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Presidential Address

Achievement American Style

The Rewards and Costs of Individualism
Janet T. Spence University of Texas at Austin

ABSTRACT: The United States is a success-oriented except perhaps on some highly abstract level that few
society whose attitudes toward achievement can be psychological theories have been able to reach.
traced to our Protestant heritage with its emphasis Scientific psychology, like its sister scientific
on individualism and the work ethic. Although they disciplines, has also traditionally conceived of itself as being
are implied to have universal significance, objective and value free. This image has increasingly come
contemporary theories of achievement and under attack in recent years by both epistemologists and
achievement motivation are rooted in individualism working scientists (eg, Kuhn, 1962; Scarr, 1985; Toulmin,
and may have validity primarily for American and 1973). Science itself is driven by internal sets of value
other similar cultures. Con-temporary concerns about systems, about which there are varying degrees of
the erosion of the work ethic and the destructive consensus, that shape its aims and judgments as to what
aspects of individualism are dis-cussed. constitutes "good sci-ence." Of greater concern to many
critics, however, is the role in the scientific enterprise of
what might loosely be called extrascientific values.
In this address, I will be considering psychological
conceptions of achievement and achievement motivation
Contemporary analysts recognize that, whatever their
from a historical and cultural perspective. To provide a
intentions, scientists are the products of their society and
context for this presentation, several abstract observations
time, and their construction of social reality is shaped by
should be made about the relationship between scientific
the world view and values of the culture in which they were
psychology and culture.
reared. These belief systems can influence all phases of the
research in which scientists engage, from choice of problem
Scientific Psychology, Culture, and the
to interpretation of results. Especially when most of the
Role of Values
researchers studying particular phenomena approach them
Scientific, empirically oriented psychology has historically from a common cultural perspective or ideo-logical position,
allied itself methodologically with the natural rather than the the effects may be to retard or to corrupt the search for
social sciences. Perhaps as a consequence, many scientific knowledge by collectively blinding them to
psychologists not only have as implicit goals the discovery alternative conceptions that may not be congruent with their
of empirical relationships and the formulation of integrative a priori assumptions.
theories that are universal in significance but they also
appear to assume that their research findings have this In my view, an extreme constructivist position can go
universality. Thus the particular historical period or too far in claiming that the validity of all knowledge, as a
sociocultural context in which data have been collected is product of the human mind, is suspect, even raw
presumably of little or no importance. This interpretation is observations of natural objects and events (eg, Kuhn, 1962).
probably valid in the case of many relatively basic phenomena. Such a position would seem to deny that scientific progress
and the accumulation of scientific knowledge are possible.
However, an ahistorical, acultural approach also characterizes To avoid being captured by a paralyzing nihilism, the active
many investigations of complex social phenomena. The re-searcher should be allowed the liberty of adopting as a
argument of radical critics (eg, Gergen, 1973) that social working proposition a position of naive realism and of
psychology and related fields are essentially a branch of assuming that considering reality can never be perfectly or
history seems vastly over-stated. But it seems indisputable directly apprehended, the hope that useful approx- imations
that many of our empirical findings and theoretical concepts may be developed is a reasonable one. Instead of turning
must in-evitably be bound to particular cultures and times, away from them as empty pretense,

December 1985 • American Psychologist Copyrtght 1985

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Vol. 40, No. 12, 1285-1295
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Investigators should adopt objectivity and freedom from value terment of the human condition, and this is the promise made
judgments, particularly those of an extra-scientific nature, as collectively by scientists in asking for and accepting support.
worthy goals toward which they should strive, while simultaneously Beyond that, scientists are members of human society and like all
recognizing that these goals can never be fully realized. human beings have an obligation to contribute to human well-being.

