Flight Deck Friend Preparation (HR + Technical)

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Cadet Airline Interview Question Database
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branca.gius@yahoo.it
FDF Cadet Airline Interview Question Database
Introduction
The Flightdeckfriend.com Cadet Airline Interview Question Database has been

designed to help supplement your preparation flight school or cadet pilot interview. The
document provides a comprehensive overview of how best to prepare for the interview
and the type of questions you might be asked.
The list of questions are not exhaustive and the document should be used as a guide
only. You should make every effort to personally tailor your answers to your own
circumstances and experience. The suggested answers are for guidance purposes only
and may not be suitable for everyone. Flightdeckfriend.com bares no responsibility for
any inaccurate answers.
Interview Preparation General Guidance
What should I wear?
At the interview, you should to make sure you do not stand out in a negative by differing
from what is perceived as "normal". As potential flight deck crew, the recruiters are
looking for candidates who are well balanced individuals who do not have extreme or
unusual traits. It is important to project this in your attire. The industry standard dress
code for an interview is a suit and tie. We would recommend the following:
• Highly polished black shoes

• A smart black suit (or similar shades) with the trousers matching the jacket
• Ironed white shirt
• Conservative tie with a Windsor knot (potentially tactfully matching the airlines
colour(s)
• A black belt to match the colour of the suit
• Cleanly shaved or very neatly trimmed facial hair
• A smart conservative watch
• A conservative hair cut, trimmed within the last few days
• A smart case or folder to carry your documents and licences
What should I not wear or have on display?
• A suit which is not black or a dark shade of blue/grey - A brightly coloured or

outlandish tie
• Messy facial and neck hair / stubble
• Cover any visible tattoos
• Males should remove any piercings
What should I take to the interview?
Airlines will tell you what you need to bring with you on the day. In case of a lack of
guidance, as a minimum, we recommend you take the following even if they are not
asked for.
• Flying Licence
• Class One Medical Certificate
• Logbook
• Confirmation of the interview (print the email or take the letter)
• Pens and paper pad
• Academic qualification certificates
• Airside ID (if applicable)
• Flight school final report (if applicable)
• Personal, academic and employment references
• Application summary, including answers to online questions (usually available if you
have made an online application)
When should I arrive?
If possible, we would recommend locating the venue for the interview the day before so
you are clear on the route and parking facilities available. This will help reduce the stress
levels on the day of the interview. If you are travelling a long way to attend the selection,
it is a good idea to stay in a hotel the night before to ensure you are well rested.
Take into account traffic congestion when planning your journey, particularly if you are
travelling to a major airport or city centre. Whilst we would suggest arriving to the local
area well ahead of the selection start time to ensure you are not late, arriving at the
actual venue around 10 minutes early demonstrates good time management. If you
arrive to the area well ahead of the scheduled start time, use the time to relax with a
coffee or review your notes in a suitable nearby venue.
How should I conduct myself at the selection venue?
Whilst there are myths about you being under constant surveillance when you enter the
venue, this is very unlikely to be the case. It is however good practice to assume
everyone you meet is part of the team of people who will decide whether you are
suitable for the job. Therefore conduct yourself with a professional and courteous
manner at all times, right from introducing yourself to the receptionist to meeting the
interview panel. Hopefully this is something you would naturally do anyway!
First Impressions...
First impressions count. People will form an opinion of you within the first few seconds of
meeting you. You want your impression to be a good one as this can have a real impact
on how the remainder of the interview goes. You want the recruiter to be thinking that
you “look the part” before the interview even begins. To ensure you start on the right
foot, ensure you are well dressed in a plain suit, neutral tie and polished shoes. You
should carry your documents in a smart briefcase. Ensure your nails are trimmed, hair
freshly cut and you’re cleanly shaved. Greet everyone you meet throughout the day with
a polite welcome, such as “good morning” and with a warm smile. Offer a firm (but not
overly strong) handshake if appropriate. It doesn’t matter if it’s the receptionist or the
CEO, you should greet everyone in the same curious manner. Anyone and everyone
might have some input into the recruitment process.
Body Language…
Think about your body language. You need to come across as open and receptive. Don’t
sit with your arms crossed or behind your back - this can come across as defensive or
too relaxed. When invited to take a seat, sit upright with your hands on your lap. Ensure
you make eye contact with whoever you are addressing. Smile, you will come across as
more confident and likeable.
Have a drink…
No, not alcohol! Use the inevitable cup of water to your advantage. It can give you a
valuable few seconds thinking time to come up with an answer.
Don’t be scared to ask if you can come back to a question…
Come back to a question if you can’t answer it first time. Do though, try to make sure you
have answered all of the questions asked. If you don’t answer a question, it will be
classed as “Unable to demonstrate (required competency).
If they are asking similar questions…
They are probably try to get you to demonstrate a competency which you weren’t able
to do in your answer. They might follow up a question with a second question - they are
trying to help you by directing you to an acceptable answer.
What questions should I ask?
Asking questions demonstrates a genuine interest in working for the company and an
ability to suitably engage. Have a think about what questions you might want to ask
before hand and make sure they are suitable and relevant. Don’t ask controversial
questions as you don’t know how they will be interpreted.
What have you enjoyed most about working here? This question allows the interviewer
to connect with you on a more personal level, sharing his or her feelings. The answer will
also give you unique insight into how satisfied people are with their jobs there. If the
interviewer is pained to come up with an answer to your question, it’s a big red flag.
Are there opportunities to develop skills in other areas of the airline? This suggests
you are thinking about your long term career prospects.
What’s your favourite destination to fly to? The opportunity to interact at a personal
level.
Airline Interview Competency Questions
What is a competency based interview?
The section that people often struggle with at an airline assessment is the competency
based interview. The good news is that it’s not actually difficult to perform well if you put
in the preparation before hand.
The reason why some people fall down at this hurdle is partly due to a lack of
understanding as to why the interview is conducted in this way and what the assessors
are actually looking for. Many airline interviews are now a “tick box” exercise. The
questions will be driven by a competency framework that’s required for the job. This
basically means that the assessor has to confirm that you have demonstrated the
required competencies based on the answers you give - if you demonstrate all the
required competencies to a suitable level, you get the job but if you fail to show you
have the required attributes the assessor can’t progress your application. Your job is to
make sure that every box gets ticked. As with the group exercise, the logic is that how
you have previously dealt with a particular circumstance, highlights how you are likely to
deal with it in the future. Past behaviour examples will likely indicate future
performance and behaviour.
So what are the recruiters looking for? The airline industry has developed in a wide
variety of ways considerably over the last few decades, as has the role and requirement
of it’s pilots. It’s a given that the pilots can fly an ILS approach, instead much of the
emphasis is now placed on the flight crew’s soft skills. On a daily basis the pilots are
required to manage a multitude of situations that can be influenced by a vast range of
factors ranging from, technical issues, weather, passengers, air traffic control, language
barriers, other crew members. All of this of course whilst operating and managing a
highly complex multi-million pound aircraft with potentially hundreds of people on
board. When managing such situations, you are expected to do so in a commercially
expeditious manner, i.e. you put the interest of the customers and company first.
They’re looking for you to demonstrate that you have all the non-technical (soft skills)
required to be successful in the role (regardless for how long you’ve been a pilot). Here
are the top fifteen attributes that you need to demonstrate:
• Problem Solving
• Situational Awareness
• Team Work
• Leadership
• Prioritisation
• Delegation
• Communication
• Planning
• Flexibility
• Reliability
• Empathy
• Business Orientated
• Customer Minded
• Adverse to risk
• Motivated / Passionate
The competency based interview is designed to assess if you have these attributes. If
you can demonstrate that you have these skills, you will be successful.
General Pilot Questions
These are usually used at the start of the interview to build up an overview of the
candidate. First impressions are very important so make sure you are well rehearsed in
the answers to these basic questions.
Why are you here today?
Because you are pursuing your dream of becoming a commercial airline pilot with this
particularly company. Whilst emphasising your enthusiasm and motivating for flying, you
should also tie this into the company you are being interviewed by. As an example, you
could highlight the airline’s type of operation and how it is suited to you. For a low cost
carrier, this might be an extensive route network with an expanding fleet, therefore
allowing you to quickly build your skills set and enjoy relatively quick career progression.
Why do you want to be a pilot?
One of the first questions you are likely to be asked. Rather than the usual "it's all i've
ever wanted to do", try and think about some other aspects of the job:
• The responsibility required

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• Being trusted to operate a multi million pound aircraft
• Working in a dynamic environment
• Working within a team
• Lots of variables mean each day is unique
• A life long passion for flying
• The lifestyle
• Good long term career prospects
• The best office view in the world
Does anyone else in your family fly?
Whilst it might be a bonus if they did (as they would be able to provide you with realistic
expectations of what to expect), it doesn’t really matter if they didn’t. If they did then
focus on the enthusiasm that was passed onto you about aviation. If they didn’t then you
can speak about what got you into flying and aviation and the passion you have for it.
What got you interested in flying?
A question very similar to "Why do you want to be a pilot?”. Potential answers include:
• Visiting the flight deck as a youngster

• A family member was a pilot / took you flying
• The physics of flight
• The technology involved
• Going to airshows
• All the answers for "Why do you want to be a pilot?" are also applicable.
If you couldn't be an airline pilot, what would you do?
Similar to: "If you lost your medical, what would you do?"
Still work within the industry as aviation is your passion. For example in Flight
Operations, Air Traffic Control, Flight Training, Flight Instructor. Or would pick a
profession of similar stature in another industry such as a Lawyer or Doctor.
What will you do if you don't get this job?
Self analyse where your performance could have been improved to ensure you are
successful should the opportunity arise to apply again. Continue to self improve and
work hard to demonstrate persistence and passion to ensure you reach your goal.
What does the role of a modern day airline pilot entail?
• Managing a highly complex piece of machinery

• Ensuring the safe and efficient outcome of every flight
• Communicating with a wide range of people
• Operating within a defined set of procedures
• Managing a diverse team of people
• Ensuring the interests of the company and passengers are always considered
• Ensuring that on time performance is met where possible
What skills do modern day airline pilots require?
• Communication
• Management
• Decision making
• Analysis
• Prioritisation
• Situation Awareness
• Spatial Awareness
• Team Orientated
• Leadership
• Awareness of the entire operation
Tell me about the typical day of a pilot?
Start at any hour on any day of the week throughout the year. A 24/7, 365 days a year
job. Check in at crew room, complete pre-flight paper work (weather, NOTAMs, fuel),
meet other crew members, order fuel, go to aircraft for walk around and set up. Fly the
sectors for the day, manage turnarounds to meet on time performance. Complete post
flight paperwork, checkout, go home. Every day is different and the unexpected can
happen at any time.
What skills can you bring to the job?
Think about what the job entails. Make sure you understand what the job a commercial
pilot actually involves and link your relevant skills to it. For example;
• Strong Communicator
• Team Player
• Safety Orientated
• Efficiency Focused
• Commercially Aware
• Customer Conscious.
• Attention to detail
Give us a brief career outline . . .
Talk about the jobs you've had in reverse chronological order, and detail what skills and
experience you have learnt in each, and how this is relevant for the job you are being
interviewed for. For example:
"I previously worked in flight operations control where I learnt how a single decision that
the flight crew made could have a significant impact on the flying program for days to
come. If this decision wasn't communicated in a timely manner, it could have a negative
impact on the customer service provided to the passengers. I therefore understand how
effective communications between the departments within an airline is essential"
Did you want to join the RAF/Military?
Did you always want to be a commercial pilot, or did you think about joining the
military? Try to answer the question in a positive manner. For example "as a customer
focused person, being part of the crew who are safely transporting the public in a multi
million pound commercial aircraft has always been my goal".
Can you cope with the anti-social hours?
I like the variation and variety of the hours and shift patterns. I would not like a typical
Monday to Friday, 9 to 5 job as i'd find it monotonous and boring. I have previously
worked anti-social hours and enjoyed the lifestyle it provided.
Are you happy to work weekends?
As above.
What's your favourite aircraft?
What ever aircraft you choose, make sure you can say why. Know some facts about it
such as it's history (first flight), passenger capacity, speed, range. For example:
"My favourite is the A320 as it was the first aircraft to properly utilise fly-by-wire
technology, which has gone on to shape the future of aircraft design."
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How do the roles of Captain and First Officer differ?
Duties are usually split evenly throughout the duty, but the Captain has overall
responsibility for the safety of the aircraft and it’s passengers. The Captain is legally
responsible for the aircraft and it’s occupants. The Captain will delegate the duties as he
or she sees fit, based on the competency and qualifications of the First Officer.
Are you a competitive person?
You shouldn't come across as too competitive, as the flight deck is not a competitive
place! It's a environment for team work and cohesion, not point scoring.
What is the role of Cabin Crew?
The primary role of the Cabin Crew is ensuring the safety of the passengers. Their
secondary duty is to look after the comfort of the passengers through providing
excellent customer service. Cabin Crew are the front line staff, who's performance will be
judged by the passengers to represent the quality of the airline as a whole. It is therefore
essential that cabin crew act accordingly.
Is it acceptable to break the rules?
Standard Operating Procedures are not written with every single conceivable scenario in
mind. In some circumstances, it may therefore be necessary to not adhere to SOPs. An
example might be rejecting the take off after V1 with a double engine fire, or using a
higher than normal bank angle to miss a flock of birds. You could use the United Airlines
River Hudson example - There were no SOP’s that covered that scenario!
What is CRM?
The definition of CRM, as per CAP 737, the UK CAA's CRM Training Document, CRM can
be defined as "a management system which makes optimum use of all available
resources - equipment, procedures and people - to promote safety and enhance the
efficiency of flight operations." It is utilised every flight.
What makes a good First Officer?
A good first officer provides effective support to the Captain in order to ensure the safe
and efficient operation of the aircraft. He/she can clearly and concisely advocate their
position, enhance the situational awareness within the flight deck, provide additional
option generation and effectively contribute to the decision making process.
What makes a good Captain?
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Someone who clearly lays out their expectations to the rest of the team, encourages
enquiry, listens to advocacy, delegates, communicates effectively, provides mentorship
and motivational feedback upholds the highest professional standards.
How can a First Officer improve customer service?
Help contribute to achieving the aircrafts on time departure and arrival performance.
Communicate effectively with the passengers, providing timely updates with concise
information. Interact with the customers face to face where possible, for example saying
goodbye on disembarkation. Exceeding passenger exceptions such as through carrying
an elderly passengers luggage down the aircraft steps.
How can you save the company money?
Operating the aircraft efficiently, flying to the appropriate company cost index. Careful
climb and descent planning, carrying out low drag and continuous descent approaches
to minimise fuel costs. Not taking any more fuel than operationally necessary due to the
cost of carrying additional fuel. Demonstrating a flexible attitude with your roster and
work schedule will reduce crewing costs. Being proactive with requesting the optimum
cruise altitude, mach number (where appropriate) and direct routings will also reduce
costs. Being reliable and proactive.
How can you affect the profitability of the airline?
Reduce the fuel costs through the efficient operation of the aircraft (see above).
Demonstrate a professional image which will ensure the company is seen favourably by
customers. Helping to maintain a strong brand image this in turn has the potential to
increase sales. Ensure the aircraft is operated safely - you can't put a price on safety!
Have a flexible and reliable approach to the job.
What are the pros and cons of being an airline pilot?
This is a very subjective question. We would suggest you don't call them "cons" rather
challenges that you might not find in other professions.
Pro's - It's what i've always had a passion for, trusted to operate a highly complex
machine with hundreds of people on board, defined career structure and development,
continuos training, well paid, good lifestyle, staff travel, time off.
Con's - Work anti-social hours and times of the year such as Christmas, time zone
changes can be fatiguing, spending time away from home and family.
How many hours a day/week/year do you expect to fly?
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Generally speaking, in Europe, pilots are limited to 1000 hours a year, 100 hours in a 28
day period, and a duty period in a 7 day period is limited to a maximum of 55 hours. A
day duty could vary from 2 hours to 16. In Europe it is now the responsibility of the
Airline to have effective fatigue management processes once all the standard EASA
flight time limitations have been met. All airlines operations are very different and can
effect humans in different ways.
Describe how an aircraft flies to a 12 year old . . .
Air passes over the top of the wing faster than the bottom. This causes lower pressure at
the top of the wing, lifting the aircraft up. The aircraft has to be moving forward so that
the air is travelling over the wing. The engines achieve this through pushing the aircraft
forward.
When did you start flying?
Try and expand with some details, such as why you started and what influenced you.
Tell us about how you got involved with aviation...
Emphasise that aviation is your passion and becoming a pilot for xxx airline has been
your goal since you discovered this passion.
Tell us about your family? Where is home?
Maybe the airline has a base near your home? That would help demonstrate that you
would show the airline loyalty. Highlight that your family are supportive of your decision
and that they understand how it will impact your lifestyle.
Tell us about your current job...
Try and link your answer to how the experience or skills you have gained are relevant or
transferable to a position as a First Officer or Captain. For example, emphasis on
leadership, team work and decision making.
Where did you complete your flight training?
Expand on whether it was an integrated to modular course and why it was suitable for
you. Detail any personal achievements.
How did you choose your flight school?
Demonstrate that you thoroughly researched the flight training options available and
made a calculated decision with regards to the flight school you chose. Justify why you
chose modular over integrated or visa versa.
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What is the role of a First Officer?
A First Officers role is to provide effective support to the Captain in order to ensure the
safe and efficient operation of the aircraft. He/she should clearly and concisely advocate
their position, enhance the situational awareness within the flight deck, provide
additional option generation and effectively contribute to the decision making process.
What does a Second Officer do?
This differs between airlines. You should establish whether it is a cruise relief pilot
position or a junior First Officer position who effectively has the same role as a normal
FO. A Second Officer might have lower operating limitations than a First Officer with
regards to cross wind and visibility limits.
What is your take on the current state of the industry?
Another way at looking at this question is; "What opportunities are there for our airline
within the industry at present?” Do your research on the airline, understand who it's
competitors are and the market in which they operate. What's the current price of fuel? A
decrease in fuel price makes European airlines much more competitive with Middle
Eastern carriers as they lose their cheap fuel advantage.
Focus on:
• Price of fuel
• Competition (Low Cost, Middle East)
• State of the world economy
• Global events (terrorism / health / virus outbreaks)
How has the recent (2008) economic depression affected the industry?
It has reduced the amount of business travellers flying which has had an impact on the
high profit business routes for legacy carriers. Some people have turned to the cheaper
low cost carriers such as easyJet and Ryanair, who have done very well since 2008. The
industry went through a period of consolidation with some airlines going out of
business, such as Fly Globespan, Silver Jet, Max Jet, Spanair, Eos Airlines, Oasis Hong
Kong, Global Supply Systems, Zoom, XL are just a handful. As the economic recovery
continues, generally the industry is improving, with those who lived to see the other side
of the recession, in a stronger position than before
What big events have affected the industry in the last year?
Make sure you are up to date with current affairs. An example for 2015, would be the
significant reduction in fuel costs, substantially reducing the fuel bill for airlines who
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haven't got their fuel hedged for the foreseeable future. Also the open skies agreement
now allows airline to fly routes between countries that they are not based in.
Examples for 2016 might be the Zika outbreak and global terrorism concerns.
Where do you think the industry will be in 10 years time?
• Moving towards bio fuels as the natural fossil fuel resources deplete, and more
emphasis is placed on slowing global warning.
• Still multi-crew aircraft (not single or no pilot operations!)
• Fewer airlines, as the large airline groups continue to buy smaller carriers (for example
the IAG taking over Aer Lingus). Continued joint business agreements between
airlines.
• More technology in terms of connectivity onboard and more fuel efficient aircraft.
• Potentially larger aircraft on some routes to accommodate passenger growth and

more restricted airport slots.
What technologies are being introduced into the industry?
Energy harvesting such as solar power or even converting the heat from your body into
power. Self reliant materials that are able to clean and repair themselves, reducing
maintenance costs. Introduction of more advanced composite materials, increasing the
strength of the structure whilst reducing it's weight. Use of biofuels, bringing an end to
the reliance on oil and it’s volatile price.
What are your views on aviation and the environment?
Know what the airline's environmental policy is, what it does to mitigate environmental
damage. This might be through operating the most efficient aircraft or paying a carbon
tax. For example an aircraft operating a 787 fleet is going to be greener than a 757 fleet!
What immediate challenges does this airline currently face?
• Increased competition from other airlines

