ch4 3

Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order
Dr Mansoor Alshehri
King Saud University
MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 1 / 102

Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order
General Solution of homogeneous linear differential equations
Initial-Value Problem (IVP)
Boundary-Value Problem (BVP)
Existence and Uniqueness of the Solution to an IVP
Linear Dependence and Independence of Functions
Criterion of Linearly Independent Solutions
Fundamental Set of Solutions
Reduction of order Method (when one solution is given)
Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations with Constant
Coefficients
Cauchy-Euler Differential Equation
General Solutions of Nonhomogeneous Linear Differential Equations
Undetermined coefficients
Variation of Parameters

Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order General Solution of homogeneous linear differential equations
General Solution of Homogeneous Linear

Differential Equations
Definition
The general linear differential equations of order n is an equation that can
be written
dn y dn−1 y dy
an (x) n
+ an−1 (x) n−1
+ · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = g(x), (1)
dx dx dx
where an (x), an−1 (x), a1 (x) and a0 (x) are functions of x ∈ I = (a, b),
and they are called coefficients.
Equation (1) is called homogeneous linear differential equation if the
function g(x) is zero for all x ∈ (a, b).
If g(x) is not equal to zero on I, the equation (1) is called
non-homogeneous linear differential equation.

Initial-Value Problem (IVP)
An n-th order initial-value problem associate with (1) takes the form:
Solve:
dn y dn−1 y dy
an (x) n
+ a n−1 (x) n−1
+ · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = g(x),
dx dx dx
subject to:
y(x0 ) = y0 , y 0 (x0 ) = y1 , y 00 (x0 ) = y2 , . . . , y n−1 (x0 ) = yn−1 . (2)
Here (2) is a set of initial conditions.

Boundary-Value Problem (BVP)
Remark (Initial vs. Boundary Conditions)

Initial Conditions: all conditions are at the same x = x0 .
Boundary Conditions: conditions can be at different x.
Remark (Number of Initial/Boundary Conditions)

Usually a n-th order ODE requires n initial/boundary conditions to specify
an unique solution.
Remark (Order of the derivatives in the conditions)

Initial/boundary conditions can be the value or the function of 0-th to
(n − 1)-th order derivatives, where n is the order of the ODE.

Example (Second-Order ODE)

Consider the following second-order ODE
0
d2 y dy
a2 (x) + a1 (x) 0 + a0 (x)y = g(x), (3)
dx2 dx
0
IVP: Solve (3) s.t. y(x0 ) = y0 ; y (x0 ) = y1 .
BVP: Solve (3) s.t. y(a) = y0 ; y(b) = y1 .
BVP: Solve (3) s.t. y(b) = y0 ; y(a) = y1 .

Existence and Uniqueness of the Solution to an IVP
Theorem
For the given linear differential equations of order n
dn y dn−1 y dy
an (x) n
+ an−1 (x) n−1
+ · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = g(x), (4)
dx dx dx
which is normal on an interval I. Subject to
y(x0 ) = y0 , y 0 (x0 ) = y1 , y 00 (x0 ) = y2 , . . . , y n−1 (x0 ) = yn−1 . (5)
If an (x), an−1 (x), . . . , a0 (x) and R(x) are all continuous on an interval I,
an (x) is not a zero function on I, and the initial point x0 ∈ I, then the
above IVP has a unique solution in I.

Example (1)
Discuss the Existence of unique solution of IV P
(x + 1)y 00 + x2 y 0 + 5y = cos(x)
2
y(3) = 2 , y 0 (3) = 1.
Solution The functions
a2 (x) = x2 + 1, a1 (x) = x2 , a0 (x) = 5.
and
R(x) = cos(x).
are continuous on I = R = (−∞, ∞) and a2 (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ R, the
point x0 = 3 ∈ I . Then the previous Theorem assures that the IV P has
a unique solution on R.

Example (2)
Find an interval I for which the initial values problem (IV P )
(
x2 y 00 + √2−x
x
y 0 + √2x y = 0
.
y(1) = 0 , y 0 (1) = 1.
has a unique solution around x0 = 1.
Solution The function

a2 (x) = x2 ,
is continuous on R and a2 (x) 6= 0 if x > 0 or x < 0 . But x0 = 1 ∈
I1 = (0, ∞). The function
x
a1 (x) = √ ,
2−x
is continuous on I2 = (−∞ , 2) and the function
2
a0 (x) = √ ,
x
is continuous on I1 = (0, ∞).
Then the (IV P )has a unique solution on I1 ∩ I2 = (0, 2) = I . We can

take any interval I3 ⊂ (0, 2) such that x0 = 1 ∈ I3 . So I is that the
largest interval for which the (IV P ) has a unique solution.

Example (3)
Find an interval I for which the IV P
(x − 1)(x − 3)y 00 + xy 0 + y = x2

.
y(2) = 1 , y 0 (2) = 0
has a unique solution about x0 = 2.
Solution The functions
a2 (x) = (x − 1)(x − 3) , a1 (x) = x , a0 (x) = 1 , R(x) = x2 ,
are continuous on R. But a2 (x) 6= 0 if x ∈ (−∞, 1) or x ∈ (1, 3) or

x ∈ (3, ∞). As x0 = 2 so we take I = (1, 3). Then the IV P has a
unique solution on I = (1, 3)

Exercises
1 Discuss the Existence of unique solution of IV P
(|x| + 3)y 00 + x3 y 0 + 5y = sin(x)

y(2) = 1 , y 0 (2) = 0.
2 Find an interval I for which the IV P

(x − 2)y 00 + 3y = x

.
y(0) = 0 , y 0 (0) = 1

3 Find an interval I for which the IV P
y 00 + (tan x)y = ex

.
y(0) = 1 , y 0 (0) = 0

Linear Dependence and Independence of Functions
Definition
A set of functions {f1 (x), f2 (x). . . . , fn (x)} are linearly dependent on an
interval I if ∃ c1 , c2 , . . . , cn not all zero i.e. (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) 6= (0, 0, . . . , 0)
such that
c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) + · · · + cn fn (x) = 0, ∀ x ∈ I
that is, the linear combination is a zero function.
If the set of functions is not linearly dependent, it is linearly independent,

i.e. when c1 , c2 , . . . , cn all zero i.e. (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) = (0, 0, . . . , 0).

