases of tossing n coins simultaneously (or of tossing a coin n times) = 2n.

(2) Dice: A die (cubical) has six faces marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. We may have tetrahedral (having four faces 1,
2, 3, 4) or pentagonal (having five faces 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) die. As in the case of coins, if we have more than one
die, then all dice are considered to be distinct if not otherwise stated.
Number of exhaustive cases of throwing n dice simultaneously (or throwing one dice n times) = 6n.
(3) Playing cards: A pack of playing cards usually has 52 cards. There are 4 suits (Spade, Heart, Diamond
and Club) each having 13 cards. There are two colours red (Heart and Diamond) and black (Spade and
Club) each having 26 cards.

5
In thirteen cards of each suit, there are 3 face cards or coart cards namely king, queen and jack. So there
are in all 12 face cards (4 kings, 4 queens and 4 jacks). Also there are 16 honour cards, 4 of each suit
namely ace, king, queen and jack.

(4) Probability regarding n letters and their envelopes: If n letters corresponding to n envelopes are
placed in the envelopes at random, then
1
(i) Probability that all letters are in right envelopes  .
n!
1
(ii) Probability that all letters are not in right envelopes  1  .
n!
1 1 1 1
(iii) Probability that no letter is in right envelopes     ...  (1)n .
2! 3! 4 ! n!
1 1 1 1 1 
(iv) Probability that exactly r letters are in right envelopes      .....  (1)n  r .
r!  2! 3! 4 ! (n  r)!

5. Problems based on Combination and Permutation.

n!
(1) Problems based on combination or selection: To solve such kind of problems, we use n C r  .
r!(n  r)!

(2) Problems based on permutation or arrangement: To solve such kind of problems, we use
n!
n
Pr  .
(n  r)!

6. Odds In favor and Odds against an Event.

As a result of an experiment if “a” of the outcomes are favorable to an event E and “b” of the outcomes
are against it, then we say that odds are a to b in favor of E or odds are b to a against E.
Number of favourable cases a a /(a  b) P(E)
Thus odds in favour of an event E     .
Number of unfavourab le cases b b /(a  b) P(E )
Number of unfavourab le cases b P(E )
Similarly, odds against an event E    .
Number of favourable cases a P(E)

6
Important Tips
 If odds in favour of an event are a : b, then the probability of the occurrence of that event is
a b
and the probability of non-occurrence of that event is .
ab ab
b
 If odds against an event are a : b, then the probability of the occurrence of that event is
ab
a
and the probability of non-occurrence of that event is .
ab

7. Addition Theorems on Probability.

Notations: (i) P( A  B) or P( A  B) = Probability of happening of A or B

= Probability of happening of the events A or B or both
= Probability of occurrence of at least one event A or B
(ii) P(AB) or P(AB) = Probability of happening of events A and B together.

(1) When events are not mutually exclusive: If A and B are two events which are not mutually
exclusive, then P( A  B)  P( A)  P(B)  P( A  B) or P( A  B)  P( A)  P(B)  P( AB) .

For any three events A, B, C

P( A  B  C)  P( A)  P(B)  P(C)  P( A  B)  P(B  C)  P(C  A)  P( A  B  C)
or P( A  B  C)  P( A)  P(B)  P(C)  P( AB)  P(BC)  P(CA )  P( ABC ) .

(2) When events are mutually exclusive: If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then
n( A  B)  0  P( A  B)  0
 P( A  B)  P( A)  P(B) .
For any three events A, B, C which are mutually exclusive,
P( A  B)  P(B  C)  P(C  A)  P( A  B  C) = 0  P( A  B  C)  P( A)  P(B)  P(C) .
The probability of happening of any one of several mutually exclusive events is equal to the sum of their
probabilities, i.e. if A1 , A 2 ..... An are mutually exclusive events, then

 A )   P(A ) .
P( A1  A 2  ...  An )  P( A1 )  P( A 2 )  .....  P( An ) i.e. P( i i

7
(3) When events are independent: If A and B are independent events, then P( A  B)  P( A).P(B)
 P( A  B)  P( A)  P(B)  P( A).P(B) .

(4) Some other theorems

(i) Let A and B be two events associated with a random experiment, then
(a) P( A  B)  P(B)  P( A  B) (b) P( A  B )  P( A)  P( A  B)

If B  A, then
(a) P( A  B )  P( A)  P(B) (b) P(B)  P( A)

Similarly if A  B, then
(a) ( A  B)  P(B)  P( A) (b) P( A)  P(B) .

Note: Probability of occurrence of neither A nor B is P( A  B )  P( A  B)  1  P( A  B) .

(ii) Generalization of the addition theorem: If A1 , A 2 ,....., An are n events associated with a random
experiment, then
 n  n n n
P  Ai  
  P( A )   P( A
i i  Aj)   P( A i  A j  Ak )  ...  (1)n 1 P( A1  A 2  .....  An ) .
 i1  i1 i, j1 i, j, k 1
i j i jk

 n  n
If all the events Ai (i  1, 2..., n) are mutually exclusive, then P  Ai     P( A ) i
 i1  i1

i.e. P( A1  A 2  ....  An )  P( A1 )  P( A 2 )  ....  P( An ) .

(iii) Booley’s inequality: If A1 , A 2 , .... An are n events associated with a random experiment, then
 n  n  n  n
(a) P  Ai  
  P( A )  (n  1)
i (b) P  A i  
  P( A ) i
 i1  i1  i1  i1

These results can be easily established by using the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
Important Tips
Let A, B, and C are three arbitrary events. Then

8
 Verbal description of event Equivalent Set Theoretic Notation
(i) Only A occurs (i) A  B  C
(ii) Both A and B, but not C occur (ii) A  B  C
(iii) All the three events occur (iii) A  B  C
(iv) At least one occurs (iv) A  B  C
(v) At least two occur (v) ( A  B)  (B  C)  (A  C)
(vi) One and no more occurs (vi) ( A  B  C ) ( A  B  C )  ( A  B  C)
(vii) Exactly two of A, B and C occur (vii) ( A  B  C ) ( A  B  C)  (A  B  C)
(viii) None occurs (viii) A  B  C  A  B  C
(ix) Not more than two occur (ix) (A  B)  (B  C)  (A  C)  ( A  B  C)
(x) Exactly one of A and B occurs (x) ( A  B )  ( A  B)

8. Conditional Probability.

Let A and B be two events associated with a random experiment. Then, the probability of occurrence of
A under the condition that B has already occurred and P(B)  0, is called the conditional probability and
it is denoted by P(A/B).
Thus, P(A/B) = Probability of occurrence of A, given that B has already happened.
P( A  B) n( A  B)
  .
P ( B) n(B)

Similarly, P(B/A) = Probability of occurrence of B, given that A has already happened.

P( A  B) n( A  B)
  .
P( A) n( A)

Note: Sometimes, P(A/B) is also used to denote the probability of occurrence of A when B occurs. Similarly, P(B/A)
is used to denote the probability of occurrence of B when A occurs.

(1) Multiplication theorems on probability

(i) If A and B are two events associated with a random experiment, then P( A  B)  P( A) . P(B / A) , if P(A)
 0 or P( A  B)  P(B) . P( A / B) , if P(B)  0.

9
(ii) Extension of multiplication theorem: If A1 , A 2 , ...., An are n events related to a random experiment,
then P( A1  A 2  A3  ....  An )  P( A1 )P( A 2 / A1 )P( A3 / A1  A 2 )....P( An / A1  A 2  ...  An1 ) ,
Where P( Ai / A1  A 2  ...  Ai1 ) represents the conditional probability of the event A i , given that the
events A1 , A 2 , ....., Ai1 have already happened.

(iii) Multiplication theorems for independent events: If A and B are independent events associated
with a random experiment, then P( A  B)  P( A) . P(B) i.e., the probability of simultaneous occurrence of
two independent events is equal to the product of their probabilities.
By multiplication theorem, we have P( A  B)  P( A) . P(B / A) .
Since A and B are independent events, therefore P(B / A)  P(B) . Hence, P( A  B)  P( A) . P(B) .

(iv) Extension of multiplication theorem for independent events: If A1 , A 2 , ...., An are independent
events associated with a random experiment, then P( A1  A 2  A3  ...  An )  P( A1 )P( A 2 )...P( An ) .
By multiplication theorem, we have
P( A1  A 2  A3  ...  An )  P( A1 )P( A 2 / A1 )P( A3 / A1  A 2 )...P( An / A1  A 2  ...  An 1 )
Since A1 , A 2 , ...., An 1 , An are independent events, therefore
P( A 2 / A1 )  P( A 2 ), P( A3 / A1  A 2 )  P( A3 ),...., P( An / A1  A 2  ...  An 1 )  P( An )
Hence, P( A1  A2  ...  An )  P( A1 )P( A2 )....P( An ) .

(2) Probability of at least one of the n independent events: If p1 , p 2 , p 3 , ........, p n be the probabilities
of happening of n independent events A1 , A 2 , A3 , ........, An respectively, then

(i) Probability of happening none of them

 P( A1  A2  A3 ......  An )  P( A1 ).P( A2 ).P( A3 ).....P( An )  (1  p1 )(1  p 2 )(1  p 3 )....(1  p n ) .

(ii) Probability of happening at least one of them

 P( A1  A2  A3 ....  An )  1  P( A1 )P( A2 )P( A3 )....P( An )  1  (1  p1 )(1  p 2 )(1  p 3 )...(1  p n ) .

(iii) Probability of happening of first event and not happening of the remaining
 P( A1 )P( A2 )P( A3 ).....P( An )  p1 (1  p 2 )(1  p 3 ).......(1  pn )

10
9. Total Probability and Baye’s rule.

(1) The law of total probability: Let S be the sample space and let E1 , E 2 , ..... En be n mutually exclusive
and exhaustive events associated with a random experiment. If A is any event which occurs with E1 or
E 2 or …. or En, then P( A)  P(E1 ) P( A / E1 )  P(E 2 ) P( A / E 2 )  ...  P(En ) P( A / En ) .

(2) Baye’s rule: Let S be a sample space and E1 , E 2 , ..... En be n mutually exclusive events such that
n

E i  S and P(Ei )  0 for i = 1, 2, ……, n. We can think of (Ei’s as the causes that lead to the outcome
i1

of an experiment. The probabilities P(Ei), i = 1, 2, ….., n are called prior probabilities. Suppose the
experiment results in an outcome of event A, where P(A) > 0. We have to find the probability that the
observed event A was due to cause Ei, that is, we seek the conditional probability P(Ei / A) . These
P(E i ).P( A / E i )
probabilities are called posterior probabilities, given by Baye’s rule as P(E i / A)  n
.
 P( E
k 1
k ) P( A / Ek )

10. Binomial Distribution.

(1) Geometrical method for probability: When the number of points in the sample space is infinite, it
becomes difficult to apply classical definition of probability. For instance, if we are interested to find the
probability that a point selected at random from the interval [1, 6] lies either in the interval [1, 2] or [5, 6],
we cannot apply the classical definition of probability. In this case we define the probability as follows:
Measure of region A
P{x  A}  ,
Measure of the sample space S

Where measure stands for length, area or volume depending upon whether S is a one-dimensional, two-
dimensional or three-dimensional region.

(2) Probability distribution: Let S be a sample space. A random variable X is a function from the set S to
R, the set of real numbers.
{11, 12, , 16
21, 22, , 26
For example, the sample space for a throw of a pair of dice is S 
   
61, 62, , 66}

11
Let X be the sum of numbers on the dice. Then X (12)  3, X (43)  7 , etc. Also, {X = 7} is the event {61, 52,
43, 34, 25, 16}. In general, if X is a random variable defined on the sample space S and r is a real number,
then {X = r} is an event. If the random variable X takes n distinct values x 1 , x 2 , ...., x n , then { X  x 1 } ,
{X  x 2 }, ...., {X  x n } are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.

X = x3 S
X = x1
X = x2

X = x4
X = xn

Now, since (X  x i ) is an event, we can talk of P(X  x i ) . If P(X  x i )  Pi (1  i  n) , then the system of
numbers.
 x1 x2  xn 
 
 p1 p2  p n 
is said to be the probability distribution of the random variable X. The expectation (mean) of the random
n
variable X is defined as E( X )  p x
i1
i i

n n
and the variance of X is defined as var(X )  i1
p i (x i  E( X ))2  p x
i1
i
2
i  (E( X ))2 .

(3) Binomial probability distribution: A random variable X which takes values 0, 1, 2, …, n is said to
follow binomial distribution if its probability distribution function is given by
P(X  r)  n Cr p r q nr , r  0, 1, 2, ....., n
Where p, q > 0 such that p + q = 1.
The notation X ~ B(n, p) is generally used to denote that the random variable X follows binomial
distribution with parameters n and p.
We have P(X  0)  P(X  1)  ...  P(X  n)  n C0 p 0 q n0  n C1 p 1 q n1  ...  n Cn p n q nn  (q  p)n  1n  1 .

Now probability of
(a) Occurrence of the event exactly r times
P(X  r)  n C r q n r p r .
(b) Occurrence of the event at least r times
n
P( X  r)  n C r q n r p r  ...  p n  
X r
n
C X p X q n X .

(c) Occurrence of the event at the most r times

12
 r
P(0  X  r)  q n  n C 1 q n 1 p  ...  n C r q n r p r  p
X 0
X
q n X .