• A very price sensitive market putting pressure on the airline to reduce costs
• High airport / air passenger duty charges
• Environmental concerns
• Expansion
• Airport capacity
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• Currency issues (weak pound versus the dollar / euro)
• Brexit
What are the latest developments with bio fuels?
Following a series of test flights from 2008 to 2011, the aviation industry was given
approval to use biofuels in passenger flights. Now that technical hurdles are overcome,
the challenge of commercialisation needs to be tackled.
What threats is our airline currently facing?
Terrorism and security threats from groups who see aviation as a high priority target.
Reliance on oil price which is influenced by the stability of the Middle East. Increased
amounts of adverse weather. More competition from Low Cost and Middle Eastern
Airlines.
What competitive threats is our airline currently facing?
Low cost carriers offering flights at a cheaper rate due lower overheads. Business
passengers choosing to fly with low cost carriers. Lower fuel costs for Middle Eastern
airlines. Increased choice for passengers. Over capacity reducing flight frequencies
compared to other airports.
Who are the airline’s main competitors?
Think outside the box. easyJet and Ryanair are competitors, but British Airways are also
competitors for both of these over their short haul network, as they offer similar routes
often at cheaper prices. Middle Eastern airlines are competition for most global long
haul airlines.
Think about codeshare agreements and alliances such as “Star Alliance” and the “One
World Alliance. Airline’s which form these groups often compliment each other rather
than compete with one another.
What are the long term challenges for this airline?
A combination of the above answers:
• Airport Capacity
• Oil Supply and Price
• Increased Competition
• Environmental Constraints
• Global Events (Terrorism / health outbreaks)
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Company Based Questions
It goes without saying, but all of these questions require you to extensively research the
company you are being interviewed by. These kind of questions are really assessing
your motivation for joining the airline - if you know your stuff you are clearly motivated
which translates into a positive attitude and professional work ethic. You should be
armed with well informed and well thought out answers to these questions.
Places to research the company include:
• The company’s website

• Wikipedia
• News articles
• Friends or contacts employed by the airline
• Aviation journals
Why do you want to work for this airline?
This will obviously differ from airline to airline, but all will have positive aspects:
• Excellent career opportunities (e.g. long haul progression)

• A large company offering secure employment
• An expanding airline offering quick career progression opportunities
• The possibility of being able to enter the training department in the future
• Operating a particular aircraft (e.g. the B737)
• A small company so you aren’t ‘just another number’
• The potential to build professional lasting relationships (small company)
• A diverse route network
• The company offers highly reputable training and development opportunities
• The quality of life offered due to roster/leave/pay
• Highly respected / reputable
• Have always aspired to work for that particular airline
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Why should we take you on ahead of other candidates?
You don’t know the credentials of the other candidates, nor should you seek to put them
down. Instead answer the question “Why should we employee you?”. Examples might
include.
• Motivated
• Passionate
• Professional
• Proactive
• Reliable
• Determined
What does our fleet consist of (type and numbers)?
Know the aircraft type and variant, the engines, how many of each aircraft the airline
operates, and what / how many aircraft are on order.
What engine does each type of aircraft in our fleet have?
Research which engines are on what fleet and if you can, have an idea about the engine
capabilities such as thrust output.
Which aircraft do you want to fly?
Be careful that you aren’t led into a trap. The likely question to follow this one is “Why”
and you will be expected to have a good idea of the aircraft specification.
Tell us about the history of our airline . . .
Start from the beginning to present day including the following:
• When it was founded (month and year)

• Who it was founded by
• Significant milestones (special flights / awards)
• Significant orders
• Any mergers
• Joining any alliances
Who is our CEO/CFO/MD/Chief Pilot/Director of Operations?

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Know the names of the key people at the top of the company.
Tell us about our expansion plans . . .
Know about any new routes that are being launched (or have recently been announced).
Know what aircraft are on order, how many are set to be delivered when they will be
delivered.
What do you think of our marketing campaign?
Know what marketing strategies the airline uses. TV adverts, online adverts, newspaper
adverts. Try and find some examples before the interview.
Where do you see yourself in 10 years time?
What ever the truth is - they want to hear that you’ll still be working for them, hopefully
as a Captain. This is an example of when honesty is not always the best policy!
How do your see your career progressing?
Initially learning becoming an effective Second / First Officer, progressing to Senior First
Officer then Captain. Possibly joining the training department or a management based
role.
What profit did we make last year?
Have a good idea about financial figures for the last few years. Good knowledge of
revenue, profit and passenger numbers will impress.
Where are our bases?
Know how many bases there are and where they are. If there are a large number of
bases, know which ones they are recruiting for (if applicable) and have a think about
your preference before hand.
What destinations do we fly to?
Know the numbers, continents and countries operated into and a have good overview of
the destinations. For many airlines it’s obviously not practical to be able to name every
single destination, but it might be for smaller airlines. Have an idea about any
particularly unique destinations in terms of operating an aircraft into it.
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What aircraft do we fly to which destinations?
Know which aircraft are utilised on which routes and why? Larger aircraft might be used
due to their performance, range or higher capacity.
What do you know about this airline?
A very vague question, but an excellent opportunity to show you have really done your
research. Consider talking about:
• Type of operation (scheduled, charter, low cost, full service)

• Destinations
• Aircraft Operated
• Passenger Numbers
• Finances (profit, revenue)
• Key People
• Bases
• Orders
• Expansion Plans
How does this airline differ from the others?
Another way of looking at this question is “Why is it better than other airlines”. Think
about what differentiates the airline from it’s competitors. Examples might include:
• Price
• It’s product offering
• Route Network
• Schedule (convenient timings)
• Customer Service
• Ethos
• Operating into major airports
• It’s vision
• It’s employees
• Punctuality
What major events have happen to this airline in the last 12 months?
Research the following:
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• Financial statements
• Awards
• Product Changes
• Expansion Announcements
• Route Changes
How many pilots does this company employ?
This can be difficult to find out. It often requires you look through the companies annual
reports or asking people who currently work for the airline.
Who are our competitors?
Think about direct competitors and indirect competitors. For example, Wizz Air are a
competitor for Lufthansa in the short haul market, but Etihad are a competitors in the
long haul market. Sometimes, competitors might be train companies!
What can we do to stand ahead of our competitors?
• Keep a low cost base therefore having cheaper ticket prices

• Be punctual
• Provide a better product
• Better customer service
• Greater frequencies on popular routes
• Better timings on popular routes
• Operate to airports closest to where the passengers want to go
• Invest in technology to have newer, cleaner aircraft
What orders do we current have in place?
When are they being delivered and with what configuration.
What as a First Officer, can you do to improve customer service?
• Maintain a professional appearance

• Interact with the passengers through face to face communication
• Provide passengers with timely and accurate information
• Treat passengers as individuals
• Take ownership of a passenger(s) problem
• Go the extra mile, such helping to take bags down the aircraft steps
• Ensure the aircraft is operated safely and efficiently
What as a Captain (or First Officer) can you do to reduce costs?

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Overall you can operate the aircraft efficiently. To do this you might consider the
following:
• Not taking any more fuel than operationally necessary

• Managing appropriate APU usage
• Flying optimal flight levels
• Flying the company cost index or long range cruise
• Negotiating direct routings with Air Traffic Control
• Operating the aircraft punctually
What challenges does the company face over the next 10 years?
• Fluctuating price of oil and variable costs

• Increased competition from other airlines
• Unpredictable global events such as terrorism and health outbreaks
• Environmental considerations (reduction of greenhouse gases)
• Airport capacity restrictions
• Qualified and capable pilot shortage
What do you know about the finances of the company?
Build up an idea of the trend over the last five years. For example has the company been
making a steady profit or has it been building on it’s profit year on year. Operating profit
is a good measure of the companies performance.
What is our Company's Mission statement?
Check the companies website for information on it’s Mission Statement, Vision and
Values. Try to link it’s values and ethos to your own work ethic and beliefs.
How will you fund the type rating?
It doesn't really matter how you answer this as long as you can. Even if you aren't sure if
you can, it might be best to say you are able to at this point. If the airline requires you to
pay for your own type rating, they probably want to ensure the space is filled and not
have the uncertainty of an applicant who is unsure if and how they can source the
finance.
Talk us through last years financial results…
Again, know your revenue, operating profit, profit and how this compares to the
previous year.
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How much operating profit did we make last year?
Know the difference between operating profit versus profit. Operating profits do not
cover taxes paid, company assets sold or expenses not related to the company's
operating costs.
Personal Questions
What have you learnt from the jobs you've held?
Relate what skills and lessons you have learnt that are transferable to the role of First
Officer / Captain. For example:
• Working well within a team

• How to communicate effectively
• How to lead teams
• How to make analytical decisions taking into account a range of options
• How to delegate
• How to build situational awareness
• How to build capacity
• How to monitor
• How to build professional relationships
What hobbies and interests do you have?
Avoid terms like “socialising” or “going out with friends”. Try and come up with some
interesting things you like to do. Keep in mind that if a pilot is interviewing you, he or she
will want to know that you will be good company when spending a long day together
locked in a confined space so the more interested they are in you, the better. If you know
who is going to interview you, try and find out a bit more information about them before
hand as you might have a similar hobby or interest which will help build a bond.
What is bad in your personality?
Be honest, but not too honest! You don’t want to character assassinate yourself, just turn
the question round to show yourself in a favourable light. Answers might include:
- Easily disappointed
- Overly self critical
- Sometimes set unrealistically high expectations
- Being a perfectionist
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- I find it difficult to say no to people
None of these are particularly bad personality traits, in fact quite the opposite for a pilot.
Why shouldn't we take you on?
I can't think of any reason why you shouldn't take me on.
What are you looking for in this job?
• Professional development
• A challenging and rewarding career
• The opportunity to learn and grow
• The opportunity to gain experience and be promoted within the company
• The ability to help contribute towards the company’s long term success
How do you deal with conflicts?
I try and understand why there is a conflict, put myself in the other persons shoes and
listen to their arguments. I will try and resolve the conflict through communicating
possible resolutions, agree on common ground, compromise and seeking advice from
others and mediation from others. I will then try to learn how such a conflict might be
avoided again in the future.
Why should we choose you over other candidates?
I’m not sure about the credentials of the other candidates, i’m sure they are very
capable. What I can say is that I am very motivated, passionate, hardworking and loyal. I
see my long term future with this company and would relish the opportunity to join this
airline and contribute towards it’s continued success.
What was the hardest theoretical subject at your training school?
It doesn't really matter what you choose. Place emphasis on the fact you put in extra
work to ensure you fully understood the subject as a sound theoretical background will
give you the foundations to become an effective aircraft operator.
What would you like to improve about yourself?
Pilots spend their entire careers trying to improve on a daily basis. We are always
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learning new things and gaining new experience. Highlight that you are always trying to
improve yourself and this is a never-ending process. For specific examples, think about:
• Furthering your technical knowledge

• Learning a language
• Learning a musical instrument
Have you ever worked with someone you didn't like?
Most of us have worked with someone we haven't seen eye to eye with at some point in
our lives, and the chances are that you will work with someone you don’t naturally get on
with during your flying career. The important point to make is that it’s not an issue.
• You are professional and therefore not getting on with the person wasn’t an issue
• You concentrate on finding common ground with the person to build an amicable
relationship
Are you a team leader or team member?
You are being interviewed as a future Captain so the answer is that you feel you have
good team leadership qualities, but can also act effectively as a team member. For
example:
• You lead by example

• Set a high professional standards
• Encourage others to engage
• Motivate others through engagement and maintaining high standards
• Clearly communicate expectations
What is your educational history?
Have an answer for why you did or didn’t decide to go to University and if you could
have done better with any part of your education.
How would your friends describe you?
You are really going to describe your good points here - obviously only choose the
complimentary descriptions such as:
• Reliable
• Thoughtful
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• Determined
• Passionate
• Motivated
How would your family describe you?
In most cases, they’ve probably known you for your entire life so are in a good position
to give a good description. Ask them what 3 words they would use to describe you and
see what they say. Again, only give the complimentary answers as per those above.
If your captain was disregarding SOPs, what would you do about it?
There might be an underlying reason for example insidious incapacitation, so don’t jump
to a quick conclusion. If it’s because they were deliberately disregarding SOPs in normal
circumstances, you might explain the important of SOPs and politely ask they are
adhered to (as you are uncomfortable with them not being used), without trying to cause
conflict. Even if the other crew member isn't being professional, you would ensure that
you maintained the highest standards. If they continued to be blatantly disregarded, you
would consider reporting an incident to a senior pilot.
Could you cope with the long / antisocial days?
Yes you have experienced this before or is something you have considered and feel that
you would actually prefer this type of lifestyle.
Is there anything you think you should have told us?
Only mention anything that is going to stand you in a good light. For example if you had
wanted to mention something which you have not had the chance to get across in the
other questions such as; I first flew solo at the age of 16. Try to keep it modest though!
How do you share plans and mental models with others?
First ensure your own understanding is accurate and then provide a structured
explanation. This might be through verbal or written communication depending on the
circumstances. Diagrams often help to reinforce understanding. Seek feedback to
ensure an accurate understanding from those who you are sharing it with. Encourage
questions and enquiry.
Explain a complex situation you have encountered . . .
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This is quite a vague question as it isn’t really asking you for an outcome. You can say
that you broke the situation up into it’s component parts and strived to fully understand
it’s complexities and their likely impact. You were able to learn from the situation.
What were the ups and downs of your flight training?
The ups were probably passing the instrument rating skills tests as this was the
culmination of years of work. The lows were probably deep into the ground school
course where you were desperate to get flying, but knew that you had to build up sound
theoretical knowledge to allow you to do so. Persistence and motivation helped you
through the lows to achieve the highs.
How did you prepare for this interview?
Place emphasis on the fact that you wanted to be thoroughly prepared given what an
exceptional opportunity you have been presented with. Hopefully you thoroughly
researched the company and practiced for any tests at the assessment (as suggested by
the company).
Do you play flight simulator?
Many people start playing on a flight simulation program when they get the bug for
flying. It can also be a good way of practicing and refreshing instrument procedures and
your scan when you aren’t able to regularly fly.
Have you applied for any other airlines?
This is tricky question as you don’t want this airline to think they are your second choice.
If you have applied to other airlines, perhaps approach the question as “Yes I have
applied to a few others, however this position is my main focus. This has always been an
airline I have aspired to work for because of…”
What makes you angry?
You don’t really get angry as your naturally a calm and analytical person. It’s better to call
it frustration than angry. Sometimes you get frustrated if for example, someone says they
are going to be somewhere at a certain time but are always late.
What annoys you?
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You don’t want to come across as someone who is easily annoyed. Pilots in general are
usually quite relaxed people who are not easily phased. If you are asked this, emphasise
the above, and perhaps choose one of the following suggestions:
• People who are unreliable

• Poor punctuality
• Exaggeration
• Not being truthful
What are your strengths?
Don’t come across as over confident or cocky - you need to strike a balance and come
across as well rounded person. Try to relocate your strengths to desirable attributes for
pilots. There are many points you could pick for this, but here are some suggestions:
• Reliable
• Thoughtful
• Determined
• Passionate
• Motivated
• Hard working
• Disciplined
What are your weaknesses?
The strategy with these questions is they are seeking to establish some negative aspects
of your personality. The the trick is to turn the answer from a negative into a positive.
Any question regarding weakness or getting frustrated could be answered in the
following way:
I get annoyed and frustrated with traffic on the way to work as it can be so unpredictable.
I have learnt to manage this by checking traffic updates before leaving home and
planning different routes if required and by always leaving with plenty of time so even if
there are holdups then I will still be on time. This helps me relax on the journey to work
therefore arriving fresh, un-stressed and ready for work. Effectively I now manage and
mitigate the situation better.
Training Based Questions
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What was the hardest part of your training?
It might have been ground school, it might have been the instrument rating element of
your flight training. Either way, place emphasis on your determination to do well, setting
high standards for yourself and maintaining a disciplined approach to your study.
Which parts did you find easy?
Don’t be overconfident with your answer as the interviewers could quickly come back
and ask you a difficult question on the subject, making you look a bit silly. Be tactful and
describe it as the part you most enjoyed because you had a strong interest in it, or you
enjoyed the practical element.
Why did you choose Integrated / Modular training?
At this point of the interview, integrated or modular training, it doesn’t really matter. You
will have had your own reasons for choose either route. Make sure you emphasise that
you researched each route thoroughly and gave it a great deal of consideration,
weighing up the pro’s and con’s. You are essentially demonstrating that you can make a
reasonable, analytical decision.
Why did you choose that flight school?
As with the above question, you researched it and weighed up the pro’s and con’s.
How did you develop as a person during your flight training?
Flight training is undoubtedly an experience which allows you to develop personally and
professionally. Hopefully you developed your non-technical skills such as decision
making, communication and situation awareness skills whilst also developing in terms of
confidence and diligence.
What new skills did you learn?
The technical skills should speak for themselves. Try and address the element of non-
technical skills as described above.
What did you enjoy most in your training?
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Perhaps it was because of a practical element or because you enjoyed building up
theoretical knowledge in a certain area. Try to show that you are passionate and
motivated.
If you could do your training again, what would you do differently?
Show that you learnt lessons about how you could have done things better if you could
do them again. This might have been allocating your time more effectively whilst
revising for the theoretical examinations, or perhaps spending more time practicing
single engine non-precision approaches. This requires an element of self critique, but as
pilots, we will be doing this throughout our careers.
Did you pass all your ground school exams first time?
If not, have a think about what you could have done differently in anticipation that
interviewer will ask “Why didn’t you?”. As suggested above, perhaps you could have split
your revision time more effectively between subjects.
Did you pass all your flight skills tests first time?
If you didn’t, be prepared to explain what you learnt from the failure. Where you able to
consolidate this and turn it into a positive? Are you a better pilot as a result?
What was the hardest ground school subject?
Whatever it was, you wanted to make sure you fully understood the subject in order to
gain a sound technical understanding. You sought help from others were needed and
ensured you factored in extra revision time. This demonstrates that you can seek help
when required and carry out contingency planning, both of which are essential
attributes for flight crew.
How was your social life during your training?
If you are being interviewed by a pilot, they are going to want to see someone who is
able to and willing to socialise appropriately. Talk about the friendships you made and
the personal and professional relationships you developed. Avoid references to alcohol
and associated events!
What was your average theoretical ATPL pass mark?
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First of all, make sure you know the answer off the top of your head. If you consider it as
quite low, be prepared to highlight how you could improve it if you were to take the
examinations again.
Why did you fail / partial your CPL/IRST?
You need to demonstrate that you learnt from the event. You were able to analyse what
went wrong and how you could correct this going forward. You saw it as a learning
opportunity which allowed to develop into a better pilot.
Personal Example Based Questions
Example based questions are seeking to extract evidence from the applicant on past
behaviour in order to predict future behaviour. The assessors will likely have a set
marking criteria from which your answer will be graded. If you are unable to answer the
question or provide an example, you will score zero so it’s always best to give some sort
of example even if it’s not perfect.
STAR Technique
The STAR technique helps you to address the question in a structured way, ensuring you
don’t leave anything out, don’t ramble or let it drift into a pointless example. If you keep
the STAR structure in mind, you’ll be sure to get your point across in a balanced manner.
an assessor will usually try to get you to demonstrate you have the above competencies
Here’s an example of a question with a STAR structured answer. “Tell me about a time
when you had to work as a team to meet a deadline whilst under pressure”.
Situation – set the context for your story. For example, “Within a small team of three
people, myself Chris and Dave, I was working as one of the flight operations controllers
for ABC Airways when the Icelandic volcanic ash crisis was developing.”
Task – what was required of you. For example, “It was our task to get one of our aircraft
from Asia, back to base before European airspace closed, in order to repatriate the crew
and ensure the operation could continue in the most expeditious manner once the
situation had resolved.”
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Activity – what you actually did. For example, “We had to flight plan round areas of the
ash cloud which had already closed airspace, but we also had to ensure that we
navigated around areas of dense air traffic due to huge ATC slot restrictions which would
put the crew out of hours”. Whilst doing this we also needed to consider how we could
dispatch the aircraft off schedule as this requires a high degree of co-ordination with the
crew, airports and ground operations staff.
Result – how well the situation played out. For example, “The team came together to put
a plan in place. We agreed a time frame with specific progress targets and also thought
it sensible to work on a contingency plan”. We identified what the potential problems
could be and how we could overcome them. We delegated responsibilities to each
controller, utilising the skills and experience each of us had to maximise the chances of a
positive outcome. As I had recently completed an advanced course on flight planning, I
offered to work on the routing of the aircraft whilst the other controllers organised
ground operation support and liaised with the Captain, crew members and airport. I was
able to plan a routing which the Captain was happy with, kept the crew in hours and got
the aircraft and crew back to base just before the closure of UK airspace. I was then able
to go onto supporting my colleagues with the logistics. Ultimately, we worked effectively
as a team, planning appropriately, delegating and supporting each other to ensure our
aircraft got safely back to base.
It’s important to be specific rather than general in your responses. Be specific with
names, numbers and achievements. Try to convey the maximum success in the shortest
period of time - recruiters will be asking the same question many times every day, so will
likely have short attention spans.
Competency Assessment Criteria
The assessor(s) will be comparing your answer to a set non-technical competency