Example (1)
Show that f1 (x) = cos(2x) , f2 (x) = 1, f3 (x) = cos2 (x) are linearly
dependent on R.
Solution We know that

1 + cos(2x) 1 1
f3 (x) = cos2 (x) = = f2 (x) + f1 (x)
2 2 2
1
for all x ∈ R. Then there exist c1 = c2 = 2 and c3 = −1 such that
c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) + c3 f3 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ R.
So f1 , f2 and f3 are linearly dependent on R.

Example (2)
Show that
f1 (x) = 1, f2 (x) = sec2 (x) and f3 (x) = tan2 (x)
are linearly dependent on 0, π2 .

Solution We know that
f2 (x) = sec2 (x) = 1 + tan2 (x) = f1 (x) + f3 (x)
hence π
f1 (x) − f2 (x) + f3 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ 0, .
2
So there exist c1 = c3 = 1 and c2 = −1 such that
π
c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) + c3 f3 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ 0, .
2
So f1 , f2 and f3 are linearly dependent on 0, π2 .


Example (3)
Show that f1 (x) = x and f2 (x) = x2 are linearly independent on
I = [−1, 1].
Solution Let c1 , c2 ∈ R such that
c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) = 0, for all x ∈ I .
We have to prove that c1 = c2 = 0. As
c1 x + c2 x2 = 0 for all − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1,
then for x = 1 and x = − 21 we have
c1 + c2 = 0,
and
1 1
− c1 + c2 = 0,
2 4
which implies that c1 = c2 = 0. Then f1 and f2 are linearly independent

on I.

Example (4)
Show that
f1 (x) = sin(x) , f2 (x) = sin(2x).
are linearly independent on I = [0, π) .
Solution Let c1 , c2 ∈ I such that
c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) = 0 for allx ∈ I.

π π
We have to show that c1 = c2 = 0. In fact for x = 4 and x = 3 we have
c1 sin π4 + c2 sin π2 = 0

c1 sin π3 + c2 sin 2 π3 = 0
hence √ √
1 3 3
√ c1 + c2 = 0 , c1 + c2 = 0,
2 2 2

which implies that c1 = c2 = 0. Then f1 and f2 are linearly independent

on I.

Example (5)
Show that
f1 (x) = x2 and f2 (x) = x |x|
(i) linearly dependent on [0, 1]
(ii) linearly independent on [−1, 1]
Solution
(i) on [0, 1] we have
f1 (x) = f2 (x) = x2 ,
hence
f1 (x) − f2 (x) = 0 for all 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
So there exist c1 = 1 , c2 = −1 such that
c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) = 0 for all 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Then f1 and f2 are linearly dependent on [0, 1].

(ii) Let c1 , c2 ∈ R such that
c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) = 0 for all − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1,
hence
c1 x2 + c2 x |x| = 0 for all − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Now for x = 1 and x = −1 we have c1 + c2 = 0 and c1 − c2 = 0 which
implies that c1 = c2 = 0. Then f1 and f2 are linearly independent on
[−1, 1].

Exercises
1 Determine whether the functions
f1 (x) = x , f2 (x) = x2 , f3 (x) = 4x − x2 .
are linearly dependent or independent on (−∞, ∞) .

f1 (x) = ex , f2 (x) = e−x , f3 (x) = cosh x.
are linearly dependent or independent on (−∞, ∞) .

f1 (x) = x , f2 (x) = x2 − 1, f3 (x) = x2 + 2x + 1.
are linearly dependent or independent on [0, 1] .

Criterion of Linearly Independent Solutions
Consider the homogeneous linear n-th order DE
dn y dn−1 y dy
an (x) n
+ a n−1 (x) n−1
+ · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = 0,
dx dx dx
Given n solutions {f1 (x), f2 (x), . . . , fn (x)}, we would like to test if they
are independent or not.
Note: In Linear Algebra, to test if n vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } are linearly

independent, we can compute the determinant of the matrix.
V := [v1 v2 . . . vn ].
If the determinant of V = 0, they are linearly dependent; if the

determinant of V 6= 0, they are linearly independent.

Definition
For n functions W (f1 , f2 , . . . , fn ) which are n − 1 times differentiable on
an interval I, the Wronskian W (x, f1 , f2 , . . . , fn ) as a function on I is
defined by
f1 f2 ... fn
f10 f20 ... fn0
W (x, f1 , f2 , ..., fn ) = f100 f200 ... fn00
... ... ... ...
f1n−1 f2n−1 n−1
.... fn

To test the linear independence of n solutions {f1 (x), f2 (x), . . . , fn (x)} to
dn y dn−1 y dy
an (x)
n
+ a n−1 (x) n−1
+ · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = 0, (6)
dx dx dx
we can use the following theorem.
Theorem
Let {f1 (x), f2 (x), . . . , fn (x)} be n solutions to the homogeneous linear
DE (6) on an interval I. They are linearly independent on I
f1 f2 ... fn
f10 f20 ... fn0
⇐⇒ W (x, f1 , f2 , ..., fn ) := f100 f200 ... fn00 6= 0.
... ... ... ...
f1n−1 f2n−1 .... fnn−1

Example (1)
Prove that f1 (x) = x2 , f2 (x) = x2 ln(x) are linearly independent on
(0, ∞).
Solution We have that

x2 x2 ln(x)
W (f1 , f2 ) =
2x 2x ln(x) + x
= 2x3 ln(x) + x3 − 2x3 ln(x) = x3 6= 0
for all x ∈ (0, ∞) ,
then f1 and f2 are linearly independent on (0, ∞).

Example (2)
It is easy to see that the functions
y1 = x , y2 = x2 ,
and
y3 = x3 .
are solutions of the differential equation
x3 y 000 − 3x2 y 00 + 6xy 0 − 6y = 0.

