UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES

C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City

College of Technology

Program/Course : Electronic Workshop 1

Module : 1
Title : Basic Electronic Components and their Functions
Course Outcome : Assembling/disassembling electronic product.
Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of the module you should be able to:
ILO. 1.1 Discuss the basic electronic components and its functions
ILO 1.2 Identify different types of resistors, capacitors, diode, LED, transistors, indicator,
transformer, and ICs.
ILO1.3 Troubleshooting the possible cause of component failure.

Introduction:
In this module teach the fundamental operation of basic electronic components by
comparison to drawings of equivalent mechanical parts. It must be understood that the
mechanical circuits would operate much slower than their electronic counterparts and
one-to-one correlation can never be achieved. The comparisons will, however, give an
insight to each of the fundamental electronic components used in every electronic
product.

Topic:
1. RESISTORS
The electronic component known as the resistor is best described as electrical
friction. Pretend, for a moment, that electricity travels through hollow pipes like water.
Assume two pipes are filled with water and one pipe has very rough walls. It would be
easy to say that it is more difficult to push the water through the rough-walled pipe than
through a pipe with smooth walls. The pipe with rough walls could be described as
having more resistance to movement than the smooth one.

Pioneers in the field of electronics thought

electricity was some type of invisible fluid that
could flow through certain materials easily, but
had difficulty flowing through other materials.
In a way they were correct since the movement
of electrons through a material cannot be seen
by the human eye, even with the best
microscopes made. There is a similarity
between the movement of electrons in wires and
the movement of water in the pipes. For
example, if the pressure on one end of a water
pipe is increased, the amount of water that will
pass through the pipe will also increase. The
pressure on the other end of the pipe will be
indirectly related to the resistance the pipe has to the flow of water. In other words, the
pressure at the other end of the pipe will decrease if the resistance of the pipe increases.
Figure 1 shows this relationship graphically.
ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 1
MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

Electrons flow through materials when a pressure (called voltage in electronics) is

placed on one end of the material forcing the electrons to “react” with each other until
the ones on the other end of the material move out. Some materials hold on to their
electrons more than others making it more difficult for the electrons to move. These
materials have a higher resistance to the flow of electricity (called current in electronics)
than the ones that allow electrons to move easily. Therefore, early experimenters called
the materials insulators if they had very high resistance to electron flow and conductors
if they had very little resistance to electron flow. Later materials that offered a medium
amount of resistance were classified as semiconductors.

When a person designs a circuit in electronics, it is often necessary to limit the

amount of electrons or current that will move through that circuit each second. This is
similar to the way a faucet limits the amount of water that will enter a glass each second.
It would be very difficult to fill a glass without breaking it if the faucet had only two
states, wide open or off. By using the proper value of resistance in an electronic circuit
designers can limit the pressure placed on a device and thus prevent it from being
damaged or destroyed.

SUMMARY: The resistor is an electronic component that has electrical friction. This
friction opposes the flow of electrons and thus reduces the voltage (pressure) placed on
other electronic components by restricting the amount of current that can pass through it.

❖ Different types of resistors

Each type is made from different materials.
Resistors are also made to handle different
amounts of electrical power. Some resistors may
change their value when voltages are placed
across them. These are called voltage dependent
resistors or nonlinear resistors. Most resistors are
designed to change their value when the
temperature of the resistor changes. Some
resistors are also made with a control attached that
allows the user to mechanically change the
resistance. These are called variable resistors or
potentiometers. Figure 2 shows physical shapes of some different types of resistors.

➢ THE WIREWOUND RESISTOR

The first commercial resistors made
were formed by wrapping a resistive wire
around a non-conducting rod (see Figure 3).
The rod was usually made of some form of
ceramic that had the desired heat properties
since the wires could become quite hot
during use. End caps with leads attached
were then placed over the ends of the rod
making contact to the resistive wire, usually
a nickel chromium alloy.
ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 2
MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

The value of wirewound resistors remain fairly flat with increasing temperature, but
change greatly with frequency. It is also difficult to precisely control the value of the
resistor during construction so they must be measured and sorted after they are built.