framework. Each question will have been designed to assess a particular competency
such as communication or leadership.
You will normally be graded at a particular level, depending on the strength of your
answers.
For example if we take a competency based question on communication; “Give an

example where you have used effective communication to influence a situation”.
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Level 1: Shows limited ability to communicate information appropriately
Level 2: Is able to communicate appropriately
Level 3: Is able to communicate appropriately and actively listen. Demonstrates an ability

to adapt the style and level depending on the audience.
Level 4: Is able to communicate highly effectively, clearly and concisely, taking into
account the pitch level required for the audience. Actively seeks feedback and actively
listens. Able to adapt the style and level of communication depending on the audience.
Give an example of when…
The suggested answers to these questions provide guidance on what competencies

should consider highlighting in your example:
You have demonstrated good leadership…

You have worked effectively as a team leader…
• Displayed a high personal standards

• Gives and receives feedback
• Takes responsibility
• Reviews performance
• Mentors others
• Encourages team participation
• Prioritised
• Delegated
You have worked effectively as a team member…
• Developed an effective working relationship

• Supported others
• Sought support from others where appropriate
• Built a productive team environment
• Set goals and targets
• Manage workload
• Promote input from others
You have disagreed someone…
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You have dealt with a difficult situation…
You have dealt with a conflict…
You have diffused a situation…
• Concentrated on what was right, not who was right

• Offered to compromise
• Explained why you disagreed
• Actively listened to the other side of the argument
• Carefully considered the situation
You have shown good judgement…
• Used previous experience

• Analysed and evaluated information available
• Considered options
• Asked for opinions
• Used threat and error management
You have done something well…
• Planned appropriately
• Delegated
• Prioritised
• Evaluated
You have done something badly…

You have fallen short on something…
You could have done better at something…
You have learnt from a mistake…
You have learnt from a professional mistake…
You fell short of your goal…
You under achieved…
• Sought to learn what could have been done differently

• Sought feedback from others
• Put a plan in place to ensure future improvements
• Recognised own limitations
• Proactively went on to improve skills
You have motivated others…

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You have motivated a team…
• Set high standards for others to follow

• Involve and engage team members
• Encourage with positive feedback
• Clearly define expectations
• Provide mentorship
• Be magnanimous
• Set targets
• Empower others through delegation
You have had to use good communication skills…

Have communicated effectively to a team…
Had to adapt your communication style…
• Communicated at the level required for the audience

• Considered the type of communication required
• Provides context
• Clear and Concise
• Adapted communication style to suit the situation
• Sought feedback to check understanding
• Asks open ended questions
You have dealt with cultural diversity…
• Consider the needs of others

• Utilises cultural diversity through encouraging different outlooks and ideas
• Cultural diversity is part of day to day life
• Extensive experience in working with people from different cultural backgrounds
• Seeks to learn about other cultures
You have improved customer service…
- You have bent the rules to meet an objective

- You have taken a risk
- You have influenced others
- You have disagreed with a team decision
- You have seen or used good CRM
You have delivered sensitive news to someone…

You have shown compassion and empathy…
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• Demonstrated compassion
• Considered under what circumstances to deliver the news
• Chose words careful
• Offered support
You have made a difficult decision…

You have made a big decision…
You have made a team decision…
• Considered a range of options

• Prepared to adapt decision if required
• Seeks input from others
• Correctly evaluates external factors
• Assess risk/threats involved
• Continues to evaluate decision after it’s been made
You have made a decision others haven’t liked…
• Explained why the decision was made

• Actively listened to others concerns
• Able to offer compromise
• Consider both sides of the argument
• Adapt the decision if required
• Weight up pro’s and con’s of various options
You have dealt with an awkward situation…
• Considered the feelings and emotions of others

• Was tactful
• Demonstrated compassion
• Offered confidentiality
• Able to diffuse the situation through effective communication
You have demonstrated flexibility in the work place…
• Demonstrated an adaptable and flexible approach to work

• Went out of your way to be flexible
• Considered the needs of the company and colleagues
• Recognised why flexibility was required
• Have compromised with others
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You have dealt with criticism…
• Sought feedback
• Established what could be improved upon
• Encouraged constrictive criticism
• Engaged with the person delivering the criticism
You have persuaded someone of your point of view…

You have influenced a situation…
You have influenced a team…
You have influenced a decision…
• Explained your point/view clearly

• Provided effective, reasoned arguments to support your view
• Used threat and error management to support your idea/view
• Used previous experience or facts to support your view
• Listened carefully to the views of others
• You concentrated on what was right, not who was right
• Demonstrated a will to compromise
• Remained objective
• Appropriate use of open ended questions
You have dealt with a difficult customer or person…

You have dealt with an awkward customer…
• Actively listened to the customer

• Gathered information
• Demonstrated compassion or empathy
• Took ownership of the problem
• Established common ground
• Established how to effectively support the customer
• Established a satisfactory resolution
• Attempted to provide a level of service recovery
• Ensured the customers views were fed back to the correct department
Most airlines now conduct evidence based questioning as part of their interview
process. They will score you based on you giving an answer and how many key words or
skills you mention have been achieved in your answer. If you cannot think of a very good
example then ask to come back to it at the end. If you have no flying experience then
they will not expect all of your answers to be aviation related, however if you could pick
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a few out from training then that would be helpful. If you have not had a long career yet
in the work place use family / friends and school / university examples.
Always answer honestly, the interviewers will be well trained in picking holes in made up
stories!
Miscellaneous Questions
Say something funny . . .
Be careful regarding any jokes that may offend. This is one of the most of difficult
question. It’s designed to see how you react under pressure. Have something up your
sleeve - just enough to make them chuckle is fine. For example:
“What did the fish say when he hit the wall?…. Dam”
It’s not a great joke, but it’s clean and you should at least get a smile out of them!
Did you speed on your way here?
This question is a “Catch 22”. If you say no, you’ll be accused of lying, if you say yes, you’ll
get accused of breaking the law. A good answer might be “No” and when they follow it
up with “Are you sure?” you can respond with something like “Have you ever tried
getting above 50 mph on the M25 at this time of day!?”.
What would you do if your Captain turned up for dinner on a night stop
in a skirt?
This question is trying to lead you into a trap. If the Captain is a women, this is perfectly
normal! If it’s a male Captain, you might pay him a compliment!
What do your family think about you becoming a pilot?
Hopefully having researched the profession thoroughly, they are very supportive of you
following your dream career path. Place emphasis on ensuring the family had a full
understanding of the lifestyle and the pro’s and con’s.
What does your family think about the anti-social hours?
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You have discussed it with them and they are supportive and believe you can mange it
appropriately.
What does your father do? What does your mother do?
If you have a good relationship with your parents this is a good opportunity to mention
it. You might highlight that you respect how hard they have worked to allow you to be in
the position you are in today - being interviewed for an airline. Obviously this isn’t
appropriate for everyone.
How do you think the day (tests) have gone so far?
Be honest! Airlines are moving towards more and more self assessment in their training.
They will want to see you being honest and will know doubt have your results to hand. If
you feel like you didn't do well at something then say so and highlight what you could
do differently next time to improve.
Did you perform well in the group interview?
Same as above. Don’t be critical of others, only yourself.
You might mention that:
• You could have been authoritative

• You could have been less authoritative
• Invited to engage others more
• Not taken so much of leadership role
• Taken more of a leadership role
• Ensured there was a summary towards the end
If you suspected the Captain was drunk shortly before flight, what
would you do?
Pull the Captain aside and ask him/her directly but diplomatically if this was the case. It
would then really depend on the answer as to how you would then proceed. You could
suggest that if you believe he/she may be drunk then ultimately you would need to
strongly suggest they do not fly, and if they don’t listen, refuse to fly yourself and report
the matter.
If you were the CEO of this airline, what steps would you take to ensure
the long term prosperity of the company?
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• Be competitive on price
• Invest in the product
• Invest in employees
• Focus on customer service
• Ensure route match demand
How would you persuade cabin crew to go into discretion if they were
over their hours limit for the day?
Be supportive of their decision and respect the fact it might not be suitable to do so as it
ultimately depends of safety and fatigue. Perhaps try to delegate the decision to them.
Explain how the customers are depending on us to fly them home, commend them for
going beyond the call of duty. Essentially operating into discretion is the Captain’s
decision on the day once he/she has taken all circumstances into account, so part of that
would be gauging if his/her crew are fit enough to continue operating.
If an alien turned up to play in your team, how would you react, what
would you do?
Silly question, but it has been asked. Welcome them into the team, establish what their
strengths and weaknesses are and delegate accordingly just like any other team
member.
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Airline Interview Technical Questions
General Cadet Questions
Explain to an 8 year old how an aircraft flies?
Engines ingest air and expel it rearwards at a high velocity which produces thrust. This
moves the aircraft forwards and allows air to pass over the wings. When air passes over
the wing, lift is produced which lifts the aircraft into the air.
What are the four forces on an aircraft?
Lift, Drag, Weight & Thrust.
Explain in simple terms how a Jet Engine Works?
Air is drawn into the engine before being compressed. This compressed air
is ignited with fuel which causes it to expand rapidly over a turbine before
being expelled. The turbine powers the compressor and the increased exit
velocity of the air produces thrust.
Aircraft Specific Questions
What engines are our B737/A320 fleet fitted with?
Most 737NG’s use the CFM56-7B, you need to confirm the operator you are having an
interview with uses this type.
The A320’s are fitted with either CFM56-5s or IAE V2500s.
How much thrust do they produce?
The CFM56-7B27 maximum thrust is approximately 27,300 lbs.
The CFM56-5 maximum thrust is approximately 27,000 lbs
Identify this aircraft (pointing to a model)?

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Do your homework!
What is the difference between a A320 and B737? - What is your

favourite aircraft and why?
These aircraft are very different although they are competing in the same market, both
have similar capacities, range and performance. The A320 is solely a fly by wire
aeroplane with a side stick and is ultra computerised. The first A320 was flown around 20
years after the 737 so they did have a clean sheet to work from. The 737NG has
conventional hydro-technical controls and in general is less automated.
The A320 is sightly more spacious in the cabin and the lower deck (holds). The latest
aircraft types, the Neo for Airbus and the 737Max for Boeing, will see a fierce battle for
aircraft orders. The new designs encompass more efficient engines, aircraft wings and
lighter materials.
What is the passenger capacity of this aircraft? - How many cabin crew
does it require?
A320 - up to 186 seats depending on configuration. This would require a minimum of 4

cabin crew.
B737-800 - up to 189 seats depending on config. Cabin crew as with the A320.
B737-900ER - up to 220 seats. Minimum of 5 cabin crew required.
Legally you have to have a minimum of 1 cabin crew member per 50 passenger seats.
What speed does it cruise at?
Both generally cruise at Mach 0.78 but is dependant on the Cost Index.
What is it's maximum certified altitude?
B737 - 41,000ft
A320 - 39,000ft
What is it's maximum take off weight?
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B737 - 65,500kgs - 85,100kgs depending on 737NG variant
A320 - 78,000kgs
What is it's range?
B737 - 3050 NM - 5510 NM

A320 - 3100 NM
What is the crosswind limit?
B737 - Landing approximately 36 knots dry

A320 - Landing approximately 33 knots steady wind, dry
Both vary depending on the winglet/sharklet configuration.
Does the nose wheel have brakes?
Neither the 737-800 or A320 have nose wheel brakes. Both aircraft only have brakes on
the main wheels.
How much fuel does it burn an hour in the cruise?
This is very hard to provide definitive figures, naturally it depends cruising level, weight,
OAT, tech defects, engine variant etc. Broadly speaking the 737-800 and the A320 have
very similar fuel burns around 2,500kgs an hour during cruise. It is widely reported that
on longer routes the A320 is more fuel efficient and on shorter routes the 737-800 is
better.
What wing sweep does this aircraft have?
B737 25.02 degrees

