Basic electricity and electronics

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Chapter Two
Ohm‟s Law
2.5. Electrical Energy, Work and Power
In typical electric circuits, energy is transferred by electrical transmission from a source such as a
battery to some device such as a lightbulb or a radio receiver.

Let‟s determine an expression that will allow us to calculate the rate of this energy transfer. First,
consider the simple circuit, where energy is delivered to a resistor. Because the connecting wires
also have resistance, some energy is delivered to the wires and some to the resistor. Unless noted
otherwise, we shall assume the resistance of the wires is small compared with the resistance of the
circuit element so that the energy delivered to the wires is negligible.
As the charge moves from a to b through the battery, the electric potential energy of the system
increases by an amount , while the chemical potential energy in the battery decreases by the
same amount . As the charge moves from c to d through the resistor, however, the
electric potential energy of the system decreases due to collisions of electrons with atoms in the
resistor. In this process, the electric potential energy is transformed to internal energy
corresponding to increased vibrational motion of the atoms in the resistor.
Let‟s now investigate the rate at which the electric potential energy of the system decreases as the
charge Q passes through the resistor:

( )

The rate at which the potential energy of the system decreases as the charge passes through the
resistor is equal to the rate at which the system gains internal energy in the resistor. Therefore, the
power P, representing the rate at which energy is delivered to the resistor, is

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2.6. Resistor (Type and Color Code)

Resistors are the basic components of a circuit that determine current flow: Ohm‟s law I = V/R.
Resistors are manufactured in a variety of shapes and sizes and have ohmic values ranging from a
fraction of an ohm (Ω) to several megaohms (MΩ).

Types
1. Wire-Wound Resistors

In this construction, a special type of wire called resistance wire is wrapped around an
insulating core. The length of wire and its specific resistivity determine the R of the unit.
Types of resistance wire include tungsten and manganin. The insulated core is commonly
porcelain, cement, or just plain pressed paper.

They are generally used for high-current applications with low resistance and appreciable
power. The resistance can be less than 1Ω up to several thousand ohms. In addition, wire-
wound resistors are used where accurate, stable resistance values are necessary. Examples
are precision resistors for the function of an ammeter shunt or a precision potentiometer to
adjust for an exact amount of R.

2. Carbon-Composition Resistors

These resistors are made of finely divided carbon or graphite mixed with a powdered
insulating material as a binder in the proportions needed for the desired R value. The
resistor element is enclosed in a plastic case for insulation and mechanical strength. Joined
to the two ends of the carbon resistance element are metal caps with leads of tinned copper
wire for soldering the connections into a circuit. These are called axial leads because they
come straight out from the ends.

Carbon-composition resistors are commonly available in R values of 1Ω to 20 MΩ.

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3. Film-Type Resistors

There are two kinds of film-type resistors: carbon-film and metal-film resistors. The
carbon-film resistor is made by depositing a thin layer of carbon on an insulated substrate.
The carbon film is then cut in the form of a spiral to form the resistive element. The
resistance value is controlled by varying the proportion of carbon to insulator. Compared
to carbon composition resistors, carbon-film resistors have the following advantages: tighter
tolerances, less sensitivity to temperature changes and aging, and they generate less noise
internally.
Metal-film resistors are constructed in a manner similar to the carbon-fi lm type. However,
in a metal-fi lm resistor, a thin film of metal is sprayed onto a ceramic substrate and then
cut in the form of a spiral. . The length, thickness, and width of the metal spiral determine
the exact resistance value. Metal-film resistors offer more precise R values than carbon-fi
lm resistors.
Like carbon-film resistors, metal-film resistors are affected very little by temperature
changes and aging. They also generate very little noise internally. In overall performance,
metal-film resistors are the best, carbon-film resistors are next, and carbon-composition
resistors are last.
Both carbon- and metal-film resistors can be distinguished from carbon-composition
resistors by the fact that the diameter of the ends is a little larger than that of the body.
Furthermore, metal-film resistors are almost always coated with a blue, light green, or red
lacquer, which provides electrical, mechanical, and climate protection. The body color of
carbon film resistors is usually tan.

4. Surface-Mount Resistors

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Surface-mount resistors, also called chip resistors, are constructed by depositing a thick
carbon film on a ceramic base. The exact resistance value is determined by the
composition of the carbon itself, as well as by the amount of trimming done to the carbon
deposit. The resistance can vary from a fraction of an ohm to well over a million ohms.
Chip resistors are very temperature-stable and also very rugged. The end electrodes are
soldered directly to the copper traces of a circuit board, hence the name surface-mount

5. Fusible Resistors

This type is a wire-wound resistor made to burn open easily when the power rating is
exceeded. It then serves the dual functions of a fuse and a resistor to limit the current.