➢ THE CARBON COMPOSITION RESISTOR

By grinding carbon into a fine powder
and mixing it with resin, a material can be
made with different resistive values.
Conductive leads are placed on each end of
a cylinder of this material and the unit is
then heated or cured in an oven. The body
of the resistor is then painted with an
insulating paint to prevent it from shorting
if touched by another component. The
finished resistors are then measured and
sorted by value (Figure 4). If these resistors
are overloaded by a circuit, their resistance will permanently decrease. It is important
that the power rating of the carbon composition resistor is not exceeded.

➢ CARBON FILM RESISTORS

Carbon film resistors are made by
depositing a very thin layer of carbon on a
ceramic rod. The resistor is then protected by
a flameproof jacket since this type of resistor
will burn if overloaded sufficiently. Carbon
film resistors produce less electrical noise
than carbon composition and their values are
constant at high frequencies. You can
substitute a carbon film resistor for most carbon composition resistors if the power
ratings are carefully observed. The construction of carbon film resistors require
temperatures in excess of 1,000OC.

➢ METAL OXIDE RESISTORS

Metal oxide resistors are also constructed in a similar manner as the carbon film
resistor with the exception that the film is made of tin chloride at temperatures as high as
5,000OC. Metal oxide resistors are covered with epoxy or some similar plastic coating.
These resistors are more costly than other types and therefore are only used when circuit
constraints make them necessary.

➢ METAL FILM RESISTORS

Metal film resistors are also made by depositing a film of metal (usually nickel alloy)
onto a ceramic rod. These resistors are very stable with temperature and frequency, but
cost more than the carbon film or carbon composition types. In some instances, these
resistors are cased in a ceramic tube instead of the usual plastic or epoxy coating.

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 3

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

➢ THE VARIABLE RESISTOR

When a resistor is constructed so its value can be
adjusted, it is called a variable resistor. Figure 6 shows
the basic elements present in all variable resistors. First a
resistive material is deposited on a non-conducting base.
Next, stationary contacts are connected to each end of
the resistive material. Finally, a moving contact or wiper
is constructed to move along the resistive material and
tap off the desired resistance. There are many methods
for constructing variable resistors, but they all contain
these three basic principles.

❖ RESISTOR VALUES AND MARKINGS

The unit of measure for resistance is the ohm, which is represented by the Greek
letter W. Before technology improved the process of manufacturing resistors, they were
first made and then sorted. By sorting the values into groups that represented a 5%
change in value, (resistor values are 10% apart), certain preferred values became the
standard for the electronics industry. Table 1 shows the standard values for 5% resistors.

Resistors are marked by using different colored rings around their body (see Figure
7). The first ring represents the first digit of the resistor’s value. The second ring
represents the second digit of the resistor’s value. The third ring tells you the power of
ten to multiply by. The final and fourth ring represents the tolerance. For example, gold
is for 5% resistors and silver for 10% resistors. This means the value of the resistor is
guaranteed to be within 5% or 10% of the value marked. The colors in Table 2 are used
to represent the numbers from 0 to 9.

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 4

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

Note: If the third ring is gold, you multiply the first two digits by 0.1 and if it is silver,
by 0.01. This system can identify values from 0.1W to as high as 91 x 109 , or
91,000,000,000W. The amount of power each resistor can handle is usually proportional
to the size of the resistor. Figure 8 shows the actual size and power capacity of
normal carbon film resistors, and the symbols used to represent resistors on
schematics.

SELF - TEST (RESISTORS):

Choose the letter of your choice.

1. A flow of electrons through a material:

a) Voltage b) Resistance c) Current d) Conductance
2. The pressure that pushes electrons through a material:
a) Voltage b) Current c) Conduction d) Resistance
3. A material that has very high resistance to electron flow:
a) Conductor b) Semiconductor c) Resistor d) Insulator
4. A material that allows electrons to flow easily:
a) Conductor b) Semiconductor c) Resistor d) Insulator
5. A material that produces electrical friction and restricts the flow of electrons:
a) Conductor b) Semiconductor c) Resistor d) Insulator
6. A resistor that is made by wrapping a wire around a ceramic rod:
a) Carbon Film b) Carbon Composition c) Thermistor d) Wirewound
7. A resistor made by heating powder and resin in an oven:
a) Carbon Film b) Carbon Composition c) Thermistor d) Wirewound
8. A resistor made by depositing a very thin layer of resistive material on a ceramic rod:
a) Carbon Film b) Carbon Composition c) Thermistor d) Wirewound
9. One of the preferred values for a 5% resistor:
a) 4000W b) 560W c) 77W d) 395W
10. The amount of wattage a resistor can handle is determined by:
a) Value b) Voltage c) Current d) Size