A320 25 degrees
How many emergency exits does the aircraft have? - How many cabin
crew do we need? Why?
Both the 737-800 and the A320 have 8 emergency exits. 4 main doors, 2 at the front left
and right and 2 at the rear, left and right. They both have 2 over wing exits on each side
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of the aircraft. These are smaller doors that would normally be operated by passengers
after receiving a briefing from cabin crew. The current regulations for cabin crew is that
operators must have 1 cabin crew member per 50 seats onboard an aircraft. That means
both the 737-800 and the A320 both require a minimum of 4 cabin crew, however some
operators choose to carry more than the minimum.
There are also an additional 2 exits in the flight deck - the windows. These are available
for the pilots to evacuate the aircraft but are not considered a normal exit for the
passengers.
The answer could therefore either be 8 or 10 for both aircraft, depending on whether
you include the flight deck windows.
What aircraft category is this aircraft? Why?
Aircraft approach categories are based on the VREF speed at maximum landing weight
(speed over the threshold). In the absence of a published VREF speed the VS speed is
used, multiplied by 1.3. Both the 737-800 and the A320 are CAT C aircraft as they sit in
the band 121 - 140 knots.
What is the list price of this aircraft (how much does it cost)? - When did
the aircraft first fly?
737-800 - average current price 96 million USD. The 737 was first flown in 1967 and is
the worlds most popular airliner - there are more flying around than any other airliner.
320 - average current price 98 million USD. The aircraft first flew in 1987 and has steadily
been increasing market share over the 737 as time goes on.
Aerodynamic Questions
Why do aircraft have swept wings?
The majority of airliners have swept wings, these are wings that sweep rearward as the
wing extends out from the fuselage. Wing sweep delays the formation of shock waves
and the accompanying aerodynamic drag rise as the aircraft approaches the speed of
sound by increasing the Critical Mach Number of the wing.
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Having a swept wing can reduce the lift a wing is able to generate compared with a
straight un-swept wing. This is due to the fact that only some of the air flowing over the
wing will be parallel to the chord line of the wing which has the effect of de-accelerating
some of the air and therefore reducing lift.
Wings can sometimes be swept forward but this is fairly rare and only used in Military
design.
What is a Critical Mach Number / MCRIT?
The critical mach number is the speed at which air over the wing (or any part of the
aircraft) is accelerated to speeds above Mach 1 (the speed of sound). This occurs when
the aircraft is travelling slower than the speed of sound as air flow is accelerated over the
wing, achieving the greatest acceleration where the camber is thickest. An aircraft’s
critical mach number may therefore be as low as Mach 0.75 but is dependant on wing
design. When the aircraft passes the critical mach number, it enters the transonic regime
where air passing over the aircraft can be both subsonic and supersonic.
How do you calculate the required sweep of the wings?
The greater the aircraft’s speed, the more acute the cone shaped shock wave around the
aircraft becomes. It is key to keep the aircraft structure within this cone which is termed
“the area of influence”.
As long as the wing lies within the cone-shaped shock wave, it will "see" subsonic airflow
and work as normal. The angle needed to lie behind the cone increases with increasing
speed, at Mach 1.3 the angle is about 45 degrees, at Mach 2.0 it is 60 degrees. For
instance, at Mach 1.3 the angle of the Mach cone formed off the body of the aircraft will
be at about SIN μ = 1/M (μ is the sweep angle of the Mach cone).
What is induced drag?
Induced drag is the undesirable consequence of producing lift. It exists where an object
in the air is changing the direction air flows around it - such as a wing. It is due to the
formation of wing tip vortices which occur due to the pressure differential above and
below the wing which displaces the air rearwards. The aircraft is required to produce
more lift the slower it flies and therefore induced drag increases with decreasing speed.
Or a simple way to look at it is with increasing angle of attack, induced drag increases at
the same rate with everything else being equal.
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What is form drag?
Form drag or pressure drag arises because of the shape of the object.
Form or pressure drag is caused by the air that is flowing over the aircraft or airfoil. The
separation of air creates turbulence and results in pockets of low and high pressure that
leave a wake behind the airplane or airfoil (thus the name pressure drag). This opposes
forward motion and is a component of the total drag. Since this drag is due to the shape,
or form of the aircraft, it is also called form drag. Streamlining the aircraft will reduce
form drag, and parts of an aircraft that do not lend themselves to streamlining are
enclosed in covers called fairings, or a cowling for an engine, that have a streamlined
shape.
What is parasite drag?
Parasitic drag is drag that is caused by the aircraft simply moving through the
atmosphere. Parasitic drag is a combination of form drag, skin friction drag and
interference drag.
How do the drag components vary with speed?
As speed increases, the induced drag decreases, but parasitic drag increases because
the fluid is striking the object with greater force, and is moving across the object's
surfaces at higher speed. As speed continues to increase into the transonic and
supersonic regimes, wave drag grows in importance. The drag curve for an aircraft will
show minimum drag for a particular airspeed, effectively a compromise between various
drag components. An aircraft flying at this speed will be close to its optimal efficiency.
Pilots will use this speed to maximise the gliding range in case of an engine failure.
However, to maximise the gliding endurance, the aircraft's speed would have to be at
the point of minimum power, which occurs at lower speeds than minimum drag.
How does a wing produce lift?
There are many arguments over the correct theory of lift, too many arguments to
mention here. In essence Newton’s laws and Bernoulli’s principles are both correct, it is
just the Bernoulli’s principle in particular that is applied incorrectly.
An airfoil generates lift by exerting a downward force on the air as it flows past.
According to Newton's third law, the air must exert an equal and opposite (upward)
force on the airfoil, which is the lift.
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This simple application of Newton's laws does not provide a complete theory of lift. In
particular, it does not explain how the downforce on the air arises.
Bernoulli's principle states that within a steady airflow of constant energy, when the air
flows through a region of lower pressure it speeds up and vice versa. Thus, there is a
direct mathematical relationship between the pressure and the speed, so if one knows
the speed at all points within the airflow one can calculate the pressure, and vice versa.
For any airfoil generating lift, there must be a pressure imbalance, i.e. lower average air
pressure on the top than on the bottom. Bernoulli's principle states that this pressure
difference must be accompanied by a speed difference.
What is dutch roll?
A Dutch roll is a combination of rolling and yawing oscillations that occurs when the
dihedral effects of an aircraft are more powerful than the directional stability.
Yam dampers are fitted to help prevent dutch roll, see below:
What does a yaw dampener do?
It uses accelerometers mounted near the tail to measure how much it is swinging side to
side (yaw). It then sends signals to the autopilot which commands the rudder servos to
counteract the yaw, keeping the aircraft straight.
What are wing tip vortices?
Wing tip vortices are circular patterns of air caused by an aircraft producing lift, and the
subsequent span wise flow across the wing. At the wing tip, the high pressure air below
the wing, meets the low pressure air above causing a vortex. Winglets are often used to
reduce the effect and subsequent drag.
You can often see huge rotating vortices at the wing tips off large aircraft on approach.
Depending on ambient atmospheric humidity as well as the geometry and wing loading
of aircraft, water may condense or freeze in the core of the vortices, making the vortices
visible.
Explain the area rule?
The area rule was created after a series of experiments by Dr Whitcomb. Whitcomb
found that the drag was proportional to the discontinuity in the cross-sectional area
throughout the length of the airplane. He concluded that the presence of wing adds an
extra volume at that point and by indenting and reducing the volume of the fuselage it
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could lead to a smoother area distribution, which in turn would reduce the wave drag.
The two shapes in the middle reflect the identical cross-sectional area distribution.
What is the formula for lift?
What is the formula for drag?
For drag, this variable is called the drag coefficient, designated "Cd." This allows us to
collect all the effects, simple and complex, into a single equation. The drag equation
states that drag D is equal to the drag coefficient Cd times the density times half of the
velocity V squared times the reference area A.
What is the centre of pressure?
The Centre of Pressure is the average location of all of the pressure acting upon an
aircraft moving through the air. The centre of pressure is deemed to the the point at
which lift acts through. It’s position compared to the centre of gravity is important
(usually aft) but is not fixed and moves according to varied angle of attack.
What is angle of attack?
The angle of attack is the angle between a reference line on an aircraft (normally the
chord line of the wing) and the oncoming air or relative wind.
What is angle of incidence?
Angle of incidence means the angle between the chord of the wing and the longitudinal
axis of the fuselage.
What is the centre of gravity?
This is the point on the aircraft through which weight acts. Another way to imagine it as it
being the point at which the aircraft would balance. Imagine holding an aircraft up by a
finger, the point where the aircraft balances is the C of G. This obviously changes with
aircraft loading and can continue to change in flight. Changes in flight are normally due
to fuel burn. Pilots need to know where the centre of gravity is on the aircraft to plan
aircraft performance. Having an aft centre of gravity will ensure the aircraft operates
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more efficiently and burns less fuel due to reduced (or more streamlined) deflection of
the horizontal stabiliser which therefore produces less drag.
Name the different types of drag?
• Parasite Drag consisting of Form drag, skin friction and interference drag.
• Lift-induced drag
• Wave drag
Why do shockwaves form on the aircraft?
When an object (or disturbance) moves faster than the information about it can
propagate into the surrounding fluid, fluid near the disturbance cannot react or "get out
of the way" before the disturbance arrives. In a shock wave the properties of the fluid
(density, pressure, temperature, flow velocity, Mach number) change almost
instantaneously.
Shock waves form when the speed of a fluid changes by more than the speed of sound.
At the region where this occurs, sound waves travelling against the flow reach a point
where they cannot travel any further upstream and the pressure progressively builds in
that region; a high pressure shock wave rapidly forms.
Shock waves are not conventional sound waves; a shock wave takes the form of a very
sharp change in the gas properties. Shock waves in air are heard as a loud "crack" or
"snap" noise. Over longer distances, a shock wave can change from a nonlinear wave
into a linear wave, degenerating into a conventional sound wave as it heats the air and
loses energy. The sound wave is heard as the familiar "thud" or "thump" of a sonic
boom, commonly created by the supersonic flight of aircraft i.e. Concorde.
Where do shockwaves form first?
When the mach number is increased, the first shockwave will appear on the upper
surface of the wing, around the wing root. When an aircraft exceeds the speed of sound,
the shockwave forms just ahead of the wing leading edge.
What is the purpose of flaps?
The purpose of the flaps is to generate more lift at slower airspeed, which enables the
airplane to fly at a greatly reduced speed with a lower risk of stalling. This is especially
useful during takeoff and landing. The secondary effect of flap is that it allows a lower
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pitch attitude (due to the enhanced lift capabilities of the flaps) which gives greater
visibility to the flight crew.
What is the purpose of slats?
Slats and flaps both change the shape of the wing when they are extended and allow
the wing to generate more lift so that the airplane can fly slower. Operationally they are
both retracted and flush against the wing except for takeoff and landing at which time
they are extended.
What are Krueger flaps?
Krueger flaps are lift enhancement devices that may be fitted to the leading edge of an
aircraft wing. Unlike slats or drooped leading edges, the main wing upper surface and its
nose is not changed. Instead, a portion of the lower wing is rotated out in front of the
main wing leading edge.
How do the flaps work?
Flaps do two things: They increase lift, and increase drag. In deciding to use flaps, the
pilot may be striving for either or both of these effects. Flaps increase lift by extending
the camber of the wing, which increases the maximum lift coefficient. This allows the
aircraft to fly at a lower speed without stalling.
What are the different types of flaps?
Plain, Split, Fowler and Slotted.
What are winglets, how do they work?
Wingtip devices of which winglet is one type are usually intended to improve the
efficiency of fixed-wing aircraft. They are positioned at the wing tip and come in various
forms. Effectively they reduce wing tip vortices and therefore reduce drag and partially
recover some of the wing tip vortices energy. They can also improve aircraft handling
characteristics.
What are raked wings?
Raked wingtips are a feature on some Boeing aircraft, where the tip of the wing has a
higher degree of sweep than the rest of the wing. The stated purpose of this additional
feature is to improve fuel efficiency and climb performance, and to shorten takeoff field
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length. It does this in much the same way that winglets do, by increasing the effective
aspect ratio of the wing and interrupting harmful wingtip vortices.
What is spanwise flow?
This spanwise flow of air combines with chordwise flowing air, causing a change in
speed and direction, which twists the airflow and produces vortices along the wing
trailing edge. The vortices created are unstable, and they quickly combine to produce
wingtip vortices.
What is a stall?
A stall occurs when an aerofoil can not create enough lift to keep the aircraft in level
flight. As angle of attack increases, the airflow passing over the wing starts to separate
until there is a full breakdown in airflow. At this point the aircraft has stalled.
How do you recover from a stall?
To recover from a stall, the pilot must unload the wings and reduce the critical angle of
attack. This is accomplished by pushing the nose down to reduce the angle of attack to
‘break’ the stall. Power should also be applied to increase the aircraft’s airspeed before
recovering to a safe configuration and pitch.
What factors affect the stall speed?
If speed decays to a certain point, the aircraft will stall. As speed decreases, lift also
decreases and therefore to compensate for this the pilot may raise the nose of the
aircraft subsequently increasing angle of attack, which may increase Lift Coefficient and
keep the same lift. However, after a critical angle of attack is passed (often around 15
degrees) the lift stops increasing and actually collapses, causing a stall. Reaching the
critical angle of attack will always stall the aircraft. It does not matter whether the aircraft
is going fast or slow.
The centre of gravity position, weight, air density and load factor all affect an aircrafts
stall speed.
How does the centre of pressure move approaching the stall?
The centre of pressure moves forward before a stall until the critical angle of attack is
reached. Before stalling the air flow over the wing will begin to separate, most aircraft
will have been designed to ensure it will do so at the trailing edge of the wing near the
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wing root, the separation will slowly progress forward and outward as angle of attack
increases. Once at the critical angle of attack, the separation will shift the local centre of
pressure aft. This will cause the aircraft to experience an involuntary automatic increasing
nose down moment as it approaches the stall. You may remember from your training
that it can be sometimes quite challenging to get the aircraft into a full stall.
What are the advantages/disadvantages of T-tail?
A T-tail is the description for an aircraft where the tailplane is mounted to the top of the
vertical stabiliser. The arrangement looks like the capital letter T, hence the name. The T-
tail differs from the standard configuration in which the tailplane is mounted to the
fuselage at the base of the fin.
Advantages:
Where jet engines are mounted on the aft fuselage, as with the Vickers VC10 and the
BAC 1-11, a T-tail is essential to keep the tailplane away from the hot exhaust gases.
The tailplane is kept well out of the disturbed airflow behind the wing and fuselage,
giving smoother and faster airflow over the elevators. This configuration may give more
predictable design characteristics and better pitch control. Responsive pitch control is
crucial for aircraft flying at low speed, to allow effective rotation on landing. deHavilland
Canada's larger STOL aircraft all use a T-tail for this reason.
Disadvantages:
The vertical stabiliser must be made considerably stronger and stiffer (and therefore
heavier) to support the forces generated by the tailplane.
The T-tail configuration can cause severe maintenance concerns. The control runs to the
elevators are more complex, and elevator surfaces are much more difficult to casually
inspect from the ground. The loss of Alaska Airlines Flight 261 was directly attributed to
poor maintenance due to the complexity of the T-tail. The aircraft may be prone to
suffering a dangerous deep stall condition, where a stalled wing at high angles of attack
may blank the airflow over the tailplane and elevators, thereby leading to loss of pitch
control. The F-101 Voodoo suffered from this throughout its service life.
What is a super stall?
Occurs predominately on T-tail aircraft whereby the de-accelerated, unstable air from
the stalled wing hits the tailplane, thus further disrupting the airflow around it and puts
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the aircraft in a ‘super stall’. These are more difficult to recover from compared to a
conventional stall as the elevator can become unstable.
What is the benefit of rear mounted engines?
Advantages:
• The aircraft can sit lower, so gear will be shorter and lighter. This makes loading
easier.
• Simpler wing design with no engines.
• Lower risk of FOD ingestion.
• Most of the aircraft is quieter from inside unless you’re sat at the rear!
• Smaller fin and rudder due to less yawing moment in engine out situations.
Disadvantages:
• Plumbing for fuel needs to be taken back to rear of aircraft instead of from a wet wing
to engine.
• Strengthening of rear fuselage adds weight.
• Noise at rear of aircraft.
• Since tail engines typically lead to T-tail there are deep stall concerns.
• Wing mounted engines counteract wing bending and wing twist.
• High bypass engines with large efficient fans are impractical to mount on tail.
• Harder to access for maintenance personnel
What is anhedral?
Anhedral angle is the downward angle of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing aircraft. It
decreases stability and therefore is often used in fighter aircraft to enhance
manoeuvrability.
What is dihedral?
Dihedral angle is the upward angle of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing aircraft. Most
modern commercial aircraft have this wing configuration. It increases stability.
What is Mach Buffet?
Mach buffet occurs due to shockwave induced separation of airflow. As the aircraft
passes the critical mach number, a normal shockwave can form on the wing, at the point
at which air is slowed from supersonic to subsonic speeds. Behind the shockwave, the
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boundary layer can separate (as it does with a low speed stall) and subsequently causes
buffeting of the airframe.
What is Mach Tuck?
Mach tuck is an aerodynamic effect whereby the nose of the aircraft has a tendency to
pitch downward, due to the rearward movement of the centre of pressure with
increasing mach number. Some aircraft have mach trimmers to counteract this
phenomenon.
What are vortex generators?
Vortex generators are small components deployed on the wings and stabilisers surfaces
in order to re-energise the boundary layer (in order to delay boundary layer separation
from a surface. They can improve the performance and controllability of the aircraft,
particularly at low flight speeds, climb, and high angles of attack.
How do ailerons work?
Ailerons are classed as primary flight controls and provide aircraft roll control around the
longitudinal axis. They work by allowing one wing to generate more lift than the other,
resulting in a rolling motion.
Ailerons usually work in opposition (symmetrical ailerons). As the right aileron deflects
upward, the left deflects downward, and vice versa. However this can create adverse yaw
due to aileron moving upwards producing less lift and drag than the downwards
deflecting aileron. To counter this, some aircraft have differential ailerons where one
aileron is raised a greater distance than the opposite aileron is lowered. This therefore
produces more drag on the down going wing which therefore reduces adverse yaw.
Commercial aircraft usually also utilise spoilers on top of the wing to supplement roll
control.
The secondary effect of roll is adverse yaw, which is the tendency of the aircraft to yaw in
the opposite direction of the turn.
How does the elevator work?
A primary flight control located on the horizontal stabiliser, the elevators move up and
down in order to pitch the aircraft around its centre of gravity. The flaps change the
horizontal stabiliser's angle of attack.
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What is camber?
The camber of an airfoil is the characteristic curve of its upper or lower surface. The
camber determines the airfoil's thickness and therefore determines the amount of lift
that a wing produces. A high speed, aircraft like Concorde has very little camber
whereas slower aircraft will have more camber.
What is aspect ratio?
Aspect ratio is the ratio of an aircrafts wing span and chord. The span is the length of the
wings measured tip to tip and the chord is the 'depth' of the wing from the leading edge
to the trailing edge, measured in a straight line.
A narrow long wing would have a high aspect ratio (like a glide), where as a thick short
wing (like Concorde) has a low aspect ratio.
What is wing loading?
Wing loading is a measurement that compares the mass of the aircraft with the area of
it’s wing.
If an aircraft has relatively large wings for its size like a glider then it would be known as
having low wing loading.
What is load factor?
Load factor is the ratio of aircraft lift to weight communicated as g-force. In straight and
level flight the load factor is 1g. If the aircraft carries out a manoeuvre that requires more
lift, the ratio of lift to weight increases and therefore the g-force increases.
What is the job of the spoilers?
A spoiler (sometimes called a speedbrake) is a device intended to intentionally reduce

the lift component of an airfoil in a controlled way. Spoilers are usually panels located on
the top surface of a wing that can be extended upward into the airflow to increase drag.
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They are used to increase a rate of descent, reduce an aircraft speed or sometimes can
be used deliberately on an approach (such as London City) to increase the thrust setting
for an approach to improve go around performance. They are also used on the ground
increase drag and reduce lift to slow the aircraft.
They can also be used to supplement roll control.
What is g-force?
'G' is the ratio between a given acceleration and the acceleration due to gravity. The
term 'G force' is used sometimes to describe a force, which produced acceleration,
which is a multiple of the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/sq sec). It can be positive or
negative.
What is trim runaway?
Trim Runaway is a failure in the electrical circuit of the trim system on an aircraft. It causes
the trim to ‘runaway’ therefore producing up to full deflection (up or down) of the
horizontal stabiliser which is un-commanded and very dangerous. Aircraft have trim
cutout switches to prevent this from happening.
How does load factor affect the stall speed?
Stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of load factor.
What is adverse yaw?
Adverse yaw is the natural and unwanted tendency for an aircraft to yaw in the opposite
direction you command a roll.
When the ailerons are deflected, the downward aileron produces induced drag. This
increased induced drag causes a yawing moment in the opposite direction of the turn.
This can be avoided by utilising differential ailerons which will co-ordinate aileron
deflection to ensure the total drag produced by both surfaces are equal.
What is washout?
Washout refers to aircraft designers incorporating a slight twist in the wing from root to
tip, it reduced the angle of incidence and therefore causing a lower angle of attack at
the tips than at the roots. This will ensure the wing root stalls before the tip. This feature
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is sometimes referred to as structural washout, to distinguish it from aerodynamic
washout.
Where does a wing stall first?
It depends on the design of the wing. An aircraft designer would want a wing to stall
from root to tip in that order.
Explain how an aircraft flies to a ten year old?
Four forces act upon an aircraft - lift, thrust, weight and drag. Put simply Lift is created by
accelerating air over a wing (aerofoil). Weight is gravity. Thrust is the propulsion
provided by a jet engine or propeller. Drag is the resistance of the aircraft as it passes
through the air. Lift must be greater than weight for an aircraft to climb and thrust must
be greater than drag for an aircraft to move forward.
What is the purpose of the roll spoilers?
Most aircraft have multi-functional spoilers to supplement roll control. When an aircraft is
commanded to turn, the spoilers on the side that the aileron lifts also lift up (depending
on speed) to augment turning.
What is the purpose of the ground spoilers?
Ground spoilers are primarily there to create more drag and help slow the aircraft down
on the runway. They also dump lift and therefore ensure the aircraft is forced onto the
tarmac to increase braking efficiency.
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Performance Questions
Why do aircraft fly at high altitudes?
Aircraft fly at high altitudes (typically between FL290-FL410) as it is simply more efficient
to do so. The air is thinner the higher you fly, therefore there is reduced drag, effectively
the engines have a lower thrust setting to propel the aircraft through the air. Therefore
fuel flow is less. Naturally on shorter flights you need to offset the cost of climbing up to
a cruising level at full power against how long you will be able to stay at that level to gain
the efficiencies before having to commence the descent.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of flying high?
The main advantage is cost, however it is quieter for passengers to due to reduced
airflow (due less dense air). It is also easier to avoid weather the higher you fly. Most CB’s
would not normally be higher than FL400. The disadvantages are your buffet margins
are reduced. The higher you go towards the aircraft ceiling operating altitude and the
heavier the aircraft is the closer you will be to ‘coffin corner’.
What speeds do aircraft fly?
Commercial aircraft fly indicated airspeed at lower levels and convert to mach number (a
percentage of the speed of sound) at high levels. The altitude that the conversion occurs
at varies slightly but normally around FL270-FL300. A B737 or A320 would typically
cruise at about Mach 0.78.
What is the difference between IAS/CAS/EAS/TAS?
IAS - Indicated Airpeed is the aircrafts uncorrected airspeed which is measured directly
from the dynamic pressure source.
CAS - Calibrated airspeed is indicated airspeed corrected for instrument and position
error. This is typically the output of the airspeed readout on a modern commercial
aircraft, despite it still being referred to as IAS.
EAS - Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is the airspeed at sea level in the International Standard
Atmosphere at which the dynamic pressure is the same as the dynamic pressure at the
true airspeed (TAS) and altitude at which the aircraft is flying. Not widely used in
commercial aviation.
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TAS - True airspeed - The true airspeed of an aircraft is the speed of the aircraft relative
to the airmass in which it is flying. The true airspeed is important information for accurate
navigation of an aircraft. Traditionally it is measured using an analogue TAS indicator, but
as the Global Positioning System has become available for civilian use, the importance
of such analogue instruments has decreased. Since indicated airspeed is a better
indicator of power used and lift available, True airspeed is not used for controlling the
aircraft during taxiing, takeoff, climb, descent, approach or landing; for these purposes
the Indicated airspeed – IAS or KIAS (knots indicated airspeed) – is used.
What is coffin corner?
Coffin corner is the altitude at which an aircrafts low stall speed is equal to the critical
mach number, at a given gross weight and G-force loading. At this altitude it is very
difficult to keep the airplane in stable flight. Pilots will apply margins to stay away from
this area of flight (a minimum of 1.3g), however flying into unexpected turbulence can
cause an aircraft to hit coffin corner.
What is a buffet margin?
A buffet margin is a factor that is applied to the aircraft low speed stall to ensure an
aircraft is operated to a margin where if it experienced unexpected turbulence or g-
loading, it would not stall the aircraft. The minimum which can be applied in Europe is
1.3g but the crew would want to increase this in turbulent conditions.
What limits an aircraft's altitude?
There are 3 types of maximum altitudes:
Structural - where the pressure differential is limiting