Show that y1 , y2 and y3 are linearly independent on (0, ∞).
Solution Here we have a3 (x) = x3 6= 0 for all x > 0 or x < 0. By

using the Wronskian we have
x x 2 x3
W (y1 , y2 , y3 ) = 1 2x 3x2 = 2x3 6= 0.
0 2 6x
for all x ∈ (0, ∞) or for all x ∈ (−∞, 0) . So y1 , y2 and y3 are linearly

independent on (0, ∞).

Example
Show that the functions: f1 (x) = x, f2 (x) = x − 1 and f3 (x) = x + 3 are

linearly dependent or linearly independent on R.
x x−1 x+3
W (f1 , f2 , f3 ) = 1 1 1 = 0, for allx ∈ R.
0 0 0
so these functions might be linearly dependent or linearly independent on
R.

Now we need to do the following steps to determine if they are linearly

dependent or linearly independent on R.
Let c1 , c2 andc3 ∈ R thus c1 x + c2 (x + 1) + c3 (x + 3) = 0 for allx ∈ R.
For x = 0, x = 1 andx = −1 we have
−c2 + 3c3 = 0
c1 + 4c3 = 0
−c1 − 2c2 + 2c3 = 0
0 −1 3
1 0 4 = +1(2 + 4) + 3(−2) = 6 − 6 = 0
−1 −2 2
so these equations have infinity solutions.
c1 = 1, c2 = −3/4 andc3 = −1/4, thus we have
(1)x − 3/4(x − 1) − 1/4(x + 3) = 0 for allx ∈ R So, f1 , f2 , f3 are
linearly dependent on R.

Exercises
1 Show by computing the Wronskian that the functions
f1 (x) = x , f2 (x) = xex , f3 (x) = x2 ex .
are linearly dependent or independent on (0, ∞) .

2 Show that the functions
y1 = cosh(2x)
and
y2 = sinh(2x)
y 00 − 4y 0 = 0.
Show that y1 and y2 are linearly independent on (−∞, ∞).

Fundamental Set of Solutions

Definition
dn y dn−1 y dy
an (x)
n
+ a n−1 (x) n−1
+ · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = 0, (7)
dx dx dx
Any set {f1 (x), f2 (x), . . . , fn (x)} of n linearly independent solutions to
the homogeneous linear n-th order DE (7) on an interval I is called a
fundamental set of solutions.
Theorem
Let {f1 (x), f2 (x), . . . , fn (x)} be a fundamental set of solutions to the
homogeneous linear n-th order DE (7) on an interval I. Then the general
solution to (7) is
y(x) = c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) + · · · + cn fn (x),
where {ci | (i = 1, 2, . . . , n)} are arbitrary constants.

Example (1)
Verify that y1 = e2x and y2 = e−3x form a fundamental set of solutions of
the differential equation
y 00 + y 0 − 6y = 0.
and find the general solution.
Solution Substituting
y1 = e2x , y10 = 2e2x , y100 = 4e2x ,
in the differential equation we have
4e2x + 2e2x − 6e2x = 0.
Hence y1 = e2x is a solution of the differential equation. By the same

method we can prove that y2 = e−3x is also a solution of the differential
equation.
Now we have
e2x e−3x
W (e2x , e−3x ) = = −5e−x 6= 0 for all x ∈ R.
2e2x −3e−3x
Then y1 and y2 are linearly independent on R. From the previous Theorem
we deduce the general solution of the differential equation given by
y(x) = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x).
where c1 ,c2 ∈ R.

Example (2)
It is easy to see that the functions
y1 = ex , y2 = e2x , and y3 = e3x
y 000 − 6y 00 + 11y 0 − 6y = 0.
Find the general solution of the differential equation.
Solution Since
ex e2x e3x
W (ex , e2x , e3x ) = ex 2e2x 3e3x = 2e6x 6= 0.
ex 4e2x 9e3x
for all x ∈ R.

We deduce that
y(x) = c1 ex + c2 e2x + c3 e3x .
is the general solution of the differential equation.

Example (3)
Prove that
y1 = x3 ex , and y2 = ex .
xy 00 − 2(x + 1)y 0 + (x + 2)y = 0
where x > 0. Find also the general solution of the differential equation.
Solution Substituting
y1 = x3 ex , y10 = 3x2 ex + x3 ex , y100 = 6xex + 6x2 ex + x3 ex ,
in the differential equation we have
x
6x2 ex +6x3 ex +x4 ex −6x3 ex −2x4 exe −6x2 ex +−2x3 ex +x4 ex +2x3 ex = 0.
Substituting
y2 = y20 = y200 = ex ,
in the differential equation
xex − 2xex − 2ex + xex + 2ex = 0.
Now we have to show that

y1 = x3 ex ,
and
y2 = ex .
are linearly independent on (0 , ∞).
In fact
x3 ex ex
W (x3 ex , ex ) = = −3x2 ex 6= 0 for all x > 0.
3x2 ex + x e ex
3 x
Then
y1 = x3 ex ,

and
y2 = ex .
are linearly independent on (0 , ∞) and we conclude that
yc = c1 x3 ex + c2 ex .
is the general solution of the differential equation.

Exercises
Verify that the given functions form a fundamental set of solutions of the
differential equation on the indicated interval, then find the general
solution of the differential equation.
y 00 − y 0 − 12y = 0; e−3x , e4x on (−∞, ∞)
x3 y 000 + 6x2 y 00 + 4xy 0 − 4y = 0; x, x−2 , x−2 ln x on (0, ∞)
y (4) + y 00 = 0; 1, x, sin x, cos x on (0, ∞)

Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order Reduction of order Method (when one solution is given)
Reduction of order Method (when one solution is

given)
It is employed when one solution y1 (x) is known and a second linearly

independent solution y2 (x) is desired. The method also applies to n-th
order equations.
Suppose that y1 (x) is a non-zero solution of the equation
a2 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a0 (x)y = 0, (8)
where a0 (x), a1 (x) and a2 (x) are continuous functions defined on interval
I sauch that a2 (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ I.
The method of reduction of order is used to obtain a second linearly

independent y2 (x) solution to this differential equation (8) using our one
known solution.

