Answer Key - Igcse - Pearson Edexcel Chemistry

Answers
1. States of matter 2 A Melting: become able to move around

each other; regular to random
arrangement. Freezing: can no longer
SC1.1w States of matter
move around each other; random to
regular arrangement
1 Solid: particles are close together; particles are
regularly arranged; particles can only vibrate B Boiling: still randomly arranged; but
about fixed positions; diagram chosen matches become far apart; and free to move in all
the written descriptions directions. Condensing: still randomly
arranged; but become close together; and
Liquid: particles are close together; particles
can only move around each other
are randomly arranged; particles can move
around each other; diagram chosen matches 3 A Particles become close together; and
the written descriptions regularly arranged (rather than randomly
arranged); can no longer move in all
Gas: particles are far apart; particles are
directions; but vibrate in fixed positions
randomly arranged; particles can move quickly
in all directions; diagram chosen matches the B Particles become far apart; and randomly
written descriptions arranged; rather than regularly arranged;
can move in all directions; rather than just
2 Student compares the arrangements in each
vibrate in fixed positions
state – regularly arranged in solids; randomly
arranged in gases and liquids. Answer 4 A The attractive forces must be weak; if they
compares the movement in each state – can are easily overcome / formed
only vibrate in solids; can move around each B It is cold and solid; it is dry because it does
other in liquids; can move quickly in all not melt to form a liquid
directions in gases
SC1.5w Particle theory and states of
SC1.3w Changing states – Strengthen matter – Homework 1
1 Suitable particle diagrams drawn in three 1 a Liquid
boxes. Gas: particles separate; (at least 10 b Solid
diameters apart if possible); random
arrangement. Liquid: particles touching; c Gas
random arrangement. Solid: particles touching; 2 Particles are still randomly arranged; but
regular arrangement become far apart and free to move in all
2 Descriptions of arrangement and movements directions
of particles in each state, written next to 3 No new substances are formed
relevant particle diagrams. Gas arrangement: 4 a Horizontal part of curve labelled
random; far apart. Gas movement: rapid in all b 55 °C labelled
directions. Liquid arrangement: random; close
together. Liquid movement: can move around c Curve from 0–7 minutes labelled
each other. Solid arrangement: regular; close d Curve at 0 minutes labelled
together. Solid movement: can only vibrate 5 Solid at –150 °C; gas at 25 °C
about fixed positions 6 Its melting point must be below 25 °C; its
3 Correct state change names written in three boiling point must be above 25 °C.
boxes; with descriptions of changes to
arrangement and movement of particles SC1.6w Particle theory and states of
included.
matter – Homework 2
Energy at top: high; energy at bottom: low
4 Should include the idea that the temperature 1 a Solid; liquid; gas
will rise above 0 °C (melting point of water) in b Melting: solid → liquid; sublimation: solid
the spring or summer; so the ice hotel will melt. → gas; boiling/evaporation: liquid → gas;
condensing: gas → liquid; deposition: gas
SC1.4w Changing states – Extend → solid; freezing/solidifying: liquid → solid
c Solid
1 A Energy is transferred from the
2 a Close together; randomly arranged; can
surroundings, to the particles
move around each other
B Energy is transferred to the surroundings,
b Close together; regularly arranged; can
from the particles
only vibrate about fixed positions
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Answers
c Far apart; randomly arranged; can move b During freezing, attractive forces are
quickly in all directions formed between particles; energy must be
3 a During boiling, attractive forces between transferred from them as this happens
particles are overcome; energy must be
transferred to the particles to do this
4 a
Temperature (°C) ethanol ammonia fluorine mercury
215 gas gas gas liquid
liquid gas gas liquid
−215 solid solid liquid solid
b Ethanol thermometer; because the ethanol c physical