Thrust - where the aircraft can no longer achieve a 300fpm rate of climb
Aerodynamic - Which is limited by ‘Coffin Corner’
Weight, temperature and air density will influence the aircrafts maximum altitude.
What limits an aircrafts speed?
There is a maximum speed limit certified for every aircraft which is called Vmo or Mmo.
At this speed the structural integrity of the aircraft cannot be guaranteed. Minimum
manoeuvring speed is normally 1.3g manoeuvre capability speed to stick shaker or low
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speed buffet depending on the configuration of the aircraft. So effectively the minimum
speed is regulated by the stalling speed.
What are the benefits of a forward and aft C of G?
The main advantage of a forward centre of gravity is aircraft stability as it makes stall
recovery much easier due to it’s pitch down tendency.
All aircraft have centre of gravity limits, both forward and aft. There will normally be a
targeted C of G for the load controllers of the flight to try and achieve.
The big advantage of having an Aft C of G ensures the aircraft is more fuel efficient as
less downforce is required to keep the aircraft in level flight and therefore the horizontal
stabiliser is more streamlined with the airflow, thus producing less drag and therefore
reducing fuel consumption. There is also an increase to take off and landing
performance with an aft C of G essentially you produce less drag and can therefore
accelerate quicker and use less runway, which can be translated into a higher restricted
take-off weight at performance limited airfields.
What is Mach Number and how is it calculated?
Aircraft use Mach number at high cruising levels rather than IAS due to the effects of
compressibility. Mach number in simplistic terms is a percentage of the speed of sound,
with Mach 1.0 equalling the speed of sound. Most aircraft cruise between Mach 0.70
and Mach 0.86. 70% and 86% of the speed of sound. Mach number is calculated by
dividing your TAS by Local speed of sound. Local speed of sound is varies by
temperature. For example at -20 degrees LSS = 619kts. If you are flying at a TAS of
500kts then your Mach number is 0.801.
What is PNR? How is it calculated?
Point of No return. The point in a flight at which an aircraft will lack sufficient fuel to
return to its starting point with reserve fuel remaining. There are a number of methods
which can be used to calculate a PNR/PSR, but the one most favoured uses what are
called Specific Fuel Flows (SFF).
These are calculated by dividing the planned cruise fuel flow by the expected ground
speeds towards the destination and towards the alternate field, and the result is the fuel
required per nautical mile travelled in each direction.
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The general formula used to calculate the distance to the PNR from the Alternate is:
Distance to PNR = Flight Fuel Available (Alternate to Destination) ÷ (SFF (To Destination)
+ SFF (To Alternate))
The Flight Fuel Available (FFA) is the Useable Fuel on Board (FOB) minus the Fixed
Reserve (FR), any holding fuel and any taxi allowance.
What is PET/ETP/CP? How is it calculated?
Point of Equal Time, Equal time point and critical point.
The Point of Equal Time(PET) or sometimes is referred to as Critical Point(CP) or equal

time point, is that track position, in relation to two suitable airfields, from which it is the
same time for an aircraft to fly to either.
The following formula is used to calculate the ground distance from the departure
airport to ETP/PET
Ground Distance to ETP = (D)(GSB)/GSA+GSB = NM
Where:
D = Total Trip Distance

GSA = Ground speed to continue to "Ahead" airport at altitude to be flown
GSB = Ground speed to return to "Behind" airport at altitude to be flown
You then need to work out that distance as a time for it to be useful.
What does the zero fuel weight include?
Zero fuel weight includes the total weight of the aircraft minus fuel. This would include,
Aircraft basic weight, catering, crew, passengers, luggage, cargo and mail. Each aircraft
has a structural limitation at this weight.
What is MSA?
Minimum Safe Altitude. There are various safety altitudes, however MSA is widely used.
Flight plans will have MSA values calculated along a flight plan route normally 20 miles
either side of track. Most airlines will have an SOP whereby a verbal confirmation is
required to proceed below MSA.
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What is SSA?
Sector Safe Altitude. This is used at airfields. Normally where this is a navigational aid on
the field, a circle is drawn 25NM diameter from this aid and the sectors are divided up
with a SSA given in each segment which would be 1,000ft above the highest obstacle in
a particular segment. Some airfields may only have one segment.
What is the MEA?
Minimum en-route altitude (MEA), is the lowest published altitude between radio
navigation fixes that assures acceptable navigational signal coverage and meets
obstacle clearance requirements between those fixes.
What is MORA?
Minimum off route altitude. MORA’s give at least 1,000 feet altitude clearance above
terrain, and 2,000 feet in mountainous (an area of changing terrain were the changes of
terrain elevation exceed 3000 feet within a distance of 10NM) terrain.
What is FLEX thrust?
Flex temp is a technique used to reduce noise and engine wear in commercial aircraft.
Different manufacturers have different names for this technique but they all apply similar
methods.
Effectively if an aircraft has additional performance on a particular runway after taking

into account temperature, pressure, runway condition and wind then the pilots can elect
not to use full thrust for take off. They will programme the flight management computers
to trick the engine management system into thinking the temperature outside is higher
than it actually is therefore reducing thrust.
This reduces engine wear, noise on take off and maintenance costs.
What is assumed temperature?
The same as Flex but assumed is Boeing’s way of describing the above.
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What is de-rated thrust?
Derated thrust allows a reduced engine thrust setting to be selected if take off
performance allows. For example, you might have take-off thrust setting 1, 2 or 3 which
correspond to different maximum thrust settings. This isn’t the same as an assumed or
flex temperature where you are ticking the engines into thinking it’s warmer than the
ambient temperature actually is.
What does flat rated mean?
A flat rated engine is one that is restricted to a maximum thrust even though it is capable
of producing more due to lower ambient temperatures than ISA, higher density, etc.
Therefore, at temperatures below the temperature at which the engine is flat rated to,
the thrust is not affected by temperature. A flat rating is normally ISA +15 degrees
Celsius.
In other words, from low temperature, all the way up to 30 degrees Celsius you get the
same amount of thrust. In some cases the total power output of an engine needs to be
constrained because the airframe can only handle a certain force. This is the case with
Gas Turbine engines. Flat rating allows airplanes to operate under more demanding
conditions, without the need for extra structural strengthening due to higher peak
power output of the engine.
What is VMCG/VMCA/V1/VR/V2?
VMCG is the minimum control speed on the ground whereby directional control can be
maintained through the rudder.
VMCA is defined as the minimum speed, whilst in the air, that directional control can be
maintained with one engine inoperative (critical engine on two engine aeroplanes),
operating engine(s) at takeoff power and a maximum of 5 degrees of bank towards the
good engine(s).
V1 is the speed by which an action must have been made to abort the take-off if the
aircraft is to be safely stopped on the remaining runway. Above V1 the aircraft is
committed to take off.
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VR is defined as the speed at which the rotation of the aircraft should be initiated to
takeoff attitude. Rotation speed (VR) cannot be less than V1. VR must be at least 1.05
greater than VMCA.
V2 is the minimum speed that needs to be maintained up to acceleration altitude, in the

event of an engine failure after V1. Flight at V2 ensures that the minimum required climb
gradient is achieved, and that the aircraft is controllable. V2 shall be at least 1.1 times
greater than VMCA.
How does temperature, altitude and pressure effect these speeds?
An increase in temperature corresponds to an increase in density altitude. As a result,

thrust output decreases and therefore less yaw occurs in the result of an engine failure.
For this reason VMCA decreases for increasing altitude and temperature.
Below the flat rated temperature of the engines, thrust output should be consistent and
therefore V2 and VR should be approximately constant. If temperature increases further,
thrust reduces and thus so does acceleration. This results in an increase in V1 and VR
with a reduction in V2.
What is VREF?
The final approach speed is based on the reference landing speed, VREF. VREF usually is
defined by the aircraft operating manual (AOM) and/or the quick reference handbook
(QRH) as: 1.3 x stall speed with full landing flaps or with selected landing flaps. VREF
should be the achieved speed when passing through 50ft above the landing runway
threshold.
What is the dry / wet screen height?
When the runway is Dry, it is 35ft, when the runway is Wet, it is 15ft
How high should you be over the runway threshold?
The screen height for landing, or threshold crossing height (TCH) is typically 50ft. This
may vary on steep approaches, where for example, at London City Airport, the TCH is
35ft for some aircraft types.
What factors does the stall speed depend on?
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Aircraft weight, air density, maximum lift coefficient, centre of gravity and the load factor.
Stall speed is proportional with the aircraft weight. Stall speed increases, as the weight
increases; and decreases as the weight decreases.
What is TORA?
Take Off Run Available. This is the length of the runway declared available and suitable
for the ground run of an aircraft taking off. The TORA does not include any stop way or
clearway.
What is TODA?
Take Off Distance Available. This is the take off distance available which comprises of the
length of the TORA plus any clearway. The clearway must be free of obstruction and
under the control of the airport authorities. It must be located on the extended runway
centreline, not less than 500ft wide. Any upward slope of the clearway should not
exceed 1.25 percent.
What is LDA?
Landing Distance Available. The length of the runway which is declared available by the
appropriate Authority and is suitable for the ground run of an aircraft landing. This will
often be the TORA minus any displaced threshold.
What is ASDA?
Accelerated Stop Distance Available. The distance which the aircraft commences its
takeoff roll and can then subsequently come to a stop on a surface supporting the
weight of an aircraft. Any obstacles i.e. approach lighting systems must be frangible.
Under EASA regulations this is now known as Emergency Stop Distance Available.
At what altitude does the mach number becoming limiting?
The answer is it varies with aircraft type. Typically 27,000ft - 30,000ft.
MMO is set at the point where increasing mach number will lead to control or stability
problems caused by shock waves. MMO is normally the same at all heights but at low
altitude you will reach VMO long before MMO.
VMO is set at the point where if you go any faster something the structural integrity of
the aircraft is no longer guaranteed. It is determined by the aerodynamic loads, which in
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turn depend on EAS. VMO in EAS is normally the same at all heights but at high altitude
you will reach MMO long before you reach VMO. However, the speed you see in the
cockpit is not EAS but CAS/IAS. Because of the well known compressibility effect a VMO
set in EAS will be posted up at a slightly higher CAS at higher altitude.
What is TOGA?
Take off and Go Around Thrust. Normally full or close to full thrust typically used in a
missed approach or windshear escape manoeuvre scenario.
What is MTOW, MLW, MZFW?
Maximum Take Off Weight, Maximum Landing Weight, Maximum Zero Fuel Weight.
These weights are calculated and published by the aircraft manufacturer. Sometimes
operators can reduce these maximum weights. This could be due to removal of
equipment onboard i.e. fuel tanks, or they want to lower their maximum weights to
reduce airway charges which is based on maximum take off weight.
What is a rate one turn?
Aircraft manoeuvring is referenced to a standard rate turn, also known as a rate one turn
(ROT). A standard rate turn is defined as a 3° per second turn, which completes a 360°
turn in 2 minutes.
What is the standard holding speed at FL150?
Up to FL140, the maximum hold speed is 230kts with 1 minute legs. Above FL140, this
increases to 240kts and 1 minute 30 second legs.
What are your considerations when landing in a strong crosswind?
What technique the airline and aircraft manufacturers have approved. Could be De-
Crab, Crab and Sideslip. Is the wind gusting or steady? Where would you expect the
aircraft to be which is different to normal? What control inputs would you expect to put
in? What will be different during the landing roll?
What are the three different hold entries?
Parallel, Direct, Offset (sometimes called teardrop).
Define the final reserve fuel?

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Final reserve fuel is the fuel burn calculated for the aircraft holding clean at 1,500 ft for
30 minutes in ISA conditions at the planned landing weight. For a 747-400 this is
approximately 4,165kgs.
When can contingency fuel be used?
Contingency fuel can be used once you have moved under your own power (sometimes
called dispatched). So you may use it during the taxi out, take off, climb, cruise,
approach or landing.
What's the minimum fuel you can take-off with?
Trip Fuel + Contingency fuel + Final Reserve + Diversion (if appropriate - if not a nominal
figure is used).
When should you declare a PAN or MAYDAY with regards to fuel?
Pan - When you think you may land below final reserve fuel.
Mayday - When you know you will land below your final reserve fuel.
What factors increase our landing distance?
Higher weight, airfield elevation, more tailwind or less headwind, runway downslope,
outside air temperature, higher speed at screen height, landing long, aircraft technical
defects i.e. no reverse thrust or reduced braking capability.
When can you carry out an over weight landing?
When the commander of the aircraft believes it is safer to land the aircraft over weight.
This may be due to an emergency e.g. a fire onboard. An overweight landing will require
an engineering inspection to the aircraft.
What is the QRH? When do you use it?
Quick Reference Handbook. The QRH should be called for by the PF (or P1) for a non-
normal situation. The QRH can vary by operator and aircraft manufacturer but generally
it includes: normal checklists, non-normal checklists, operational information,
performance information for inflight use on an expedited basis and manoeuvres. The
QRH should normally be completed after any memory (recall) items have been
completed by PM (P2).
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What limits your landing weight?
Your landing weight is limited firstly by the LDA of the airfield you wish to land at.
Variables that further restrict your allowed landing weight are OAT, wind, elevation,
runway slope, approach speed, runway state, missed approach climb gradient and
technical defects.
What limits your take-off weight?
The same items as above plus any obstacles in the take off cone (aircraft climb gradient).
What influences how much fuel you decide to take?
Weather both en-route and at destination and alternate airfields, technical defects,
expected delays at departure, destination or alternate airfields, NOTAMS en-route or at
destination or alternate airfields, different speeds or levels you may wish to fly, cost of
fuel at destination airfield - you may wish to tanker/round trip fuel.
Explain the importance of trim on take-off?
The take off phase is a critical point in the flight. The the trim setting of an aircraft has to
be calculated correctly, firstly by the load controller in charge of loading the aircraft, not
only within the aircraft limitations but also ideally at an optimum. It is one thing giving
the flight deck a load sheet with all the weight and balance info on it but they must
ensure the aircraft is actually loaded in accordance with the load-sheet.
The pilots are then responsible for using the information on the load sheet to calculate
the actual trim setting for take off. If the aircraft is not trimmed properly, it might result in
an early rotation or control (authority) difficulties.
To verify the calculated trim is within limits, many aircraft have a ‘green band’ to visually
identify the trim as being within the acceptable range. This would be verified as part of
the pre-flight checklist. If the trim is not within take off limits a take off configuration
warning may sound to alert the crew.
An aft centre of gravity is preferable from an efficiency point of view as this reduces drag
(due to elevator position) when compared with a more forward centre of gravity.
What are your considerations when landing with a tail wind?

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Many commercial aircraft have a tail wind limit of approximately 15kts. A tailwind may
significantly increase the landing distance required. The aircraft might have a tendency
to ‘float’ down the runway so it is critical that you brief the importance of touching down
within the touch down zone. If this is in doubt, a missed approach should be flown.
When landing with a tailwind, you may wish to consider the use of a high flap setting, full
reverse thrust and a high auto brake setting.
What are your considerations when the temperature is below 10

degrees Celsius with the visibility below 1 statue mile on the ground?
You should be thinking about icing systems (wing and engine) being turn on for taxi
(engines) and take-off (both). Visible moisture and a temperature of (plus) 10 degrees
Celsius or less means icing could build up on your aircraft.
What are your considerations when operating on a contaminated

runway?
Performance for take off or landing needs to be studied and calculated diligently. On
contaminated runways aircraft performance may be substantially reduced and thus
runway excursion may be a significant threat.
Operator manuals may advise against operating on contaminated runways unless it is

absolutely necessary. It may be better to delay take off or landing, or divert to another
airfield. Operator should provide clear guidance on acceptable levels of contamination
where you could operate or not as the case may be.
The drag caused by snow, slush or water varies with aircraft speed and severe
retardation may prevent acceleration beyond a certain speed and severely degraded
deceleration capability. In the case of wet snow or slush, the effect on aircraft
acceleration is dependent on the outside air temperature and on the contaminant
density, thickness and distribution along the runway.
If taking off on a contaminated runway, you may wish to consider the following:
‣ Full take-off thrust (no derate / flex / assumed temperature)

‣ Delaying take-off
‣ Checking crosswind limitations
‣ Delay flap extension after start until at the runway hold point
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If landing on a contaminated runway, you may wish to consider the following:
‣ Using the highest flap setting available

‣ Using a high auto brake setting
‣ Use maximum reverse thrust
‣ Diverting
What are your considerations when operating in low visibility

conditions?
There are a number of considerations such as the following:
‣ Minimum RVR for departure