We suppose that the solution of (8) is in the form
y = u(x)y1 ,
where u is a fountain of x and which will be determined and satisfies a

linear second-order differential equation (8) by using the following method
y = u(x)y1 ⇒ y 0 = u0 y1 + y10 u ⇒ y 00 = u00 y1 + 2u0 y10 + y100 u.
It is best to describe the procedure with a concrete example.

Example (1)
If
sin x
y1 = √ .
x
is a solution of the differential equation
4x2 y 00 + 4xy 0 + (4x2 − 1)y = 0 on 0 < x < π.
then find the general solution of the differential equation..
Solution The solution of the differential equation is of the form

y = u(x)y1 or
sin x −1
y = √ u = (sin x) (x) 2 u,
x
hence
−1 1 −3 −1
y 0 = (cos x)(x) 2 u− sin x(x) 2 u + sin x(x) 2 u0 ,
2

−1 −3 −1
y 00 = − sin x(x) 2 u − cos x(x) 2 u + 2 cos x(x) 2 u0
3 −5 −3 −1
+ sin x(x) 2 u − sin x(x) 2 u0 + sin x(x) 2 u00
4
we substitute y , y 0 , and y 00 in the arbitrary constant we obtain
3
3
4x 2 sin xu00 + 8x 2 cos x u0 = 0,
hence
sin xu00 + 2 cos xu0 = 0.
To solve this differential equation we put w = u0 , then we have w0 = u00 .
Then Z Z
dw 2 cos x
dx + dx = 0,
w sin x

hence
c1
, u0 = w =
sin2 x
6 0 is an arbitrary constant. So we have u = −c1 cot x + c2 ,
where c1 =
hence
sin x
y = y1 u = √ (−c1 cot x + c2 ),
x
or
cos x sin x
y = c3 √ + c2 √ ,
x x
finally we have
y = c2 y1 + c3 y2 ,
where c3 = −c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants, is the general solution of
the differential equation and we can prove that
sin x cos x
y1 = √ and y2 = √
x x
are linearly independent on solutions (0, π).

General case of Equation (8)
Equation
a2 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a0 (x)y = 0,
can be written as the form
y 00 + p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = 0, (9)
where
a1 (x)
p(x) = ,
a2 (x)
and
a0 (x)
q(x) = .
a2 (x)
Also, let us suppose that y1 is a known solution of (9) on I and y1 (x) 6= 0
for all x ∈ I.

Thus the second solution of (9) y2 can be given from

R
e− p(x)dx
Z
y2 = y1 dx. (10)
y12

Example (1)
If
sin x
y1 = √
x
is a solution of the differential equation
4x2 y 00 + 4xy 0 + (4x2 − 1)y = 0 on (0, π),

then find the second solution .
Solution As
1 0 4x2 − 1
y 00 + y + y = 0.
x 4x2
then
1
p(x) = ,
x
and R R
− x1 dx 1
e− p(x)dx
=e = e− ln x = .
x
We have
R
1
e− p(x)dx
Z Z
sin x x
y2 = y1 dx = √ dx,
y12 x sin2 (x)
x
− cos x
Z
sin x dx
= √ 2 = √ .
x sin (x) x
Hence
− cos x cos x
y2 = √ or y2 = √
x x
is the second solution of the differential equation on (0, π).

Example (2)
If y1 = e3x is a solution of the differential equation
xy 00 + (x − 1)y 0 + (3 − 12x)y = 0 ; x > 0.

Find the general solution.
Solution We have
1 0 3
y 00 + (1 − )y + ( − 12)y = 0.
x x
From the formula (10) we can find directly y2 , where
Z Z
1
−p(x)dx = (−1 + )dx = −x + ln x,
x

hence
R
e− p(x)dx e−x+ln x
Z Z Z
y2 = y1 dx = e3x dx = e3x xe−7x dx
y12 e6x

1 −7x
3x 1 −7x
= e − xe − e
7 49
−x 1 1 1
= e−4x ( − ) = − e−4x (x + ).
7 49 7 7
Then the general solution is
1
y = c1 y1 + c2 y2 = c1 e3x + c2 e−4x (x + )
7
on the interval (0, ∞).

Exercises
Apply the reduction of order method to obtain another linearly
independent solution for the following differential equations
y 00 − 4y 0 + 4y = 0; y1 = e2x .
x2 y 00 + x2 y 0 − (x + 2)y = 0; y1 = x−1 e−x , x > 0.
x2 (1 − ln x)y 00 + xy 0 − y = 0; y1 = x, x > e.

Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients
Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations with

Constant Coefficients
The linear differential equations with Constant Coefficients has the general
form
dn y dn−1 y dy
an n + an−1 n−1 + · · · + a1 + a0 y = 0, (11)
dx dx dx
which is a homogeneous linear DE with constant real coefficients, where
each coefficient ai , 1 ≤ i ≤ n is real constant and an 6= 0.
Definition
The polynomial
f (m) = an mn + an−1 mn−1 + · · · + a1 m + a0 , (12)
is called the characteristic polynomial for equation (11), and f (m) = 0 is

called the characteristic equation of the linear differential equations with
constant coefficients (11).
We conclude that if m is a root of equation (54), then
y = emx
is a solution of the differential equation (11). Also, Equation (54) has n

roots.
Let us summarize the method to solve the differential equation (11)
(1) If all the roots of the characteristic equation are real roots then:
(i) If the roots are distinct (i.e. m1 6= m2 6= m3 6= · · · =
6 mn ), then the
solution of the differential equation (11) is given by
y = c1 em1 x + c2 em2 x + · · · + cn emn x
(ii) If the roots are equal (i.e. m1 = m2 = m3 = · · · = mn ) (i.e. m = mi

is a root of multiplicity n), then the solution of the differential equation
(11) is given by
y = c1 emx + c2 xemx + c3 x2 emx + · · · + cn xn−1 emx
y = (c1 + c2 x + c3 x2 + · · · + cn xn−1 )emx
Example (1)
Solve the differential equation
y 00 − y = 0.
Solution For this, the characteristic equation is m2 − 1 = 0 hence

m = ∓1.Then y1 = ex and y2 = e−x form the fundamental set of
solutions, hence the general solution is
y = c1 ex + c2 e−x .

