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Ottomans

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The Ottoman Empire,[j] historically and colloquially known as the Turkish Empire,

[25] was an empire[k] that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and
North Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries. The empire also controlled
a southeastern region of Central Europe from the 16th to the late 17th century.[26]

The empire was founded at the end of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia in
the town of Söğüt (modern-day Bilecik Province) by the Turkoman[27] tribal leader
Osman I.[28] After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe and, with the conquest of
the Balkans, the Ottoman beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The
Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by
Mehmed II.[29]

Under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire marked the peak of
its power and prosperity, as well as the highest development of its governmental,
social, and economic systems.[30] At the beginning of the 17th century, the empire
contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later
absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of
autonomy over the course of centuries.[l] With Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul)
as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean Basin, the Ottoman
Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Middle East and Europe for six
centuries.

While the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the
death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority
of academic historians.[32] The newer academic consensus posits that the empire
continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military
throughout the 17th and for much of the 18th century.[33] However, during a long
period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of
its European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian empires.[34] The Ottomans
consequently suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries. The successful Greek War of Independence concluded with the
establishment of modern Greece as an independent state, under the London Protocol
(1830) and Treaty of Constantinople (1832). This and other defeats such as
Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)[35][36] prompted the Ottoman state to initiate a
comprehensive process of reform and modernization known as the Tanzimat. Thus, over
the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became vastly more powerful and
organized internally, despite suffering further territorial losses, especially in
the Balkans, where a number of new states emerged.[37][38][39]

The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) established the Second Constitutional Era
in the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, turning the Empire into a constitutional
monarchy, which conducted competitive multi-party elections. However, after the
disastrous Balkan Wars, the now radicalized and nationalistic CUP took over the
government in the 1913 coup d'état, creating a one-party regime. The CUP allied the
Empire with Germany, hoping to escape from the diplomatic isolation which had
contributed to its recent territorial losses, and thus joined World War I on the
side of the Central Powers.[40] While the Empire was able to largely hold its own
during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent, especially with the
Arab Revolt in its Arabian holdings. During this time, the Ottoman government
engaged in genocide against the Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks.[41] The Empire's
defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers in the
aftermath of World War I resulted in its partitioning and the loss of its southern
territories, which were divided between the United Kingdom and France. The
successful Turkish War of Independence, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk against the
occupying Allies, led to the emergence of the Republic of Turkey in the Anatolian
heartland and the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy.[42]

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