‣ Take off alternate requirements
‣ Crew qualified
‣ Technical defects
‣ Thorough taxi briefing
‣ Appropriate flight deck flighting
‣ Icing conditions
‣ Additional SOPs (high takeoff thrust setting)
What is the danger of engine icing?
Engine icing untreated can cause severe engine vibration, engine power loss, engine
damage or total engine failure. On jet engines, the engine nacelle (the front lip of the
engine) is typically most vulnerable to accumulating ice and is therefore protected from
by a self contained engine anti ice system (using hot bleed air from the engine).
In certain conditions, engine fan blade icing may occur. This is typically shed by
increasing engine thrust (one at a time), using centrifugal force to dislodge the ice.
Engine fan blade icing would typically be indicated by engine vibration or reduced
thrust output for a given N1 (i.e. observing a higher than typical power setting for a
given phase of flight).
Why is ice on the wings dangerous?
Icing on the wings is very dangerous as increase the weight of the aircraft, reduces lift
and reduces the critical angle of attack. Essentially, for a given angle of attack, less lift is
being produced. This can result in the aircraft stalling.
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If the icing is not symmetrical it can also cause a directional loss of control. There have
been many accidents with aircraft that have had icing build up on their aerodynamic
control surfaces and wings.
Most airlines stipulate that an aircraft may not depart with any icing on the upper surface
on the wing or on any control surface. A small frost layer is sometimes allowed on the
lower surface of the wing in particular areas as well as the fuselage.
Can you depart if the navigation lights aren't working?
Most aircraft have a standby navigation light that is easily switched to if one or both of
the navigations lights are not working. However if it’s not possible to fix or switch the
lights, most MEL’s will allow operation during daylight hours without navigation lights,
but not during the hours of darkness.
Why would we fly an emergency turn procedure?
Emergency turn procedures are created by individual operators for different SID’s from
departure airfields where terrain or obstacle clearance cannot be guaranteed if a loss of
performance was to occur such as an engine failure.
There is a common mis-conception that ATC know the emergency turn procedures, they
do not, each operator may have a different one for different SID’s and different aircraft
types.
Why is the temperature important for our take-off performance?
Temperature can effect the thrust output of the engines (higher temperatures lower the
thrust output of the engines once the assumed temperature has been exceeded). This
therefore means more runway is required to get to the same speed when compared
with a lower temperature.
As a temperature increase, increases density altitude, less lift is available for a given
speed and the flight control surfaces are less effective.
What is the difference between factored and un-factored performance

for an airfield? When is each used?
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Most regulatory authorities stipulate take off and landing performance must have factors
applied to account for an average pilot on an average day in an average aircraft. It gives
us safety margins. For example under EASA there are dry and wet factors applied to
aircraft landing performance. Normally performance information in aircraft QRH’s for
does not have factors applied, however a commander has the option to apply his own
factors or divert to another airfield where the performance margins are increased.
The standard factor for dry runway landing performance is 1.67 and for a wet runway it is
1.92.
Certain performance calculations must be made prior to dispatch. For example, it must
be demonstrated the an aircraft can land at its expected destination and alternate at its
expected landing weight within the factored margins stipulated above. After departure,
such factors don’t need to be applied although airlines may apply their own
performance factor stipulations.
Explain the ‘Drift Down’ procedure?
A ‘Drift Down’ procedure is required when an aircraft suffers an engine failure and
cannot maintain its current altitude on the remaining engine(s).
The Drift Down procedure would typically be to apply max continuous thrust on the
remaining engine(s) and maintain level flight whilst the speed reduces (which can take
some time). Once the drift down speed has been established, the aircraft would
commence a slow descent (with maximum continuous power on the working engine(s))
to an altitude which can be maintained with the remaining power plants.
Information regarding the drift down altitude and speed can typically be sourced from
the FMS/FMC or performance information in aircraft manuals.
It is critical this manoeuvre is flown accurately and promptly to achieve the least altitude
loss to enable you to fly clear of any potential terrain.
Over high mountainous ground, the target drift down altitude may be below the highest
terrain. In such a scenario, the aircraft would need to fly a terrain escape manoeuvre,
typically provided by the airline’s performance department.
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System Questions
How does the anti skid system work?
This system is controlled by a computer (sometimes called ‘brake by wire’). The

computer evaluates the wheel speed and increases/reduces braking as required in
order to prevent a skid. If it detects a skid one one or more wheels, brake pressure is
reduced to stop the skid, and then reapplied to maintain effective braking.
The system is very similar to the ABS you might find in your car. If you have ever
experienced anti-skid system working in your car, it is very similar to how it feels on an
aircraft. You tend to feel juddering as the brakes are applied on/off/on to stop skidding
or aquaplaning.
How does a basic aircraft hydraulic system work?
An aircraft will typically have between 2-4 hydraulic systems installed. They are usually
independent of each other so if there is a leak, it will be isolated to one system. The
primary components include the plumbing, reservoirs, pumps and filters.
System pressure is maintained by the engine driven pumps or electrically driven pumps
and the typical operating pressure is around 3000psi.
Having more than one system ensures a degree of redundancy with key components
(such as flight controls) being driven by more than one system. For example, the aileron
may be drive by 3 separate systems.
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Further redundancy is ensured by accumulators and power transfer units which are
utilised if a pumps fail or may be required for transitory high demands on the system
(such as configuring the aircraft for landing.)
The hydraulic systems typically operate the primary flight controls, autopilot servos,
spoilers, brakes, flaps, landing gear extension and retraction, steering and stabiliser trim.
Describe a typical commercial aircraft electrical system.
An aircraft electrical system generates and distributes AC and DC power to other aircraft
systems and is comprised of main AC power, DC power and standby power
components. Most aircraft electrical systems operate automatically without flight crew
intervention. The primary power source for an aircraft’s electrical system is primarily the
integrated drive generators which are driven by the aircraft’s engines.
On the ground before engine start, APU or ground electrical power unit sand aircraft
batteries can provide electrical power. There is various levels of redundancy in place and
normally one source can power the whole system. Some aircraft have an emergency RAT
(Ram Air Turbine) that will provide some power before reverting to aircraft batteries.
If all other sources of power fail, the aircraft’s batteries are usually certified to provide
critical systems with electrical power for around 30 minutes.
What does an inverter do?
It converts DC power into AC power.
What does a transformer rectifier unit (TRU) do?
It converts AC power into DC power.
What is the typical psi of the tires?
Very high - typically 200 PSI
What type of air is used to inflate the tyres?
Nitrogen because it is mostly inert (requires more energy to react with other substances)
and not flammable.
What is Fly By Wire?
This effectively means controlling flight controls through electrical signals and
computers rather than the control column being directly connected to the flight controls
through mechanical means (such as a cable).
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What is an APU?
Auxiliary Power Unit - Small jet engine in tail-cone that provides air for engine starting
and cabin conditioning as well as electrical power from its own generator.
What is a CSDU?
A constant speed drive unit (CSD) is a mechanical gearbox that takes an input shaft
rotating at a wide range of speeds, delivering this power to an output shaft that rotates
at a constant speed, despite the varying input. They are used to drive mechanisms,
typically electrical generators, that require a constant input speed. Constant speed
drives are usually found as part of the accessory drives of gas turbine engines.
What is TCAS?
Traffic Collision and Avoidance System. It provides co-ordinated manoeuvres to

maximise aircraft separation should it detect a potential conflict. Once activated due to
an intruder alert the pilots must follow the revolution advisory (RA) commands. The
system will give each aircraft a command to follow in the vertical sense. Air Traffic
Control commands are to be ignored until clear of the potential conflict. Other traffic
with transponders are depicted on the Navigational Displays.
What is a traffic advisory (TA)?
A TA is a prediction from the TCAS system that another aircraft will enter the conflict
airspace within 25-45 seconds. TA’s assist the flight crew in establishing visual contact
with the aircraft, there may be time to query a clearance with ATC and more importantly
a TA prepares the flight crew for the possibility of an RA.
What is a resolution advisory (RA)?
A RA is a prediction from the TCAS system that another aircraft will enter the conflict
airspace within 20-30 seconds. The TCAS system will give a command to the flight crew
in the vertical sense i.e. ‘Climb, descend, monitor vertical speed’ etc. The flight crew
must follow the RA command (it could be to maintain level flight) and ignore any
clearances given by ATC until clear of the conflict.
What are your actions if you receive a TCAS RA?
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Specific procedures vary between aircraft types, but normally it will be required for pilot
flying to disconnect the autopilot and autothrottle and follow the commands directed by
TCAS system. However on some aircraft types such as the A350, the TCAS RA is flown
automatically.
Explain the purpose of the APU?
The APU is used to provide electrical power and air supply, primarily on the ground. The
air is used for cabin cooling/heating and to start the engines. APU’s can usually operate
in the air and therefore can a backup power source to the engine electrical generators.
They may also be able to provide a pneumatic source whilst the aircraft is in the air.
However the APU will have maximum operating altitude to be used as an electrical
generator and usually an even lower altitude for it to be used to supply pneumatic air.
These maximum altitudes vary with aircraft type and are often below the aircraft’s typical
cruise altitude.
How do we start the engines?
Initially the flight crew will ensure they have been given start clearance by ATC and the
ground operative. They will also ensure they have the required air (duct) pressure from
either an APU or a Ground Pneumatic Cart. Assuming a FADEC (Full Authority Digital
Engine Control) system is installed, it will command the start valve to open, in order for
the starter unit to convert pneumatic energy to mechanical energy to commence engine
spool up. The FADEC system will then sequence ignition and the introduction of fuel at
appropriate points (typically about 10% and 20% N2 respectively). The FADEC will then
close the start valve once the engine has reached its self sustaining speed.
What's the typical pressure of the aircraft cabin at cruise altitude?
Anywhere between 4,000 ft - 8,000 ft depending on the aircraft type.
What are your considerations if you need to complete an emergency

descent over the alps?
Terrain and MSA’s are the main consideration. Emergency procedures should be briefed
before entering an area with high terrain. Charts should be studied and company SOP’s
reviewed in the event of a requirement for an emergency descent over high terrain. It
would also be prudent to brief the cabin crew of the likelihood of a 2 step descent if an
emergency descent was required to ensure they stay on oxygen after the first level off.
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What is an IDG?
Integrated Drive Generator - The IDG makes use of a highly reliable continuously
variable transmission - the constant speed drive - which converts the variable input
speed provided by an aircrafts engine into a constant output speed for the IDG's
integral AC generator.
What's the purpose of an autobrake system?
The auto brake sometimes referred to as ‘AB” system provides a fixed rate deceleration
automatically. This therefore also helps aid directional control during deceleration. The
system is particularly effective in the event of a rejected take-off (RTO) as it allows the
very prompt initiation of braking in what might be a performance critical manoeuvre.
Given that it provides even, symmetrical braking, it has the benefit of delivering even
brake wear. On landing pilots can plan on which auto brake setting is required, based on
how much de-acceleration is required taking into account the aircraft configuration and
weight, environmental factors and runway length.
Navigation Questions
What is a VOR/NDB/ADF/ILS/MLS?
VOR / VHF Omnidirectional range - produces an angle between the station and
receiver in the aircraft. Is often coupled with a DME.
NDB / Non-directional beacon - mainly being discontinued in Europe - similar to a VOR

except does not include inherent direction information.
ADF / Automatic Direction Finder - This is the equipment on the aircraft that detects
NDB signal and transmitter.
ILS / Instrument Landing System - is a precision runway approach aid based on two
radio beams which together provide pilots with both vertical and horizontal guidance
during an approach to land.
MLS / Microwave Landing System - is an all-weather, precision landing system

originally intended to replace or supplement instrument landing systems (ILS). MLS has
a number of operational advantages, including a wide selection of channels to avoid
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interference with other nearby airports, excellent performance in all weather, a small
"footprint" at the airports, and wide vertical and horizontal "capture" angles that allowed
approaches from wider areas around the airport.
What are the frequency bands for a VOR/ILS/NDB?
VOR - VORs are assigned radio channels between 108.0 MHz and 117.95 MHz (with 50
kHz spacing); this is in the Very High Frequency (VHF) range.
ILS - Localizer: 108.1-111.95 MHz. Glide Slope: 329.15-335.0 MHz.
NDB - NDBs typically operate in the frequency range from 190 kHz to 535 kHz (although
they are allocated frequencies from 190 to 1750 kHz) and transmit a carrier modulated
by either 400 or 1020 Hz.
How does an ILS work?
An instrument landing system operates as ground-based instrument approach system

that provides precision lateral and vertical guidance to an aircraft approaching and
landing on a runway, using a combination of radio signals and, in many cases, high-
intensity lighting arrays to enable a safe landing during instrument meteorological
conditions (IMC), such as low ceilings or reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or blowing
snow.
An instrument approach procedure chart (or 'approach plate') is published for each ILS
approach to provide the information needed to fly an ILS approach during instrument
flight rules (IFR) operations. A chart includes the radio frequencies used by the ILS
components or navaids and the prescribed minimum visibility requirements.
Radio-navigation aids must provide a certain accuracy (set by international standards of
CAST/ICAO); to ensure this is the case, flight inspection organisations periodically check
critical parameters with properly equipped aircraft to calibrate and certify ILS precision.
An aircraft approaching a runway is guided by the ILS receivers in the aircraft by

performing modulation depth comparisons. Many aircraft can route signals into the
autopilot to fly the approach automatically. An ILS consists of two independent sub-
systems. The localiser provides lateral guidance; the glide slope provides vertical
guidance.
What is a DME? How does it work?
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Distance Measuring Equipment - Aircraft use DME to determine their distance from a
land-based transponder by sending and receiving pulse pairs – two pulses of fixed
duration and separation. The ground stations are typically collocated with VORs or
Localisers belonging to ILS systems. A typical DME ground transponder system for en-
route or terminal navigation will have a 1 kW peak pulse output on the assigned UHF
channel.
A low-power DME can be collocated with an ILS glide slope antenna installation where it
provides an accurate distance to touchdown function, similar to that otherwise provided
by ILS marker beacons.
What are the CAT I/II/III/A/B/C minimums?
Figures below are guide minimums based on ICAO, FAA and EASA may differ slightly:
Cat I - DA 200ft, RVR 550m;

Cat II - DA 100ft - 200ft, RVR 300m;
Cat III A - DA 50ft - 100ft, RVR 200m;
Cat III B - DA (less then) 50ft, RVR 75m;
Cat III C - DA nil, RVR nil
What is a SRA?
Surveillance Radar Approach
Is a type of radar instrument approach provided with active assistance from air traffic
control. The only airborne radio equipment required for radar approaches is a
functioning radio transmitter and receiver. The radar controller vectors the aircraft to
align it with the runway centreline. The controller continues the vectors to keep the
aircraft on course until the pilot can complete the approach and landing by visual
reference to the surface.
What is a rhumb line?
Used for navigation a rhumb line, rhumb, or loxodrome is an arc crossing all meridians
of longitude at the same angle, i.e. a path with constant bearing as measured relative to
true or magnetic north.
What is a great circle?
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A circle on the surface of a sphere which lies in a plane passing through the sphere's
centre. As it represents the shortest distance between any two points on a sphere, a
great circle of the earth is the preferred route taken aircraft. A great circle line is always
concave to the equator.
Give an example of a great circle?
• The Equator
• Prime Meridian
• International Date Line (180 degrees meridian)
• London to Auckland (New Zealand) and back again circling the globe on the opposite
side to the one you started on. Auckland is the antipodal point on the other side of the
globe to London.
What is GPS? How does GPS work?
All modern aircraft now use GPS for navigation as in most areas of flight it is the most
reliable. Satellite Navigation is based on a global network of satellites that transmit radio
signals in medium earth orbit. Users of Satellite Navigation are most familiar with the 32
Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites. The United States, who developed and
operates GPS, and Russia, who developed a similar system known as GLONASS, have
offered free use of their respective systems to the international community. The
International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), as well as other international user
groups, have accepted GPS and GLONASS as the core for an international civil satellite
navigation capability known as the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).
The basic GPS service provides users with approximately 7.8 metre accuracy, 95% of the
time, anywhere on or near the surface of the earth. To accomplish this, each of the 32
satellites emits signals to receivers that determine their location by computing the
difference between the time that a signal is sent and the time it is received. GPS satellites
carry atomic clocks that provide extremely accurate time. The time information is placed
in the codes broadcast by the satellite so that a receiver can continuously determine the
time the signal was broadcast. The signal contains data that a receiver uses to compute
the locations of the satellites and to make other adjustments needed for accurate
positioning. The receiver uses the time difference between the time of signal reception
and the broadcast time to compute the distance, or range, from the receiver to the
satellite. The receiver must account for propagation delays, or decreases in the signal's
speed caused by the ionosphere and the troposphere. With information about the
ranges to three satellites and the location of the satellite when the signal was sent, the
receiver can compute its own three-dimensional position.
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An atomic clock synchronised to GPS is required in order to compute ranges from these
three signals. However, by taking a measurement from a fourth satellite, the receiver
avoids the need for an atomic clock. Thus, the receiver uses four satellites to compute
latitude, longitude, altitude, and time.
What is IRS/INS? How does it work?
An inertial navigation system (INS) is a navigation aid that uses a computer, motion
sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to continuously calculate via
dead reckoning the position, orientation, and velocity (direction and speed of
movement) of a moving object without the need for external references. There are many
different names used in various modes of transport but in aircraft we call this system an
IRS - Inertial Reference System.
Initially, the INS gets its position from pilot input at the gate, or in more recent systems
from GPS, sometimes even during flight. By measuring all the accelerations and
rotations and integrating them into speed and direction the position is tracked. In doing
this, the INS has to correct for the rotation of the earth and the related Coriolis force.
Due to small inaccuracies in the measurements the velocity error and, with that, the
position errors grow over time.
How does a modern aircraft navigate?
Most modern airliners use a Flight Management System (FMS) to navigate. The FMS isn't
really a navigation system on its own - it gets input from various other navigation sources
(such as VOR, DME, IRS if installed, GPS if installed), calculates a position, and then
calculates which way to go in order to fly the route. Take away all those sources, and the
FMS is useless. The capability exists to navigate solely using VORs, but there's no real
reason to unless the FMS starts acting up - the only time you'll be navigating by
something other than the FMS in normal operations is when you're flying an ILS or LOC
approach.
What is ETOPS?
Extended Operations or Extended-range Twin-engine Operational Performance

Standards, a rule which permits twin engine aircrafts to fly routes which, at some point, is
more than 60 minutes flying time away from the nearest airport suitable for emergency
landing. ETOPS may also be interpreted as Engines Turn or Passengers Swim.
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It is not a rule which applies after an engine has failed. Rather, it is a set of regulations
and standards which must be met if an airliner wishes to fly its planes more than 60
minutes away from a suitable emergency airport.
What routing would you fly from Hong Kong to New York? - How long
would it take?
The route taken would depend on the winds. During the summer months the jet streams
occur at higher latitudes, so although flying east from HKG towards Japan, Alaska then
across the US to JFK is longer it may well be quicker due to the jet streams. If the winds
are not favourable then a flight may be routed via the shortest great circle track which
would route over the North Pole providing the aircraft was certified to operate in polar
regions (not due to temperatures but due to navigational errors)
What is the “departure” formula?
The departure formula is used to calculate the East to West distance between 2
meridians of Longitude. 1 degree change of longitude at the Equator is 60nm, however
when you move further North or South, away from the Equator, the meridians start to
converge and therefore the distance between the meridians becomes smaller.
E.g. Distance between 15W & 25W, at 60N. At the Equator that would be 10 degrees
change of long, so 600NM but because you have moved away from the Equator to 60N
the distance is actually much closer.
Departure = CH. of Long (in mins) x COS Latitude