Example (2)
Find the general solution of the differential equation
y 000 − 6y 00 + 11y 0 − 6y = 0 .
Solution For this differential equation the characteristic equation is
m3 − 6m2 + 11m − 6 = (m − 1)(m − 2)(m − 3) = 0.
Then m = 1, 2, 3 and y1 = ex , y2 = e2x and y3 = e3x form the

fundamental set of solutions, hence the general solution is
y = c1 ex + c2 e2x + c3 e3x .

Example (3)
y 00 − 2y 0 + y = 0.
Solution The characteristic equation for the differential equation is
m2 − 2m + 1 = 0 ,
so m = 1 is a root of multiplicity 2, hence the general solution is
y = c1 ex + c2 xex .

Example (4)
y 000 − 3y 00 + 3y 0 − y = 0

m3 − 3m2 + 3m − 1 = (m − 1)3 = 0, so m = 1 is a root of multiplicity 3
then the general solution is
y = c1 ex + c2 xex + c3 x2 ex .

Now we see the second case

(2) If the characteristic equation has complex conjugate roots such as
m = α ∓ iβ
then he solution of the differential equation of second order is given by
y = c1 eαx cos(βx) + c2 eαx sin(βx)

Remember:
√
1) −1 = i
√
−b ∓ b2 − 4ac
2) x =
2a
to find the roots of Quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0

Example (5)
y 00 + 4y 0 + 5y = 0.
Solution The characteristic (auxiliary) equation for the differential

equation is m2 + 4m + 5 = 0, now we need to find the roots of this
characteristic equation
√
−4 ∓ 16 − 20
m=
2
then m = −2 ∓ i hence the general solution is
y(x) = c1 e−2x cos(x) + c2 e−2x sin(x).

Example (6)
y (5) − 3y (4) + 4y 000 − 4y 00 + 3y 0 − y = 0.
Solution The characteristic for the differential equation is
m5 − 3m4 + 4m3 − 4m2 + 3m − 1 = 0,
then
m5 − 3m4 + 4m3 − 4m2 + 3m − 1 = (m − 1)3 (m2 + 1) = 0.

√
Thus m = 1 , 1 ,1 , ∓i where −1 = i and the general solution of the
equation has the form
y = c1 ex + c2 xex + c3 x2 ex + c4 cos x + c5 sin x.

Example (7)
Solve the initial value problem (IV P )
y 00 + y 0 + y = 0 √

y(0) = 1 , y 0 (0) = 3.
m2 + m + 1 = 0.
Hence √
1 3
m=− ∓ i.
2 2
So the general solution of a differential equation is
√ ! √ !
−x 3 −x 3
y = c1 e 2 cos x + c2 e 2 sin x .
2 2

√
from the conditions y(0) = 1 and y 0 (0) = 3 we have c1 = 1. and
√
−c1 3 √
+ c2 = 3
2 2
hence c1 = 1 and c2 = 2 + √1 . So the solution of the IV P is
3
√ ! √ !
−x 3 1 −x 3
y=e 2 cos x + (2 + √ )e 2 sin x .
2 3 2

Exercises
Find the general solution of the following differential equations
2y 00 + 3y 0 + y = 0
y 00 − y 0 − 6y = 0
y 000 − 4y 00 − 5y 0 = 0
y (4) − 2y 00 + y = 0
2y (5) − 7y (4) + 12y 000 + 8y 00 = 0
Find the solution of the initial value problems

y 00 + y 0 + 2y = 0; y(0) = y 0 (0) = 0
y 000 + 12y 00 + 36y 0 = 0; y(0) = 0, y 0 (0) = 1, y 00 (0) = −7

Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order Cauchy-Euler Differential Equation
Cauchy-Euler Differential Equation
A Cauchy-Euler differential equation is in the form
dn y n−1 d
n−1 y dy
an xn n
+ a n−1 x n−1
+ · · · + a1 x + a0 y = 0, (13)
dx dx dx
where each coefficient ai , 1 ≤ i ≤ n are constants and an 6= 0 i.e. the
coefficient an xn should never be zero. Equation (13) is on the interval
either (0, ∞) or (−∞, 0).
Euler differential equation is probably the simplest type of linear

differential equation with variable coefficients.
The most common Cauchy-Euler equation is the second-order equation,

appearing in a number of physics and engineering applications, such as
when solving Laplace’s equation in polar coordinates.

It is given by the equation
d2 y dy
x2 2
+ ax + by = 0 (14)
dx dx
To solve the Cauchy-Euler differential equation, we assume that y = xm ,
where x > 0 and m is a root of a polynomial equation.

Example (1)
Solve the Cauchy-Euler differential equation
d2 y dy
x2 + ax + by = 0.
dx2 dx
Solution We substitute
y = xm =⇒ y 0 = mxm−1 =⇒ y 00 = m(m − 1)xm−2
in the differential equation, we obtain
x2 [m(m − 1)xm−2 ] + ax[mxm−1 ] + bxm = 0

xm (m2 − m) + amxm + bxm = 0
xm [(m2 − m) + am + b] = 0
xm [m2 + (1 − a)m + b] = 0.

Since xm 6= 0, then we have
m2 + (1 − a)m + b = 0
We then can solve for m. There are three particular cases of interest:
Case 1: Two distinct roots, m1 and m2 . Thus, the solution is given by
y = c1 xm1 + c2 xm2 .
Case 2: One real repeated root, m. Thus, the solution is given by
y = c1 xm ln(x) + c2 xm .
Case 3: Complex roots, α ± iβ. Thus, the solution is given by
y = c1 xα cos (β ln(x)) + c2 xα sin (β ln(x)) .