will still be liquid; but the mercury will d range
freeze at −39 °C; so it will not be a liquid
3 A pure substance; the heating curve shows a
at the temperatures in the freezer
sharp melting point; the composition of the
5 a Vertical axis is temperature (°C); with a substance is the same throughout; so its
scale in the range about 50–100 °C. physical properties are the same throughout.
Horizontal axis is time (min); but no scale
needed. Sensible shape for the curve; SC2.3w Mixtures – Extend
starting at 85 °C; a horizontal part at
70 °C; ending at 55 °C 1 a A scale of purity for gold
b Curve appropriately labelled at 85 °C b It is very nearly pure; it is close to 1000
(start); 70 °C (melting point); 55 °C (end)
c It is not pure; there are other elements or
c Part of curve below 70 °C labelled compounds in the gold; it is 75% gold
6 a When first cooled, the water in the food is 2 a The pure substances are oxygen, gold,
frozen; attractive forces form between the lead and tin; the mixtures are orange juice
particles; energy is transferred from the and solder. The pure substances have a
particles to the surroundings; particles sharp, single melting temperature; the
become regularly arranged; close mixtures have a melting temperature
together; and can only vibrate about fixed range.
positions.
b The curve should show a horizontal
b During sublimation all attractive forces section where the substance is melting.
between the particles are overcome;
energy is transferred to the particles; from c The curve should show a sloping section
the surroundings; particles become where it is melting over a range of
randomly arranged; far apart; and can temperatures.
move quickly in all directions.
c During sublimation energy must be
SC2.4w Mixtures and melting
transferred to the particles; from the Homework 1
surroundings; so that attractive forces can
be overcome; this is done by heating. 1 air; orange juice
2 Mixtures contain two or more substances; that
are not chemically joined together; and can be
2. Elements, compounds and separated using a physical process. The
mixtures composition is not fixed; and can even be
different throughout the mixture. The melting
SC2.2w Mixtures – Strengthen temperature is a range; rather than a sharp,
single temperature.
1 a i same; ii cannot; iii silver; 3 composition; physical; temperature; range
(iv) physical; (v) compounds; 4 a Pure substance
(vi) sharp/single b The heating curve shows a sharp melting
b Students’ own answers with correct point; the composition of the substance is
definitions. the same throughout; and so its physical
2 a composition properties are the same throughout;
b compounds melting is a physical property. Some

Answers
students may include a description of 3 Explanations should include reference to:

energy being used to overcome weak Pure substances: having a fixed composition;
forces of attraction during melting (to physical properties the same throughout the
explain the lack of temperature increase). substance; because it is made up of only one
Award extra credit for this. kind of atom or molecule; melting temperature
is a physical property
SC2.5w Mixtures and melting Mixtures: not having a fixed composition;
Homework 2 because they are made up of two or more
elements and/or compounds; that are not
1 a A description of how a material behaves; chemically combined; physical properties are
and responds to forces and energy; not the same throughout the substance; the
hardness is a physical property melting points of the substances the mixture is
b Two or more substances jumbled together; made up of are different; so it melts over a
but not joined to each other; the range of temperatures
substances in mixtures can often be 4 The graph for a pure substance would have a
separated from each other flat, horizontal section where it was melting;
c A single substance; with a fixed the graph for a mixture would have a sloped
composition; that does not have anything section instead of the flat, horizontal section.
else mixed with it 5 In the material with the higher melting point,
d A substance that is not pure the forces of attraction within the material are
e A graph showing temperature against time stronger than in the lower melting range
for a substance material. Therefore, more energy is required to
break up the ordered structure of the solid in
f A specific temperature; at which a solid
the “hard solder” to produce a liquid. Note: the
turns into a liquid
words “hard” and “soft” are used in a slightly
2 A pure substance has one sharp, single descriptive sense here. The mechanical
melting temperature; a mixture has a range of properties of the solder will of course depend
melting temperatures on composition and temperature.
SC2.7w Filtration and crystallisation – Strengthen
1 The order is A, E, B, D, F, C.
A1 B3 C6
b Bunsen burner, tripod & gauze, b Beaker, stirrer b Evaporating dish, beaker, filtrate,
evaporating basin, filter funnel, c Dissolving soluble content; Bunsen burner, tripod & gauze
filter paper, conical flask, mortar enables filtration to separate the c Crystallising; the solvent
& pestle, beaker, water soluble and insoluble solutes evaporates when heated; once
c Collecting equipment for filtration it is heated to dryness the
and crystallisation insoluble salt is left behind as
crystals
D4 E2 F5
b Filter paper, filter funnel, filtrate b Mortar & pestle b Evaporating dish, beaker, filtrate
solution, residue c Grinding the sample; helps in c Concentrating the solution; the
c Filtration; the soluble solute dissolving the solute solvent evaporates and the
passes through the filter because solution gets more concentrated
it is dissolved in the solvent and
has particles small enough to
pass through. Theinsoluble
solute had particles that were too
large to pass through the filter.
2 Wear eye protection in case small pieces of heating; remove the Bunsen burner before the
solute ‘jump out’ during grinding. In B, D, F product is completely dry; mop up any spills;
wear eye protection and mop up any spills. In tie hair back; do not touch hot equipment.
C wear eye protection; do not over heat/ heat
too quickly to avoid spitting of crystals on