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 5

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

2. CAPACITOR
Capacitors are components that
can store electrical pressure
(Voltage) for long periods of time.
When a capacitor has a difference in
voltage (Electrical Pressure)
between its two leads it is said to be
charged. A capacitor is charged by
forcing a one way (DC) current to
flow through it for a short period of
time. It can be discharged by letting
an opposite direction current flow
out of the capacitor. Consider for a
moment the analogy of a water pipe that has a rubber diaphragm sealing off each side of
the pipe as shown in Figure 9.

If the pipe had a plunger on one end, as shown in Figure 9, and the plunger was
pushed toward the diaphragm, the water in the pipe would force the rubber to stretch out
until the force of the rubber pushing back on the water was equal to the force of the
plunger. You could say the pipe is charged and ready to push the plunger back. In fact, if
the plunger is released it will move back to its original position. The pipe will then be
discharged or with no charge on the diaphragm.

Capacitors act the same as the pipe in Figure 9. When a voltage (Electrical Pressure)
is placed on one lead with respect to the other lead, electrons are forced to “pile up” on
one of the capacitor’s plates until the voltage pushing back is equal to the voltage
applied. The capacitor is then charged to the voltage. If the two leads of that capacitor are
shorted, it would have the same effect as letting the plunger in Figure 9 move freely. The
capacitor would rapidly discharge and the voltage across the two leads would become
zero (No Charge).

What would happen if the plunger in Figure 9 was wiggled in and out many times each
second? The water in the pipe would be pushed by the diaphragm then sucked back by
the diaphragm. Since the movement of the water (Current) is back and forth
(Alternating) it is called an Alternating Current or AC. The capacitor will therefore pass
an alternating current with little resistance. When the push on the plunger was only
toward the diaphragm, the water on the other end of the diaphragm moved just enough to
charge the pipe (transient current). Just as the pipe blocked a direct push, a capacitor
clocks direct current (DC). An example of alternating current is the 60 cycle (60 wiggles
each second) current produced when you plug something into a wall outlet.

SUMMARY: A capacitor stores electrical energy when charged by a DC source. It can

pass alternating current (AC), but blocks direct current (DC) except for a very short
charging current, called transient current.

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 6

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

CAPACITORS, How are they made?

There are many different types of
capacitors used in electronics. Each
type is made from different materials
and with different methods.
Capacitors are also made to handle
different amounts of electrical
pressure or voltage. Each capacitor is
marked to show the maximum
voltage that it can withstand without
breaking down. All capacitors
contain the same fundamental parts,
which consist of two or more
conductive plates separated by a
nonconductive material. The
insulating material between the plates is called the dielectric. The basic elements
necessary to build a capacitor are shown in Figure 10.

THE METAL FOIL CAPACITOR

Perhaps the most common form of capacitor is constructed by tightly winding two foil
metal plates that are separated by sheets of paper or plastic as shown in Figure 11. By
picking the correct insulating material the value of capacitance can be increased greatly,
but the maximum working voltage is usually lowered. For this reason, capacitors are
normally identified by the type of material used as the insulator or dielectric. Consider
the water pipe with the rubber diaphragm in the center of the pipe. The diaphragm is
equivalent to the dielectric in a capacitor. If the rubber is made very soft, it will stretch
out and hold a large amount of water, but it will break easily (large capacitance, but low
working voltage). If the rubber is made very stiff, it will not stretch far, but will be able
to withstand higher pressure (low capacitance, but high working voltage). By making the
pipe larger and keeping the stiff rubber we can achieve a device that holds a large
amount of water and withstands a high amount of pressure (high capacitance, high
working voltage, large size). These three types of water pipes are illustrated in Figure 12.
The pipes follow the rule that the capacity to hold water, (Capacitance) multiplied by the
amount of pressure they can take (Voltage) determines the size of the pipe. In electronics
the CV product determines the capacitor size.