(iv) If the probability of happening of an event in one trial be p, then the probability of successive
happening of that event in r trials is p r .

Note: If n trials constitute an experiment and the experiment is repeated N times, then the frequencies of 0, 1, 2, …,
n successes are given by N .P(X  0), N .P(X  1), N .P(X  2),...., N .P(X  n) .

(i) Mean and variance of the binomial distribution: The binomial probability distribution is
X 0 1 2 n
P( X ) n
C0 q n p 0 n
C1q n 1 p n
C2 q n  2 p 2 ..... n Cn q 0 p n

n n
The mean of this distribution is i1
X i pi   X.
X 1
n
C X q n  X p X  np ,

the variance of the Binomial distribution is  2  npq and the standard deviation is   (npq) .
(ii) Use of multinomial expansion : If a die has m faces marked with the numbers 1, 2, 3, ….m and if
such n dice are thrown, then the probability that the sum of the numbers exhibited on the upper faces
(x  x 2  x 3  ....  x m )n
equal to p is given by the coefficient of x p in the expansion of .
mn

13
Mathematics

Correlation & Regression

Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Covariance.
3. Correlation.
4. Rank Correlation.
5. Linear regression.
6. Equations of lines of regression.
7. Angle between two lines of regression.
8. Important points about regression coefficients bxy and
byx.

1
1. Introduction.

“If it is proved true that in a large number of instances two variables tend always to fluctuate in the
same or in opposite directions, we consider that the fact is established and that a relationship exists. This
relationship is called correlation.”

(1) Univariate distribution: These are the distributions in which there is only one variable such as the
heights of the students of a class.

(2) Bivariate distribution: Distribution involving two discrete variable is called a bivariate distribution.
For example, the heights and the weights of the students of a class in a school.

(3) Bivariate frequency distribution: Let x and y be two variables. Suppose x takes the values
x 1 , x 2 ,....., x n and y takes the values y1 , y 2 ,....., yn , then we record our observations in the form of
ordered pairs (x 1 , y 1 ) , where 1  i  n,1  j  n . If a certain pair occurs fij times, we say that its frequency is
fij .
The function which assigns the frequencies fij ’s to the pairs (x i , y j ) is known as a bivariate frequency
distribution.

2. Covariance.

Let (x 1 , x i );i  1,2,....., n be a bivariate distribution, where x 1 , x 2 ,....., x n are the values of variable x and
y 1 , y 2 ,....., y n those of y. Then the covariance Cov (x, y) between x and y is given by

n n n n

   y
1 1 1 1
Cov (x , y)  (x i  x )(y i  y) or Cov (x , y )  (x i y i  x y ) where, x  x i and y  i are
n i1 n i1 n i1 n i1

means of variables x and y respectively.

Covariance is not affected by the change of origin, but it is affected by the change of scale.

2
3. Correlation.

The relationship between two variables such that a change in one variable results in a positive or
negative change in the other variable is known as correlation.

(1) Types of correlation

(i) Perfect correlation: If the two variables vary in such a manner that their ratio is always constant, then
the correlation is said to be perfect.

(ii) Positive or direct correlation: If an increase or decrease in one variable corresponds to an increase
or decrease in the other, the correlation is said to be positive.

(iii) Negative or indirect correlation: If an increase or decrease in one variable corresponds to a

decrease or increase in the other, the correlation is said to be negative.

(2) Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation: The correlation coefficient r(x , y) , between two variable x
 n   n  n 
Cov (x , y ) Cov (x , y )

 i1

n x i y i    x i   y i 
  i1   i1 

and y is given by, r(x , y )  or , r(x , y ) 
Var(x ) Var(y)  x y n
 n 
2 n
 n 
2

n x
i1
i
2

  x i 
 i1 
n 
i1
2

y i   y i 
 i1 
(x  x )(y  y )  dxdy
r  .
(x  x )2 (y  y )2  dx 2  dy 2

 dx . dy
 dxdy  n
(3) Modified formula: r  , where dx  x  x ; dy  y  y

  dx    dy   dy 
2 2


 dx 2

n
 
n
2

   
Cov (x , y ) Cov (x , y )
Also rxy   .
 x y var(x ). var(y )

3
4. Rank Correlation.

Let us suppose that a group of n individuals is arranged in order of merit or proficiency in possession of
two characteristics A and B.
These rank in two characteristics will, in general, be different.
For example, if we consider the relation between intelligence and beauty, it is not necessary that a
beautiful individual is intelligent also.

Rank Correlation:   1 
6 d 2

, which is the Spearman's formulae for rank correlation coefficient.

n(n 2  1)
Where d 2
= sum of the squares of the difference of two ranks and n is the number of pairs of
observations.

Note: We always have,  d   (x

i i  yi )   x  y
i i  n(x )  n(y )  0 , ( x  y )
If all d's are zero, then r  1 , which shows that there is perfect rank correlation between the variable and which is
maximum value of r.
If however some values of x i are equal, then the coefficient of rank correlation is given by
  1  
6  d 2    (m 3  m )
 12 
r 1  
n(n  1)
2

Where m is the number of times a particular x i is repeated.

Positive and Negative rank correlation coefficients

Let r be the rank correlation coefficient then, if

 r  0 , it means that if the rank of one characteristic is high, then that of the other is also high or if the
rank of one characteristic is low, then that of the other is also low. e.g., if the two characteristics be
height and weight of persons, then r  0 means that the tall persons are also heavy in weight.

 r  1 , it means that there is perfect correlation in the two characteristics i.e., every individual is getting the
same ranks in the two characteristics. Here the ranks are of the type (1, 1), (2, 2),....., (n, n).

 r  1 , it means that if the rank of one characteristics is high, then that of the other is low or if the rank
of one characteristics is low, then that of the other is high. e.g., if the two characteristics be richness
and slimness in person, then r  0 means that the rich persons are not slim.

4
 r  1 , it means that there is perfect negative correlation in the two characteristics i.e, an individual
getting highest rank in one characteristic is getting the lowest rank in the second characteristic. Here
the rank, in the two characteristics in a group of n individuals are of the type (1, n), (2, n  1),....., (n, 1) .

 r  0 , it means that no relation can be established between the two characteristics.

Important Tips

 If r  0 , the variable x and y are said to be uncorrelated or independent.

 If r  1 , the correlation is said to be negative and perfect.
 If r  1, the correlation is said to be positive and perfect.
 Correlation is a pure number and hence unitless.
 Correlation coefficient is not affected by change of origin and scale.
 If two variate are connected by the linear relation x  y  K , then x, y are in perfect indirect
correlation. Here r  1 .
 x2   y2
 If x, y are two independent variables, then  (x  y, x  y)  .
 x2   y2

 u v  n  u . v
1
i i i i
 r(x , y )  , where ui  x i  A, vi  yi  B .
 u  n  u   v  n  v 
2 1 2 1 2
2
i i i i

5
 Regression

5. Linear Regression.

If a relation between two variates x and y exists, then the dots of the scatter diagram will more or less be
concentrated around a curve which is called the curve of regression. If this curve be a straight line, then
it is known as line of regression and the regression is called linear regression.
Line of regression: The line of regression is the straight line which in the least square sense gives the
best fit to the given frequency.

6. Equations of lines of Regression.

(1) Regression line of y on x: If value of x is known, then value of y can be found as

Cov (x , y ) y
y y  (x  x ) or y  y  r (x  x )
 x2 x
(2) Regression line of x on y: It estimates x for the given value of y as
Cov (x , y ) x
xx  (y  y ) or x  x  r (y  y )
 2
y y
r y Cov (x , y )
(3) Regression coefficient: (i) Regression coefficient of y on x is b yx  
x  x2
r x Cov (x , y )
(ii) Regression coefficient of x on y is b xy   .
y  2
y

7. Angle between Two lines of Regression.

Equation of the two lines of regression are y  y  byx (x  x ) and x  x  b xy (y  y )

y
We have, m 1  slope of the line of regression of y on x = b yx  r.
x
1 
m 2  Slope of line of regression of x on y =  y
b xy r.  x

6
  y r y

m 2  m1 r x  x (  r 2 y ) x (1  r 2 ) x  y
 tan     = y 2   .
1  m 1m 2 r y  y r x  r y2 r( x2   y2 )
1 .
 x r x
Here the positive sign gives the acute angle  , because r 2  1 and  x ,  y are positive.

1  r 2  x y
 tan   . 2 .....(i)
r  x   y2

Note: If r  0 , from (i) we conclude tan    or    / 2 i.e., two regression lines are at right angels.
If r  1 , tan   0 i.e.,   0 , since  is acute i.e., two regression lines coincide.

8. Important points about Regression coefficients bxy and byx .

(1) r  byx .b xy i.e. the coefficient of correlation is the geometric mean of the coefficient of regression.

(2) If, then b xy  1 i.e. if one of the regression coefficient is greater than unity, the other will be less than unity.

(3) If the correlation between the variable is not perfect, then the regression lines intersect at (x , y ) .

1
(4) b yx is called the slope of regression line y on x and is called the slope of regression line x on y.
b xy

(5) byx  b xy  2 byx b xy or byx  b xy  2r , i.e. the arithmetic mean of the regression coefficient is greater
than the correlation coefficient.
(6) Regression coefficients are independent of change of origin but not of scale.

 y2
(7) The product of lines of regression’s gradients is given by .
 x2

(8) If both the lines of regression coincide, then correlation will be perfect linear.

(9) If both b yx and b xy are positive, the r will be positive and if both b yx and b xy are negative, the r will be
negative.

7
Important Tips


 If r  0 , then tan is not defined i.e.   . Thus the regression lines are perpendicular.
2
 If r  1 or 1 , then tan  = 0 i.e.  = 0. Thus the regression lines are coincident.
bc  d ad  b
 If regression lines are y  ax  b and x  cy  d , then x  and y  .
1  ac 1  ac

If byx, bxy and r  0 then and if bxy, byx and r  0 then (b xy  b yx )  r .

1 1
 (b xy  b yx )  r
2 2
 Correlation measures the relationship between variables while regression measures only the cause and
effect of relationship between the variables.
 If line of regression of y on x makes an angle  , with the +ive direction of X-axis, then tan   byx .
 If line of regression of x on y makes an angle  , with the +ive direction of X-axis, then cot   b xy .

9. Standard error and Probable error.

(1) Standard error of prediction: The deviation of the predicted value from the observed value is

known as the standard error prediction and is defined as S y  


  (y  y p)
2 




n 

Where y is actual value and y p is predicted value.
In relation to coefficient of correlation, it is given by
(i) Standard error of estimate of x is S x   x 1  r 2

(ii) Standard error of estimate of y is S y   y 1  r 2 .

(2) Relation between probable error and standard error: If r is the correlation coefficient in a sample
1  r2
of n pairs of observations, then its standard error S.E. (r)  and probable error P.E. (r) = 0.6745
n

1r 2 
(S.E.)= 0.6745   . The probable error or the standard error are used for interpreting the coefficient
 n 
of correlation.
(i) If r  P. E.(r) , there is no evidence of correlation.
(ii) If r  6 P. E.(r) , the existence of correlation is certain.
The square of the coefficient of correlation for a bivariate distribution is known as the “Coefficient of
determination”.

8
Mathematics

Measure of Central Tendency

Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Arithmetic mean.
3. Geometric mean.
4. Harmonic mean.
5. Median.
6. Mode.
7. Pie Chart (Pie diagram).
8. Measure of dispersion.
9. Variance.
10. Skewness.

1
1. Introduction.

An average or a central value of a statistical series in the value of the variable which describes the
characteristics of the entire distribution.

The following are the five measures of central tendency.

(1) Arithmetic mean

(2) Geometric mean
(3) Harmonic mean
(4) Median
(5) Mode

2. Arithmetic Mean.

Arithmetic mean is the most important among the mathematical mean.

According to Horace Secrist,
“The arithmetic mean is the amount secured by dividing the sum of values of the items in a series by their
number.”

(1) Simple arithmetic mean in individual series (Ungrouped data)

(i) Direct method: If the series in this case be x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , ......, x n then the arithmetic mean x is given by
x  x 2  x 3  ....  x n 1 n

x
Sum of the series
x , i.e., x  1  i
Number of terms n n i 1

(ii) Short cut method

d
Arithmetic mean (x )  A  ,
n
Where, A = assumed mean, d = deviation from assumed mean = x – A, where x is the individual item,
d = sum of deviations and n = number of items.

2
(2) Simple arithmetic mean in continuous series (Grouped data)

(i) Direct method: If the terms of the given series be x 1 , x 2 , ...., x n and the corresponding frequencies be
n

f x  f2 x 2  ....  fn x n
 fx i i
f1 , f2 , .... fn , then the arithmetic mean x is given by, x  1 1  i 1
.
f1  f2  ....  fn n

f
i 1
i

 f ( x  A)
(ii) Short cut method: Arithmetic mean (x )  A 
f
Where A = assumed mean, f = frequency and x – A = deviation of each item from the assumed mean.

(3) Properties of arithmetic mean

(i) Algebraic sum of the deviations of a set of values from their arithmetic mean is zero. If x i / fi , i = 1, 2,
…, n is the frequency distribution, then
n

 f (x
i1
i i  x )  0 , x being the mean of the distribution.