Answers
SC2.8w Filtration and crystallisation SC2.9w Filtration and crystallisation

Homework 1 Homework 2
1 1 Each step should be accompanied by a

solute substance that dissolves in a liquid correctly and clearly labelled diagram.
to make a solution A Sweep up the mixed material
solution formed when a substance has B Stir in the solvent (water); salt is soluble so
dissolved in a liquid will dissolve, the sand and dirt won’t; eye
residue material remaining in the filter after protection should be worn (to prevent
mixture has passed through it solvent or solution getting into eyes) and
spillages mopped up (to avoid slip hazard)
insoluble describes a substance that cannot
C Filter; the soluble salt dissolved in the
be dissolved in a certain liquid
solvent will pass through the filter as the
filtrate solution passing through a filter filtrate. The insoluble sand and dirt will be
solvent the liquid in which a solute dissolves stopped by the filter paper as a residue
to make a solution because the particles are too large to pass
2 1 crushing; 2 dissolving; 3 filtration; 4 heating; through; eye protection should be worn (to
5 crystallisation prevent solvent, solution and filtrate
getting into eyes) and spillages mopped
3 up (to avoid slip hazard)
Filtration Crystallisation D Evaporate the filtrate; the solvent will
a large-particle ✔ evaporate leaving the soluble salt behind;
insoluble solids do any indirect heating using a steam
from a liquid bath; remove heat before complete
b soluble salts from ✔ dryness to avoid spitting of crystals; wear
a solution eye protection (to prevent solvent, filtrate
or spitting crystals getting into eyes); do
c insoluble ✔ not touch hot equipment (to avoid burning
impurities from a
yourself)
salt solution
2 Rapid heating produces small, powdery
4 Filtration and crystallisation shown correctly on crystals; gentle warming and/or slow
a labelled diagram as in Figure 2.6 and evaporation will cause larger crystals to form.
Figure 2.7 in the Student Book. Students may suggest using a water bath to
5 Any two of the following hazards accompanied warm the filtrate gently if larger crystals are
by an appropriate method of reducing the risk. needed.
Students do not need to state whether the 3 Measure the melting point of the crystals; a
hazards are associated with filtration or sharp melting point indicates a pure
crystallisation. substance; a melting point range indicates an
Filtration hazards Crystallisation hazards impure sample; compare his melting point with
Solvent, solution Solvent, solution and other substances
and filtrate getting filtrate getting into eyes;
into eyes; wear eye wear eye protection SC2.10w Distillation
protection ‘Spitting’ of crystals
1 The most obvious answer will be the visual
Slips hazard from as they are heated to
appearance – the colour of the ink will not
spillages; mop up dryness; use a water
appear in the distillate and the water will be
spills immediately bath, remove evaporating
clear. Some students may make reference to
Cuts from broken dish from heating before the temperature of the vapour.
glassware; tell the dryness, wear eye
2 Answers will vary, but could include 100 ºC;
teacher immediately if protection because this is the boiling point of water; a
breakage occurs Bunsen burner; tie back figure below 100 ºC, linked to the idea that the
long hair steam may have ‘cooled off’ by the time it rises
Hot equipment during up to the thermometer; a figure above 100 ºC,
and following heating; do perhaps linked to ideas about convection
not touch hot equipment, currents and hot vapours rising, or possibly
leave to cool (albeit wrongly) linked to impurities in the
water.