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 7

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT, What is it?

The dielectric (rubber diaphragm in the water pipe analogy) in a capacitor is the
material that can withstand electrical pressure (Voltage) without appreciable conduction
(Current). When a voltage is applied to a capacitor, energy in the form of an electric
charge is held by the dielectric. In the rubber diaphragm analogy the rubber would
stretch out and hold the water back. The energy was stored in the rubber. When the
plunger is released the rubber would release this energy and push the plunger back
toward its original position. If there was no energy lost in the rubber diaphragm, all the
energy would be recovered and the plunger would return to its original position. The
only perfect dielectric for a capacitor in which no conduction occurs and from which all
the stored energy may be recovered is a perfect vacuum. The DIELECTRIC
CONSTANT (K) is the ratio by which the capacitance is increased when another
dielectric replaces a vacuum between two plates. Table 3 shows the Dielectric Constant
of various materials.

➢ THE VARIABLE CAPACITOR

To make a variable capacitor, one set of
stationary aluminum plates are mounted to a
frame with a small space between each plate.
Another set of plates are mounted to a
movable shaft and designed to fit into the
space of the fixed plates without touching
them. The insulator or dielectric in this type of
variable capacitor is air. When the movable
plates are completely inside the fixed plates,
the device is at minimum capacitance. The
shape of the plates can be designed to achieve
the proper amount of capacitance versus
rotation for different applications. An
additional screw is added to squeeze two
insulated metal plates together (Trimmer) and thus set the minimum amount of
capacitance.

CAPACITANCE, How is it calculated?

The amount of charge a capacitor can hold (capacitance) is measured in Farads. In
practice, one farad is a very large amount of capacitance, making the most common term
ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 8
MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

used micro-farad or one millionth of a farad. There are three factors that determine the
capacitance that exist between two conductive plates:
1. The bigger the plates are (Surface Area), the higher the capacitance. Capacitance
(C) is directly proportional to Area (A).
2. The larger the distance is between the two plates, the smaller the amount of
capacitance. Capacitance (C) is indirectly proportional to distance (d).
3. The larger the value of the dielectric constant, the more capacitance (Dielectric
constant is equivalent to softness of the rubber in our pipe analogy). The capacitance (C)
is directly proportional to the Dielectric Constant (K) of the insulating material. From the
above factors, the formula for capacitance in Farads becomes:

Example Calculation for Capacitor shown in Figure

14. C = 2.24 x (1 x 1)(2 - 1) / (.01) = 224
Picofarads or 0.000224 Microfarads.
* If A and d are in centimeters change 0.224 to
0.0885.

CAPACITOR VALUES AND MARKINGS

The older styles of capacitors were
marked with colored dots or rings similar
to resistors. In recent years, the advances
in technology has made it easier to print
the value, working voltage, tolerance,
and temperature characteristics on the
body of the capacitors. Certain
capacitors use a dielectric that requires
markings to insure one lead is always
kept at a higher voltage than the other
lead. Figure 15 shows typical markings
found on different types of capacitors.
Table 4 gives the standard values used and the different methods for marking these
values.

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 9

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

Capacitor markings vary greatly from one manufacturer to another as the above table
shows. Voltages may be marked directly (200V) or coded (2D). The value of capacitance
may be marked directly on the part as shown in columns 4 and 5 (note that .001mF and
1000mF have the same marking, but the difference in size makes the value obvious). The
number 102 may also be used to represent 1000 (10+2 zeros). In some instances the
manufacturer may use an R to represent the decimal point. The tolerance is usually
printed directly on the capacitors. When it is omitted, the standard tolerance is assumed
to be +80% to –20% for electrolytics. Capacitance change with temperature is coded in
parts per million per degree C, {N220 = 220/1,000,000 or .022%}, or by a temperature
graph. See manufacturers specifications for complete details.

CAPACITOR SYMBOLS
Figure 16 shows the schematic
symbols used to represent capacitors.
The + symbol indicates that the
capacitor is polarized and the lead
marked with the + sign must always
have a higher voltage than the other
lead. The curved plate, plate with sides,
and minus sign also indicate the
capacitor is polarized and these leads must always be at a lower voltage than the other
lead. The arrow crossing through the capacitor indicates of capacitance is variable.