For psychologists and other behavioral scientists concerned Often the decision to become involved in research of fairly direct
with socially relevant phenomena, efforts to understand the world social significance necessitates accepting many of society's
views, value orientations, and belief systems of their own society philosophical conceptions and goals.
may help them to rise above their preconceptions and to open their Investigators must therefore strive to keep a delicate balance, on
re-search and theories to other possibilities. Further, culturally the one hand embracing the value system of the society of which
determined beliefs about what is or what ought to be are not they are members (or at least those benign aspects to which they
necessarily congruent with actuality, and it is part of psychologists' can in good con-science subscribe) in choosing the subject area
task to describe and determine the accuracy of the stereotypes of their investigations and in initially formulating the prob-lem, and,
and implicit psychological theories held by their fellows. This is not on the other, staying aloof from that value system so that it does
simple to do if one remains unaware of one's own culturally not bias their empirical inquiries and obscures their theoretical
determined biases or implicitly accepts them as received truths. vision.
Nevertheless, striving to dis-tance oneself from one's own culture
may ultimately help one to understand it. It is in this spirit that I have chosen to discuss the subject of
achievement and the motives that inspire it, not within the narrow
confines of psychological theories and research but from a broader
cultural per-spective. The task that I set for myself was to try to
Conversely, in the name of objectivity and sci-entific rigor, explain some of the forces that have shaped the attitudes, myths,
psychologists have been overly prone to bury themselves in the and values of the dominant main-stream culture of the United
data from laboratories and other contrived, constricted situations States ~ that constitute the framework for the theories developed
and to lose track of the broader questions that initially sent them by North American psychologists. Our very conceptions of
there. achievement are culture bound, and the constructs we have
The result may be bodies of data and theories spun around them devised and the inquiries we have conducted may be applicable
that are relevant only to arcane laboratory paradigms and are primarily to societies with similar value systems and world views.
ultimately sterile or trivial. Even within our own society, such conceptions may be relevant
Greater attention to the cultural milieu in which the primarily to those who are part of the dominant culture.
real life behaviors of purported interest occur may lead both to
more useful controlled investigations and to richer, more significant
theories.
Thus far, I have essentially argued that although
The Place of Achievement
psychologists' pursuit of scientific knowledge about many
phenomena can be furthered by an awareness of the contribution The United States is an achievement-oriented society that has
of cultural factors to the behaviors they study, they should also historically encouraged and honored individual achievement and
attempt to rise above their own culture and adopt an objective , the attainment of material prosperity. In the past, Americans have
value-free stance. spoken proudly of the American dream, which embodies the belief
This contention is not intended to imply, however, that societal that this is a land not only of material abundance but also of political
values should be ignored in the choice of problem area. and economic opportunity. With hard work and perseverance, it
was believed, anyone
The pursuit of scientific knowledge can be defended as a
worthy endeavor in its own right. None-theless, as others such as
George Miller (1969) and William Bevan (1982) in their presidential
addresses to this Association have so eloquently argued, psy- This article is based on the Presidential Address delivered at the
chologists, as well as members of other scientific dis-ciplines, have meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles,
a collective obligation to develop knowledge that at least in the CA, August 24, 1985. Thanks are due to several colleagues,
long run will contribute to the solutions of the critical problems of especially Lucia Gilbert and Robert Helmreich, for their suggestions
and comments.
the society that literally and figuratively supports their research and Requests for reprints should be sent to Janet T. Spence, De-
themselves. This is a matter of both quid pro quo and ethical partment of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX
responsibility. The public and private agencies that support scientific 78712.
research do so with the expectation that something will at least
ultimately be received in return that will contribute to the bet- Although I will focus on the United States and its history, I
do not wish to imply that its culture is unique in all its aspects.
The characteristics and world views of its cultural mainstream have
much in common with Canada and many European countries with
whom the United States has a shared heritage.

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with the proper moral fiber could succeed. Further-more, workers put in more hours and are expected to meet higher
there was a bouyant self-confidence in our abil-ity as a standards of performance than those in the United States,
people to overcome all obstacles. one of the factors that has resulted in a more productive
It should be immediately acknowledged, how-ever, work force. Recognition of these attainments has spawned
that despite our professed commitment to de-mocracy and a plethora of studies of Japanese industrial and educational
equality of opportunity, participation in the American dream practices, often in the hope of learning secrets that we may
has not been open to all. Women and blacks, members of borrow (eg, Allen, 1982; Morishima, 1982; Rohlen, 1983;
ethnic and religious minority-ities, and often the poor have Sethi, Namiki, & Swanson, 1984). Attempts have also been
historically been ex-cluded from the elected as purportedly made to introduce into American companies Japanese
being innately inferior or morally unworthy. These groups management teams or managerial techniques, many of
have had to fight (and many continue to fight) for legal and which, ironically, were originally imported into Ja-pan from
political equality and access into the social and economic the United States (eg, Cole, 1980; Ouchi, 1981; Pascale
mainstream. & Athos, 1978 ).