(ii) The sum of the squares of the deviations of a set of values is minimum when taken about mean.

(iii) Mean of the composite series : If x i , (i  1, 2, ....., k ) are the means of k-component series of sizes
ni , (i  1, 2, ...., k ) respectively, then the mean x of the composite series obtained on combining the
n1 x 1  n 2 x 2  ....  n k x k n n
component series is given by the formula x 
n1  n 2  ....  n k
 
i1
ni x i n
i1
i .

3
3. Geometric Mean.

If x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , ......, x n are n values of a variate x, none of them being zero, then geometric mean (G.M.) is
1
given by G.M.  (x 1 . x 2 . x 3 ...... x n )1 / n  log(G.M.)  (log x 1  log x 2  .....  log x n ) .
n
In case of frequency distribution, G.M. of n values x 1 , x 2 , ..... x n of a variate x occurring with frequency
f1 , f2 , ....., fn is given by G.M.  (x 1f1 . x 2f2 ..... x nfn )1 / N , where N  f1  f2  .....  fn .

4. Harmonic Mean.

n
The harmonic mean of n items x 1 , x 2 , ......, x n is defined as H.M.  .
1 1 1
  ..... 
x1 x 2 xn
f1  f2  f3  .....  fn
If the frequency distribution is f1 , f2 , f3 , ......, fn respectively, then H.M. 
 f1 f f 
  2  .....  n 
 x1 x 2 xn 
Note: A.M. gives more weightage to larger values whereas G.M. and H.M. give more weightage to smaller values.

5. Median.

Median is defined as the value of an item or observation above or below which lies on an equal number
of observations i.e., the median is the central value of the set of observations provided all the
observations are arranged in the ascending or descending orders.

(1) Calculation of median

(i) Individual series: If the data is raw, arrange in ascending or descending order. Let n be the number of
observations.
th
n 1
If n is odd, Median = value of   item.
 2 

4
 1 
th th
n n 
If n is even, Median =  value of   item  value of   1  item
2  2  2  
(ii) Discrete series: In this case, we first find the cumulative frequencies of the variables arranged in
ascending or descending order and the median is given by
th
n 1
Median =   observation, where n is the cumulative frequency.
 2 

(iii) For grouped or continuous distributions: In this case, following formula can be used
N 
  C
(a) For series in ascending order, Median = l    i
2
f
Where l = Lower limit of the median class
f = Frequency of the median class
N = The sum of all frequencies
I = The width of the median class
C = The cumulative frequency of the class preceding to median class.

(b) For series in descending order

N 
 C
Median = u   2   i , where u = upper limit of the median class
 f 
 
 
n
N  f
i1
i

As median divides a distribution into two equal parts, similarly the quartiles, quantiles, deciles and
percentiles divide the distribution respectively into 4, 5, 10 and 100 equal parts. The jth quartile is given
 N 
 j C
by Q j  l   4  i; j  1, 2, 3 . Q1 is the lower quartile, Q 2 is the median and Q 3 is called the upper
 f 
 
 
quartile.

5
(2) Lower quartile
th
n 1
(i) Discrete series: Q1  size of   item
 4 

N 
  C
(ii) Continuous series: Q1  l    i
4
f

(3) Upper quartile

th
 3(n  1) 
(i) Discrete series: Q 3  size of   item
 4 

 3N 
  C
 4 
(ii) Continuous series: Q 3  l  i
f

(4) Decile: Decile divide total frequencies N into ten equal parts.
Nj
C
D j  l  10  i [j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
f
N
C
If j = 5, then D5  l  2  i . Hence D5 is also known as median.
f

(5) Percentile: Percentile divide total frequencies N into hundred equal parts
N k
C
Pk  l  100 i
f
where k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,.......,99.

6
6. Mode.

Mode: The mode or model value of a distribution is that value of the variable for which the frequency is
 f1  f0 
maximum. For continuous series, mode is calculated as, Mode  l1   i
 2 f1  f0  f2 
Where, l1 = The lower limit of the model class
f1 = The frequency of the model class
f0 = The frequency of the class preceding the model class
f2 = The frequency of the class succeeding the model class
i = The size of the model class.

Symmetric distribution: A symmetric is a symmetric distribution if the values of mean, mode and
median coincide. In a symmetric distribution frequencies are symmetrically distributed on both sides of
the centre point of the frequency curve.

Mean = Median = Mode

Mean
Mean Mode Median
Median Mode

A distribution which is not symmetric is called a skewed-distribution. In a moderately asymmetric the

interval between the mean and the median is approximately one-third of the interval between the mean
and the mode i.e. we have the following empirical relation between them
Mean – Mode = 3(Mean – Median)  Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean. It is known as Empirical relation.

7
Important Tips

 Some points about arithmetic mean

 Of all types of averages the arithmetic mean is most commonly used average.
 It is based upon all observations.
 If the number of observations is very large, it is more accurate and more reliable basis for
comparison.
 Some points about geometric mean
 It is based on all items of the series.
 It is most suitable for constructing index number, average ratios, percentages etc.
 G.M. cannot be calculated if the size of any of the items is zero or negative.
 Some points about H.M.
 It is based on all item of the series.
 This is useful in problems related with rates, ratios, time etc.
 A.M.  G.M.  H.M. and also (G.M.)2  ( A.M.)( H.M.)
 Some points about median
 It is an appropriate average in dealing with qualitative data, like intelligence, wealth etc.
 The sum of the deviations of the items from median, ignoring algebraic signs, is less than
the sum from any other point.
 Some points about mode
 It is not based on all items of the series.
 As compared to other averages mode is affected to a large extent by fluctuations of
sampling,.
 It is not suitable in a case where the relative importance of items have to be considered.

8
7. Pie Chart (Pie Diagram).

Here a circle is divided into a number of segments equal to the number of components in the
corresponding table. Here the entire diagram looks like a pie and the components appear like slices cut
from the pie. In this diagram each item has a sector whose area has the same percentage of the total
area of the circle as this item has of the total of such items. For example if N be the total and n1 is one of
the components of the figure corresponding to a particular item, then the angle of the sector for this
n 
item   1   360  , as the total number of degree in the angle subtended by the whole circular arc at its
N
centre is 360°.

8. Measure of Dispersion.

The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average value is called the dispersion of
the data. The four measure of dispersion are
(1) Range
(2) Mean deviation
(3) Standard deviation
(4) Square deviation

(1) Range: It is the difference between the values of extreme items in a series. Range = Xmax – Xmin
x  x min
The coefficient of range (scatter)  max .
x max  x min
Range is not the measure of central tendency. Range is widely used in statistical series relating to quality
control in production.
(i) Inter-quartile range: We know that quartiles are the magnitudes of the items which divide the
distribution into four equal parts. The inter-quartile range is found by taking the difference between
third and first quartiles and is given by the formula
Inter-quartile range  Q 3  Q1

9
Where Q1 = First quartile or lower quartile and Q3 = Third quartile or upper quartile.

(ii) Percentile range: This is measured by the following formula

Percentile range  P90  P10
Where P90 = 90th percentile and P10 = 10th percentile.
Percentile range is considered better than range as well as inter-quartile range.

(iii) Quartile deviation or semi inter-quartile range: It is one-half of the difference between the third
Q  Q1 Q  Q1
quartile and first quartile i.e., Q.D.  3 and coefficient of quartile deviation  3 .
2 Q 3  Q1
Where, Q3 is the third or upper quartile and Q1 is the lowest or first quartile.

(2) Mean deviation: The arithmetic average of the deviations (all taking positive) from the mean, median
or mode is known as mean deviation.

(i) Mean deviation from ungrouped data (or individual series)

| x  M |
Mean deviation 
n
Where |x – M| means the modulus of the deviation of the variate from the mean (mean, median or
mode). M and n is the number of terms.

(ii) Mean deviation from continuous series: Here first of all we find the mean from which deviation is
to be taken. Then we find the deviation dM  | x  M | of each variate from the mean M so obtained.
Next we multiply these deviations by the corresponding frequency and find the product f.dM and then
the sum  f dM of these products.
 f | x  M |  f dM
Lastly we use the formula, mean deviation   , where n = f.
n n

Important Tips

Mean coefficient of dispersion 

Mean deviation from the mean

Mean
Mean deviation from the median
 Median coefficient of dispersion 
Median

Mode coefficient of dispersion 

Mean deviation from the mode

Mode
 In general, mean deviation (M.D.) always stands for mean deviation about median.

10
(3) Standard deviation: Standard deviation (or S.D.) is the square root of the arithmetic mean of the
square of deviations of various values from their arithmetic mean and is generally denoted by  read as
sigma.

(i) Coefficient of standard deviation: To compare the dispersion of two frequency distributions the
relative measure of standard deviation is computed which is known as coefficient of standard deviation
and is given by

Coefficient of S.D.  , where x is the A.M.
x

(ii) Standard deviation from individual series

(x  x ) 2
 
N
where, x = The arithmetic mean of series
N = The total frequency.

(iii) Standard deviation from continuous series

 fi (x i  x ) 2
 
N
where, x = Arithmetic mean of series
x i = Mid value of the class
fi = Frequency of the corresponding x i
N = f = The total frequency

Short cut method

2
 fd 2   fd 
(i)    
N  N 
2
d2  d 
(ii)    
N  N 

Where, d = x – A = Deviation from the assumed mean A

f = Frequency of the item
N = f = Sum of frequencies

11
(4) Square deviation

(i) Root mean square deviation

n

 f (x
1
S  i i  A) 2
N i1

where A is any arbitrary number and S is called mean square deviation.

(ii) Relation between S.D. and root mean square deviation: If  be the standard deviation and S be
the root mean square deviation.
Then S 2   2  d 2 .
Obviously, S 2 will be least when d = 0 i.e. x  A
Hence, mean square deviation and consequently root mean square deviation is least, if the deviations
are taken from the mean.

9. Variance.

The square of standard deviation is called the variance.

Coefficient of standard deviation and variance: The coefficient of standard deviation is the ratio of
 
the S.D. to A.M. i.e., . Coefficient of variance = coefficient of S.D.  100   100 .
x x
Variance of the combined series: If n1 ;n 2 are the sizes, x 1 ; x 2 the means and  1 ; 2 the standard
1
deviation of two series, then  2  [n1 ( 12  d 12 )  n 2 ( 22  d 22 )]
n1  n 2
n1 x 1  n 2 x 2
Where, d 1  x 1  x , d 2  x 2  x and x  .
n1  n 2

Important Tips

 Range is widely used in statistical series relating to quality control in production.

 Standard deviation ≤ Range i.e., variance ≤ (Range)2.
 Empirical relations between measures of dispersion
4
 Mean deviation  (standard deviation)
5
2
 Semi interquartile range  (standard deviation)
3
5
 Semi interquartile range  (mean deviation)
6
12
  For a symmetrical distribution, the following area relationship holds good
X   covers 68.27% items
X  2 covers 95.45% items
X  3 covers 99.74% items
n2  1
 S.D. of first n natural numbers is .
12
 Range is not the measure of central tendency.

10. Skewness.

(x i   )3
“Skewness” measures the lack of symmetry. It is measured by  1  and is denoted by  1 .
{(x i   2 )}3 / 2
The distribution is skewed if,
(i) Mean  Median  Mode
(ii) Quartiles are not equidistant from the median and
(iii) The frequency curve is stretched more to one side than to the other.

(1) Distribution: There are three types of distributions

(i) Normal distribution: When  1  0 , the distribution is said to be normal. In this case
Mean = Median = Mode

(ii) Positively skewed distribution: When  1  0 , the distribution is said to be positively skewed. In this case
Mean > Median > Mode

(iii) Negative skewed distribution: When  1  0 , the distribution is said to be negatively skewed. In this case
Mean < Median < Mode

13
(2) Measures of skewness

(i) Absolute measures of skewness: Various measures of skewness are

(a) S K  M  M d (b) S K  M  M o (c) S k  Q 3  Q1  2 M d
where, M d = median, M o = mode, M = mean
Absolute measures of skewness are not useful to compare two series, therefore relative measure of
dispersion are used, as they are pure numbers.

(3) Relative measures of skewness

M  Mo (M  M d )
(i) Karl Pearson’s coefficient of skewness: S k  3 ,  3  S k  3 , where  is
 
standard deviation.

Q 3  Q1  2 M d
(ii) Bowley’s coefficient of skewness: S k 
Q 3  Q1
Bowley’s coefficient of skewness lies between –1 and 1.

P10  P90  2 M d D1  D9  2 M d
(iii) Kelly’s coefficient of skewness: S K  
P90  P10 D9  D1

14
Mathematics

Statistics
Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Parallelogram law of forces.
3. Triangle law of forces.
4. Polygon law of forces.
5. Lami's theorem.
6. Parallel forces.
7. Moment.
8. Couples.
9. Triangle theorem of couples.
10. Equilibrium of coplanar forces.
11. Friction.
12. Coefficient of friction.
13. Limiting equilibrium on an inclined plane.
14. Centre of gravity.

1
58

1. Introduction.

Statistics is that branch of mechanics which deals with the study of the system of forces in equilibrium.
Matter: Matter is anything which can be perceived by our senses of which can exert, or be acted on, by
forces.
Force: Force is anything which changes, or tends to change, the state of rest, or uniform motion, of a
body. To specify a force completely four things are necessary they are magnitude, direction, sense and
point of application. Force is a vector quantity.

