REVIEWER IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Week 1: NUCLEAR REACTIONS AND ORIGIN OF ELEMENTS

Nuclear reactions are processes in which a nucleus either combines with another nucleus (through
nuclear fusion) or splits into smaller nuclei (through nuclear fission). These processes involve the
emission of energetic particles of an atom, a phenomenon known as radioactivity.

• Nuclear reactions are processes in which one or more nuclides are produced from the collisions
between two atomic nuclei or one atomic nucleus and a subatomic particle.
• Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form one or
more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons or protons).
• Nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller
nuclei.
• Radioactivity – the process involves the emission of energetic particles of an atom.
• Electron – negative charge
• Proton – positive charge
• Neutron – no charge
• Alpha particle – high speed particle consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
• Beta particle – high speed electron
• Gamma ray – high energy stream of protons.
• Positron – positive charged electron

Alpha Decay – loss or emits of an alpha particle. Identical to that of a HELIUM nucleus. sa alpha decay,
HELIUM ang element na gagamitin which is 42 He

Beta Decay – loss of beta particles. Ang gagamitin ay 0-1B

Gamma Ray – high energy protons 00Y

The event was accompanied by an emission of huge amount of light. Within the first second after the
explosion, subatomic particles such as protons, neutrons, and electrons were formed. As the expanding
universe cooled, the protons and neutrons started to fuse (combined) to form heavier nuclei of
deuterium (an isotope of hydrogen with one neutron and one proton), and some of the helium.
Isotopes are atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons. The universe continuously expanded for several years and the cloud of hydrogen and helium
gases condensed to form stars, including the sun. During this stellar evolution (nucleosynthesis),
nuclear reactions continued, which produced elements heavier than lithium. The light elements
combined to form atoms of carbon, neon, oxygen, silicon, and iron. The identify of an atom comes
from the number of protons.
LESSON 2: ATOMS FROM THE EYES OF PHILOSOPHERS/ ATOMIC NUMBER AND ATOMIC MASS

• Atom -the tiniest particle of an element that retains the chemical properties of that element.
• Electrons- an elementary particle that is fundamental constituent of matter, having a negative
charge.
• Elementary Particle- cannot be broken down into smaller subunits.
• Neutrons – an elementary particle having no charge, mass slightly greater than that of a proton
and a constituent of the nuclei of all atoms except those of hydrogen.
• Protons – a positively charged elementary particle that is a fundamental constituent of all
atomic nuclei.

Democritus (400 BC) – Democritus believed that all matters are composed of very small particles called
atoms. Atom is a term that came from the Greek word Atomos meaning indivisible or unbreakable.

Empedocles (450 BC) - only the elements fire, air, water, and earth make up matter. (avatar ang peg)

Rutherford (1919) – discovered the protons

James Chadwick (1932) – discovered the neutrons

Joseph John Thomson (1897) – discovered the electrons

Dmitry Mendeleev arranged the elements according to their atomic mass in 1869. However, Moseley
argued and confirmed in 1913 that the arrangement in the periodic table should be based on the
atomic number.

LESSON 3: CHEMICAL BONDING

Some compounds, including those that contain carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine, are more stable
when the atoms involved form a "complete octet,” in which the valence s and p of an atom has eight
electrons. This is called the octet rule. The noble gases, already having eight electrons in their valence
orbitals, do not need to combine with other compounds to attain stability, and are thus relatively
unreactive or "inert.” A chemical bond is an electrical attraction between the nuclei and valence
electrons of an atom and which binds atoms together. Oftentimes, this type of attraction is called an
intramolecular force.

An ionic bond results from the transfer

of one or more valence electrons from
one atom to another. This bond exists
between a metal which has a tendency
to lose electrons, and a nonmetal
which has a tendency to accept
electrons.
A covalent bond results the electrical attraction between
the nuclei and valence electrons of an atom and which
binds atoms together.

Non polar covalent bond is a bond in which the electrons

are equally shared by the bonded atoms.

A polar covalent bond, on the other hand, refers to the

bond in which the bonded atoms have an unequal sharing
of electrons.

Metallic bonds result the bonds holding metal atoms

together.

Electronegativity results the measure of the tendency of an

atom to attract electrons toward itself.

✓ Ionic bond – more than 1.7

✓ Polar Covalent Bond – between 0.5 and 1.7
✓ Non-Polar Covalent Bond – less than 0.5

Take Note: kapag 1.7 ang result, polar siya. Kapag 1.8 naman, ionic xia, thx mhie.

LESSON 4: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION

Intermolecular forces of attraction- refer to the weak forces that exist between molecules.

Dipole-Dipole Forces - the intermolecular forces of attraction acting on polar molecules. Permanent
dipoles.

Hydrogen Bonds - special type of dipole-dipole interaction. It results when a hydrogen atom bonded to
a highly electronegative atom like nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine is attracted to an unshared pair of
electrons of an electronegative atom of another molecule. H-O, H-N, H-F

London Dispersion Forces - result from the constant movement of electrons in molecules, which
consequently creates instantaneous dipoles. Weakest type of intermolecular force of attraction and only
exist when atoms are in very close range.
LESSON 5: THE CHEMISTRY OF CARBON, THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

▪ Biological Molecules - molecule that is produced by a living organism.