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 10

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

SELF - TEST (CAPACITORS):

Choose the letter of your choice.

1. A flow of electrons in one direction:

a) AC Voltage b) Direct Voltage c) Alternating Current d) Direct Current
2. When two conductive plates are moved closer together Capacitance will:
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Stay the Same d) Vary Downwards
3. The name given to the material between a capacitor’s plates:
a) Air b) Dielectric c) Conductor d) Insulator
4. Electrons flowing in and out of a wire:
a) AC Voltage b) Direct Voltage c) Alternating Current d) Direct Current
5. If the size of the conductive plates is increased, capacitance will:
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Stay the Same d) Vary Downwards
6. A capacitor will block:
a) AC Voltage b) Direct Voltage c) Alternating Current d) Direct Current
7. When electrons are forced onto one plate of a capacitor:
a) Polarization b) Discharging c) Storage d) Charging
8. A capacitor lead that is marked with a + must always be:
a) Grounded c) At higher voltage than the other lead
b) At highest voltage d) b & c
9. A small disc capacitor marked 100 has a value of:
a) 100mF b) .00001F c) 100pF d) 100F
10. A large electrolytic capacitor marked 100 has a value of:
a) 100mF b) .00001F c) 100pF d) 100F
11. If a dielectric is changed from air to distilled water the capacitance will:
a) remain the same b) increase 81 times c) decrease d) drop in half
12. A dielectric that stores energy with no loss:
a) Does not exist b) Air c) Pure Glass d) A perfect vacuum

3. INDUCTORS
The electronic component known as the inductor is best described as electrical
momentum. In our water pipe analogy the inductor would be equivalent to a very long
hose that is wrapped around itself many times (see Figure 18). If the hose is very long it
will contain many gallons of water. When pressure is applied to one end of the hose, the
thousands of gallons of water would not start to move instantly. It would take time to get
the water moving due to inertia (a body at rest wants to stay at rest). After a while the
water would start to move and pick up speed. The speed would increase until the friction
of the hose applied to the amount of pressure being applied to the water. If you try to
instantly stop the water from moving by holding the plunger, the momentum (a body in
motion wants to stay in motion) of the water would cause a large negative pressure
(Suction) that would pull the plunger from your hands.

Since Inductors are made by coiling a wire, they are often called Coils. In practice the
names Inductor and Coil are used interchangeably. From the above analogy, it is obvious
that a coiled hose will pass Direct Current (DC), since the water flow increases to equal
the resistance in the coiled hose after an elapsed period of time. If the pressure on the
plunger is alternated (pushed, then pulled) fast enough, the water in the coil will never
ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 11
MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

start moving and the Alternating Current (AC) will be blocked. The nature of a Coil in
electronics follows the same principles as the coiled hose analogy. A coil of wire will
pass DC and block AC. Recall that the nature of a Capacitor blocked DC and passed AC,
the exact opposite of a coil. Because of this, the Capacitor and Inductor are often called
Dual Components. Table 5 compares the properties of capacitors and inductors.

INDUCTORS, How are they made?

In order to understand how inductors are made,
we have to change our water pipe analogy
slightly to include the effect of magnetic fields.
Consider two pipes filled with water and small
magnets attached to the walls of the pipes with
rubber bands as shown in Figure 19. The moving
magnets, due to the original current, pull the
magnets in the second pipe and force a small
current to flow in the same direction as the
original current. When the rubber bands are fully
stretched, the induced current will stop, even
though the initial DC current is still flowing. If
the original current is an AC current however, it
will induce a continuous AC current in the
second pipe because the magnets will move back and forth, pulling the magnets in the
second pipe back and forth.

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 12

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

Consider the two coiled pipes

shown in Figure 20.When the pipe
is stretched out (increased length)
as in coil 1, the adjacent turns have
little affect on each other. In coil 2
(decreased length) the magnets in
each turn of the pipe are linking
and the amount of “apparent mass”
in the pipe seems to increase. In an
inductor, pushing the coiled wire
closer together causes the
inductance of the coil to also
increase, and stretching the coil out will lower the inductance of the coil. In other words,
the inductance of a coil is indirectly proportional to its length. If the diameter of the coil
is increased, it will take more hose to form a loop, and the amount of water will therefore
increase. More water means a larger “apparent mass”. Inductance will also increase in a
coil if the cross sectional area increases. Inductance is directly proportional to area.
Consider the affect of adding more turns to coiled pipe.
The amount of material to push (mass) is increased and the
amount of linkage is increased due to more magnets
available. This causes the “apparent mass” to increase at a
greater rate than would be expected. When making an
inductor, the actual inductance is directly proportional to
the square of the number of turns.