2. Parallelogram law of Forces.

If two forces, acting at a point, be represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a
parallelogram drawn from one of its angular points, their resultant is represented both in magnitude and
direction of the parallelogram drawn through that point.
If OA and OB represent the forces P and Q acting at a point O and inclined to each other at an angle . If
R is the resultant of these forces represented by the diagonal OC of the parallelogram OACB and R
Q sin 
makes an angle  with P i.e. COA   , then R 2  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos  and tan  
P  Q cos 
The angle  1 which the resultant R makes with the direction of the force Q is given by
 P sin  
 1  tan 1  
 Q  P cos  
B C
Q R
Case (i): If P = Q 1

 R  2 P cos( / 2) and tan   tan( / 2) or    / 2  
O P A D

Case (ii): If   90 , i.e. forces are perpendicular

Q
 R  P 2  Q 2 and tan  
P

Case (iii): If   0 , i.e. forces act in the same direction

 R max  P  Q

Case (iv): If   180 , i.e. forces act in opposite direction

 R min  P  Q

2
Note: The resultant of two forces is closer to the larger force.

The resultant of two equal forces of magnitude P acting at an angle  is 2P cos and it bisects the angle between
2
the forces.

If the resultant R of two forces P and Q acting at an angle  makes an angle  with the direction of P, then
Q sin  P  Q cos 
sin   and cos  
R R
If the resultant R of the forces P and Q acting at an angle  makes an angle  with the direction of the force Q, then
P sin  Q  P sin 
sin   and cos   B C
R R
R
F2

Component of a force in two directions: The component of a force R in

two directions making angles  and  with the line of action of R on and O
F1
A

opposite sides of it are

OC . sin  R sin  OC . sin  R. sin 
F1   and F2  
sin(   ) sin(   ) sin(   ) sin(   )

- theorem : The resultant of two forces acting at a point O in directions OA and OB represented in
magnitudes by .OA and .OB respectively is represented by (  µ)OC , where C is a point in AB such
that .CA  µ.CB A

C


O B


Important Tips

 The forces P, Q, R act along the sides BC, CA, AB of ABC.

Their resultant passes through.
(a) Incentre, if P  Q  R  0 (b) Circumcentre, if P cos A  Q cos B  R cos C  0
(c) Orthocentre, if P sec A  Q sec B  R sec C  0 (d) Centroid, if P cosec A  Q cosec B  R cosec C  0

or
P Q R
 
a b c

3
3. Triangle law of Forces.

If three forces, acting at a point, be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a triangle,
taken in order, they will be in equilibrium. A
R
Here AB  P, BC  Q, CA  R
In triangle ABC, we have AB  BC  CA  0 P R Q
 PQR 0
Hence the forces P, Q, R are in equilibrium. P
B Q C

Converse: If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, then they can be represented in magnitude
and direction by the sides of a triangle, taken in order.

4. Polygon law of Forces.

If any number of forces acting on a particle be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a
polygon taken in order, the forces shall be in equilibrium.
A3
P4 P3

A4 A2

P5 P2

A P1 A1

4
5. Lami's Theorem.

If three forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, each force is proportional to the sine of the angle
between the other two. Thus if the forces are P, Q and R; ,, be the angles between Q and P R

P Q R
R, R and P, P and Q respectively. If the forces are in equilibrium, we have,   
sin  sin  sin  
. Q
The converse of this theorem is also true.

6. Parallel Forces.

(1) Like parallel forces: Two parallel forces are said to be like parallel forces when they act in the same
direction.
The resultant R of two like parallel forces P and Q is equal in magnitude of P R Q
the sum of the magnitude of forces and R acts in the same direction as the
forces P and Q and at the point on the line segment joining the point of
action P and Q, which divides it in the ratio Q : P internally.

A C B

(2) Two unlike parallel forces: Two parallel forces are said to be unlike if they act in opposite directions.
If P and Q be two unlike parallel force acting at A and B and P is greater in P
magnitude than Q. Then their resultant R acts in the same direction as P and R

acts at a point C on BA produced. Such that R  P  Q and P.CA  Q.CB B

Then in this case C divides BA externally in the inverse ratio of the forces, A
P Q P Q R C
  
CB CA CB  CA AB Q

5
 Important Tips
 If three like parallel forces P, Q, R act at the vertices A, B, C repectively of a triangle ABC, then their
resultant act at the
(i) Incentre of ABC, if P  Q  R
a b c

(ii) Circumcentre of ABC, if P


Q

R
sin 2 A sin 2 B sin 2C

(iii) Orthocentre of ABC, if P


Q

R
tan A tan B tan C
(iv) Centroid of ABC, if P = Q = R.

7. Moment.

The moment of a force about a point O is given in magnitude by the product O

of the forces and the perpendicular distance of O from the line of action of
the force.
If F be a force acting a point A of a rigid body along the line AB and OM (= p) be P

the perpendicular distance of the fixed point O from AB, then the moment of F
1  A B
force about O  F. p  AB  OM  2  ( AB  OM )  2(area of AOB ) M
2 
The S.I. unit of moment is Newton-meter (N-m).

(1) Sign of the moment: The moment of a force about a point measures the tendency of the force to
cause rotation about that point. The tendency of the force F1 is to turn the lamina in the F2
clockwise direction and of the force F2 is in the anticlockwise direction.
The usual convention is to regard the moment which is anticlockwise direction as positive
and that in the clockwise direction as negative.

(2) Varignon's theorem: The algebraic sum of the moments of any two coplanar forces O
F1
about any point in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant about the same
point.

Note: Thy algebraic sum of the moments of any two forces about any point on the line of action of their resultant is
zero.
Conversely, if the algebraic sum of the moments of any two coplanar forces, which are not in equilibrium, about
any point in their plane is zero, their resultant passes through the point.
If a body, having one point fixed, is acted upon by two forces and is at rest. Then the moments of the two forces
about the fixed point are equal and opposite.

6
8. Couples.

Two equal unlike parallel forces which do not have the same line of action, are said to form a couple.
Example: Couples have to be applied in order to wind a watch, to drive a P
gimlet, to push a cork screw in a cork or to draw circles by means of pair of
compasses. p B
A

(1) Arm of the couple: The perpendicular distance between the lines of
action of the forces forming the couple is known as the arm of the couple. P

(2) Moment of couple: The moment of a couple is obtained in magnitude by multiplying the magnitude
of one of the forces forming the couple and perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the
force. The perpendicular distance between the forces is called the arm of the couple. The moment of the
couple is regarded as positive or negative according as it has a tendency to turn the body in the
anticlockwise or clockwise direction.
Moment of a couple = Force × Arm of the couple = P.p

(3) Sign of the moment of a couple: The moment of a couple is taken with positive or negative sign
according as it has a tendency to turn the body in the anticlockwise or clockwise direction.

P P

B B
A A

Positive couple
Negative couple P
P

Note: A couple cannot be balanced by a single force, but can be balanced by a couple of opposite sign.

7
9. Triangle theorem of Couples.

If three forces acting on a body be represented in magnitude, direction and line of action by the sides of
triangle taken in order, then they are equivalent to a couple whose moment is represented by twice the
area of triangle.
Consider the force P along AE, Q along CA and R along AB. These forces are three concurrent forces
acting at A and represented in magnitude and direction by the sides BC, CA P
A
and AB of ABC. So, by the triangle law of forces, they are in equilibrium. D P E

The remaining two forces P along AD and P along BC form a couple, whose Q
R
moment is m  P. AL  BC. AL
1 1 
Since (BC . AL) = 2 area of the ABC  B L P C
2  2 
 Moment = BC.AL = 2 (Area of ABC)

10. Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces.

(1) If three forces keep a body in equilibrium, they must be coplanar.

(2) If three forces acting in one plane upon a rigid body keep it in equilibrium, they must either meet in a
point or be parallel.

(3) When more than three forces acting on a rigid body, keep it in equilibrium, then it is not necessary that
they meet at a point. The system of forces will be in equilibrium if there is neither translatory motion nor
rotatory motion.
i.e. X = 0, Y = 0, G = 0 or R = 0, G = 0.

(4) A system of coplanar forces acting upon a rigid body will be in equilibrium if the algebraic sum of
their resolved parts in any two mutually perpendicular directions vanish
separately, and if the algebraic sum of their moments about any point in A
their plane is zero.  

(5) A system of coplanar forces acting upon a rigid body will be in 

equilibrium if the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about each of B m P n C

three non-collinear points is zero.

(6) Trigonometrical theorem: If P is any point on the base BC of ABC such that BP : CP = m : n.

8
Then, (i) (m  n) cot   m cot   n cot  where BAP  , CAP  
(ii) (n  n) cot   n cot B  m cot C

11. Friction.

Friction is a retarding force which prevent one body from sliding on another. R
It is, therefore a reaction.
When two bodies are in contact with each other, then the property of
F P
roughness of the bodies by virtue of which a force is exerted between them to
resist the motion of one body upon the other is called friction and the force
exerted is called force of friction. W

(1) Friction is a self-adjusting force: Let a horizontal force P pull a heavy body of weight W resting on a
smooth horizontal table. It will be noticed that up to a certain value of P, the body does not move. The
reaction R of the table and the weight W of the body do not have any effect on the horizontal pull as
they are vertical. It is the force of friction F, acting in the horizontal direction, which balances P and
prevents the body from moving.
As P is increased, F also increases so as to balance P. Thus F increases with P. A stage comes when P just
begins to move the body. At this stage F reaches its maximum value and is equal to the value of P at that
instant. After that, if P is increased further, F does not increase anymore and body begins to move.
This shows that friction is self-adjusting, i.e. amount of friction exerted is not constant, but increases
gradually from zero to a certain maximum limit.

(2) Statical friction: When one body tends to slide over the surface of another body and is not on the
verge of motion then the friction called into play is called statical friction.

(3) Limiting friction : When one body is on the verge of sliding over the surface of another body then
the friction called into play is called limiting friction.

(4) Dynamical friction : When one body is actually sliding over the surface of another body the friction
called into play is called dynamical friction.

(5) Laws of limiting friction/statical friction/Dynamical friction:

9
(i) Limiting friction acts in the direction opposite to that in which the body is about to move.
(ii) The magnitude of the limiting friction between two bodies bears a constant ratio depends only on the
nature of the materials of which these bodies are made.
(iii) Limiting friction is independent of the shape and the area of the surfaces in contact, so long as the
normal reaction between them is same, if the normal reaction is constant.
(iv) Limiting friction fs is directly proportional to the normal reaction R, i.e. fs  R
fs  µs .R; µs  fs / R , where µs is a constant which is called coefficient of statical friction.
In case of dynamic friction, µk = fk/R, where µk is the coefficient of dynamic friction.

(6) Angle of friction: The angle which the resultant force makes with the direction of the normal
reaction is called the angle of friction and it is generally denoted by . R S
Thus  is the limiting value of , when the force of friction F attains its
maximum value.
Maximum force of friction
 tan   
Normal reaction
Since R and µ R are the components of S, we have, S cos  = R, S sin = µR. F=R

Hence by squaring and adding, we get S  R 1  µ 2

and on dividing them,
we get tan  = µ. Hence we see that the coefficient of friction is equal to the tangent of the angle of
friction.

12. Coefficient of Friction.

When one body is in limiting equilibrium in contact with another body, the constant ratio which the
limiting force of friction bears to normal reaction at their point of contact, is called the coefficient of
friction and it is generally denoted by µ.
Thus, µ is the ratio of the limiting friction and normal reaction.
Maximum force of friction
Hence, µ = tan  
Normal reaction
F
 µ   F  µR, Where F is the limiting friction and R is the normal reaction.
R
Note: The value of µ depends on the substance of which the bodies are made and so it differs from one body to
the other. Also, the value of µ always lies between 0 and 1. Its value is zero for a perfectly smooth body.

Cone of friction : A cone whose vertex is at the point of contact of two rough bodies and whose axis lies along the
common normal and whose semi-vertical angle is equal to the angle of friction is called cone of friction.

10
13. Limiting equilibrium on an Inclined Plane.

Let a body of weight W be on the point of sliding down a plane which is inclined at an angle  to the
horizon. Let R be the normal reaction and µ R be the limiting friction acting up
the plane. R R
Thus, the body is in limiting equilibrium under the action of three forces: R, µ A

R and W. 

Resolving the forces along and perpendicular to the plane, we have

W

µR  W sin  and R  W cos  O
µR W sin 
   µ  tan   tan   tan     
R cos 

Thus, if a body be on the point of sliding down an inclined plane under its own weight, the inclination of
the plane is equal to the angle of the friction.

(1) Least force required to pull a body up an inclined rough plane: Let a body of weight W be at
point A,  be the inclination of rough inclined plane to the horizontal and  be P
the angle of friction. Let P be the force acting at an angle  with the plane R 
required just to move body up the plane. A

sin(   ) R 
P W  µ  tan 
cos(   ) W

Clearly, the force P is least when cos(  ) is maximum, i.e. when
O
cos(  )  1 , i.e.     0 or    . The least value of P is W sin(  )

(2) Least force required to pull a body down an inclined plane: Let a body of weight W be at the
point A,  be the inclination of rough inclined plane to the horizontal and  be
R
the angle of friction. Let P be the force acting an angle  with the plane, R

required just to move the body up the plane. P

 A

W sin(   )
P [ µ  tan ] W
cos(   ) 
Clearly, P is least when cos(  ) is maximum, i.e. when     0 or    . O
The least value of P is W sin(   ) .
Note: If    , then the body is in limiting equilibrium and is just on the point of moving downwards.