▪ Macromolecules – molecule containing a very large number of atoms, such as a protein,
nucleic acid, commonly composed of the polymerization of monomers.
▪ Monomers – molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer.
▪ Polymers – a substance made of long, repeating chains of monomers.
▪ Nucleic Acid – It is naturally occurring chemical compounds that serve as the primary
information carrying molecules in cell

Organic compound which are the building blocks of life. Hydrocarbon are the organic compound only
compose of carbon and hydrogen, which are considered nonpolar because of the almost equal
distribution of electrons attributed to relatively similar electro negativities of hydrogen and carbon
atoms. Each specific arrangement, chemical reactivity and physical properties of atoms within an organic
compound is called functional group.

CARBOHYDRATES STORES ENERGY

- chains of organic molecules with 1:2:1 mole ration of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- main function of carbohydrates is to stores energy used in many metabolic activities
- simple carbohydrates have single bond that makes it easily decomposed into basic unit that
provides instant source of energy like sugar in candies and sweets.

MONOSACCHARIDE - simplest form of carbohydrates, and includes single sugars that are easily
absorbed into the blood stream. ’Mono’ means “one” and 'Saccharide' simply means “sugar”.

DISACCHARIDE - group of carbohydrates that are naturally occurring sugars. They are chemically
composed of two sugars linked together and need certain enzymes to break them up to release the
sugars.

POLYSACCHARIDE - It is a complex carbohydrate. They are made up of many simple sugars linked
together.

FUNCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

The primary functions of carbohydrates in the body are to provide energy, store energy, build
macromolecules and spare protein and fat for other uses. Glucose energy is stored in liver as glycogen
complex carbohydrates such as cellulose can be found in the cell walls of all plants.

LIPIDS FUNCTION AS MEMBRANE

Lipids are organic molecules that compose of Carbon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen which are insoluble in
water because of their lack of many polar that have a very high proportion of carbon – hydrogen bonds.
The hydrophobic or “water – fearing” of the lipid tail makes it dissolved in water while the head of lipid
is hydrophilic or “water loving.
THREE MAIN TYPES OF LIPIDS

➢ TRIGLYCERIDES - type of fat found in the blood. necessary for health but in excess amounts, they
may be harmful and may increase the risk of heart disease.
➢ PHOSPHOLIPID - molecule that is the main component of the cell membrane. Each phospholipid
is made up of two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and a glycerol molecule.
➢ STERIODS - main feature of steroids is the ring system. Include such well known compounds as
cholesterol, sex hormones, birth control pills, cortisone, and anabolic steroids.

FUNCTION OF LIPIDS

Lipids serve a diverse range of function such as long-term storage of energy source in animals and
plants; act as protective layer against water loss in plants and animal skin and gives insulation. Also,
essential production of hormones and used to build structural component of cell membrane.

PROTEIN DO THE CHEMISTRY IN THE CELL

Proteins are complex molecules composed of one or more chains of amino acids linked by peptide
bonds which are covalent bond.

Amino acid is the building blocks of protein and consists of a central carbon bonded with amino group
(-NH2), a carboxyl group (- COOH), and a side chain (R).

Non-essential amino acids can be made by the body while the essential amino acids cannot be made
by the body and can acquire by specific diet.

The protein is built as chains of amino acids which creates the primary structure. It then folds into Beta
– pleated sheet and alpha – helix that creates secondary structure of protein. The tertiary protein
structures folds into unique three-dimensional shape and the final folded called quaternary protein is
well- adapted for their functions

FUNCTION OF PROTEINS

Proteins have various role in the human body and act as digestive enzyme that helps in catabolizing
nutrients, transporting and carry substance in the blood, for construction of different structure such as
cytoskeleton, defense of the body from foreign pathogens, for chemical- signaling (hormones) and
provide nourishment and storage.

NUCLEIC ACIDS CONTAIN GENETIC INFORMATION

Nucleic acids act as storage of genetic information in cells it includes deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acids (RNA). The nucleic acids are made up of repeating units of monomers known as
nucleotides and composed of five- carbon sugar, phosphate group and nitrogenous bases that are
covalently bonded together. The double helix structure of the DNA protects the nonpolar nitrogenous
bases in the molecules by orienting them in the middle. DNA composed of a phosphate deoxyribose
sugar backbone and the nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T).
RNA has ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil (U).
LESSON 6: RATE OF REACTION

Chemical Reaction – process in which one or more substances, the reactants, are converted to one or
more different substances, the products.

Collision Theory – states the reactant particles require sufficient kinetic energy to initiate successful
collisions that will lead to the formation of the products.

Activation Energy – minimum energy required to initiate a reaction.

Rate of Reaction – speed by which reactants are converted to products.

FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF REACTION

Temperature – when the reaction temperature goes up, the reaction rate increases as well. DIYAN
KEYWORD HA!! Kotongan ko magkamali!!

Concentration – if there is a higher concentration of one or more of the reactants, there is a greater
chance that collision will occur among particles of the reactants.

Particle Size – reactant particles with the same phase may easily mix with each other.

Catalyst – any substance that increases the rate of a reaction without itself being consumed. INSHORT!
MADAMOT! AAAAA! GALIT AKU !

PADAYON HUMANISTA AHU AHU !