Answers
3 to keep the test tube cool; (and condense the 5 higher/greater; water; ethanol; boiling points;
vapour back into a liquid) fractional distillation
4 a Glass smashing and therefore risk of cuts; 6 If pure ethanol is 0.8 g/cm3 and pure water is
boiling water spilling and risk of this going 1.0 g/cm3; each incremental change of 0.01 g
onto clothes and skin; slips due to spilt corresponds to a 5% change in composition;
water on the floor. (i.e. 20 possible incremental steps between
b Hazard control measures include stand 0.80 and 1.00). For example if m = 0.88 g, this
up; while doing practical work; so that you would be a 60/40 ethanol/water mixture.
can more easily move out of the way; 7 The answer is likely to be in the region of 50–
along with make sure that the tripod is 60%; but will depend on the actual data
stable; and that the flask is steady; use a collected.
clamp and stand to secure the flask in 8 Proof spirit contains the minimum quantity of
place. ethanol needed to cause gunpowder to light; if
5 Any suitable hazard; together with one way of the liquid is poured on to it. The value is
reducing the risk – e.g. hazard from liquid actually 57% ethanol by volume. If the drink
boiling over; reducing the risk could include the (typically a sailor’s rum ration) causes the
use of anti-bumping granules. gunpowder to light, it was ‘proof’ that the
6 a air hole closed (yellow flame); makes the alcohol was strong enough. The strength of
flame more visible (luminous); so reducing alcoholic drinks used to be expressed as
the risk of someone touching the flame ‘degrees proof’; this has now largely been
accidentally superseded by the simpler method of quoting
the percentage alcohol by volume (ABV).
b air hole slightly/half open; gas tap turned
about half on; makes sure heating is
gentle; helping to reduce the risk of the SC2.12w Distillation – Strengthen
liquid boiling over; but avoids depositing
soot onto the gauze/flask 1 a E; b A; c I; d B; e G; f C; g H; h F; i D
7 Answers will vary but should refer to their 2 heat; liquid; evaporates; stays; vapour;
actual results; and how well this compared to condenser; condenses; distillate
the success criteria set out in Q1. 3 Answers will vary but could include: hot
8 Answers should include: equipment – do not touch until cool; bubbling
over of liquid when boiling – wear eye
ink/liquid is heated until it boils protection, use anti-bumping granules; boiling
liquid/water evaporates and turns into steam; water – clear working area; Bunsen burner –
also known as water vapour tie hair and loose clothing back.
steam is pure water vapour; so the
temperature reading on the thermometer is SC2.13w Distillation – Extend
100 ºC
the steam/vapour passes into the condenser; 1 b; d; e; a; f; c; g
where it cools down 2 two correctly named hazards; and a method of
when it cools it turns from a vapour/gas back reducing the risk
into a liquid 3 The higher the boiling point, the less alcohol in
the pure water collects as the distillate the mixture; (or the lower the boiling point, the
higher the percentage of alcohol).
SC2.11w Fractional distillation 4 100% alcohol; (or arguably 90% and 95%
alcohol)
1 100 ºC 5 a higher
2 Accept any answer in the range 80–95 ºC; the b Alcohol boils at a lower temperature; this
key point is that you would expect the boiling means that it is easier for molecules/
point to be intermediate; between the values particles of alcohol to escape from the
for the pure liquids. liquid; (forces between alcohol molecules
3 a ethanol are weaker than forces between water
b It has the lower boiling point; the flask will molecules). So for any given mixture, a
get to 78.5 ºC before it reaches 100 ºC. higher proportion of alcohol molecules will
be in the vapour than in the liquid.
4 probably fraction 1; (but link to evidence
required) – e.g. lowest boiling range/most c Boiling point is likely to be about 88–90 ºC
flammable/lowest density d Answer in the range 62–65%