If    , then the least force required to move the body down the plane is W sin(   ) .

If   ,    or    , then the least force required to move the body up the plane is W sin(  ) .

 If   , then the body will move down the plane under the action of its weight and normal reaction.
11
Important Tips
 Least force on the horizontal plane : Least force required to move the body with weight W on the
rough horizontal plane is W sin  .

14. Centre of Gravity.

The center of gravity of a body or a system of particles rigidly connected together, is that point through
which the line of action of the weight of the body always passes in whatever position the body is placed
and this point is called centroid. A body can have one and only one center of gravity.
If w1 , w 2 ,......... .., w n are the weights of the particles placed at the points
A1 (x 1 , y1 ), A2 (x 2 , y 2 ),........ .., An (x n , y n) respectively, then the center of gravity G(x , y ) is given by

x
w x 1 1
,y 
w y1 1
.
w 1 w 1

(1) Centre of gravity of a number of bodies of different shape:

(i) C.G. of a uniform rod: The C.G. of a uniform rod lies at its mid-point.

(ii) C.G. of a uniform parallelogram: The C.G. of a uniform parallelogram is the point of inter-section of
the diagonals.

(iii) C.G. of a uniform triangular lamina: The C.G. of a triangle lies on a median at a distance from the
base equal to one third of the medians.

(2) Some Important points to remember:

(i) The C.G. of a uniform tetrahedron lies on the line joining a vertex to the C.G. of the opposite face,
dividing this line in the ratio 3 : 1.

(ii) The C.G. of a right circular solid cone lies at a distance h/4 from the base on the axis and divides it in
the ratio 3 : 1.

(iii) The C.G. of the curved surface of a right circular hollow cone lies at a distance h/3 from the base on
the axis and divides it in the ratio 2 : 1
12
(iv) The C.G. of a hemispherical shell at a distance a/2 from the center on the symmetrical radius.

(v) The C.G. of a solid hemisphere lies on the central radius at a distance 3a/8 from the center where a is the
radius.

a sin 
(vi) The C.G. of a circular arc subtending an angle 2 at the center is at a distance from the center

on the symmetrical radius, a being the radius, and  in radians.

2a sin 
(vii) The C.G. of a sector of a circle subtending an angle 2 at the center is at a distance from
3 
the center on the symmetrical radius, a being the radius and  in radians.

2a
(viii) The C.G. of the semicircular arc lies on the central radius at a distance of from the boundary

diameter, where a is the radius of the arc.

Important Tips
 Let there be a body of weight w and x be its C.G. If a portion of weight w1 is removed from it and x1
be the C.G. of the removed portion. Then, the C.G. of the remaining portion is given by
wx  w1 x 1
x2 
w  w1

 Let x be the C.G. of a body of weight w. If x1, x2, x3 are the C.G. of portions of weights w1, w2, w3
respectively, which are removed from the body, then the C.G. of the remaining body is given by
wx  w1 x 1  w 2 x 2  w 3 x 3
x4 
w  w1  w 2  w 3

13
Mathematics

Dynamics
Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Velocity and Acceleration.
3. Resultant and components of velocities.
4. Relative velocity.
5. Rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration.
6. Motion under gravity.
7. Laws of Motion.
8. Motion of a body released from a balloon or a lift.
9. Apparent weight of a body resting on a moving
horizontal plane or a lift.
10. Motion of two particles connected by a string.
11. Impact of elastic bodies.
12. Projectile Motion.
13. Work, Power and Energy.

1
1. Introduction.

Dynamics is that branch of mechanics which deals with the study of laws governing motions of material
system under the action of given forces.

(1) Displacement: The displacement of a moving point is its change of position. To know the
displacement of a moving point, we must know both the length and the direction of the line joining the
two positions of the moving point. Hence the displacement of a point involves both magnitude and
direction i.e., it is a vector quantity.

(2) Speed: The speed of a moving point is the rate at which it describes its path. The speed of a moving
particle or a body does not give us any idea of its direction of motion; so it is a scalar quantity. In M.K.S.
or S.I. system, the unit of speed is metre per second (m/s).

Average speed: The average speed of moving particle in a time-interval is defined as the distance
travelled by the particle divided by the time interval.
s
If a particle travels a distance s in time-interval t, then Average speed =
t

Note: The average speed of a particle gives the overall “rapidity” with which the particle moves in the given interval of time.

Instantaneous speed: The instantaneous speed or simply speed of a moving particle is defined as the
rate of change of distance along its path, straight or curved.
If s is the distance travelled by a particle along its path, straight or curved, in time t, then
ds ds
Instantaneous speed = or speed at time t 
dt dt
Note: The average speed is defined for a time interval and the instantaneous speed is defined at a particular instant.

2
2. Velocity and Acceleration.

(1) Velocity: The velocity of a moving point is the rate of its displacement. It is a vector quantity.
Let a particle starting from the fixed point O and moving along the straight line OX describes the
distance OP = x in time t. If the particle describes a further distance
x
x X
PQ  x in time t , then is called the average velocity of the particle x P Q
t
in time t .
x dx
And lim   v is called the instantaneous velocity (or simply velocity) of the particle at time t.
t 0 t dt

Note: Average velocity in time t is the mean of the initial and final velocity.

(2) Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity of a moving particle is called its acceleration. It is a vector
quantity.
v 2  v1 dv d 2 x dv
The acceleration of a moving point at time t at distance x is given by, f  f  2  v.
t dt dt dx
In M.K.S. or S.I. system, the unit of acceleration is m/sec2.
It should be noted that a  0 if v increases with time and a  0 if v decreases with time. A negative
acceleration is called retardation.
Clearly, retardation means decrease in the velocity.

3. Resultant and Components of Velocities.

(1) Resultant of velocities: The resultant of two velocities possessed by a particle is given by the law of
parallelogram of velocities.

Parallelogram law of velocities: If a moving particle has two simultaneous velocities represented in
magnitude and direction by the two sides of a parallelogram drawn from an
angular point, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction B C

by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point. v R

Let a particle at O has simultaneously two velocities u and v represented in

magnitude and direction by OA and OB respectively of the parallelogram  u
O A
OACB. The diagonal OC represents the resultant velocity.
3
Let R be the resultant velocity.

If AOB   and AOC   , then the magnitude of their resultant velocity is R  u 2  v 2  2uv cos 
and, the direction of this resultant velocity makes an angle  with the direction of u such that
v sin 
tan  
u  v cos 

Case I: When   0 , then R max  u  v

Case II: When    , then R min | u  v |
Case III: When    / 2 , i.e., u and v are at right angle to each other, then
v 
R  u 2  v 2 and   tan 1   .
u 
 
Case IV: When u  v , then R  2u cos and   .
2 2

Note: The angle made by the direction of the resultant velocity with the direction of v is given by
 u sin  
tan 1  .
 v  u cos  
If the direction of resultant velocity R makes an angle  with the direction of u , then
v sin  u  v cos 
sin   and cos  
R R

(2) Components of a velocity in two given directions : If components of a velocity V in two given
directions making angles  and  with it, then by the law of parallelogram of velocities the required
Y
components of V are represented by AB and AC = BD along AX and AY respectively.
C D
AB BD AD AB BD AD
  i.e.,   
sin ADB sin BAD sin ABD sin  sin  sin(   ) V

 –(+)
sin  sin  
 AB  AD. and BD  AD.
sin(   ) sin(   ) B X

V sin  V sin 
Hence, the components of velocity V in the directions making angle  and  are and
sin(   ) sin(   )
respectively.

4
Important Tips
 If components of velocity V are mutually perpendicular, then   90 o   . Thus components of V are
V cos  along AX and V sin along AY.

4. Relative Velocity.

Let A and B are two bodies in motion. The velocity of A relative to B is the velocity with which A appears
to move as viewed by B i.e., velocity of A relative to B = Resultant of velocity of A and reversed velocity
of B.
Apparent velocity of A as seen from B means velocity of A relative to B.
The relative velocity of A with respect to B is also called the velocity of A
relative to B and is denoted by V AB and V AB  V A  V B .   
VA VAB VB
If two bodies A and B are moving with velocities of magnitudes VA and VB
respectively inclined at an angle  with each other, then

VB
V AB  VA2  VB2  2VA VB cos 
If the direction of the relative velocity of A with respect to B makes an angle  with the direction of
VA sin 
velocity of B, then tan  
VB  VA cos 
Case I: When the particles A and B move parallel to each other in the same direction with velocities u
and v respectively. Here   0 , then VAB  (u  v) in the direction of A A
VA = u

VBA  (v  u) in the direction of B B VB = v

Case II: When the particles A and B move parallel to each other in opposite directions with velocities u
and v respectively. Here    , then VAB  (u  v) in the direction of A. A VA = u

VBA  (v  u) in the direction of B. B VB = v

Note: True velocity of A = Resultant of the relative velocity of A with respect to B and the true velocity of B

i.e., V A  V AB  V B [Since V AB  V A  V B ]

5
5. Rectilinear motion with uniform Acceleration.

A point or a particle moves in a straight line, starting with initial velocity u, and moving with constant
acceleration f in its direction of motion. If v be its final velocity at the end of time t and s be its distance
at the instant, from its starting point, then the equations describing the motion of the particle are,

s
t=0 t
X
Velocity = u P

(i) v  u  ft
1 2
(ii) s  ut  ft
2
(iii) v 2  u 2  2 fs
1
(iv) If s n is the distance travelled by the particle in nth second, then sn  u  f (2n  1)
2

Important Tips

 If a particle moves in a straight line with initial velocity u m/sec. and constant acceleration f m/sec2,
u v 
then distance travelled in t seconds is given by, s  ut  ft 2  [2ut  ft 2 ]  [u  (u  ft)] t =   . t, where
1 1 1
2 2 2  2 
v  u  ft
u v
= (Average velocity) × t {Average velocity = }
2

6
6. Motion under Gravity.

When a body is let fall in vacuum towards the earth, it will move vertically downward with an
acceleration which is always the same at the same place on the earth but which varies slightly from place
to place. This acceleration is called acceleration due to gravity. Its value in M.K.S. system is 9.8 m / sec 2 ,
in C.G.S. system 981 cm / sec 2 and in F.P.S. system 32 ft / sec 2 . It is always denoted by g.

(1) Downward motion: If a body is projected vertically downward from a point at a height h above the
earth’s surface with velocity u, and after t second its velocity becomes v, the equation of its motion are
v  u  gt,

1 2 2 1
h  ut  gt , v  u 2  2 gh , s t  u  g (2 t  1). In particular, if the body starts from rest or is simply let
2 2
1 2 2
fall or dropped, then, v  gt , h  gt , v  2 gh . ( u  0)
2

(2) Upward motion: When a body be projected vertically upward from a point on the earth’s surface
with an initial velocity u and if the direction of the upward motion is regarded as +ve, the direction of
acceleration is –ve and it is, therefore, denoted by – g. The body thus moves with a retardation and its
velocity gradually becomes lesser and lesser till it is zero. Thus, for upward motion, the equations of
motion are,
1 2 1
v  u  gt , h  ut  gt , v 2  u 2  2 gh , s t  u  g (2 t  1).
2 2

(3) Important deductions

(i) Greatest height attained: Let H be the greatest height. From the result, v 2  u 2  2 gh .

u2 u2
We have, 0  u 2  2 gH  H  . Hence greatest height (H )  .
2g 2g

(ii) Time to reach the greatest height: Let T be the time taken by the particle to reach the greatest
height.

From the result, v  u  gt

u u
We have, 0  u  gT i.e., T  . Therefore time to reach the greatest height (T ) 
g g

7
(iii) Time for a given height: Let t be the time taken by the body to reach at a given height h. Then,
1 2 u  u 2  2 gh
h  ut  gt  gt  2ut  2h  0 . Hence, t1 
2
and
2 g
u  u 2  2 gh A
t2 
g
P
Clearly t 1 and t 2 are real; if u 2  2 gh . If u 2  2 gh ,
t1 h
u u
then t1  t 2  , which is the time taken to reach the highest point. O
g
So, let u 2  2 gh .

The lesser value of t 1 gives the time when the body is going up i.e., it is time from O to P and the larger
value t 2 gives the total time taken by the body to reach the highest point and then coming back to the given
point, i.e., it is the time from O to A and then A to P.

(iv) Time of flight: It is the total time taken by the particle to reach the greatest height and then return
to the starting point again. When the particle returns to the starting point, h  0 . Therefore, from the
1
result, h  ut  gt 2 .
2
1 2u
We have, 0  ut  gt 2 or t = 0 or
2 g
t = 0 corresponds to the instant with the body starts, and t = 2 u/g corresponds to the time when the
2u
particle after attaining the greatest height reaches the starting point.  Time of flight  .
g

7. Laws of Motion.

(1) Newton’s laws of motion

(i) First law: Everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line except when it
is compelled by external impressed forces to change that state.