Furthermore, even within the dominant culture, many These attempts may be somewhat naive, however,
of our cherished beliefs about achievement have come because the Japanese character differs profoundly from
under attack from various quarters in recent decades. Most the American one. In fact, the nature of the Japanese
recently, alarms have been sounded about the decreasing character provides a contrast to our own that allows us
productivity of American workers and its serious economic better to understand ourselves and the nature of our
consequences. Although it is granted that impersonal motives to achieve.
economic forces, government-mental policies, and external
political events have had major roles in bringing about this
Individualism and the American Character
state of affairs, many have also blamed the individual At least since the time of Alexis de TocqueviUe, observers
worker. The work ethic, one often reads, has deteriorated; have recognized that individualism is central to the
people no longer work as hard and no longer take the American character. As celebrated by transcendentalist
same pride in the quality of their work as they once did (eg, writers such as Emerson and Thoreau, independence and
Maccoby & Terzi, 1981). Others are more ready to criticize self-reliance have historically been held up as virtues to be
organizational and managerial practices that have inhibited sought after and cultivated.
or suppressed the expression of work-related motivation Recently, however, social critics have come to decry
(eg, Yankelovich & Immerwahr, 1983). this aspect of the American character (eg, Bel-lah, Madsen,
Sullivan, Swidler, & Tipton, 1985; Cal-lahan, 1984;
Shoumatoff, 1985; Slater, 1971). In some contemporary
In a related manner, national concern has been criticisms, individualism has been treated as if it were little
growing about lack of excellence in the schools, par- more than selfishness. By focusing on its excesses,
ticularly the poor performance of our children and youth in however, these critics have lost sight of the contribution of
science and mathematics in comparison to those in several individualism to our concepts of self and of its influence on
other industrialized countries. As these examples illustrate, many of the social and political institutions that even the
our country as a whole is currently uncertain about its critics continue to cherish. The reason, perhaps, is that in-
values and attitudes toward dividualism is so central to the American character and its
achievement and at least for the moment is experiencing positive aspects so taken for granted that it is difficult to
a crisis in confidence that has led to a rash of critical self- conceive of any alternative kind of self-conception. Thus,
examination. "In search of excellence," an excellence we in the minds of many, the meaning of individualism may
fear we have lost and will have to fight to restore, may well have been distorted, its darker aspects becoming confused
be a motto of our time. with the whole. These contentions can best be amplified
One consequence of the current national mood is a and their implications for conceptions of achievement
concern with the Japanese. The economic miracle that has explored by placing them in a broader historical context
taken place in postwar Japan and the fear that Japan may that in-cludes the origins of what has come to be called the
soon displace the United States' dominance in international Protestant work ethic (Weber, 1958).
trade (eg, Vogel, 1979) make comparisons between the
two countries inevitable. The strong Japanese emphasis
on achievement has led them to outperform their American
Protestantism and Individualism
counterparts in many important respects. For ex-ample, the
rigor of Japanese schools and the high standards set for The essence of Protestantism, which the founders of this
their students have led, among other consequences, to an country brought to these shores, is the direct relationship
excellence in science and mathematics-ematics that far between people and their Maker. People both are able to
exceeds our own. Similarly, Japanese know God without the necessity of intermediaries and are
directly responsible to their

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Creator. These religious beliefs combined with the philosophy diffuse at its boundaries. The me becomes merged with the
of the Enlightenment to produce the Declaration of we, and the reactions of others to one's be-haviors gain
Independence and the Constitution, re-markable documents priority over one's own evaluations (DeVos, 1968; Doi, 1973;
rooted in the assumption that the individual is paramount Lebra, 1984). These contrasting senses of self in the two
and that government ex-ists to serve the governed and not societies are produced by and lead to differing emphases
the governed to serve the government. In the words of the on rights versus obligations, on autonomy versus
Declaration of Independence, "We hold these truths to be interdependence, on the pursuit of happiness versus
self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are personal sacrifice, and on the priority of the individual versus
endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights." that of the group differences. that have broad ramifications
for the structure of political, economic, and social institutions.