= 600' x COS 60
= 300NM
How does radar work?
For air traffic control radars, the beam is shaped like a fan, narrow in the horizontal
direction, and wide in the vertical direction, to accommodate high-flying planes.
This beam scans around in a circle once every two or three seconds and echoes are
displayed on a circular display called a plan-position indicator.
The air traffic controller, or a computer can track the echoes or 'blips' on the display to
determine where the aircraft is heading. This is called primary radar.
Primary radar is seldom used any more in isolation as there are too many planes in the
sky.
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These days, secondary radar is also used, in which a coded pulse sequence is sent to the
aircraft and a transponder on the plane generates a coded return, containing a lot of
information about the aircraft. This used to be called identification friend or foe, or IFF.
Air traffic controllers mostly use secondary radar to track commercial aircraft and only
use real radar in the case where transponders are not fitted, are turned off or are broken.
What is SSR?
Secondary Surveillance Radar - see above.
What is an FIR boundary?
Flight Information Region is an area of airspace when a Flight Information Service is

provided by ATC. Each region has a name and and these are depicted on aircraft charts
and maps.
What is MORA/SSA?
Minimum Off Route Altitude - Charts have grids of which they will have a figure which
is the MORA, this figure will be at least 1000ft above the highest object in the grid and
2000ft if it a mountainous area.
The Sector Safe Altitude is the lowest altitude which may be used which will provide a
minimum clearance of 300 m (1 000 ft) above all objects located in the area contained
within a sector of a circle of 46 km (25 NM) radius centred on a radio aid to navigation.
What is contingency fuel?
Contingency fuel is carried to cover unforeseen variations from the planned operation. It
may be used at any time after the flight has dispatched. Some airlines will use statistical
contingency fuel which will be a percentage of the times the fuel has been used in the
past.
The regulations stipulate contingency fuel must be the higher of (i) or (ii) below:
(i) Either:
a) Not less than 5% of the trip fuel required from departure to destination; or
b) If an en-route alternate is available and selected, not less than 3% of the trip fuel
required from departure to destination; or
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c) An amount of fuel sufficient for 20 mins flying time based upon the planned trip fuel
consumption; or
d) Statistical contingency fuel (SCF)
(ii) An amount to fly for 5 mins at holding speed at 1500ft clean at planned landing
weight.
What is final reserve fuel?
Reserve fuel is the minimum fuel required to be remaining in the tanks at normal
landing. It is calculated as being a quantity of fuel equivalent to 30 minutes holding fuel
at 1500ft planned landing weight at the alternate airfield or destination if no alternate is
required.
What's an approach ban?
There are various differing regulations regarding an approach ban. Effectively it is a rule
that requires the commander not to go below a certain altitude on the approach if a
certain minima is not achieved on the ground. Some regulations stipulate an approach
may not begin at all.
Under EASA the commander may not get below 1000ft above the aerodrome or into the
final approach segment in the case where DA/MDA is more than 1000ft above the
aerodrome if the reported RVR/VIS is less than the applicable minimum for the
approach.
What is RNAV, PRNAV and BRNAV?
Area navigation (RNAV) is a method of instrument flight rules (IFR) navigation that
allows an aircraft to choose any course within a network of navigation beacons, rather
than navigate directly to and from the beacons.
Precision-Area Navigation (P-RNAV) is the European terminal airspace RNAV

application and it is the natural progression from Basic RNAV which became mandatory
in European airspace in April 1998. The P-RNAV track keeping accuracy equates to cross
track accuracy of RNP1 (+/- 1NM).
Basic-Area Navigation (B-RNAV) B(asic)-RNAV defines European RNAV operations

which satisfy a required track keeping accuracy of ±5NM for at least 95% of the flight
time. This level of navigation accuracy is comparable with that which can be achieved by
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conventional navigation techniques on ATS routes defined by VOR/DME, when VORs are
less than 100 NM apart.
What is ACARS?
An acronym for Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System) is a digital

datalink system for transmission of short messages between aircraft and ground stations
via airband radio or satellite. The protocol was designed by ARINC and deployed in
1978, using the Telex format.
What's special about the frequency 121.500 MHz?
The aircraft emergency frequency (also known as guard) is a frequency used on the
aircraft band reserved for emergency communications for aircraft in distress. The
frequencies are 121.5 MHz for civilian, also known as International Air Distress (IAD) or
VHF Guard, and 243.0 MHz for military use, also known as Military Air Distress (MAD) or
UHF Guard.
Meteorology Questions
What is ISA?
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is an atmospheric model of the pressure,

temperature and density of the Earth’s atmosphere change with altitude.
What are ISA conditions?
Sea Level temperature of 15 degrees Celsius, pressure of 1013.25 HPA with a

temperature lapse rate of 1.98 degrees Celsius per 1,000ft and density of 1.225 Kg/m3
What are a METARs and TAFs? Decode one.
Meteorological Terminal Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) - A routine

weather report issued at hourly or half-hourly intervals. It is a description of the
meteorological elements observed at an airport at a specific time.
A Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) is a concise statement of the expected

meteorological conditions at an airport during a specified period (usually 24 - 30 hour
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period). They are issued approximately every 6 hours. Each ICAO state may modify the
TAF code as needed.
How high is the troposphere?
The height of the top of the troposphere varies with latitude (it is lowest over the poles
and highest at the equator) and by season (it is lower in winter and higher in summer). It
can be as high as 20 km (12 miles or 65,000 feet) near the equator, and as low as 7 km (4
miles or 23,000 feet) over the poles in winter. ISA stipulates the troposphere ceases at
11,000m (36,089ft).
Does the troposphere altitude vary at the equator / poles?
Yes it varies depending on temperature. It’s higher at the equator and lower at the poles.
Name the different atmospheric levels.
• Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)

• Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles)
• Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles)
• Stratosphere: 11 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles)
• Troposphere: 0 to 11 km (0 to 7 miles)
Why do clouds form?
When warm air rises, it expands and cools. Cool air can't hold as much water vapour as
warm air, so some of the vapour condenses onto tiny pieces of dust that are floating in
the air and forms a tiny droplet around each dust particle. When billions of these
droplets come together they become a visible cloud.
What type of clouds should you avoid?
Cumulonimbus clouds (CB’s) are the most hazardous clouds. They should be avoided
and can cause turbulence, icing, severe down-draughts, microbursts and heavy rain or
hail that can damage the aircraft structure. Aircraft can also be struck by lightning flying
in or close to CB’s.
How do thunderstorms form?
1. There must be a deep layer of unstable air.

2. The air must be warm and moist.
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3. A trigger mechanism must cause the warm moist air to rise:
• Heating of the layer of air close to the surface.
• Rising ground forcing the air upwards (orographic uplift).
• A front forcing the air upwards.
Why do thunderstorms form?
Thunderstorms develop when the atmosphere is unstable - this is when warm air exists
underneath much colder air. As the warm air rises it cools and condenses forming small
droplets of water. If there is enough instability in the air, the updraft of warm air is rapid
and the water vapour will quickly form a cumulonimbus cloud. Typically, these
cumulonimbus clouds can form in under an hour.
As the warm air continues to rise, the water droplets combine to create larger droplets
which freeze to form ice crystals. As result of circulating air in the clouds, water freezes
on the surface of the droplet or crystal. Eventually the droplets become too heavy to
be supported by the up-draughts of air and they fall as hail.
Thunderstorms have 3 stages; initial (developing), mature and dissipating.
What are fronts?
A front is the boundary between two air masses where one side is warm and and other
cold. Across a front there can be large variations in temperature, as warm air comes into
contact with cooler air. The difference in temperature can indicate the 'strength' of a
front, e.g. if very cold air comes into contact with warm tropical air the front can be
'strong' or 'intense'. If, however, there is little difference in temperature between the two
air masses the front may be 'weak'.
What weather do you associate with a cold front?
Temperature changes across the boundary can exceed 30 °C (54 °F). When enough
moisture is present, rain can occur along the boundary. If there is significant instability
along the boundary, a narrow line of thunderstorms can form along the frontal zone. If
instability is less, a broad shield of rain can move in behind the front, which increases the
temperature difference across the boundary. Cold fronts are stronger in the autumn and
spring transition seasons and weakest during the summer. Cold fronts can cause heavy
rain prior and on the passing of the front, reducing to just showers as the front has
passed and eventually clear, dry conditions.
What weather do you associate with a warm front?

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This also forces temperature differences across warm fronts to be broader in scale.
Clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform, and rainfall gradually increases as
the front approaches. Fog can also occur preceding a warm frontal passage. Clearing
and warming is usually rapid after frontal passage. If the warm air mass is unstable,
thunderstorms may be embedded among the stratiform clouds ahead of the front, and
after frontal passage thundershowers may continue.
What’s the difference between drizzle and rain?
The term Rainfall or Rain is used to describe precipitation in the form of water drops of
sizes larger than 0.5 mm.
Drizzle is the fine sprinkle of numerous water droplets of size less than 0.5 mm and
intensity less than 1 mm/h is known as drizzle. In this the drops are so small that they
appear to float in the air.
How does fog form? What conditions are needed? What is advection /
radiation fog?
Ground/radiation fog usually occurs on clear, calm nights. During the day, the sun
warms the ground, then, as night falls and the temperature drops, the air cools to until it
meets the dew point. The air becomes totally saturated and therefore fog forms. This fog
is more common in valleys because since cold air sinks, it tends to pool in low-lying
areas and makes it easier to reach saturation point.
A breeze will hinder this type of fog development though, as it will mix in the drier air
from higher altitudes. Cloud cover also goes against ground fog development, as the
clouds act like a blanket that keeps heat from radiating away and keeps it warmer near
the ground.
Advection fog is created when a warm air mass moves over a colder area.
This is common in spring and summer near the coastline, warm air reacts with cooler air
near the water. That cools down the warm air and brings it toward the dew point, where
it condenses, creating fog. The fog burns off as the sun begins to warm the top of the
fog layer, pulling the temperature higher than the dew point and evaporating the fog
(thus the term, "burns off.")
What is hoar frost?
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Hoar frost is composed of tiny ice crystals and is formed by the same process as dew,
but when the temperature of the surface is below freezing point. The 'feathery' variety of
hoar frost forms when the surface temperature reaches freezing point before dew
begins to form on it. A 'white' frost, composed of more globular ice, occurs when the
dew forms first, then subsequently freezes. The presence of fog tends to prevent the
formation of hoar frost as it reduces the potential for radiational cooling of surfaces.
What conditions can icing conditions occur in?
In general, most airlines consider icing conditions to be prevalent when the temperature
is less than 10 degrees Celsius and there is visible moisture. At temperatures below
around -40 degree Celsius, the air is to cold to hold water vapour.
What effect does icing have on an aircraft?
If the wing is contaminated with ice, the aircraft will stall at a lower angle of attack, and
thus a higher airspeed. Even small amounts of ice will have an effect, and if the ice is
rough, it can be a large effect.
Ice build up on the aircraft also increases it’s weight and therefore must produce more
lift to support this weight.
After or during an ice encounter, an increase in approach speed is advisable. How much
of an increase depends on both the aircraft type and amount of ice. Stall characteristics
of an aircraft with ice contaminated wings will be degraded, and serious roll control
problems are not unusual. The ice accretion may be asymmetric between the two wings.
An ice build up may be masked by the autopilot (through trim) and autothrottle
(increase in thrust to overcome drag).
What is carburettor icing?
Carburettor Icing, or carb icing, is an icing condition which can affect any carburettor
under certain atmospheric conditions. The problem is most notable in certain realms of
aviation. Carburettor icing occurs when there is humid air, and the temperature drop in
the venturi causes the water vapour to freeze.
What are super cooled water droplets?
Super cooled (large) water droplets (SLD) are water droplets which remain in liquid form
despite their temperature being lower than 0 degrees Celsius. This phenomenon is very
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dangerous to aircraft as the water droplets will freeze on impact with an aircraft. If this
occurs on the top of the wing, there is no ice protection and therefore is difficult to shed.
How do super cooled water droplets form?
Supercooled water droplets form because they lack the ability to complete the
nucleation process - it doesn’t have a freezing nucleus.
What is freezing rain? Why is it dangerous?
Freezing rain is the term used to describe rain that falls when the surface temperature is
below freezing. Unlike a mixture of rain and snow, ice pellets or hail, freezing rain is
made entirely of liquid droplets. It is also known for being extremely dangerous to
aircraft since the ice can effectively 'remould' the shape of the airfoil and flight control
surfaces. Operators are not normally certified to operate in known areas of freezing rain.
What is the SALR and DALR?
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate and Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
The DALR is used to calculated the lapse rate for rising dry air (i.e. not saturated). It
decreases in temperature at a rate of 1 degree Celsius every 100m or 3 degrees every
1,000ft
The SALR refers to the rising of a saturated parcel of air. As the parcel of air rises,
condensation occurs which releases latent heat. This slows the rate at which the parcel of
air cools when compared to dry air. The SALR has an average value of 0.6 degrees
Celsius per 100m when near the ground. At higher altitudes there is less water content
and therefore less heat to be released and therefore the SALR increases closer to the
DALR.
How do tropical storms form?
In tropical areas, the ocean temperature is warm. This warm water warms the air above it
which creates convection and an area of low pressure. Moisture is then drawn into the
higher atmosphere forming clouds and creates a rotation engine and it is this that drives
a tropical storm. At the centre of the storm, the area of low pressure draws air in. This
flow of air causes the clouds to rotate and grow in strength.
The majority of tropical storms form between 5 and 20 degrees of latitude from the
equator.
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Where would you find hurricanes?
Tropical storms occur in several of the world's oceans, and except for their names, they
are essentially the same type of storm. In the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and the
Eastern Pacific Ocean, they are called hurricanes. In the Western Pacific Ocean, they are
called typhoons.
Where do typhoons form?
In the Western Pacific Ocean.
Where do cyclones form?
Cyclones form across the Indian Ocean and can affect India, Bangladesh, North-West
Australia East Africa.
What are the doldrums?
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), known by sailors as the doldrums, is the area
encircling the earth near the equator where the northeast and southeast trade winds
come together. The ITCZ appears as a band of clouds, usually thunderstorms, that circle
the globe near the equator.
What are the trade winds?
Wind flows outward down the pressure gradient away from the subtropical highs. As it
does so, it encounters the Coriolis effect caused by the rotation of the Earth. This force
causes the winds in the Northern Hemisphere to move from the east towards the west
below the subtropical high, and from the west towards the east above the subtropical
high. The opposite is true in the Southern Hemisphere. Above the subtropical high
winds move from east to west, and below the subtropical high winds move from west to
the east.
What is an inversion?
In meteorology, an inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric

property with altitude. It almost always refers to a "temperature inversion", i.e. an
increase in temperature with height, or to the layer ("inversion layer") within which such
an increase occurs.
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What is an isothermal layer?
An isothermal layer is defined as a vertical column of air having a constant temperature

with height. Isothermal layers often occur in the low levels of the troposphere during a
differential advection situation.
What is windshear? What are the indications?
Windshear is a change of speed and/or direction of wind across a short period of the
flight path. It can be very dangerous and un-predictable for aircraft. Some aircraft have
windshear detection systems onboard.
Severe windshear is considered to be uncontrollable changes from normal steady flight

conditions below 1000ft AGL in excess of the following:
‣ 15kts variation in airspeed

‣ 500fpm vertical speed
‣ 5 degrees pitch attitude
‣ 1 dot displacement on the glideslope
‣ Unusual thrust levels for a significant period of time
What is a microburst?
Microburst is a severe type of windshear you can get when flying under or just inside a
developed thunderstorm or CB. A microburst is a severe downdraft that occurs from the
bottom of a CB. If you fly through a microburst, you are likely to see an increase in
headwind followed by an increase in tailwind, something which can be extremely
hazardous to aircraft.
Why does hail/snow occur?
Snow typically forms when water vapour is rapidly cooled and turned into ice without
going through the liquid phase. Although snow can form in a thunderstorm it can also
form in any rain-bearing cloud. Hail, on the other hand, can only form in Cumulonimbus
clouds.
Why are thunderstorms a threat?
Thunderstorms have many threats associated with them which is why you shouldn’t
attempt to fly through them. These threats include:
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• Hail
• Lightning
• Windshear
• Icing
• Heavy Precipitation
What are the stages of a thunderstorm?
Most thunderstorms form by a cycle that has three stages: the developing stage, mature
stage, and dissipating stage.
Cumulus Stage
The sun heats the Earth's surface during the day. The heat on the surface and warms the
air around it. Since warm air is lighter than cool air, it starts to rise (known as an updraft).
If the air is moist, then the warm air condenses into a cumulus cloud. The cloud will
continue to grow as long as warm air below it continues to rise.
Mature Stage
When the cumulus cloud becomes very large, the water in it becomes large and heavy.
Raindrops start to fall through the cloud when the rising air can no longer hold them up.
Meanwhile, cool dry air starts to enter the cloud. Because cool air is heavier than warm
air, it starts to descend in the cloud (known as a downdraft). The downdraft pulls the
heavy water downward, making rain.
This cloud has become a cumulonimbus cloud because it has an updraft, a downdraft,
and rain. Thunder and lightning start to occur, as well as heavy rain. The cumulonimbus
is now a thunderstorm cell.
Dissipating Stage
After about 30 minutes, the thunderstorm begins to dissipate. This occurs when the
downdrafts in the cloud begins to dominate over the updraft. Since warm moist air can
no longer rise, cloud droplets can no longer form. The storm dies out with light rain as
the cloud disappears from bottom to top.
The whole process takes about one hour for an ordinary thunderstorm. Supercell
thunderstorms are much larger, more powerful, and last for several hours.
How does a thunderstorm form?
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See above.
What weather is least desirable for a pilot?
The worst kind of weather in aviation is weather we do not know about, weather that fails
to show up on the weather radar or weather that is present in areas of little aviation
activity and therefore there is little reporting. A supercharged thunderstorm overhead an
airfield with microbursts or freezing rain is one of the worst conditions you will ever face,
but there are many others.
What does CAVOK mean?
The term CAVOK is an acceptable contraction meaning Ceiling and Visibility OK for
international use. It indicates that: No clouds exist below 5,000 feet or below the highest
minimum sector altitude, whichever is greater, and no cumulonimbus are present. It
does not mean no clouds exist at all! Many pilots have been caught out telling
passengers it’s clear skies when in fact there is overcast high level cloud.
What is a jet stream? Where do they occur?
A jet stream consists of ribbons of very strong winds which move weather systems
around the globe. Jet streams are found 9-16 km above the surface of the Earth, just
below the tropopause, and can reach speeds of 200 mph.
The Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere each have a polar jet and a
subtropical jet. The northern hemisphere polar jet flows over the middle to northern
latitudes of North America, Europe, and Asia and their intervening oceans, while the
southern hemisphere polar jet mostly circles Antarctica all year round.
Flight planners and the North Atlantic Track System will try to plan flights within these jet
streams in order to utilise the tailwind providing severe turbulence is not forecast.
What is clear air turbulence?
Clear-air turbulence (CAT) is the turbulent movement of air masses in the absence of any
visual clues such as clouds, and is caused when bodies of air moving at widely different
speeds meet. They are often associated with jet streams.
How does a weather radar work?
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They are not connected to the ground, they are RADARs and operate independently.
The RADAR sends pulses, typically in the 10cm or 5cm range, which are reflected by
water droplets. The greater the concentration of droplets, the more the reflection (more
power returned to the RADAR) which is used to provide the colours.
What is QNH/QFE/QNE?
QNH is a Q code indicating the atmospheric pressure adjusted to sea level. It is a

pressure setting used by pilots, air traffic control (ATC), and low frequency weather
beacons to refer to the barometric setting which, when set on an aircraft's altimeter, will
cause the altimeter to read altitude above mean sea level within a certain defined
region.
Within United Kingdom airspace, these are known as Altimeter Setting Regions (ASRs);
these regions may be large areas, or apply only to the airfield for which the QNH was
given. An airfield QNH will cause the altimeter to show airfield altitude, that is, the
altitude of the centre point of the main runway above sea level on landing, irrespective
of the temperature.
QFE Is mean sea level pressure corrected for temperature, adjusted for a specific site or
datum like an airfield, being the most obvious example. When this is set on your
altimeter, it will read your HEIGHT not altitude. It will read zero at airfield elevation and
after take off will read your HEIGHT above that specific airfield. If you fly to another
airfield of different elevation and/or different QFE pressure, you will have to ensure you
reset that particular airfields QFE if you want your altimeter to read zero on touchdown.
QNE in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) pressure setting (1013.25 millibars
or 29.92 inHg). It is the average mean sea level pressure around the globe. It is planet
earths mean atmospheric pressure at sea level basically. This pressure setting is referred
to as STANDARD in aviation. STANDARD is set from QNH when climbing up through the
"Transition Level". Your altimeter will then read your FLIGHT LEVEL. A reading of 25,000ft
is FL250. 5,000ft = FL050. 13,500ft = FL135.
What is turbulence? Why does it occur?
Turbulence is an area of disturbed air flow that can cause the aircraft to ‘bump’ about. It
is not usually dangerous provided it is managed correctly. There are generally five
causes of turbulence:
1 - Turbulence caused by changing wind speed or direction, or strong winds close to the
ground.
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2 - Caused by warm air rising resulting in up draughts
3 - Turbulence caused by jet streams (see above)
4 - Caused by mountains pushing air up into the sky - mountain wave.
5 - Turbulence caused by another aircrafts wake vortex
Can you avoid turbulence?
Possibly, sometimes we can avoid it if we know about areas or turbulence reported on

weather charts or by other aircraft. For example, we might choose to fly at a lower level
than the jet stream if there is turbulence associated with it. We can avoid turbulence
caused by convective clouds like CBs.
How does hot/high/humid affect aircraft performance?
High temperatures high altitude and high water content reduce air density and therefore
reduce both the amount of lift a wing can produce and the thrust an engine can
produce. The effect is always negative on performance.
What do lenticular clouds indicate?
Lenticular clouds tend to be static and lens shaped. They can be an indication of a
turbulent rotor system or mountain waves and can be caused when stable moist air
flows over a mountain. Normal aircraft should avoid them, gliders may well seek them
out due to potential updrafts.
What are mountain waves?
Mountain Waves are defined as oscillations to the lee side (downwind) of high ground
resulting from the disturbance in the horizontal air flow caused by the high ground.
Mountain waves can continue for hundreds of miles up to very high altitudes on the
downwind side of the mountain range.
What is the Coriolis effect?
The Coriolis affect occurs due to the anticlockwise rotation of the Earth. It deflects winds
to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. It
has little effect on an aircrafts flight path. This is one of the major factors as to why winds
blow anticlockwise around a low pressure system in the Northern Hemisphere (and visa
versa in the Southern Hemisphere).
What conditions are associated with a low pressure system?