(ii) Second law: The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the impressed force, and takes
place in the direction of the straight line in which the force acts.
d dv dv
(mv)  F  m F  m  KF  F  mf (for K  1)
dt dt dt
Force = mass  acceleration. The S.I. unit of force is Newton and C.G.S. unit of force is dyne.
8
1 Newton = 1 kg-m/sec2, 1 Dyne = 1 gm-cm/sec2

(iii) Third law: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, or the actions and reaction are
always equal and opposite.

Note: 1 Newton = 105 Dynes.

The action and reaction do not act together on the same body or the same part of the body.

(2) Weight: The weight of a body is the force with which it is attracted by the earth towards its centre.

For a body of mass m, the weight W is given by W  mg (By Newton's second law of motion)

Note: Let W1 and W2 be the weights of two bodies of masses m 1 and m 2 respectively at a place on the earth
W1 m 1
then, W1  m 1 g and W2  m 2 g  
W2 m 2

1 gm.wt. = g dynes = 981 dynes

1 kg. wt. = g Newtons = 9.81 N.

(3) Momentum of a body: It is the quantity of motion in a body and is equal to the product of its mass (m)
and velocity (v) with which it moves. Thus, momentum of the body is mv. The units of momentum are gm-
cm/sec or kg-m/sec.

Momentum = Mass × Velocity = m.v.

(4) Impulse of a body: The impulse of a force in a given time is equal to the product of the force and
the time during which it acts. The impulse of a force F acting for a time t is therefore F.t.

9
8. Motion of a Body released from a Balloon or a Lift.

(1) When a lift is ascending with uniform acceleration of f m/sec2 and after t second a body is dropped
from it, then at the time when the body is dropped:
(i) Initial velocity of the body is same as that of the lift and is in the same direction. So, the velocity of the
body is ft m/sec.
(ii) Initial velocity of the body relative to the lift = Velocity of the body – Velocity of the lift = ft – ft = 0
(iii) Acceleration of the body = g m/sec2 in downward direction.
(iv) Acceleration of the lift = f m/sec2 in upward direction.
(v) Acceleration of the body relative to the lift
= Acceleration of the body – Acceleration of the lift = g – (– f) = f + g in downward direction.

(2) When a lift is ascending with uniform acceleration of f m / sec 2 and after t second a body is thrown
vertically upward with velocity v m / sec , then at that time, we have the following :
(i) Initial velocity of the body = v + velocity of lift = v + ft, in upward direction
(ii) Initial velocity of the body relative to the lift = Velocity of the body – Velocity of lift = (v + ft) – ft = v
m/sec.
(iii) Acceleration of the body relative to the lift in vertically downward direction is (f + g) m/sec2.

(3) When a lift is descending with uniform acceleration f m / sec 2 and after time t a body is dropped
from it. Then at that time, we have the following

(i) Velocity of the body = Velocity of the lift = ft m/sec in downward direction
(ii) Acceleration of the body relative to the lift in downward direction = Acceleration of the body –
Acceleration of lift = g  f m / sec 2

10
9. Apparent weight of a Body resting on a moving Horizontal plane or a Lift.

Let a body of mass m be placed in a lift moving with an acceleration f and R is the normal reaction, then

(1) When the lift is rising vertically upwards: Effective force in upward direction = Sum of the external
forces in the same direction.
 mf  R  Mg  R  m( f  g)
Clearly, the pressure R exerted by the body on the plane is greater than the actual weight mg of the
body. This pressure is also known as apparent weight.
If a man of mass m is standing on a lift which is moving vertically upwards with an acceleration, then
 f R
R  m(g  f )  R  mg 1  
 g
f

 f
 R = (weight of the man)  1  
 g
mg
f
 R = Weight of the man + (weight of the man)
g

f
Thus, the apparent weight of the man is times more than the actual weight.
g

(2) When the lift is descending vertically downwards: Effective force in downward direction = Sum of
the forces in the same direction. R

 mf  mg  R  R  m(g  f ) ......(ii)

mg

Clearly, the pressure exerted by the body on the plane is less than its actual weight when the plane
moves vertically downwards.

11
If a man of mass m in is standing on a lift, which is moving vertically downward with an acceleration f,
 f f
then the pressure R  m(g  f ) = mg  1    R = weight of the man – (weight of the man)
 g g

f
Thus, the apparent weight of the man is times less than his actual weight.
g R

Note: Effective force stopping a falling body = F  mg Sand

mg
If R be the resistance of sand on a body of mass m falling in sand, then effective
force = R  mg .

Important Tips

 If the plane moves vertically upward with retardation equal to g i.e., f   g , then from R  m( f  g) , we
get R  0 . Thus there is no pressure of the body on the plane when the plane rises vertically with
retardation equal to g.
 If the plane moves down freely under gravity i.e., with acceleration equal to g, then from R  m(g  f ) ,
we get R  0 . Thus there is no pressure of the body on the plane, when it moves vertically
downwards with an acceleration equal to g.

12
10. Motion of two particles connected by a String.

(1) Two particles hanging vertically : If two particles of masses m 1 and m 2 (m 1  m 2 ) are suspended
freely by a light inextensible string which passes over a smooth fixed light pulley, then the particle of
(m  m 2 )g
mass m 1 ( m 2 ) will move downwards, with Acceleration f  1
m1  m 2
2m 1 m 2 g f
Tension in the string T  f
m1  m 2
T
4m1m 2 g T
Pressure on the pulley  2T 
m1  m 2

m2g m1g

(2) One particle on smooth horizontal table : A particle of mass m 1 attached at one end of light
inextensible string is hanging vertically, the string passes over a pulley at the end of a smooth horizontal
table, and a particle of mass m 2 placed on the table is attached at the other end of the string. Then for
the system,
m1 g
Acceleration f 
m1  m 2 f

T T
m m g
Tension in the string T  1 2
m1  m 2 f T

T
2m 1 m 2 g
Pressure on the pulley  T 2  .
m1  m 2 m1g m2g

(3) One particle on an inclined plane: A particle of mass m 1 attached at one end of a light inextensible
string is hanging vertically, the string passes over a pulley at the end of a smooth plane inclined at an
angle  to the horizontal, and a particle of mass m 2 placed on this inclined plane is attached at the
other end of the string. If the particle of mass m 1 moves vertically downwards, then for the system,
(m 1  m 2 sin  )
Acceleration f  g
m1  m 2 f
f
m m (1  sin  )
Tension in the string T  1 2 g
m1  m 2 m2g sin

m2g m1g

13
 2m 1 m 2 g(1  sin  )3 / 2
Pressure on the pulley  {2(1  sin  )}T 
m1  m 2

11. Impact of Elastic Bodies.

(1) Elasticity: It is that property of bodies by virtue of which they can be compressed and after
compression they recover or tend to recover their original shape. Bodies possessing this property are
called elastic bodies.

(2) Law of conservation of momentum: It states “the total momentum of two bodies remains constant
after their collision of any other mutual action.” Mathematically m 1 .u1  m 2 .u 2  m 1 .v1  m 2 .v 2
Where m 1  mass of the first body, u1  initial velocity of the first body, v 1  final velocity of the first
body.
m 2 , u 2 , v 2  Corresponding values for the second body.

(3) Coefficient of restitution: This constant ratio is denoted by e and is called the coefficient of
restitution or coefficient of elasticity. The values of e varies between the limits 0 and 1. The value of e
depends upon the substances of the bodies and is independent of the masses of the bodies. If the
bodies are perfectly elastic, then e  1 and for inelastic bodies e  0 .

(4) Impact: When two bodies strike against each other, they are said to have an impact. It is of two
kinds: Direct and Oblique.

(5) Newton's experimental law of impact: It states that when two elastic bodies collide, their relative
velocity along the common normal after impact bears a constant ratio of their relative velocity before
impact and is in opposite direction.
If u 1 and u 2 be the velocities of the two bodies before impact along the common normal at their point
of contact and v 1 and v 2 be their velocities after impact in the same direction, v1  v 2  e(u1  u 2 )

Case I: If the two bodies move in direction shown in diagram given below, then
(a) v1  v 2  e(u1  u 2 ) and (b) m 1v1  m 2 v 2  m 1u1  m 2 u 2
u1 m1 v1 u2 m2 v2

A B

14
Case II: If the direction of motion of two bodies before and after the impact are as shown below, then by
the laws of direct impact, we have
(a) v1  v 2  e[u1  (u 2 )] or v1  v 2  e(u1  u 2 )
and (b) m 1v1  m 2 v 2  m 1u1  m 2 (u 2 ) or m 1v1  m 2 v 2  m 1u1  m 2 u 2
u1 m1 v1 u2 m2 v2

Case III: If the two bodies move in directions as shown below, then by the laws of direct impact, we have
(a) v1  (v 2 )  e[u1  (u 2 )] or v1  v 2  e(u 2  u1 )
and (b) m 1v1  m 2 (v 2 )  m 1 (u1 )  m 2 (u 2 ) or m 1 v1  m 2 v 2  (m 1 u1  m 2 u 2 )
u1 m1 v1 u2 m2 v2

A B

(6) Direct impact of two smooth spheres: Two smooth spheres of masses m 1 and m 2 moving along
their line of centres with velocities u 1 and u 2 (measured in the same sense) impinge directly. To find
their velocities immediately after impact, e being the coefficient of restitution between them.
Let v 1 and v 2 be the velocities of the two spheres immediately after impact, measured along their line of
centres in the same direction in which u 1 and u 2 are measured. As the u1

spheres are smooth, the impulsive action and reaction between them will be u2
along the common normal at the point of contact. From the principle of
conservation of momentum, m1 m2

m 1 v 1  m 2 v 2  m 1 u1  m 2 u 2 …..(i)
Also from Newton’s experimental law of impact of two bodies, v2
v 2  v1  e[u1  u 2 ] …..(ii) v1

Multiplying (ii) by m 2 and subtracting from (i), we get

 (m 1  m 2 )v1  (m 1  em 2 )u1  m 2 u 2 (1  e )
(m 1  em 2 )u 1  m 2 u 2 (1  e )
 v1  …..(iii)
m1  m 2

(7) Oblique impact of two spheres: A smooth spheres of mass m 1 , impinges with a velocity u 1
obliquely on a smooth sphere of mass m 2 moving with a velocity u 2 . If the direction of motion before
impact make angles  and  respectively with the line joining the centers of the spheres, and if the
coefficient of restitution be e, to find the velocity and directions of motion after impact.

15
Let the velocities of the sphere after impact be v 1 and v 2 in directions inclined at angles  and 
respectively to the line of centres. Since the spheres are smooth,
there is no force perpendicular to the line joining the centres of
u1 u2
the two balls and therefore, velocities in that direction are
 m1  m2
unaltered. O  O 

v2
v1 sin   u1 sin  …..(i) v1
v 2 sin   u 2 sin  …..(ii)
And by Newton’s law, along the line of centres,
v 2 cos   v 1 cos   e(u 2 cos   u1 cos  ) …..(iii)
Again, the only force acting on the spheres during the impact is along the line of centres. Hence the total
momentum in that direction is unaltered.
 m 1 v 1 cos   m 2 v 2 cos   m 1 u1 cos   m 2 u 2 cos  …..(iv)
The equations (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) determine the unknown quantities.

(8) Impact of a smooth sphere on a fixed smooth plane: Let a smooth sphere of mass m moving with
velocity u in a direction making an angle  with the vertical strike a fixed smooth horizontal plane and
let v be the velocity of the sphere at an angle  to the vertical after impact.
Since, both the sphere and the plane are smooth, so there is no change in velocity parallel to the horizontal
plane.
 v sin   u sin  …..(i) N
And by Newton’s law, along the normal CN, velocity of separation u v

= e.(velocity of approach)  
 v cos  0  eu cos  o m
v cos   eu cos  ….(ii)
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get cot   e cot  c

Particular case: If   0 then from (i), v sin   0  sin   0

  0 ;  v  0 and from (ii) v  eu
Thus if a smooth sphere strikes a smooth horizontal plane normally, then it will rebound along the
normal with velocity, e times the velocity of impact i.e. velocity of rebound = e.(velocity before impact).
Rebounds of a particle on a smooth plane: If a smooth ball falls from a height h upon a fixed smooth
horizontal plane, and if e is the coefficient of restitution, then whole time before the rebounding ends
 2h  1  e
   .
 g  1e
1e2
And the total distance described before finishing rebounding  h.
1e2
16
12. Projectile Motion.

When a body is thrown in the air, not vertically upwards but making an acute angle  with the
horizontal, then it describes a curved path and this path is a Parabola.
The body so projected is called a projectile. The curved path described by the body is called its
trajectory.