Example (2)
Solve the Euler differential equation
2x2 y 00 − 3xy 0 − 3y = 0. (15)
For x > 0.
Solution We substitute
y = xm =⇒ y 0 = mxm−1 =⇒ y 00 = m(m − 1)xm−2
in the differential equation, we obtain
2x2 [m(m − 1)xm−2 ] − 3x[mxm−1 ] − xm = 0

xm (2m2 − 2m) − 3mxm − 3xm = 0
xm [2m2 − 2m − 3m − 3] = 0
xm [2m2 − 5m − 3] = 0.
Since xm 6= 0, then we have
2m2 − 5m − 3 = 0
So the roots of this equation are m1 = − 21 , m2 = 3 .Thus, from case 1

we have the solution is given by
1
y(x) = c1 x− 2 + c2 x3 .
which is the general solution.

Example (3)
Find the general of the differential equation
x2 y 00 − 3xy 0 + 13y = 0 ; x > 0.
Solution Substituting y = xm in the equation, we obtain
m(m − 1) − 3m + 13 = m2 − 4m + 13 = 0.
Then we have two complex roots m = 3 ∓ 3i (case 3), hence the the
general of the differential equationis
y = c1 x3 cos(3 ln x) + c2 x3 sin(3 ln x) ; x > 0.
If we suppose x < 0, then the general of the differential equation is
y = c1 (−x)3 cos(3 ln(−x)) + c2 (−x)3 sin(3 ln(−x)) ; x < 0.

Example (4)
x4 y (4) − 5x3 y 000 + 3x2 y 00 − 6xy 0 + 6y = 0 ; x > 0.
m(m − 1)(m − 2)(m − 3) − 5m(m − 1)(m − 2) + 3m(m − 1) − 6m + 6 = 0.
This implies that
(m − 1)(m − 2)(m2 − 8m + 3) = 0.
√
The roots of this equation are m = 1 , m = 2 , and m = 4 ∓ 13 , then
the general solution of the differential equation is
√ √
y = c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x4+ 13
+ c4 x4− 13
; x > 0.

Example (5)
x5 y (5) − 2x3 y 000 + 4x2 y 00 = 0 ; x < 0.
m(m − 1)(m − 2)(m − 3)(m − 4) − 2m(m − 1)(m − 2) + 4m(m − 1) = 0,
m(m − 1)(m3 − 9m2 + 24m − 20) = m(m − 1)(m − 2)2 (m − 5) = 0.
So the roots of this equation are m = 0 , m = 1 , m = 2 repeated two

times and m = 5 , then the general of the differential equation is
y = c1 + c2 (−x) + c3 (−x)2 + c4 (−x)2 ln(−x) + c5 (−x)5 .

Exercises
Find the general solution of the following differential equations, where we
suppose that x > 0.
x2 y 00 − y = 0
x2 y 00 + 5xy 0 + 3y = 0
4x2 y 00 + 4xy 0 − y = 0
x3 y 000 + xy 0 − y = 0
x3 y 000 + 4x2 y 00 − 8xy 0 + 8y = 0
4
(3x + 4)2 y 00 + 10(3x + 4)y 0 + 9y = 0; x > −
3

Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order General Solutions of Nonhomogeneous Linear Differential Equations
General Solutions of Nonhomogeneous Linear

Differential Equations
Nonhomogeneous linear n-th order ODE takes the form
dn y dn−1 y dy
an (x) n
+ a n−1 (x) n−1
+ · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = g(x), (16)
dx dx dx
where an (x), an−1 (x), a1 (x) and a0 (x) are functions of x ∈ I = (a, b),
such that an (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ I, and g(x) 6= 0.
Idea
Find the general solution yc to the homogeneous equation
dn y dn−1 y dy
an (x) n
+ an−1 (x) n−1 + · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = 0
dx dx dx

Find a solution yp to the nonhomogeneous equation
dn y dn−1 y dy
an (x) + an−1 (x) + · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = g(x)
dxn dxn−1 dx
The general solution y = yc + yp .

Undetermined coefficients
Let us take an example
Example (1)
Find the general solution of the differential equation :
y 00 − y = −2x2 + 5 + 2ex . (*)
Solution
1) First we have to find the general solution of the differential equation :
y 00 − y = 0.
For , we have m2 − 1 = 0, hence m = ∓1 then
yc = c1 ex + c2 e−x .

2) The form of the particular solution of

y 00 − y = −2x2 + 5,
is
y1,p = Ax2 + Bx + C,
and the form of the particular solution of
y 00 − y = 2ex ,
is
y2,p = Dxex ,
because r = 1 is a simple root of the characteristic equation. Thus the
particular solution of (*) is
yp = y1,p + y2,p = Ax2 + Bx + C + Dxex .
Now we have to find the constants A, B, C , and D by substituting yp
and yp00 in differential equation (*) and we find
yp00 − yp = −Ax2 − Bx + 2A − C + 2Dex = −2x2 + 5 + 2ex .
Equating coefficients of similar terms (because the functions x2 , 1 and

are ex linearly independent on R ), we obtain the following system of
equation A = 2, B = 0 , 2A − C = 5 , and 2D = 2. Thus we have A = 2,
B = 0, C = −1, and D = 1.Then the particular solution of (*) is
yp = 2x2 − 1 + xex ,
and the general solution of the differential equation of (*) is
y = yc + yp = c1 ex + c2 e−x + 2x2 − 1 + xex .