The final factor to consider when making a coil is the

core material at the center of the coil. If our pipe wrapped
around a material that contained many magnets, they
would also link to the magnets in the pipe. This would
increase the “apparent mass” of the water in the pipe. The
tiny magnets in the core would rotate as shown in Figure
21 and force the water to keep moving in the same
direction. Placing an iron core at the center of an inductor
will directly increase the inductance by an amount equal to
the permeability of the core material.

INDUCTANCE, How is it calculated?

Reviewing how coils are made will show the following:
1. Inductance of a coil is indirectly proportional to the length of the coil.
2. Inductance is directly proportional to the cross sectional area.
3. Inductance is proportional to the square of the number of turns.
4. Inductance is directly proportional to the permeability of the core material.

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 13

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

From the above information the formula for inductance of a simple iron core would be:

TRANSFORMERS, How are they made?

Placing different coils on the same
iron core as shown in Figure 22
produces the electronic component
known as the Transformer. If a DC
current is forced through the center
coil, the other two coils will only
produce a current when the original
current is changing. Once the DC
current reaches a constant value, the
other two coils will “unlink” and
produce no flowing current if
loaded. If the generator voltage is
continuously changing as in Figure
22, it will produce a current that
changes with time. This changing
current in the center coil will
produce similar currents in both of the end coils. Since the bottom coil has twice the
number of turns (twice the magnetic linkage), the voltage across this coil will be twice
the generator voltage. The power in an electronic device is equal to the voltage across the
device times the current through the device (P=VI). If the voltage doubles on the bottom
winding, then the current must become 1/2 due to the law of conservation of power
(Power cannot be created or destroyed, but can be transformed from one state to
another). Since the bottom coil is wound in the same direction as the generator coil, the
voltage across the coil (top wire to bottom wire) will be the same polarity as the
generator voltage.
The top coil is wound in the opposite direction forcing the core magnet rotation
(Called flux by the Pros) to push the current in the opposite direction and produce a
voltage of the opposite polarity. Since the number of turns in the top coil are the same as
the generator coil, the voltage and current (Power that can be taken from the coil) will
also be equal. This ability to transform AC voltages and AC currents influenced early
experimenters to call this device a Transformer.

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 14

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

TWO MORE LAWS ABOUT INDUCTORS

Faraday’s Law states that any time a

conductor moves through a magnetic field
(Figure 23) a voltage is generated.
Because of this principle, it is possible to
attach a magnet (or coil) to a rotating
device and produce large amounts of
electrical power (the Hoover Dam for
example).

Lenz’ Law states that the induced currents in a conductor passing through a magnetic
field will produce a magnetic field that will oppose the motion between the magnet and
the conductor. To produce a large amount of electrical power, a large mechanical force is
required (conservation of power).

INDUCTANCE SYMBOLS AND MARKINGS

Most inductors are custom made
to meet the requirements of the
purchaser. They are marked to
match the specification of the
buyer and therefore carry no
standard markings. The schematic
symbols for coils and transformers
are shown in Figure 24. These
symbols are the most commonly
used to represent fixed coils,
variable coils, and transformers.

THE Q FACTOR IN COILS

The Q (figure of merit) of a coil is the ratio of the inductive reactance to the internal
series resistance of the coil. Since the reactance and resistance can both change with
frequency, Q must be measured at the desired frequency. Anything that will raise the
inductance without raising the series resistance will increase the Q of the coil; for
example, using an iron core. Lowering the series resistance without lowering the
inductance will also raise the Q, more turns of larger wire for example. Q is important
when the inductor is used in a resonant circuit to block or select desired frequencies. The
higher the Q, the tighter the selection of frequencies become.

SUMMARY
The Inductor prevents current from making an sudden changes by producing large
opposin voltages. Magnetic coupling can be used to transform voltages and currents, but
power must remain the same. Coils and transformers can be used to select frequencies.