Although realization of these goals has in practice

been flawed, our national commitments to democracy and It is essential to interject one additional contrast.
equality of opportunity remain. Although they need not have Although Japanese technological industries are preeminent
done so, these ideals initially flowed from and continue to be and their schools produce students who outshine our own
sustained by the concept of individualism--the belief that in their knowledge of science and mathematics, the
each of us is an entity separate from every other and from Japanese are better known for their ability to capitalize on
the group and as such is endowed with natural rights. . Western inventions and discoveries than for scientific and
These beliefs in individuals and individual rights are part of technological origi-nality (Yukata et al., 1985). Pressures
our heritage and are incorporated into our basic sense of toward conformity that exist at all levels of Japanese
self. society, including the schools, may create a climate that is
For example, early on, children are expected to learn to be less conducive to scientific creativity than exists in the in-
self-reliant and independent. At the same time, they are dividualistic West.
granted to have rights and unique needs and capacities that
should be respected (Tallman, Marotz-Baden, & Pindas, Reduction of individualism to mere selfishness is thus
1983). to focus on its excesses to the exclusion of its strengths and
These values find full expression within contemporary to misunderstand its central place in the American scheme
American psychology. It is taken for granted by child of things. Individualism is woven into the social fabric of the
psychologists, for example, that independence training is country and cannot be separated from it.
one of the major tasks demanded of parents.
Another particularly revealing illustration is found in
The Protestant Work Ethics
contemporary theories of ego and moral development that
postulate that the highest stage is one in which the individual The more specific origins of contemporary American
rises above acceptance of and conformity to society's attitudes toward work and material success are also
standards to an autonomous level (eg, Kohlberg, 1969; found in our Puritan heritage. Protestantism sought to
Loevinger, 1976). destroy not only any form of intervention between the
This autonomous sense of self stands in stark contrast individual and God but also distracting loyalties to human
to the Japanese, among other Asian groups (eg, DeVos, social institutions. Individuals exist for the glorification of
1968; Doi, 1973; Hsu, 1983; Lebra, 1984). Social organization God, and all of their activities should be directed to this end.
in Japan centers on the genealogical family and kinship It thus becomes a prime religious duty to remain in the
group but also in-cludes the neighborhood and often by world and to engage in productive labor. Work, in its humble,
extension other groups such as the company by which one everyday sense, is a calling, and successful achievement is
is employed and the nation itself. Socialization involves the to the glory of God.
de-
velopment of a strong identification by each individual with The practice of worldly asceticism, as Weber (1958)
the group and a continuing sense of mutual ob-ligation has called it--that is, the exercise of such virtues as thrift,
among its members in which the desires of the individual are sobriety, and devotion to hard work--can be expected to
subordinated to the needs and expectations of the larger result in material gain. Indeed, gain is the purpose of
community. mundane work and a sign of its success. According to the
Western individualism leads to a sense of self Calvinist doctrine of pre-destination, personal salvation
with a sharp boundary that stops at one's skin and clearly cannot be earned by good works, but attainment of worldly
marks self from nonself. In dealings with outsiders or alien success could be interpreted as a sign of God's grace. But
groups, the Japanese undoubtedly have an equally well- this creates a paradox: Work should not be undertaken in
defined boundary between themselves and others. But order to obtain its material rewards, but it is expected that
within the context of groups with which the individual is these rewards will be attained. It is acceptable to maintain
identified, the Japanese sense of self is more permeable oneself and one's family in modestly corn-
and more

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fortable circumstances, but luxury and enjoyment of the fruits petitive, and the success of one individual or group is often
of one's labor are forbidden achieved at the expense of another.
The dilemma created by the Protestant ethic was well Many believe that in order for the individual to be
stated by the founder of Methodism, John Wesley: successful, it is necessary not only to learn how to compete
but also to develop the desire to "win" and to gain positive
I do not see how it is possible, in the nature of things, for any enjoyment in competing against others. This belief is
revival of true religion to continue long. For religion must
reflected in the practice of many parents, particularly the
necessarily produce both industry and frugality, and these
cannot but produce riches• But as riches increase, so will fathers of boys, to encourage their children to seek out
pride, anger, and love of the world in all its branches• . So, competitive situations, often on the playground, and to try to
• .although the form of religion remains, the spirit is swiftly win and be the best (Block, 1973). Among those who accept
vanishing away. Is there no way to prevent this--this this perspective, this kind of interpersonal competitiveness
continuous decay of pure religion? We ought not to prevent is an integral feature of the work ethic and achievement
people from being diligent and frugal; we must exhort all motivation.
Christians to gain all they can, and to save all they can; that
is, in effect, to grow rich. (quoted in Weber, 1958, p. 175)
Materialism
It seems unlikely that many, even in the early history of
Materialism is another characteristic that Americans attribute
this nation, fully embraced the pure form of this stern
to themselves, almost always pejoratively.
Protestant ethic, as opposed to the more secular version
The sources of this unfavorable self-characterization and the
expressed in the utilitarian philosophy of Benjamin Franklin.
reasons for it are diverse, but they seem to have in common
What did survive, however, was a moral imperative to work
a continuing ambivalence about af-fluence and the
hard, to make something of oneself, and to become materially
association between achievement and its material
prosperous.
consequences. On the one hand, successful attainment is
Conversely, the failure to thrive was often interpreted as a
accepted as deserving of tangible re-wards, and those who
moral failure, as a sign of some deficiency in character. The
perform successfully are both encouraged to expect these
prohibition against taking pleasure in material comforts and
rewards as their due and are permitted to enjoy them, once
possession was also only partially accepted, but as Weber
earned. For the nation to be prosperous, the economy must
(1958) so brilliantly ar -gued, the twin injunctions to earn and
grow and markets must be created for goods and services.
to save estab-lished the ethical basis for capitalism•