Some of the Typical forms of the particular integral
Function of x Form for yp

keax Ceax
n
kxn , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . Ci x i
P
i=1
k cos(ax) or k sin(ax) C1 cos(ax) + C2 sin(ax)
keax
cos(bx) or keax sin(bx) eax (C1 cos(bx) + C2 sin(bx))
n

ki xi cos(ax)
P
i=1
or
n n n

ki xi sin(ax) xi xi
P P P
Ci cos(ax) + Ri sin(ax)
i=1 i=1 i=1

Exercises
Find the general solution of the following differential equations.
x2 y 00 − y = 0
y 00 + 4y = sin(2x) + ex
y 00 − 5y 0 + 4y = e2x (cos x + sin x)
Find only the form of the particular solution of the given differential
equation by using the method of undetermined coefficients.
y 00 − y = ex + s sin x
y 00 − y = x2 ex
y (6) − 3y (3) = 3x + 1
y 000 − y 0 = x5 + cos x

Variation of Parameters
This method is used to determine the particular solution yp of
nonhomogeneous differential equation
dn y dn−1 y dy
an (x) n
+ a n−1 (x) n−1
+ · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = g(x), (17)
dx dx dx
If we have the nonhomogeneous differential equation
a2 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a0 (x)y = g(x), (18)
which has the particular solution
yp = y1 u1 + y2 u2 ,
where y1 and y2 are the first and the second solution of the homogeneous
differential equation, respectively.
a2 (x)y 00 + a1 (x)y 0 + a0 (x)y = 0 (19)

Here we will explain the method to find u1 and u2 . So, if we have y1 & y2
, then we will determine as below
y1 y2
W (x, y1 , y2 ) = = y1 y20 − y2 y10 ,
y10 y20
0 y2
W1 = = −y2 g(x),
g(x) y20
y1 0
W2 = 0 = y1 g(x).
y1 g(x)
Thus,
W1
u01 =
W
and
W2
u02 = .
W

Example (1)
y 00 + y = csc x ; 0 < x < π.
Solution
1) The general solution of
y 00 + y = 0,
is
yc = c1 sin x + c2 cos x.
2) The particular solution of
y 00 + y = csc x,
is the form
yp = y1 u1 + y2 u2 ,
where
y1 = sin x and y2 = cos x.
The functions u1 and u2 are determined from the system below
sin x cos x
W (x, y1 , y2 ) = = −1,
cos x − sin x
0 cos x
W1 = = − cot x,
csc x − sin x
sin x 0
W2 = = 1,
cos x csc x
Hence
W1
u01 = = cot x,
W
then
u1 = ln(sin x).
But
u02 = −1,

hence u2 = −x. Therefore we have
yp = y1 u1 + y2 u2 = sin x. ln(sin x) − x cos x,
and the general solution of the differential equation is
y = yc + yp = c1 sin x + c2 cos x + sin x. ln(sin x) − x cos x.

Example (2)
y 00 − 4y 0 + 4y = (x + 1)e2x .
Solution
y 00 − 4y 0 + 4y = 0,
is
yc = c1 e2x + c2 xe2x .
2) Let
y1 = e2x and y2 = xe2x .
So we have
e2x xe2x
W (x, y1 , y2 ) = 2x = e4x ,
2e e + 2xe2x
2x

0 xe2x
W1 (x, y1 , y2 ) = = −x(x + 1)e4x ,
(x + 1)e2x e2x + 2xe2x
and
e2x 0
W2 (x, y1 , y2 ) = = (x + 1)e4x ,
2e2x (x + 1)e2x
hence
W1
u01 = = −x(x + 1) = −x2 − x,
W
so
x3 x2
u1 = − −
3 2
But
W2
u02 = = x + 1,
W
then
x2
u2 = + x.
2
Therefore,
x3 x2 2x x2 x3 x2
yp = y1 u1 + y2 u2 = (− − )e + x( + x)e2x = ( + )e2x ,
3 2 2 6 2
and The general solution of the differential equation is
x3 x2 2x
y = yc + yp = c1 e2x + c2 xe2x + ( + )e .
6 2
In this example we can use the undetermined coefficients, where
yp = x2 (A + Bx)e2x .

Example (3)
Solve the Differential equation
1
y 00 − 3y 0 + 2y = .
1 + e−x
Solution
y 00 − 3y 0 + 2y = 0.
is
yc = c1 ex + c2 e2x .
2) Let
y1 = ex and y2 = e2x ,
then
ex e2x
W (x, y1 , y2 ) = = e3x ,
ex 2e2x
0 e2x −e2x
W1 (x, y1 , y2 ) = 1 = ,
1+e−x
2e2x 1 + e−x
ex 0 ex
W2 (x, y1 , y2 ) = 1 = ,
ex 1+e−x 1 + e−x
hence
W1 e−x
u01 = =−
W 1 + e−x
and
e−x
Z
dx = ln 1 + e−x .

u1 (x) = − −x
1+e
But
W2 e−2x
u02 = = ,
W 1 + e−x
and
e−2x
Z
dx = −(1 + e−x ) + ln 1 + e−x ,

u2 = −x
1+e
so we have
y = yc + yp = (c1 − 1)ex + (c2 − 1)e2x + (ex + e2x ) ln 1 + e−x ,

= c3 ex + c4 e2x + (ex + e2x ) ln 1 + e−x .


Example (4)
π
y 000 + y 0 = tan x ; 0<x< .
2
Solution
1) The the general solution of
y 000 + y 0 = 0,
is
yc = c1 + c2 cos x + c3 sin x.
2) Let y1 = 1 , y2 = cos x and y3 = sin x . The particular solution of
the differential equation has the form
yp = u1 y1 + u2 y2 + u3 y3 .

We have
1 cos x sin x
W (x, y1 , y2 , y3 ) = 0 − sin x cos x = 1,
0 − cos x − sin x
0 cos x sin x
W1 (x, y1 , y2 , y3 ) = 0 − sin x cos x = tan x ,
tan x − cos x − sin x
1 0 sin x
W2 (x, y1 , y2 , y3 ) = 0 0 cos x = − sin x ,
0 tan x − sin x
1 cos x 0
− sin2 (x)
W3 (x, y1 , y2 , y3 ) = 0 − sin x 0 = .
cos x
0 − cos x tan x

Then we have,
W1
u01 = = tan x,
W
and Z
u1 = tan xdx = − ln(cos x) .
But
W2
u02 =
= − sin x ,
W
then Z
u2 = − sin xdx = cos x.
Also
W3 − sin2 (x)
u03 = = ,
W cos x

hence,
sin2 (x) 1 − cos2 (x)

Z Z
u3 = − dx = − dx = − ln(sec x + tan x) + sin x.
cos x cos x
Thus,
yp = u1 y1 + u2 y2 + u3 y3 ,
= − ln(cos x) + cos2 (x) − sin x ln(sec x + tan x) + sin2 (x),
= 1 − ln(cos x) − sin x ln(sec x + tan x).
So the general solution of the differential equation is
y = yc + yp = (c1 + 1) + c2 cos x + c3 sin x − ln(cos x)

− sin x ln(sec x + tan x)
y = c4 + c2 cos x + c3 sin x − ln(cos x) − sin x ln(sec x + tan x).