6. Thermistors
A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance value changes with changes in
its operating temperature. Because of the self-heating effect of current in a thermistor, the
device changes resistance with changes in current. Thermistors, which are essentially
semiconductors, exhibit either a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) or a negative
temperature coefficient (NTC). If a thermistor has a PTC, its resistance increases as the
operating temperature increases. Conversely, if a thermistor has an NTC, its resistance
decreases as its operating temperature increases.

How much the resistance changes with changes in operating temperature depends on the
size and construction of the thermistor. Note that the resistance does not undergo
instantaneous changes with changes in current or ambient temperature. A certain time
interval, determined by the thermal mass (size) of the thermistor, is required for the
resistance change. A thermistor with a small mass will change more rapidly than one with a
large mass. Carbon- and metal-film resistors are different: their resistance does not change
appreciably with changes in operating temperature.

Thermistors are frequently used in electronic circuits in which it is desired to provide

temperature measurement, temperature control, and temperature compensation.

Resistor Color Coding

Because carbon resistors are small, they are color-coded to mark their R value in ohms.
The basis of this system is the use of colors for numerical values, as listed in Table.

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The use of colored bands or stripes is the most common system for color coding resistors.
Reading from the left to right, the first band closest to the edge gives the first digit in the
numerical value of R. The next band indicates the second digit. The third band is the
decimal multiplier, which tells us how many zeros to add after the first two digits
For four bands

„D‟ must silver or gold.

Resistors under 10Ω

For these values, the third stripe is either gold or silver, indicating a fractional decimal
multiplier. When the third stripe is gold, multiply the first two digits by 0.1 and for gold
0.01.

Resistor Tolerance
The amount by which the actual R can differ from the color-coded value is the tolerance,
usually given in percent. For instance, a 2000Ω resistor with 10% tolerance can have
resistance 10% above or below the coded value. This R, therefore, is between 1800 and
2200 Ω. The calculations are as follows:

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Five-Band Color Code

Precision resistors (typically metal-film resistors) often use a five-band color code rather
than the four-band code. The purpose is to obtain more precise R values. With the five-
band code, the first three color stripes indicate the first three digits, followed by the decimal
multiplier in the fourth stripe and the tolerance in the fifth stripe. In the fifth stripe, the
colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet represent the following tolerances:

2.7 Electric Safety Rule

The primary hazards of electricity and it‟s use are:
-Shock
- Burns
- Explosions
- Fires

Shock
- Received when part of your body becomes part of the electrical circuit.
- High voltage shock can cause serious injury or death.
- You will get a shock if you touch:
I. Both wires of an energized circuit
II. One wire of an energized circuit and ground
III. Part of machine that is “hot” because it is contacting an energized wire and
the ground.
Can cause to tingling, cardiac arrest, and destruction of body parts.
Burns

 Results when a person touches electrical equipment or wiring that is

improperly used or maintained.
 Most often involves injuries to the hands.

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Explosions

 Occurs when electricity provides ignition source for an explosive mixture in

atmosphere.
 Causes range from overheated conductors or equipment to normal arcing at
switch contacts.
Fires

 Electricity is the most common cause.

 Defective and/or misused equipment is the major cause.
 Improperly spliced or connected wiring creates “high resistance”
connections creating heat that starts fire.
Accidents and injuries with electricity are caused by one or a combination of the following:
 Unsafe equipment and/or installation.
 Unsafe workplaces caused by environmental factors.
 Unsafe work practices.
Protection from electrical hazards is one way to prevent accidents. Methods of control are:

 Insulation
 Electrical protective devices
 Guarding
 Grounding
 PPE
INSULATION

 Placed on electrical conductors to protect from hazards.

 Examples are glass, rubber, plastic or mica.
 OSHA standards specific to insulation on conductors.
ELECTRICAL PROTECTIVE DEVICES

 Critical to electrical safety.

 Interrupts current flow when it exceeds conductor capacity.
 Examples are fuses, circuit breakers & GFCI‟s.
GUARDING

 Any “live” parts operating at 50 volts or more must be guarded to prevent

accidental contact.
 To accomplish, machinery or equipment can be located:
I. In room or vault, accessible to authorized staff only.

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II. Behind screens/partitions which are permanent and protect from easy
access.
III. On an elevated platform, gallery or balcony that is not accessible to
unqualified personnel.
IV. At least eight feet above floor of the work area.
GROUNDING

 A requirement to protect against electrical shock, fire and damage to electrical

equipment.
 Types of grounding are:
I. Circuit or System - One conductor of circuit intentionally connected to
earth.
II. Equipment- Provides path for dangerous fault current to return to
system ground at supply source should insulator fail.
 Grounding does not guarantee against shock or injury.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT ( PPE )

 Electrical protective equipment that is appropriate for body parts needing

protection and for work to be done.
 Examples of appropriate PPE:
 Gloves
 Insulated boots or shoes
 Anti-static clothing
 Headgear

2.8 Fuse and Circuit Breaker

 The Fuse is very thin piece of wire.