Therefore, it has become almost a patriotic duty for individuals

to spend and consume, rather than to save and conserve.
Contemporary Views
On the other hand, some critics, echoing traditional religious
With the coming of industrialization and the integration of concerns, fear that preoccupation with things and material
successive waves of immigrants from different countries and well-being leads to indiffer-ence to spiritual values and
religions, these Puritan beliefs became further diluted and by insensitivity to the needs of others who are less fortunate• In
now have become fully secularized. The work ethic has a similar vein, in recent Decades environmentalists have
been transmuted into a belief in the intrinsic value of work. focused on dwindling natural resources and the short-sighted,
According to this ethic, people ought to be willing to work de-structive consequences of self-indulgent overconsumption.
hard and to take pride in their jobs. Furthermore, work should
be engaged in primarily because it is inherently satisfying,
not because it is a means to obtain money, prestige, and During the free speech and Vietnam eras of the late
other rewarding consequences of successful performance. 1960s and early 1970s, attacks on materialism and what
This view not only assigns greater value to intrinsic as they perceived as the unthinking pursuit of success were
compared to extrinsic work motivation but also suggests that launched by many young people, members of a postwar
even when one has accumulated or has inherited sufficient generation who had grown up in a period of national prosperity
wealth to satisfy one's as-pirations, work continues to be and stability and who thus had escaped the economic
valuable. The idle rich have never quite been respected in insecurities of their elders. These attitudes were often
this country. manifested by stud-ied indifference to possessions and
renunciation of career paths that conventionally bring prestige
Although working hard and well is praiseworthy in our or affluence. Although some were led to careers that were
contemporary value system, becoming a "success" or a expressions of idealism, others turned their backs on the
"winner" is honored even more. However, not everyone can work ethic or substituted as a goal for material success self-
succeed in a worldly sense. Desired resources are finite, and actualization and "doing your own thing."
our capitalistic economic system, along with other institutions,
is structured in such a way that these resources are not They and others who became swept up in this self-
allocated equally. As such, our institutions are inherently com- expressionist movement have in turn been denounced by
social commentators (eg, Conger, 1981) as the

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"me generation," representing what Christopher Lasch (I tradition that focuses on assessing and understanding
979) has called the culture of narcissism. Although the variations among individuals in their psychological
pursuit of self-actualization was stimulated by a rejection of characteristics, these approaches are silent about the in-
materialistic goals, it represents another facet of unbridled tensity of intrinsic achievement motives that characterize
individualism. most individuals within a population. Nor do they spec-ify
With the general societal swing back to conservative the origins of these motives.
views and the development of a less certain economic There is, however, a class of theories proposing that
climate, members of the current generation have become human beings have an inborn need to be com-petent and
less concerned about being overly materialistic and have self-determining and to exert mastery over their environment
returned to more conventional ca-reers. Hippies have been (eg, Deci, 1975; de Charms, 1968; Dweck & Elliot, 1983 ;
replaced by yuppies! How-ever, at least among members White, 1959). These innate intrinsic motives are assumed
of the relatively well-educated and increasingly large to constitute the general matrix out of which intrinsic
middle class, concern with self-expression has survived achievement motivation arises. Implicit in these formulations
and has further transformed the traditional work ethic. is that the failure of intrinsic achievement motivation to
Although work should be engaged in primarily for intrinsic develop and flourish represents the intrusion of inhibitory
reasons, the work itself should be intrinsically "meaningful," experiences.
offering the opportunity for self-development and expression
of one's interests and talents (Daniel Yankelovich, Inc., Belonging to the same family is a group of the-ories
1972; Yankelovich, 1981) . of work motivation that have become popular among
organizational psychologists in recent decades (eg, Argyris,
1964; Herzberg, 1966; Kanungo, 1979; Maslow, 1954).
Psychological Theories of
Achievement Motivation These theories hold that human beings innately seek self-
actualization and that work by allowing them to be
Individualism as a concept is at the heart of psycho-logical autonomous and to realize their potentials is inherently self-
theories of achievement and the motives that stimulate it. fulfilling. Work that pre-sents no opportunity for self-
Thus, with rare exception, the achievement-related direction and self-expression suppresses or destroys
behaviors of the individual performer are the object of intrinsic motivation.
study. The properties of the person that are examined are At some level, the basic premise of these theories is
the person's self- or task-related attitudes, skills, and unarguable. In order to survive physically and to function
motives. When the influence of extrinsic incentives on effectively, every human being must have the capacity and
performance is investigated, such incentives are typically will to develop a host of skills that allow mastery of the
chosen to be of direct benefit to the recipient. environment. Nonetheless, these theories may have an
ethnocentric bias, going too far in emphasizing the
Probably the best known and most highly in-fluent autonomous, self-determining self and its presumed
concept of intrinsic achievement motivation was put forward innateness.
by Henry Murray (1938) and, via his Thematic Apperception In this regard, the basic assumptions of these theories
Test (TAT), was incorporated into the work of David should be contrasted with those of David Bakan (1966). In
McClelland, John Atkinson , and their colleagues (eg, his book, The Duality of Human Existence, Bakan proposed
McClelland, Atkin-son, Clark, & Lowell, 1953). Although that every living organism possesses two fundamental but
the intellectual sources that stimulated Murray's thinking antagonistic senses: a sense of self (or agency), manifested
were diverse, his conception of the achievement motive in self-assertive-ness and self-protectiveness, and a sense
comes close to capturing the spirit of the traditional work of selflessness ( or communion), the desire to become one
ethic (McClelland, 1961), as illustrated by the following with others.
definition: "to do things as rapidly and/or as well as Both agency and communion, Bakan contended, are
possible... To master, manipulate and organize physical necessary for survival: The challenge to every individual
objects, human beings or ideas.... To overcome obstacles and every society is to reconcile and to balance these two
and attain a high standard... to excel one's self. To rival contradictory senses. The solution to this human dilemma
and surpass others" (Mur-ray, 1938, p. 164). reached by many Eastern societies such as Japan may be
described, in Bakan's terms, as one in which the communal
takes precedence over the agentic, whereas in Western
This and other similar conceptualizations of societies such as the United States, the balance is shifted
achievement motivation (eg, Spence & Helmreich, 1983) toward the agentic or individualistic.
are implicitly based on the premise that the satisfaction of
certain personal wants and desires as they are related to These speculations suggest, as others have also
task characteristics are the major intrinsic motives that argued (eg, Johnson, 1973; Maehr, 1974; Rotenberg,
drive achievement. related behaviors. Aris- 1977), that achievement and achievement motives must
ing as they do, however, from an individual difference be understood in terms of the sociocultural con-