Example (5)
Find the solution of the initial value problem (IV P )
2x2 y 00 + xy 0 − 3y = x−3

; x>0
y(1) = 1 , y 0 (1) = −1.
Solution
1) We have to find the general solution of
2x2 y 00 + xy 0 − 3y = 0.
By substituting y = xm , we have
m(m − 1) + m − 3 = (2m − 3)(m + 1) = 0,
hence the general solution of the homogeneous differential equation is

3
yc = c1 x−1 + c2 x 2 .

3
2) Let y1 = x−1 , y2 = x , then 2
yp = u1 y1 + u2 y2 .
We have
3
x−1 x2 5 1
W (x, y1 , y2 ) = 3 21
= x− 2 ,
−x−2 2x
2
3
0 x2 1 7
W1 (x, y1 , y2 ) = 1 −5 3 12
= − x− 2 ,
2x 2x
2
x−1 0 1
W2 (x, y1 , y2 ) = = x−6 .
−x−2 1 −5
2x 2
Then we have
W1 1
u01 = = − x−3 ,
W 5
and
1 −2
u1 = x .
10
Also we have
W2 1 11
u02 = = x− 2 ,
W 5
hence
2 −9
u2 = − x 2.
45
So
1 −3 2 1
x − x−3 = x−3 .
yp = u1 y1 + u2 y2 =
10 45 18
Then the general solution of the differential equation is
3 1 −3
y = yc + yp = c1 x−1 + c2 x 2 + x .
18
We can obtain yp by substituting yp = Ax−3 , which implies A = 1
18 .

3)
3 1 1
y 0 (x) = −c1 x−2 + c2 x 2 − x−4 .
2 6
0
From the conditions y(1) = 1 and y (1) = −1, we deduce
17
c1 + c2 = ,
18
and
3 5
−c1 + c2 = − ,
2 6
9 2
which implies c1 = 10 and c2 = 45 . Thus the solution of the IV P is
9 −1 2 3 1
y= x + x 2 + x−3 .
10 45 18

Exercises
Use the variation of parameters method to find the general solution or
initial value problems of the following differential equations.
π
y 00 + y = sec x; 0 < x <
2
00 0 ex
y − 2y + y = ; x > 0
x
00 0
y − 12y + 36y = e6x ln x; x > 0
ex
y 00 − 2y 0 + y = x
(e + 1)2
2
y 00 − y = √
1 − e−2x
π
y 000 + 4y 0 = sec 2x; 0 < x <
4
000 00 2
2y − 6y = x

π π
y 00 + y = tan x; y = 1, y 0
=0
3 3
y 00 + y = sec3 (x); y(0) = 1, y 0 (0) = 1
ex
y 00 − 2y 0 + y = ; y(1) = e, y 0 (1) = 0
x

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Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order

King Saud University

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 1 / 102

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 2 / 102

General Solution of Homogeneous Linear

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 3 / 102

Initial-Value Problem (IVP)

y(x0 ) = y0 , y 0 (x0 ) = y1 , y 00 (x0 ) = y2 , . . . , y n−1 (x0 ) = yn−1 . (2)

Here (2) is a set of initial conditions.

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 4 / 102

Boundary-Value Problem (BVP)

Remark (Initial vs. Boundary Conditions)

Remark (Number of Initial/Boundary Conditions)

Remark (Order of the derivatives in the conditions)

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 5 / 102

Example (Second-Order ODE)

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 6 / 102

Existence and Uniqueness of the Solution to an IVP

y(x0 ) = y0 , y 0 (x0 ) = y1 , y 00 (x0 ) = y2 , . . . , y n−1 (x0 ) = yn−1 . (5)

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 7 / 102

Solution The functions

a2 (x) = x2 + 1, a1 (x) = x2 , a0 (x) = 5.

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 8 / 102

has a unique solution around x0 = 1.

Solution The function

is continuous on I1 = (0, ∞).

Then the (IV P )has a unique solution on I1 ∩ I2 = (0, 2) = I . We can

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 10 / 102

has a unique solution about x0 = 2.

Solution The functions

a2 (x) = (x − 1)(x − 3) , a1 (x) = x , a0 (x) = 1 , R(x) = x2 ,

are continuous on R. But a2 (x) 6= 0 if x ∈ (−∞, 1) or x ∈ (1, 3) or

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 11 / 102

(|x| + 3)y 00 + x3 y 0 + 5y = sin(x)

2 Find an interval I for which the IV P

has a unique solution about x0 = 0.

has a unique solution about x0 = 0.

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 12 / 102

Linear Dependence and Independence of Functions

c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) + · · · + cn fn (x) = 0, ∀ x ∈ I

that is, the linear combination is a zero function.

If the set of functions is not linearly dependent, it is linearly independent,

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 13 / 102

Solution We know that

c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) + c3 f3 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ R.

So f1 , f2 and f3 are linearly dependent on R.

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 14 / 102

f1 (x) = 1, f2 (x) = sec2 (x) and f3 (x) = tan2 (x)

are linearly dependent on 0, π2 .

Solution We know that

f2 (x) = sec2 (x) = 1 + tan2 (x) = f1 (x) + f3 (x)

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 15 / 102

Solution Let c1 , c2 ∈ R such that

c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) = 0, for all x ∈ I .

We have to prove that c1 = c2 = 0. As

then for x = 1 and x = − 21 we have

which implies that c1 = c2 = 0. Then f1 and f2 are linearly independent

MATH204-Differential Equations Center of Excellence in Learning and Teaching 17 / 102

Solution Let c1 , c2 ∈ I such that