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 15

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

SELF - TEST (INDUCTORS):

Choose the letter of your choice.

1. The inductor is best described as:

a) Induced Voltage c) Electrical Storage Device
b) Long Wire d) Electrical Momentum
2. When wires in a coil are moved closer together, the inductance will:
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Stay the Same
3. Another word used to represent an inductor:
a) Wire b) Coil c) Transformer d) Conductor
4. If the diameter of a coil is increased, the inductance will:
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Stay the Same
5. If the number of turns in a coil is decreased, the inductance of that coil will:
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Stay the Same
6. An inductor will block:
a) Alternating Voltage c) Alternating Current
b) Direct Voltage d) Direct Current
7. When an iron core is placed into the center of a coil, the inductance will:
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Stay the Same
8. If voltage in a transformer is stepped down, the current will:
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Must Stay the Same
9. When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field:
a) Power is created c) Magnetic field is reduced
b) A voltage is generated on the wire. d) a & c
10. The Q factor of a coil is equal to:
a) Wire quality c) Ratio of inductance
b) Ratio of reactance to resistance
to resistance
11. If windings on a straight rod are in the same direction, the induced voltage will have:
a) Same amplitude c) Same polarity
b) Different amplitude d) Different polarity
12. An inductor stores energy in its:
a) Electric field b) Magnetic field c) Core d) Wires

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 16

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

4. SEMICONDUCTORS
❖ THE DIODE, what is it?
The diode can be compared to the
check valve shown in Figure 26. The
basic function of a check valve is to
allow water to flow in only one
direction. Once the force of the spring is
exceeded, the plate moves away from the
stop allowing water to pass through the
pipe. A flow of water in the opposite
direction is blocked by the solid stop and
plate. If it took a pressure of 0.7lb to
exceed the spring force, the flow of
water versus pressure might look like
Figure 27. In electronics, this curve
would represent the typical silicon diode
if pounds per square inch equaled volts
and gallons per minute equaled amperes.
Of course, the amount of current that
flows through the diode must be limited
or the device could be damaged. Just as
too much water through the check valve
could destroy the plate (shorted diode). If
the diode is made of Gallium Arsenide, it would take approximately twice the voltage to
produce a flow of current (spring in Figure 26 is twice as strong). The energy level
required to “turn on” a Gallium Arsenide diode is so high, that light is generated when
current starts to flow. These diodes are called “Light Emitting Diodes”, or simply LED’s.

❖ THE TRANSISTOR, what is it?

The transistor is best described as a device
that uses a small amount of current to
control a large amount of current (Current
Amplifier). Consider a device fabricated as
shown in Figure 28. A small amount of “Base
Current” pushes on the 𝐿1 portion of the
lever arm forcing check valve 𝐷1 to open,
even though it is “reverse biased” (pressure is
in direction to keep check valve shut). Keep
in mind the base current would not start to
flow until the check valve 𝐷2 allowed
current to flow (0.7lb). If the current ratio
through D1 and Base was equal to the lever
arm advantage, then 𝐼1 / 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐿1 / 𝐿2 .
Call this ratio Beta (β) and let 𝐿1 = 1 inch
and 𝐿2 = 0.01 inch. Then β = 100 and 𝐼1

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 17

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

will be 100 times Ib. Since both currents must pass through 𝐷2 , 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼𝑏 . These
same principles apply to a silicon NPN transistor. 𝐼1 becomes collector current (𝐼𝐶 ), and
𝐼2 would be emitter current (𝐼𝐸 ). β = 𝐼𝐶 / 𝐼𝐵 and 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶 .

➢ THE PNP TRANSISTOR

Figure 29 represents the water pipe
equivalent of a PNP transistor. The emitter
releases current that splits into two paths. The
base current “forces open” the collector check
valve which collects all the current except the
small amount that goes into the base. The
direction of current in the PNP transistor is
opposite that of the NPN transistor. Because of
these differences, the emitter of the PNP is
usually referenced to the power supply voltage
and the emitter of the NPN is usually referenced
to ground or zero voltage. In both transistors, the
current amplification factor (𝐼𝑐 /𝐼𝑏 ) is called Beta
(β).