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text in which they occur and even more particularly that our ethic continued to flourish among members of the
supposedly universal theories of intrinsic motivation and managerial and professional classes and among
the achievement motives that flow from them may be more independent craftsmen and others who were in charge of
appropriate for agentic cul-tures marked by individualism. their own work lives. The industrial factory system neither
Illustrative evidence in support of this contention can be credited industrial blue-collar workers with devotion to the
found in a study by Ramirez and Price-Williams (1976). work ethic nor encouraged them to develop it (Rogers,
These researchers administered projective measures of 1974). Management techniques were devised that simplified
achieve-ment motivation to samples of Mexican American, jobs as much as possible and removed from the individual
black, and mainstream white children matched on workers, many of whom were immigrants, any opportunity
socioeconomic background. Their analyzes of main-stream for judgment or initiative. As reflected in the scientific man-
white versus Mexican American and black cultures led agement theory of Frederick Taylor, these practices were
them to predict that on conventional in-dices of the need to rationalized by the belief that industrial workers were
achieve, white children would be highest because of the interested only in the material rewards their labor would
focus on individual accommodations and goals. On the earn and would only loaf given any discretion.
other hand, they ex-pected that black and Mexican
American groups would score higher on themes related to The result, as the historian Paul Bernstein (1980) has
family ori-ented achievement, that is, attainments that observed, was a work force plagued by absenteeism,
would benefit or gain recognition from family members. alcoholism, and other signs of rebellion against jobs that
were monotonous and often unpleasant and dangerous
as well.
Both predictions were confirmed. These and other similar In recent decades, there have been dramatic shifts
findings, such as those reported by Gallimore, Boggs, and in the composition of the work force. At midcentury, the
Jordan (1974) with young Hawaiians suggest that the majority of workers were in blue-collar jobs; Currently the
motivation to achieve can be expressed in different ways majority are in white-collar positions. Most workers were
and can take various forms in different cultures or employed in goods-producing industries, whereas now
subcultures. service jobs predominate. Even within the latter,
The failure of many groups to score as high as those technological innovations have changed the simple,
in the American mainstream on traditional measures of the routinized nature of many jobs. All of these changes have
need to achieve does not necessarily indicate that these brought about what Yankelovich and Immerwahr (1983)
groups are lower in intrinsic achievement motives. Rather described as a "high discretion workplace," one in which
the concepts of intrinsic achievement motives that appear most workers are in positions that allow them considerable
in our psychological theories and our measures of these latitude in carrying out their jobs and structuring their time.
concepts may be tailored to, and therefore primarily valid Over the course of this century, workers have also become
for, individualistically oriented cultures. Similarly, increasingly well educated and most are American born.
psychological theories that tend to focus exclusively on the
tangible rewards given to the individual achiever for Even blue-collar employees have become less willing to
successful performance may be unduly restricted in accept many of the working conditions that their parents
considering the kinds of external incentives whose and grandparents were forced to tolerate.
anticipation may drive achievement-related behaviors. Conceptions about the psychological nature of the
worker have obligatorily followed suit. It has now become
fashionable to attribute an innate need for autonomy and
Current Status of the Work Ethics self-fulfillment that can be satisfied via work not merely to
Also important to examine is evidence on the con- the anonymous but to all human beings, whatever their
temporary status of the work ethic. Is it withering away? station in life. It should come as no surprise that many
Surveys indicate that a large majority of the general public managerial practices are currently being shaped to
believes that in recent years, people's willingness to work accommodate this now popular psychological model.
hard and their pride in their work have deteriorated.
Similarly, government and business leaders nominate this It seems reasonable to expect that individuals in
weakening of the work ethic as a key factor in the falling positions permitting a high degree of discretion would be
productivity of the American worker (Louis Harris Associates more committed to their work than those in positions
& Etzioni, 1981; Yankelovich & Immerwahr, 1983). But is allowing little discretion, especially if it is realized that high-
there evidence to support these beliefs? discretion jobs tend to be more in- teresting, prestigious,
and better paying, and to be held by the better educated.
Before an attempt is made to answer this question, Survey data reported by Yan-kelovich and Immerwahr
it is necessary to lay to rest certain romantic notions. (1983) suggest that this is indeed the case. However,
Following the industrialization of the United States in the these investigators found that even among those in low-
latter part of the 19th century, the work discretion jobs, 48%