Y
The path of a projectile is a parabola whose equation is v sin 
u v
2
gx 
y  x tan   v cos
2u 2 cos 2 
 u 2 sin  cos  u 2 sin 2  
Its vertex is A , .
 
 g 2 g  O X
L B
 u sin 2  u cos 2 
2 2
Focus is S  , 

 2g 2g 

(1) Some important deductions about projectile motion: Let a particle is projected with velocity u in
a direction making angle  with OX . Let the particle be at a point P(x , y) after time t and v be its
velocity making an angle  with OX .
2u sin 
(i) Time of flight 
g

u 2 sin 2
(ii) Range of flight i.e., Horizontal Range R 
g

u2 
Maximum horizontal Range  and this happens, when  
g 4

u 2 sin 2 
(iii) Greatest height 
2g

u sin 
Time taken to reach the greatest height 
g

1 2
(iv) Let P(x , y) be the position of the particle at time t. Then x  (u cos  ) t , y  (u sin  ) t  gt
2

dx
(v) Horizontal velocity at time t   u cos 
dt

17
 dy
Vertical velocity at time t   u sin   gt
dt

 u sin   gt 
(vi) Resultant velocity at time t  u 2  2ugt sin   g 2 t 2 . And its direction is   tan 1  
 u cos  
(vii) Velocity of the projectile at the height h  u 2  2 gh and its direction is
 u 2 sin 2   2 gh 
  tan 1  
 u cos  
 

(2) Range and time of flight on an inclined plane

Y u

R A
 (R cos  ,R sin )

O X

Let OX and OY be the coordinate axes and OA be the inclined plane at an angle  to the horizon OX.
Let a particle be projected from O with initial velocity u inclined at an angle  with the horizontal OX.

gx 2
The equation of the trajectory is y  x tan   2 .
2u cos 2 

(i) Range and time of flight on an inclined plane with angle of inclination  are given by

2u 2 cos  sin(   ) u2 
R and maximum range up the plane  , where 2   
g cos 2  g(1  sin  ) 2

2u sin(   )
(ii) Time of flight T 
g cos 

2u 2 cos  sin(   )
(iii) Range down the plane 
g cos 2 

u2 
(iv) Maximum range down the plane  , where 2   
g(1  sin  ) 2

2u sin(   )
(v) Time of flight  , down the plane
g cos 

(vi) Condition that the particle may strike the plane at right angles is cot   2 tan(   ) .

18
13. Work, Power and Energy.

(1) Work: Work is said to be done by a force when its point of application undergoes a displacement. In
other words, when a body is displaced due to the action of a force, then the force is said to do work.
Work is a scalar quantity.
d
Work done = force  displacement of body in the direction of force 
 
W  F.d A F

W  F d cos  , where  is the angle between F and d.

(2) Power: The rate of doing work is called power. It is the amount of work that an agent is capable of
doing in a unit time. 1 watt = 107 ergs per sec = 1 joule per sec., 1 H.P. = 746 watt.

(3) Energy: Energy of a body is its capacity for doing work and is of two kinds:

(i) Kinetic energy: Kinetic energy is the capacity for doing work which a moving body possesses by
virtue of its motion and is measured by the work which the body can do against any force applied to
1
stop it, before the velocity is destroyed. K. E.  mv 2
2

(ii) Potential energy: The potential energy of a body is the capacity for doing work which it possesses
by virtue of its position of configuration. P. E.  mgh.

19
Mathematics

Numerical Methods
Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Significant digits and Rounding off of numbers.
3. Error due to rounding off of numbers.
4. Truncation and error due to truncation of numbers.
5. Relative and percentage errors of numbers.
6. Algebraic and transcendental equation.
7. Location of real roots of an equation.
8. Position of real roots.
9. Solution of algebraic and transcendental equations.
10. Numerical integration.

1
1. Introduction.

The limitations of analytical methods have led the engineers and scientists to evolve graphical and
numerical methods. The graphical methods, though simple, give results to a low degree of accuracy.
Numerical methods can, however, be derived which are more accurate.

2. Significant digits and Rounding off of Numbers.

(1) Significant digits: The significant digits in a number are determined by the following rules:

(i) All non-zero digits in a number are significant.

(ii) All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant.

(iii) If a number having embedded decimal point ends with a non-zero or a sequences of zeros, then all
these zeros are significant digits.

(iv) All zeros preceding a non-zero digit are non-significant.

Number Number of significant digits

3.0450 5
0.0025 2
102.030070 9
35.9200 6
0.0002050 4
20.00 4
2000 1

2
(2) Rounding off of numbers: If a number is to be rounded off to n significant digits, then we follow the
following rules :

(i) Discard all digits to the right of the nth digit.

(ii) If the (n+1)th digit is greater then 5 or it is 5 followed by a nonzero digit, then nth digit is increased
by 1. If the (n+1)th digit is less then 5, then digit remains unchanged.

(iii) If the (n+1)th digit is 5 and is followed by zero or zeros, then nth digit is increased by 1 if it is odd
and it remains unchanged if it is even.

3. Error due to Rounding off of Numbers.

If a number is rounded off according to the rules, the maximum error due to rounding does not exceed
the one half of the place value of the last retained digit in the number.
The difference between a numerical value X and its rounded value X1 is called round off error is given by
E  X  X1 .

4. Truncation and Error due to Truncation of Numbers.

Leaving out the extra digits that are not required in a number without rounding off, is called truncation
or chopping off.
The difference between a numerical value X and its truncated value X1 is called truncation error and is
given by E  X  X 1 .
The maximum error due to truncation of a number cannot exceed the place value of the last retained
digit in the number.

Remark 1: In truncation the numerical value of a positive number is decreased and that of a negative
number is increased.

Remark 2: If we round off a large number of positive numbers to the same number of decimal places,
then the average error due to rounding off is zero.

3
Remark 3: In case of truncation of a large number of positive numbers to the same number of decimal
places the average truncation error is one half of the place value of the last retained digit.
Remark 4: If the number is rounded off and truncated to the same number of decimal places, then
truncation error is greater than the round off error.

Remark 5: Round of error may be positive or negative but truncation error is always positive in case of
positive numbers and negative in case of negative numbers.

Number Approximated number obtained by

Chopping off Rounding off
0.335217... 0.3352 0.3352
0.666666... 0.6666 0.6667
0.123451... 0.1234 0.1235
0.213450... 0.2134 0.2134
0.213950... 0.2139 0.2140
0.335750... 0.3357 0.3358
0.999999... 0.9999 1.0000
0.555555... 0.5555 0.5556

5. Relative and Percentage errors of Numbers.

The difference between the exact value of a number X and its approximate value X1, obtained by
rounding off or truncation, is known as absolute error.
X  X1
The quantity is called the relative error and is denoted by E R .
X
X  X 1 X
Thus E R   . This is a dimensionless quantity.
X X
X X
The quantity  100 is known as percentage error and is denoted by E p , i.e. E p   100 .
X X
Remark 1: If a number is rounded off to n decimal digits, then | E R |  0.5  10 n1

Remark 2: If a number is truncated to n decimal places, then | E R |  10 n1

4
6. Algebraic and Transcendental Equation.

An equation of the form f(x)=0, is said to an algebraic or a transcendental equation according as f(x) is a
polynomial or a transcendental function respectively.
e.g. ax 2  bx  c  0 , ax 3  bx 2  cx  d  0 etc., where a, b, c, d  Q, are algebraic equations whereas
ae x  b sin x  0 ; a log x  bx  3 etc. are transcendental equations.

7. Location of real Roots of an Equation.

By location of a real root of an equation, we mean finding an approximate value of the root graphically or
otherwise.

(1) Graphical Method: It is often possible to write f (x )  0 in the form f1 (x )  f2 (x ) and then plot the
graphs of the functions y  f1 (x ) and y  f2 (x ) .

Y
y=f2(x) y=f1(x)
P

X X
O A real root of
Y
f1(x) = f2(x)

The abscissae of the points of intersection of these two graphs are the real roots of f (x )  0 .

(2) Location Theorem: Let y  f (x ) be a real-valued, continuous function defined on [a, b]. If f (a) and f(b)
Y
y = fx
A real root of
f(a) f(x) = 0

X a X
O b
f(b)
Y

have opposite signs i.e. f(a).f(b) < 0, then the equation f(x)=0 has at least one real root between a and b.

5
8. Position of Real Roots.

If f (x )  0 be a polynomial equation and x 1 , x 2 .......... .. x k are the consecutive real roots of f (x )  0 , then
positive or negative sign of the values of f (), f (x )......... ..... f (x k ), f() will determine the intervals in
which the root of f (x )  0 will lie whenever there is a change of sign from f (x r ) to f (x r 1 ) the root lies in
the interval [x r , x r 1 ] .

9. Solution of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations.

There are many numerical methods for solving algebraic and transcendental equations. Some of these
methods are given below. After locating root of an equation, we successively approximate it to any desired
degree of accuracy.

(1) Iterative method: If the equation f(x) = 0 can be expressed as x = g(x) (certainly g(x) is non-constant),
the value g(x0) of g(x) at x  x 0 is the next approximation to the root  . Let g(x 0 )  x 1 , then x 2  g(x 1 ) is
a third approximation to  . This process is repeated until a number, whose absolute difference from  is
as small as we please, is obtained. This number is the required root of f (x )  0 , calculated upto a desired
accuracy.
Thus, if x i is an approximation to  , then the next approximation x i1  g(x i ) ........(i)
The relation (i) is known as Iterative formula or recursion formula and this method of approximating a real
root of an equation f (x )  0 is called iterative method.
Y
y=f(x)

(2) Successive bisection method: This method consists in locating the root
a x2
of the equation f (x )  0 between a and b. If f(x) is continuous between a O
x3 x1 b
X

and b, and f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs i.e. f(a).f(b)<0, then there is
(at least one) root between a and b. For definiteness, let f(a) be negative and
1
f(b) be positive. Then the first approximation to the root x 1  (a  b) .
2

6
Working Rule:

(i) Find f (a) by the above formula.

ab
(ii) Let f (a) be negative and f (b) be positive, then take x 1  .
2

(iii) If f (x 1 )  0 , then c is the required root or otherwise if f (x 1 ) is negative then root will be in (x 1 , b) and
if f (x 1 ) is positive then root will be in (a, x 1 ) .

(iv) Repeat it until you get the root nearest to the actual root.

Note: This method of approximation is very slow but it is reliable and can be applied to any type of algebraic
or transcendental equations.

This method may give a false root if f (x ) is discontinuous on [a, b].

(3) Method of false position or Regula-Falsi method: This is the oldest method of finding the real root
of an equation f (x )  0 and closely resembles the bisection method. Y
A[x0, f(x0)]
Here we choose two points x 0 and x 1 such that f (x 0 ) and f (x 1 ) are of
opposite signs i.e. the graph of y  f (x ) crosses the x-axis between these
x3 x2 x1
points. This indicates that a root lies between x 0 and x 1 consequently O x0 p(x)
X

f (x 0 ) f (x 1 )  0 . B[x1, f(x1)]

Equation of the chord joining the points A[x 0 , f (x 0 )] and B[x 1 , f (x 1 )] is

f (x 1 )  f (x 0 )
y  f (x 0 )  (x  x 0 ) ........(i)
x1  x 0
The method consists in replacing the curve AB by means of the chord AB and taking the point of
intersection of the chord with the x-axis as an approximation to the root. So the abscissa of the point
x1  x 0
where the chord cuts the x-axis (y  0) is given by x 2  x 0  f (x 0 ) .........(ii)
f (x 1 )  f (x 2 )
Which is an approximation to the root.
If now f (x 0 ) and f (x 2 ) are of opposite signs, then the root lies between x 0 and x 2 . So replacing x 1 by
x 2 in (ii), we obtain the next approximation x 3 . (The root could as well lie between x 1 and x 2 and we

7
would obtain x 3 accordingly). This procedure is repeated till the root is found to desired accuracy. The
iteration process based on (i) is known as the method of false position.

Working rule

(i) Calculate f (x 0 ) and f (x 1 ) , if these are of opposite sign then the root lies between x 0 and x 1 .

(ii) Calculate x 2 by the above formula.

(iii) Now if f (x 2 )  0 , then x 2 is the required root.

(iv) If f (x 2 ) is negative, then the root lies in (x 2 , x 1 ) .

(v) If f (x 2 ) is positive, then the root lies in (x 0 , x 2 ) .

(vi) Repeat it until you get the root nearest to the real root.

Note: This method is also known as the method of false position.

The method may give a false root or may not converge if either a and b are not sufficiently close to
each other or f (x ) is discontinuous on [a, b].

Geometrically speaking, in this method, part of the curve between the points P(a, f(a)) and Q (b, f(b)) is replaced by
the secant PQ and the point of intersection of this secant with x-axis gives an approximate value of the root.

It converges more rapidly than bisection.

(4) Newton-Raphson method: Let x 0 be an approximate root of the equation f (x )  0 . If x 1  x 0  h be

the exact root, then f (x 1 )  0
 Expanding f (x 0  h) by Taylor's series
h2
f (x 0 )  hf ' (x 0 )  f ' ' (x 0 )  .......  0
2!
Since h is small, neglecting h 2 and higher powers of h, we get
f (x 0 )  hf ' (x 0 )  0

8
 f (x 0 )
or h ........(i)
f ' (x 0 )
 A closer approximation to the root is given by
f (x 0 )
x1  x 0 
f ' (x 0 )
Similarly, starting with x 1 , a still better approximation x 2 is given by
f (x 1 )
x 2  x1 
f ' (x 1 )
f (x n )
In general, x n 1  x n  ........(ii)
f ' (x n )
Which is known as the Newton-Raphson formula or Newton's iteration formula.

Working rule:

(i) Find | f (a)| and | f (b)| . If | f (a)|  | f (b)| , then let a  x 0 , otherwise b  x 0 .

f (x 0 )
(ii) Calculate x 1  x 0 
f ' (x 0 )

(iii) x 1 is the required root if f (x 1 )  0 .