➢ THE FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

In Figure 30 the center of a small section of a pipe is made of thin, flexible rubber
and that rubber is surrounded by water from a third pipe called the gate. When pressure
is applied to the gate, the rubber pinches off the current from the source to the drain. No
current flows from gate to drain or source. This device uses a change in gate pressure to
control the current flowing from source to drain.

Since there are no check valves, the

current can flow in either direction. In other
words, this device acts like a variable
resistor. The Field Effect Transistor (FET)
also controls current between source and
drain by “pinching off” the path between
them. The level of voltage on the gate
controls the amount of current that will
flow. Since no DC current flows in or out of
the gate (only momentarily a small amount
will flow to adjust to new pressures as in a
capacitor), the power used by the gate is
very close to zero. Remember, power
equals voltage times current, and if the
current is zero, the power is zero. This is
why FET’s are used in the probes of test
equipment. They will not disturb the circuit
being tested by removing power during a measurement. When a second gate section is
ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 18
MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

added (pipe and rubber) between the source and drain it is called a Dual Gate FET. In our
water pipe analogy of the FET transistor, the rubber must be very thin and flexible in
order to “pinch off” the current from the source to the drain. This means it could be
easily damaged by a small “spike” of high pressure. The same is true of an electronic
FET. A high voltage “spike” (Static Electricity) can destroy the gate and ruin the FET. To
protect the FET, they are sometimes packaged with metal rings shorting their leads, and a
fourth lead may be added to the metal case containing the transistor.

❖ THE INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

If the water pipe analogies of the resistor, diode, transistor, and very small capacitors
could be etched into a single block of steel you would have the equivalent of the
Integrated Circuit in Electronics. Figure 31 represents such a device. This block of steel
would have to be very large to include all the mechanical parts needed. In electronics, the
actual size of a diode or transistor is extremely small. In fact, millions can be fabricated
on a piece of silicon no larger than the head of a pin. Photographic reduction techniques
are used to generate the masking needed to isolate each part. These masks are then
stepped and repeated in order to make many separate integrated circuits at the same time
on a single substrate. Using mass production techniques, these circuits are manufactured,
packaged, and sold at prices much lower than the equivalent discreet circuit would cost.

SEMICONDUCTOR SYMBOLS
Figure 32 shows the common symbols
used in electronics to represent the basic
components. Integrated Circuits are
usually drawn as blocks with leads or as a
triangle for operational amplifiers. The
Zener diode (voltage reference diode) is
used in the reverse direction at the point
of breakdown.
ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 19
MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba
 UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
C. M Recto Ave. Lapasan Cagayan de Oro City
College of Technology

SELF - TEST (SEMICONDUCTORS):

Choose the letter of your choice.

1. The diode is best described as:

a) Switch c) Electrical Storage Device
b) Check Valve d) Electrical Momentum
2. A silicon diode begins to conduct current at approximately:
a) 7 volts c) 0.7 lb.
b) 0.7 volts d) 7 lbs.
3. NPN transistors have:
a) 2 leads c) 2 diodes
b) 3 leads d) b & c
4. NPN and PNP transistors are used to:
a) Create Power c) Control Current
b) Change Resistance d) Control Capacitance
5. The ratio of collector current to base current in a transistor is called:
a) Beta (b) c) Current Control
b) Amplification d) FET
6. A diode made of Gallium Arsenide is called:
a) Zener Diode c) LED
b) Power Diode d) Detector Diode
7. A Field Effect Transistor controls Source to Drain current by:
a) Diode Conduction c) Base Voltage
b) Base Current d) Gate Diode
8. A Zener Diode is used as:
a) Voltage Reference c) Resistance Control
b) Current Reference d) b & c
9. An Integrated Circuit contains:
a) Diodes and Resistors c) Inductors
b) Transistors and Small Capacitors d) a & b
10. If the arrow in the symbol for a transistor points toward the base lead, the transistor is a:
a) NPN Transistor c) FET Transistor
b) PNP Transistor d)None of the above

Reference:

⚫ https://www.build-electronic-circuits.com/basic-electronic-components/
⚫ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_component
⚫ https://www.clemson.edu/electronics

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP 1 Page 20

MODULE 1
Prepared by: Ms. Elmarie G. Recorba