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endorsed the statement "I have an inner need to do the Others are less sanguine, seeing the ills of the
best job possible, regardless of pay," and an additional workplace as part of a more general malaise, as a symptom
21% endorsed the statement "I find my work interesting but of individualism that has gone awry. And so it is to this
I wouldn't let it interfere with the rest of my life." Only 31% theme that I return.
chose statements indicating that work was merely an
unpleasant necessity or purely a business transaction. Achievement and Commitment
Particularly revealing was a comparison of the responses
In their recent book, Habits of the Heart, a title taken from
of the US sample with those from several other industrialized
Tocqueville, Bellah et al. (1985) have written:
European countries, namely Sweden, Germany and the
United Kingdom. Self-described commitment to the work It seems to us that it is individualism.., that has marched
ethic was highest in the United States. inexorably through our history. We are concerned that this
individualism may have grown cancerous--that it may be
Although these results suggest that belief in the work destroying those social integuments that Tocqueville saw
ethic is strong in the American workforce, data from the as moderating its more destructive potential. (p. viii)
same survey indicate that there is a gap be-tween this
professed commitment and actual work behaviors. Less The self, they argued, has been turned loose from a wider
than a quarter of those questioned said that they were set of values that bind the person to the family and the
performing up to their capacity and as effectively as they community.
were able, and almost half said that they put in no more The individualism represented by the Protestant
effort than was required of them. Objective studies of work vision, it is critical to note, was not an invitation to seek self-
behaviors support these self-descriptions. For example, in gratification. On the contrary, the individual's prime
an observational study, Cherrington (1980) reported that obligation was to serve God. Although as a counterweight
little more than half of workers' time was spent in current against the authoritarian demands of church and state,
job-related activity. In an especially instructive investigation, Enlightenment philosophy stressed the natural rights of
Stafford and Duncan (1979; cited in Yankelovich & individuals, these rights were as-sumed to go hand in hand
Immerwahr, 1983) found that the discrepancy between with responsibilities. In-dividuals have obligations to others
ostensible and actual working hours increased between and to society as a whole and are accountable for their
1965 and 1975. Thus, the popular belief that people are not own actions and
working as hard and as well as they once did appear to their consequences.
have some validity. In the same vein, the original Protestant work ethic
assigned a transcendent significance to work: One was
Extrinsic benefits such as good pay and chance for expected to work hard and to achieve in order to serve and
advancement ranked high among the factors that to glorify God. In its modern-day form, the work ethic has
respondents to Yankelovich and Immerwahr's survey said been watered down to the belief that work is inherently
would make them work harder. But, suggesting the good in and of itself, especially if it is self-satisfying. Any
transformation that has taken place in people's expectations sense of larger purpose has largely been lost.
about the nature of work, other highly ranked factors refer
to characteristics of the job itself: more challenge, more The contemporary work ethic has virtues that, I take
responsibility, more freedom to think for oneself, more for granted, need no defense. People should be encouraged
opportunity to develop one's abilities. Commitment to the to find satisfaction in work and to strive for performance
work ethic has apparently become a conditional one: excellence for intrinsic reasons rather than to regard
willingness to work hard and do one's best but only if the successful accomplishment primarily as an instrumental
job warrants this kind of devotion. means to external, egotistical goals.
Further, people cannot be faulted for desiring work that
In discussing the significance of these survey data, respects their dignity, grants them responsibility, and calls
Yankelovich and Immerwahr (1983) blamed managers for upon their talents. However, a work ethic that has no
employee disenchantment and in doing so took an optimistic further justification than work itself and is divorced from
view. Thus, they wrote, "The conventional wisdom of a other values is susceptible to being driven by narrow self-
deteriorating work ethic is badly off target; the American interest, and it risks that con-ceptions of achievement will
work ethic is strong and healthy and may be getting be distorted into forms that are indifferent if not antithetical
healthier" (p. 4). They' continued, "The real cause of the to the public good.
commitment gap lies not with the new cultural values or with
an erosion of the work ethic but with a striking failure of Contemporary instances of malignant forms of
man-agers to support and reinforce the work ethic. This "achievement" are all too easy to find. On the cor-porate
means that practical solutions are possible" (p. 5), solutions level, for example, a large and supposedly trustworthy
that they then proceeded to outline. brokerage firm has admitted that its em-ployees engaged
in fraudulent practices in dealing with