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Expect rain to spread into the area as a low pressure system approaches. It is well
established that low pressure is generally associated with cloudy, rainy, or snowy and
unsettled, changing weather.
What conditions are associated with a high pressure system?
Stable, pleasant weather.
What affects the wind direction and speed?
Wind is caused by differences in the atmospheric pressure. When a difference in

atmospheric pressure exists, air moves from the higher to the lower pressure area,
resulting in winds of various speeds. The great the pressure differential, the quicker the
wind speed.
On a rotating planet, air will also be deflected by the Coriolis effect, unless exactly at the
equator. There are two main reasons that cause atmospheric circulation across the
planet, which are the differential surface heating at the equator and the poles and the
rotation of the planet. The difference in surface heating causes a pressure difference,
which promotes wind flow.
Near the Earth's surface, friction causes the wind to be slower than it would be at high
levels. This is more prominent over land than sea due to buildings and uneven terrain.
What happens to wind with increasing altitude?
Roughly speaking, the wind above around 2,000ft in the Northern Hemisphere veers by
about 30 degrees and increases by around 50% compared to the surface wind. In the
Southern Hemisphere, it backs by around 30 degrees.
This is due to the influence of surface friction and is particularly predominant over land
rather than sea.
Is wind different in the Northern and Southern hemisphere?
Winds are named by the direction from which they blow. The globe is encircled by six
major wind belts, three in each hemisphere. From pole to equator, they are the polar
easterlies, the westerlies, and the trade winds. All six belts move north in the northern
summer and south in the northern winter.
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Polar Easterlies: At about the latitude of Norway and northward (60-90 degrees), the
Polar easterlies blow irregularly from the east and north.
Polar Front: Between the polar easterlies and the westerlies is the polar front.
Prevailing Westerlies: At about the latitude of Western Europe and the U.S. (30-60
degrees), the Westerlies blow from the west, tending somewhat toward the north. This
causes most weather in the United States to move from west to east.
Horse Latitudes: Where the Westerlies meet the trade winds at about 30 degrees
(Jacksonville, Florida) is the Horse latitudes, also Variables of Cancer, Subtropical High,
or Subtropical ridge. This is a region of high pressure, dry air, and variable winds, and is
associated with deserts over land.
Trade Winds: South of about 30 degrees the northern or northeast trade winds blow
mostly from the northeast toward the equator. These were the sailor's favourite winds,
since the weather was warm, and the winds usually blew steadily in an advantageous
direction. Columbus used these to sail to the Caribbean.
Doldrums: At about the equator is Intertropical Convergence Zone or doldrums, a

region of light and irregular wind broken by occasional thunderstorms and squalls. The
width and exact location of the doldrums is hard to predict. Sailing ships are sometimes
becalmed here for many days waiting for a proper wind.
Southern hemisphere: In the southern hemisphere the belts are reversed. The
southeast trade winds blow from the southeast toward the equator. The southern
equivalent of the horse latitudes (or Variables of Cancer) is called the Variables of
Capricorn. The southern westerlies start somewhat south of South Africa. They tend to
be stronger than the northern westerlies because they are mostly over water (roaring
forties). The southern polar easterlies are mostly over Antarctica.
Seasonal shifts: All of the belts move north during the northern summer and south
during the northern winter. Because global heating and cooling lags behind the position
of the sun, they reach their northernmost latitude at or after the end of the northern
summer. This brought the trade winds within reach of the Spain and Portugal and
determined the sailing time of the Spanish treasure fleet. The northernmost position of
the wind belts corresponds to the Atlantic hurricane season.
If you stand with your back to the wind in the Northern hemisphere,
where is the area of low pressure?
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This is a function of Buys Ballot’s law. In the Northern Hemisphere, if a person stands
with their back to the wind, the atmospheric pressure is low to the left, high to the right.
This is because wind travels counterclockwise around low pressure zones in the
Northern Hemisphere. It is approximately true in the higher latitudes of the Northern
Hemisphere, and is reversed in the Southern Hemisphere, but the angle between the
pressure gradient force and wind is not a right angle in low latitudes.
Tell me how you would avoid a thunderstorm?
Several methods - initially check charts and forecast in the preflight planning stage.
Ensure flight planning try (where possible) to plan your routing away from any forecast
bad weather.
Once en-route, meticulous use of the weather radar is required, particularly at night and
listen out for other pilot reports. Once a cell has been detected you will need avoid it.
Deviate upwind if possible to avoid hail and turbulence. Do not overfly cells that are
over 25,000ft as there will be possible turbulence and they can continue to increase in
altitude faster than an aircraft can climb.
Avoid flying under a thunderstorm due to windshear, severe turbulence, microbursts

and hail. To avoid, consider the height of the cell and deviate upwind if possible by a
minimum of 20nm. Cells exceeding 35,000ft should be considered extremely hazardous
and should be avoided by more than 20nm if possible.
General Questions
What is CRM?
In essence, CRM is used by flight crew (and others in a safety critical role within aviation)
to enhance the safety of every flight. It promotes the use of non-technical skills, like
teamwork and decision making to ensure sound situational awareness and problem
solving.
Crew Resource Management (CRM) is defined by the United Kingdom Civil Aviation
Authority as: "A management system which makes optimum use of all available
resources (equipment, procedures and people) to promote safety and enhance the
efficiency of flight operations”
99
It encompasses a wide range of knowledge, skills and attitudes including,
communication, situational awareness, problem solving, decision making and teamwork.
CRM is concerned with the cognitive and interpersonal skills to manage the flight within
an organised system. Cognitive skills are defined as the mental process used for gaining
and maintaining situational awareness for solving problems and for making / taking
decision.
What are non-technical skills?
Classic examples of non-technical skills are in-cockpit authority, crew coordination and
cooperation, communication, decision making, conflict and error management, stress
and workload management, attention, vigilance, and confidence. In short, non-technical
skills cover both the social and cognitive side of the flight crews abilities.
Most airlines now regularly test and train non-technical skills as developing these skills
has been proven to increase flight safety.
What are “No-techs”?
Non-Technical skills - see above
What is a NOTOC?
Notification to Captain - A NOTOC is a form used to notify the aircraft pilot of any
dangerous good onboard. A NOTOC must be provided to the crew, even if no
dangerous goods are loaded onboard. The NOTOC coverts:
- What is the nature of the dangerous goods which are to be loaded, that is, the proper
shipping name (The name by which we recognise the DG).
- The quantity of Dangerous Goods (DG) which is to be loaded onto the aircraft.
- How much dangerous goods are to be loaded or the total net quantity of Dangerous
Goods.
- Where on the aircraft the exact location of the dangerous goods are to be found so
the information should include, if appropriate the bin, pallet, or Unit Load Device
“ULD” location.
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- In addition information concerning what to do in an Emergency including for example
an inflight emergency (such as a spillage of a dangerous good). This information
should be available on board the aircraft and should be familiar to the flight deck
crew.
What is risk management?
The identification, analysis and elimination (and/or mitigation to an acceptable or

tolerable level) of those hazards, as well as the subsequent risks, that threaten the
viability of an organisation.” (ICAO Doc 9859).
Pilots are expected to be ‘defensive’ and use threat error management skills at all times.
During a flight crews decision making process they must always take account of the risks
and threats that present themselves.
When do you think it is appropriate to manually fly?
When all pilots on the flight deck have the capacity to allow it and operating conditions
permit it. Manual flying would normally be briefed before hand (as part of a departure or
arrival brief) except for emergency manoeuvres. Although manual flying increases the
workload for PF, many do not appreciate it also increases the work load for PM. Forecast
and observed weather conditions should also be suitable to allow both pilots to
maintain good situational awareness and lots of additional capacity.
What would you do if you found one of the Navigation Lights wasn't
working?
If discovered before dispatch, consult the MEL and engineering (Maintrol). Most MEL’s
would allow dispatch during daytime operations and most aircraft have standby
navigation lights that can be utilised. Any failures to aircraft systems are required to be
documented in the aircraft tech log and reported too engineering on arrival.
What is the MEL?
The Minimum Equipment List. It is a document defined by the aircraft manufacturer that
allows dispatching of the aircraft with certain defects. Before dispatch flight crew and
engineering will need to consult the MEL to see what maintenance actions (if any) are
required prior to dispatch and what changes to operational procedures are required (if
any). A commander can still elect not to take an aircraft if he feels the safety of the
aircraft may be compromised even if the defect is allowable in the MEL. The manufacture
and regulatory authority both produce a Master Minimum Equipment List which
101
operators must confirm to as a base level standard (although can operate to a more
stringent criteria)
What is a deferred defect?
A deferred defect is a defect that is allowable in accordance with the MEL or with special
written permission from the aircraft manufacturer. It will be carried for a maximum
number of days depending on the type of defect, once the time period has expired the
aircraft must be grounded and the defect rectified. This time period allows the operator
to acquire replacement parts, seek suitable labour and hangar space (if required) and
investigate the defect further if required whilst the aircraft can continue to safely operate.
Instrumentation Questions
What is a pitot probe?
The pitot probe measure the dynamic pressure to determine the airspeed of the aircraft.
Dynamic pressure is the increase in air pressure that occurs as the aircraft moves through
the air. The static pressure is subtracted from the dynamic pressure to provide an
airspeed indication.
What is a static port?
A static port measures the ambient air pressure to provide the aircraft’s altitude. It is also
used to measure airspeed, through subtracting the static pressure from the dynamic
pressure.
What is a pitot-static system?
A pitot-static system consists of a pitot probe and static probe which are connected to
the airspeed indicator, altimeter and vertical speed indicator. The system is used to
determine the aircraft’s altitude, speed, vertical speed, mach number.
What is an air data smart probe?
Air data smart probes are air data systems which provide speed, altitude, angle of attack,
temperature and stall protection to the aircraft. They are used in place of pitot static
systems, with both the pitot and static ports being located on one probe. This system is
currently used on the A380, A350 and Embraer 175/195 aircraft.
102
Explain a pitot static system
The pitot static systems measure dynamic and static pressure to determine an aircraft’s
speed, altitude and vertical speed. The probes may be connected directly to the aircrafts
altimeter, airspeed indicator and vertical speed indicator. In modern commercial jets the
pressure data is fed to an air data computer (Boeing) which is combined with
temperature information to provide mach number, angle of attack information and
trends in addition to speed and altitude. In the Airbus family, pitot static information is
fed to the air data inertial reference unit (ADIRU) which in principle is the same as the air
data computer.
Why could the pitot static probes get blocked?
Both the pitot and static probes could be blocked through ice formation which could
accumulate due to probe heat failure, freezing rain or super cooled water droplets. Both
bird strikes, insect ness and engineering covers for regular maintenance could all bloke
any of the probes.
What happens if the pitot probe gets blocked?
The pitot probe is used to measure dynamic pressure and therefore only the airspeed
indication will be effected. If the system is blocked during the climb, and the aircraft
maintains a constant speed, the airspeed indicator will over read. This occurs because
static pressure reduces as the aircraft climbs, and therefore the pressure differential
increases. The opposite would occur in the descent, with the airspeed indicator under
reading, as the static pressure increases, reducing the differential pressure.
What happens if the static probe gets blocked?
A static port blockage is the most critical, as it effects both the altitude and airspeed
indications. If a blockage occurs to the static port, the altimeter will ready the altitude at
which the blockage occurs as the pressure stuck inside the aneroid will not fluctuate. The
vertical speed will indicate zero, again due to the lack of pressure change within the
chamber.
Airspeed indications will have the opposite effect of a pitot probe blockage. If in a climb,
and the aircraft maintains a constant speed, the airspeed indicator will under read.
How does an aircraft sense it's angle of attack?
103
On many aircraft, the angle of attack can be calculated by interfacing between different
static pressure sources.
What is TAT?
TAT stands for Total Air Temperature. It is the temperature of the air as the aircraft brings
it to rest. As the aircraft passes through the air, it compresses it which causes the air to
heat up. The TAT is therefore a higher temperature than the static air temperature. You
can think of total air temperature as the outside air temperature plus the heating effects
of the air being compressed. The total air temperature is usually measured through a
probe found towards the front of the aircraft. The air data computer coverts the static air
temperature based on the total air temperature, which is used to calculate true airspeed
and is often linked to the automatic icing systems.
What's the difference between TAT and SAT?
Total air temperature is the static air temperature plus the effect of compressibility which
occurs as the aircraft passes through the air.
What is the TAT probe?
The Total air temperature probe is usually located either side of the forward fuselage
and provides temperature information for the air data computer.
How does a basic ASI work?
The airspeed indicator works by subtracting the static pressure from the dynamic
pressure. The pitot probe feeds a diaphragm within a chamber that is filled with air
sourced from the static pressure port. As the difference between the two pressures
change, the diaphragm expands and contracts. The diaphragm is connected through a
number of gears and leavers to the dial of the airspeed indicator which moves the
pointer around the dial as the pressure differential increases and decreases. This is
shown as airspeed.
How does a basic altimeter work?
The static pressure is fed to a sealed disc which is known as an aneroid or bellow. As the
aircraft climbs and air pressure decreases, the aneroid expands. As you descent into
denser air, the aneroid contracts. The aneroid is connected to the dial of the altimeter
through gears and leavers, converting the aneroid expansion to an altitude on the dial.
How does a basic VSI work?
104
The vertical speed indicator provides the rate of change in altitude. Traditional VSI’s have
a lag delay, whilst modern glass cockpit aircraft usually have iVSI’s which indicate the
instant vertical speed.
Within the VSI there is a chamber and a diaphragm. The diaphragm is fed with the
instant static pressure from the static port. The chamber has a calibrated leak function,
which slowly equalises the chamber to the current static air pressure. As the diaphragm
always has the instant static pressure whilst the chamber is always slowly equalising
towards it, the difference in pressure will cause the diaphragm to expand and contract,
which through gears and leavers, is connected to the vertical speed needle as an
indication.
How does an attitude indicator work?
A traditional attitude indicator works through utilising the rigidity characteristic of a

gyroscope. An Earth gyroscope is found in the artificial horizon. Typically vacuum or
electrically powered, once the gyroscope is powered up and spinning, the gyroscope
maintains the same position, however the aircraft moves. It has two gimbals which allows
rotation around its lateral access to show pitch, and longitudinal access to show roll.
What is a gyroscope?
A gyroscope is a rapidly spinning disc or wheel. It’s orientation is not effected by any
titling or mounting. It is used in artificial horizons and direction indicators.
What is gyroscopic precession?
If you have a spinning gyroscope and you try to rotate its spin axis, the gyroscope will
instead try to rotate about an axis at right angles to your force axis.
What is real / apparent wonder?
Real wander is the actual movement of the gyroscopic spin axis caused by actual
reasons such as friction and manufacturing imperfections.
Apparent wander is the movement the gyroscopes local vertical alignment, due to the
rotation of the Earth and it’s rigidity. Transport wonder will also cause the same
phenomenon. For example, if a gyroscope was transported from the pole to the equator,
maintaining the same local vertical due to rigidity, the axis would have appeared to have
turned 90 degrees.
105
What is a PFD / ND / EFIS (Boeing specific)?
The PFD stands for Primary Flight Display. It comprises of the artificial horizon, altimeter,
vertical speed indicator, speed tape, heading, the flight mode annunciations.
The ND stands for Navigation Display. It can be used to display a map, planned routing,
and a compass rose.
EFIS - Electronic Flight Information System. The name for the collective group of flight
instruments.
What is the EADI / EHSI / ECAM (Airbus specific)?
EADI - Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator

ECAM - Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring
EHSI - Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator
What is an iVSI?
An instantaneous vertical speed indicator. It combines accelerometric readings with

barometric sources, which enables the instrument to display a change in pressure
instantly.
Talk me through your instrument scan?
Talk through your basic T scan, always starting and ending with the attitude indicator or
artificial horizon.
Where does a modern aircraft get its attitude information from?
The Inertial Reference System (IRS) / Inertial Navigation System (INS).
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The Flightdeckfriend.com Cadet Airline Interview Question Database has been

Interview Preparation General Guidance

What should I wear?

• Highly polished black shoes

• A suit which is not black or a dark shade of blue/grey - A brightly coloured or

What should I take to the interview?

When should I arrive?

How should I conduct myself at the selection venue?

Don’t be scared to ask if you can come back to a question…

If they are asking similar questions…

What questions should I ask?

What is a competency based interview?

General Pilot Questions

Why are you here today?

Why do you want to be a pilot?

• The responsibility required

Does anyone else in your family fly?

What got you interested in flying?

• Visiting the flight deck as a youngster

If you couldn't be an airline pilot, what would you do?

What will you do if you don't get this job?

What does the role of a modern day airline pilot entail?

• Managing a highly complex piece of machinery

What skills do modern day airline pilots require?

Tell me about the typical day of a pilot?

What skills can you bring to the job?

Give us a brief career outline . . .

Did you want to join the RAF/Military?

Can you cope with the anti-social hours?

Are you happy to work weekends?

What's your favourite aircraft?

Are you a competitive person?

What is the role of Cabin Crew?

Is it acceptable to break the rules?

What makes a good First Officer?

What makes a good Captain?

How can a First Officer improve customer service?

How can you save the company money?

How can you affect the profitability of the airline?

What are the pros and cons of being an airline pilot?

How many hours a day/week/year do you expect to fly?

Describe how an aircraft flies to a 12 year old . . .

When did you start flying?

Tell us about how you got involved with aviation...

Tell us about your family? Where is home?

Tell us about your current job...

Where did you complete your flight training?

How did you choose your flight school?

What does a Second Officer do?

What is your take on the current state of the industry?

Where do you think the industry will be in 10 years time?

• Still multi-crew aircraft (not single or no pilot operations!)

• Potentially larger aircraft on some routes to accommodate passenger growth and

What technologies are being introduced into the industry?

What are your views on aviation and the environment?

What immediate challenges does this airline currently face?

• Increased competition from other airlines

What are the latest developments with bio fuels?