 The wire has a quite low melting point. As current flows through the wire it
heats up.
 If too large a current flows it melts, thus breaking the circuit
 The fuse is the oldest device used to protect electrical circuits and equipments
against overload and short circuits.
 The fuse can have many forms and shapes depending on its application. Its rating
can start from few mA to several kA.
 Type of Fuses:
 Depending on the fuse current rating, the fuses can be one of the following
types for low voltage applications:
I. Semi - enclosed Fuse (Rewirable)
II. Cartridge Fuse.

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III. High Rupturing Capacity (H.R.C) or High Breaking Capacity

(H.B.C) Fuses.
 High voltage fuses are of three main types:
I. Open (drop out) type
II. Enclosed type
III. Spring type
 A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect
an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Unlike a fuse,
which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either
manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in
varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to
large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.
 Breaker are classified based on voltage amount as fuse.

Chapter Three
3. Direct Current Circuits with Resistances
3.1 Series Circuit
3.1.1 Current and Resistance in Series Circuits
A series circuit is any circuit that provides only one path for current flow. As shown in the figure,
two resistors are connected end to end with their opposite ends connected across the terminals of a
voltage source.

Notice that the free electrons have only one path to follow as they leave the negative terminal of
the voltage source, flow through resistors R2 and R1, and return to the positive terminal. Since there
is only one path for electrons to follow, the current, I, must be the same in all parts of a series
circuit.
To solve for the values of voltage, current, or resistance in a series circuit, we can apply Ohm‟s law.
An electric current is a movement of charges between two points, produced by the applied voltage.

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When components are connected in successive order, as shown in the above figure, they form a
series circuit.

When the resistors are connected in series, the total resistance, 𝑇, is equal to

In series, the total resistance 𝑇is always larger than any individual resistance.
 Current in series resistors: In series circuits, charge has only one path through which to
flow. Therefore, the current passing through each resistor in series is the same.

 Potential difference across series resistors: As charge passes through each of the resistors, it
loses some energy. This means that there will be a potential difference across each resistor.
The sum of all the potential differences equals the potential difference across the battery,
assuming negligible resistance in the connecting wires.

 This formula applies to any number of resistances, whether equal or not, as long as they
are in the same series string. Note that RT is the resistance to use in calculating the current
in a series string. Then Ohm‟s law is
𝑉𝑇
𝐼
𝑅𝑇

3.1.2 Effects of “opens” and “shorts” in series circuits

 The Effect of an Open in a Series Circuit
An open circuit is a break in the current path. The resistance of an open circuit is
extremely high because the air between the open points is a very good insulator. Air can
have billions of ohms of resistance. For a series circuit, a break in the current path means
zero current in all components.

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 In summary, here is the effect of an open in a series circuit:

I. The current I is zero in all components.
II. The voltage drop across each good component is 0 V.
III. The voltage across the open points equals the applied voltage (40V).
 The Effect of a Short in a Series Circuit
A short circuit is an extremely low resistance path for current flow. The resistance of a
short is assumed to be 0Ω. This is in contrast to an open, which is assumed to have a
resistance of infinite ohms.

 In summary, here is the effect of a short in a series circuit:

I. The current I increase above its normal value.
II. The voltage drop across each good component increases.
III. The voltage drop across the shorted component drops to 0 V.

3.1.3 Voltage-divider equation

The current is the same in all resistances in a series circuit. Also, the voltage drops equal the
product of I times R. Therefore, the IR voltages are proportional to the series resistances. A
higher resistance has a greater IR voltage than a lower resistance in the same series circuit;
equal resistances have the same amount of IR drop. If R1 is double R2, then V1 will be double
V2.
The series string can be considered a voltage divider. Each resistance provides an IR drop V R
equal to its proportional part of the applied voltage. Stated as a formula,

This equation is called the voltage divider rule (VDR) because it allows us to calculate the
voltage drops in a series circuit without knowing the value of the current, I.

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Example
Three 50-kV resistors R1, R2, and R3 are in series across an applied voltage of 180 V. How
much is the IR voltage drop across each resistor?

3.1.4 Application of Series Circuit

3.1.5 Total Power in a Series Circuit
 The power (P) needed to produce current in each series resistor is used up in the form of
heat. Therefore, the total power used is the sum of the individual values of power
dissipated in each part of the circuit. As a formula,
𝑃 𝑃1 + 𝑃 + 𝑃3 + ⋯

3.2 Parallel Circuit

3.2.4 Current-divider equation
It is often necessary to find the individual branch currents in a bank from the resistances
and IT, but without knowing the voltage across the bank. This problem can be solved by
using the fact that currents divide inversely as the branch resistances.. The formulas for the
two branch currents are as follows,

1
1 +
1

1 +
This Formula is called the current divider rule (CDR) because it allows us to calculate the
branch currents in a parallel circuit without knowing the value of the applied voltage, V A.

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Notice that the formula for each branch I has the opposite R in the numerator. The reason
is that each branch current is inversely proportional to the branch resistance. The
denominator is the same in both formulas, equal to the sum of the two branch resistances.

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