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banks. It has been reported that 9 out of the 10 largest defense dence that self-oriented extrinsic motives such as de-sire for
contractors are under criminal investigation. pay, recognition, and prestige may inhibit per-formance. And,
The upper-level executives in a number of companies as is well known, hard-driving Type-A individuals often
experiencing economic difficulties have awarded themselves succeed in the short term at the
handsome salary increases while at the same time attempting long-term expense of their physical health (Jenkins, Rosenman,
to force their employees to forego raises or to accept cuts in & Zyzanski, 1974). Whether in our own lives as human beings
pay. or as psychologists who study achievement and the motives
Scientists are not exempt from these losses of integrity. that stimulate it, it behooves us to carefully examine the
Concern about the increasing incidence of scientific fraud led individualistic conception of achievement that characterizes
to a symposium on the topic at the spring (1985) meeting of this society rather than to accept it automatically as "good" in
the American Association for the Advancement of Science. all the varied meanings of that word.
One panelist, Robert Petersdorf, Dean of the Medical School
at the University of California at San Diego, stated that the The questions I have raised about the meaning and
em-phasis on prolific publication as a measure of achievement purposes of achievement are related to larger is-sues that go
in deciding on promotion and the award of research grants is a by many labels and appear in many forms.
major inducement to scientific dishonesty. He further argued In his presidential address, for example, John Conger (1981)
that "science in 1985 is too competitive, too big, too spoke of freedom and commitment. I will again use the
entrepreneurial, and bent too much on winning" (quoted in language of Bakan (1966): the sense of self or agency and the
Smith, 1985, p. 1292). Fraud aside, this statement alone is a sense of selflessness or communion.
biting indictment of "big science." Every individual, every society, and every one of the groups
that constitute a society must reconcile these contradictory
impulses in order to survive. But there is no single ideal
A competitive climate and the unethical behavior it solution. Segments of a given society may reach complementary
spawns appear to be less intense in scientific psychology than accommodations in response to the tasks they have been
in academic medicine and many of the natural sciences. This assigned. In many cultures, for example, agentic values tend
does not necessarily mean that psychologists are superior to to be stronger in men than in women, whereas communal
other scientists in their values and personal integrity; Rather, ones tend to be stronger in women than in men (Gilligan, 1982;
psychological research has rarely produced the dramatic Spence & Helmreich, 1978). Nations differ in the overall
kinds of findings and breakthroughs that would stimulate balance they have developed as a result of both historical and
researchers to engage in races of discovery and publication. present circumstances.
But as the academic job market has tightened, publication
pressures have mounted, particularly for those seeking tenure Each solution has benefits as well as costs and potential
and promotion at national re-search universities. Realistically, dangers. The American tilt toward agency or individualism has
after a certain point, high levels of productivity can be allowed us to create a politically stable, materially prosperous,
sustained only at the expense of quality. We may inadvertently and democratic nation that for many continues to be the land
be training young scholars to produce the superficial, the of freedom and opportunity. Freedom and autonomy, however,
flashy, and the quick and dirty and causing them to become leave people vulnerable to feelings of alienation and narcissistic
disillusioned and cynical about the purpose of research. Equally self-absorption and tempt them to pursue narrow self-interests.
serious, meeting these demands, even on the part of those
who do so willingly, requires singlemindedness and massive
investments of time that can be sustained only at the expense The accusations of social critics that American
of other activities, such as family obligations. individualism has become destructive represents the fear that
our sense of communion has weakened, leaving us susceptible
as individuals and as a nation to unleavened agency. Reasons
and indications can be found in abundance. As our society has
Selfless commitment to one's work, even noble work, grown larger and its members more mobile, the sense of being-
that is accomplished at the expense of others can in a larger longing to a time and place has dwindled. Political events of
sense become selfish. Working hard and striving to perform the last 20 years, such as Vietnam and Watergate, have
well and to succeed often have socially deleterious effects if eroded older patriotic values. Economic prosperity and new
they are not embedded in commitments to the larger social arrangements have given rise to a psychology of
community--family, country, and humankind as a whole. entitlement (Bell, 1976). Mod-em parents, for example, feel
Ironically, achievement strivings can even be self-defeating less compelled than earlier generations to sacrifice for their
and destructive to the individual. For example, interpersonally children; and their children, in turn, feel less obligated to
competitive individuals are less likely to achieve than their sacrifice for their parents as they age.
less competitive peers (Spence & Helmreich, 1983).
Furthermore, there is some evi-
If only because of enlightened self-interest, we

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