(iv) To find nearest to the real root, repeat it.

Note: Geometrically speaking, in Newton-Raphson method, the part of the graph of the function y  f (x ) between
the point P(a, f (a)) and the x-axis is replaced by a tangent to the curve at the point at each step in the
approximation process.
 This method is very useful for approximating isolated roots.
 The Newton-Raphson method fails if f ' (x ) is difficult to compute or vanishes in a neighbourhood of the
desired root. In such cases, the Regula-Falsi method should be used.
 The Newton-Raphson method is widely used since in a neighbourhood of the desired root, it converges more
rapidly than the bisection method or the Regula-Falsi method.
 If the starting value a is not close enough to the desired root, the method may give a false root or may not
converge.
 If f (x 0 ) / f ' (x 0 ) is not sufficiently small, this method does not work. Also if it work, it works faster.

9
Geometrical Interpretation
Let x 0 be a point near the root  of the equation f (x )  0 . Then the equation of the tangent at
A0 [x 0 , f (x 0 )] is y  f (x 0 )  f ' (x 0 )(x  x 0 ) . Y
f (x 0 ) A[x0, f(x0)]
It cuts the x-axis at x 1  x 0  y= f(x)
f ' (x 0 )
A1
A2
x2 x1 X
O


Which is a first approximation to the root  . If A1 is the point corresponding to x 1 on the curve, then
the tangent at A1 will cut the x-axis of x 2 which is nearer to  and is, therefore, a second
approximation to the root. Repeating this process, we approach to the root  quite rapidly. Hence the
method consists in replacing the part of the curve between the point A 0 and the x-axis by means of the
tangent to the curve at A 0 .

10. Numerical Integration.

It is the process of computing the value of a definite integral when we are given a set of numerical
values of the integrand f(x) corresponding to some values of the independent variable x.
b

If I  y .dx . Then I represents the area of the region R under the curve y  f (x ) between the ordinates
a

x  a, x  b and the x-axis.

(1) Trapezoidal rule

Let y  f (x ) be a function defined on [a, b] which is divided into n equal sub-intervals each of width h so
that b  a  nh .
Let the values of f (x ) for (n  1) equidistant arguments x 0  a, x 1  x 0  h, x 2  x 0  2h,......., x n 
x 0  nh  b be y 0 , y1 , y 2 ,......... y n respectively.
x 0 nh 1  h
y dx  h  (y 0  y n )  (y 1  y 2  ......  y n 1 )  (y 0  y n )  2(y 1  y 2  ......  y n 1 )
b
Then  f (x )dx  
a x0 2  2
This rule is known as Trapezoidal rule.
The geometrical significance of this rule is that the curve y  f (x ) is replaced by n straight lines joining
the points (x 0 , y 0 ) and (x 1 , y 1 ) ; (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) ; (x n1 , y n1 ) and (x n , y n ) . The area bounded by the
curve y  f (x ) . The ordinate x  x 0 and x  x n and the x-axis, is then approximately equivalent to the
sum of the areas of the n trapeziums obtained.
10
(2) Simpson's one third rule: Let y  f (x ) be a function defined on [a, b] which is divided into n (an
even number) equal parts each of width h so that b  a  nh .

Suppose the function y  f (x ) attains values y 0 , y1 , y 2 ,......... . y n at n  1 equidistant points

x 0  a, x 1  x 0  h , x 2  x 0  2h,......... .., x n  x 0  nh  b respectively. Then

b x 0 nh h
a
f (x )dx  
x0
ydx 
3
[(y 0  y n )  4 (y 1  y 3  y 5  ....  y n 1 )  2(y 2  y 4  ...  y n 2 )]

= (one-third of the distance between two consecutive ordinates)

 [(sum of the extreme ordinates)+4(sum of odd ordinates)+2(sum of even ordinates)]

This formula is known as Simpson's one-third rule. Its geometric significance is that we replace the graph
n
of the given function by arcs of second degree polynomials, or parabolas with vertical axes. It is to
2
note here that the interval [a, b] is divided into an even number of subinterval of equal width.

Simpson's rule yield more accurate results than the trapezoidal rule. Small size of interval gives more
accuracy.

11
Mathematics

Linear Programming
Table of Content

1. Linear inequations.
2. Terms of Linear Programming.
3. Mathematical formulation of a linear programming
problem.
4. Graphical solution of two variable linear programming
problem.
5. To find the vertices of simple feasible region without
drawing a graph.
6. Problems having infeasible solutions.
7. Some important points about L.P.P.
8. Advantages and Limitations of L.P.P.

1
‘Linear Programming’ is a scientific tool to handle optimization problems. Here, we shall learn about some
basic concepts of linear programming problems in two variables, their applications, advantages,
limitations, formulation and graphical method of solution.

1. Linear Inequations.

(1) Graph of linear inequations

(i) Linear Inequation in one variable: ax  b  0, ax  b  0, cy  d  0 etc. are called linear inequations in
one variable. Graph of these inequations can be drawn as follows:
Y

X X
O
ax+b<0 ax+b>0
Y

Y cy+d>0

X X
cy+d<0

Y

The graph of ax  b  0 and ax  b  0 are obtained by dividing xy-plane in two semi-planes by the line
b
x   (which is parallel to y-axis). Similarly for cy  d  0 and cy  d  0 .(ii) Linear Inequation in two
a
variables : General form of these Inequations are ax  by  c, ax  by  c . If any ordered pair x 1 , y 1 
satisfies some Inequations, then it is said to be a solution of the inequations.
The graph of these inequations is given below (for c > 0) :
Y

ax+by=c
ax+by<c
X X
O
ax+by>c

Y

2
Working rule

To draw the graph of an inequation, following procedure is followed:

(i) Write the equation ax  by  c in place of ax  by  c and ax  by  c .
(ii) Make a table for the solutions of ax  by  c .
(iii) Now draw a line with the help of these points. This is the graph of the line ax  by  c .
(iv) If the inequation is > or <, then the points lying on this line is not considered and line is drawn
dotted or discontinuous.
(v) If the inequation is > or <, then the points lying on the line is considered and line is drawn bold or
continuous.
(vi) This line divides the plane XOY in two region.
To Find the region that satisfies the inequation, we apply the following rules:
(a) Take an arbitrary point which will be in either region.
(b) If it satisfies the given inequation, then the required region will be the region in which the arbitrary point is
located.
(c) If it does not satisfy the inequation, then the other region is the required region.
(d) Draw the lines in the required region or make it shaded.

(2) Simultaneous linear inequations in two variables: Since the solution set of a system of
simultaneous linear inequations is the set of all points in two dimensional space which satisfy all the
inequations simultaneously. Therefore to find the solution set we find the region of the plane common
to all the portions comprising the solution set of given inequations. In case there is no region common
to all the solutions of the given inequations, we say that the solution set is void or empty.

(3) Feasible region: The limited (bounded) region of the graph made by two inequations is called
feasible region. All the points in feasible region constitute the solution of a system of inequations. The
feasible solution of a L.P.P. belongs to only first quadrant. If feasible region is empty then there is no
solution for the problem.

3
2. Terms of Linear Programming.

The term programming means planning and refers to a process of determining a particular program.

(1) Objective function: The linear function which is to be optimized (maximized or minimized) is called
objective function of the L.P.P.

(2) Constraints or Restrictions: The conditions of the problem expressed as simultaneous equations or
inequalities are called constraints or restrictions.

(3) Non-negative Constraints: Variables applied in the objective function of a linear programming problem
are always non-negative. The ineqaulities which represent such constraints are called non-negative
constraints.

(4) Basic variables: The m variables associated with columns of the m × n non-singular matrix which
may be different from zero, are called basic variables.

(5) Basic solution: A solution in which the vectors associated to m variables are linear and the remaining
(n  m ) variables are zero, is called a basic solution. A basic solution is called a degenerate basic solution,
if at least one of the basic variables is zero and basic solution is called non-degenerate, if none of the
basic variables is zero.

(6) Feasible solution: The set of values of the variables which satisfies the set of constraints of linear
programming problem (L.P.P) is called a feasible solution of the L.P.P.

(7) Optimal solution: A feasible solution for which the objective function is minimum or maximum is
called optimal solution.

(8) Iso-profit line : The line drawn in geometrical area of feasible region of L.P.P. for which the objective
function remains constant at all the points lying on the line, is called iso-profit line.
If the objective function is to be minimized then these lines are called iso-cost lines.

4
(9) Convex set: In linear programming problems feasible solution is generally a polygon in first quadrant
. This polygon is convex. It means if two points of polygon are connecting by a line, then the line must
be inside to polygon. For example,

A A

B B

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Figure (i) and (ii) are convex set while (iii) and (iv) are not convex set

3. Mathematical formulation of a linear programming problem.

There are mainly four steps in the mathematical formulation of a linear programming problem, as
mathematical model. We will discuss formulation of those problems which involve only two variables.

(1) Identify the decision variables and assign symbols x and y to them. These decision variables are those
quantities whose values we wish to determine.

(2) Identify the set of constraints and express them as linear equations/inequations in terms of the
decision variables. These constraints are the given conditions.

(3) Identify the objective function and express it as a linear function of decision variables. It might take
the form of maximizing profit or production or minimizing cost.

(4) Add the non-negativity restrictions on the decision variables, as in the physical problems, negative
values of decision variables have no valid interpretation.

5
4. Graphical solution of two variable linear programming problem.

There are two techniques of solving an L.P.P. by graphical method. These are:

(1) Corner point method,

(2) Iso-profit or Iso-cost method.

(1) Corner point method

Working rule

(i) Formulate mathematically the L.P.P.

(ii) Draw graph for every constraint.
(iii) Find the feasible solution region.
(iv) Find the coordinates of the vertices of feasible solution region.
(v) Calculate the value of objective function at these vertices.
(vi) Optimal value (minimum or maximum) is the required solution.

Note: If there is no possibility to determine the point at which the suitable solution found, then the solution of
problem is unbounded.
If feasible region is empty, then there is no solution for the problem.
Nearer to the origin, the objective function is minimum and that of further from the origin, the objective function is
maximum.

(2) Iso-profit or Iso-cost method: Various steps of the method are as follows:
(i) Find the feasible region of the L.P.P.

(ii) Assign a constant value Z1 to Z and draw the corresponding line of the objective function.

(iii) Assign another value Z2 to Z and draw the corresponding line of the objective function.

(iv) If Z1  Z 2 , (Z1  Z 2 ) , then in case of maximization (minimization) move the line P1Q1 corresponding
to Z1 to the line P2Q2 corresponding to Z2 parallel to itself as far as possible, until the farthest point within the
feasible region is touched by this line. The coordinates of the point give maximum (minimum) value of the
objective function.

6
Note: The problem with more equations/inequations can be handled easily by this method.

 In case of unbounded region, it either finds an optimal solution or declares an unbounded solution. Unbounded
solutions are not considered optimal solution. In real world problems, unlimited profit or loss is not possible.

5. To find the Vertices of Simple feasible region without drawing a Graph.

(1) Bounded region: The region surrounded by the inequalities ax  by  m and cx  dy  n in first
quadrant is called bounded region. It is of the form of triangle or quadrilateral. Change these inequalities
into equation, then by putting x  0 and y  0, we get the solution also by solving the equation in
which there may be the vertices of bounded region.

The maximum value of objective function lies at one vertex in limited region.

(2) Unbounded region: The region surrounded by the Inequations ax  by  m and cx  dy  n in first
quadrant, is called unbounded region.

Change the inequation in equations and solve for x  0 and y  0 . Thus we get the vertices of feasible
region.

The minimum value of objective function lies at one vertex in unbounded region but there is no existence
of maximum value.

6. Problems having Infeasible Solutions.

In some of the linear programming problems, constraints are inconsistent i.e. there does not exist any
point which satisfies all the constraints. Such type of linear programming
problems are said to have infeasible solution.
10
9
8
For Example: Maximize Z  5 x  2y 7
6
Subject to the constraints 5
4
x  y  2 , 3 x  3y  2 , x, y  0 3
2
The above problem is illustrated graphically in the fig. 1
There is no point satisfying the set of above constraints. Thus, the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

problem is having an infeasible solution.

7
7. Some important points about L.P.P.

(1) If the constraints in a linear programming problem are changed, the problem is to be re-evaluated.

(2) The optimal value of the objective function is attained at the point, given by corner points of the feasible
region.

(3) If a L.P.P. admits two optimal solutions, it has an infinite number of optimal solutions.

(4) If there is no possibility to determine the point at which the suitable solution can be found, then the
solution of problem is unbounded.

(5) The maximum value of objective function lies at one vertex in limited region.

8. Advantages and Limitations of L.P.P.

(1) Advantages: Linear programming is used to minimize the cost of production for maximum output. In
short, with the help of linear programming models, a decision maker can most efficiently and effectively
employ his production factor and limited resources to get maximum profit at minimum cost.

(2) Limitations: (i) The linear programming can be applied only when the objective function and all the
constraints can be expressed in terms of linear equations/inequations.

(ii) Linear programming techniques provide solutions only when all the elements related to a problem can be
quantified.
(iii) The coefficients in the objective function and in the constraints must be known with certainty and
should remain unchanged during the period of study.

(iv) Linear programming technique may give fractional valued answer which is not desirable in some
problems.