Answers
SC2.14w Extracting perfumed oils the potential to cause harm) and ‘risk’ (the
Homework 2 chance of harm being caused by a
hazard) are used correctly.
1 oils have higher boiling points 8 a Gaseous nitrogen; (some students may
2 they decompose point out that this will be a gaseous
mixture that is much richer in nitrogen than
3 The process keeps the temperature lower;
the liquid air, but will contain some argon
below the temperature at which oils might start
and oxygen because they will evaporate).
to decompose.
b A liquid mixture of oxygen; and argon.
4 You might expect that a mixture of water (b.p.
100 ºC) and oil (b.p. > 100 ºC); might boil c Either cooling the gaseous nitrogen
above 100 ºC. (It is because they are collected and making it liquid again; before
immiscible, meaning that they don’t interact re-fractionating it; to increase the
and contribute separately to the vapour concentration of nitrogen. Or fractionating
pressure, but this level of detail would not be the liquid mixture of argon and oxygen;
expected from GCSE students.) (using appropriate temperatures in the
column such as −85 ºC and −184 ºC).
5 They might shrivel/char/go brown or black/
disintegrate.
SC2.15w Chromatography procedure
6 Possible answers include: the distillate is not a
pure substance; you are not purifying the A – 8; B – 6; C – 1; D – 6; E – 3, 6; F – 4; G – 7;
water; another substance apart from water H – 2; I – 8, 9; J – 7; K – 9; L – 5; M – 2
also evaporates when you heat it.
7 a The oil and water don’t mix/are immiscible; SC2.16w Paper chromatography
so the oil will float on top of the water; and Strengthen
can be separated easily (e.g. extraction
with a pipette or using a separating 1 four; lipstick; five; paper; compared; solvent;
funnel). solvent; dyes; dissolve; soluble; separate;
b Award credit for the following points: dyes; pattern
When a dilute solution of ethanol boils, the 2 a stationary phase
vapour will contain a higher proportion of 3 b Rf value
alcohol; because this boils more easily/
has a lower boiling point. c mobile phase
In a fractionating column, the vapour d chromatogram
condenses and then re-boils several 4 B
times; each time producing a mixture that
is more concentrated in the substance SC2.17w Paper chromatography
with the lower boiling point. Extend
The substance with the lowest boiling
point will reach the top of the column first; 1 The distance the solvent has moved (from the
and the vapour will then pass into the line); the distance each spot of dye/each
condenser. substance has moved (from the line).
So, the vapour reaching the top of the distance moved by the dye
2 distance moved by the solvent
column will be mostly ethanol; and this
can then be collected as the distillate 3 a The solvent will have moved further up the
once; it has passed through the paper on Bill's chromatogram; the spots of
condenser. the different dyes will also have moved up
correctly labelled diagram further; the order of the spots will still be
c Points could include: wear eye protection; the same.
make sure apparatus is clamped carefully b The Rf value is of a dye is always the
to reduce risk of knocking over; use anti- same for a particular substance; so long
bumping granules to stop the liquid boiling as the chromatography is carried out in
too violently; use a small gentle blue flame exactly the same way
to reduce the chance of the liquid boiling c He must use the same procedure; (same
over / flammable vapour being released paper, same solvent etc.).
(alternatively use an electric heater or heat
4 a Chromatography was carried out in
using a boiling water bath). Ensure that
different ways in the two laboratories; you
the terms ‘hazard’ (for something that has

Answers
would expect to see differences in the Rf the line; and label them. Support the paper in a
values. beaker of solvent or water or ethanol; wait for
b The procedure used. the solvent to move up the paper. Remove the
paper from the beaker; mark the height moved
5 An Rf value; is the distance a coloured dye has
by the solvent; and allow the paper to dry.
moved up a chromatogram divided by the
distance the solvent has moved; the Rf value 2 three
of an unknown substance can be compared 3 a B
with the Rf values of a range of known b the dyes in B moved different distances up
substances; if the chromatography has been the paper; from the dyes in the ink from
done under the same conditions; an Rf value the cheque; so they were different dyes.
will allow the unknown substance to be
4 0.167; 0.417; 0.833
identified; the laboratory must publish details of
the exact procedure used to obtain its Rf 5 a All of the dyes will reach the top of the
values. paper.
6 Any three (coloured) mixtures. b The colours from the pen will spread out
on the paper.
7 a A pure substance will produce just one
spot; a mixture will produce more than one c The spots will wash out of the paper into
spot; diagram to illustrate this. the solvent.
b Two mixtures that contain the same d The Rf values will not be accurate as the
substances; will produce the same pattern spots will not have moved as far as they
of spots; if tested on the same piece of appear to have moved.
paper; using the same solvent; (or will e Permanent inks are not soluble in water;
have the same Rf values if done in the so they will not move up the paper.
same way on different chromatograms); f The Rf values will be different.
diagram to illustrate this.
6 Chromatogram drawn with a line to show initial
8 The chromatogram would have four spots; level of the solvent; and a line to show a
from the top, these would be R792, R176, solvent front. If the student has shown the
X8649 and Y1438; this is the order of their solvent moved 10 cm, then the spots will be:
solubilities; the more soluble the substance, mauve 7.6 cm, blue 5.5 cm, carmine 4.6 cm,
the faster it moves. red 2.6 cm, yellow 2.4 cm and brown 1.0 cm.
SC2.18w Paper chromatography

questions – Homework 1 3. Atomic structure
1 a To stop the colours from washing out of SC3.1w Atom structures
the paper.
b To identify which colours are in the 1 Table similar to this:
unknown paint. Subatomic Relative Relative Arrangement
c Red and blue; the unknown paint particle charge mass of particles
separates into two spots that reach the electron −1 1 circling the
same level as the red and the blue spots. 1835 nucleus in
2 a X 0.76; Y 0.46; Z 0.26 (electron)
shells
b mauve; carmine; red
3 a 2 neutron 0 1 in the nucleus
b 4 proton +1 1 in the nucleus
c 1
SC3.2w Structure of an atom
d 5
Strengthen
e 3
1 Missing words: particles; broken; identical.
SC2.19w Who forged the cheque? 2 From top left around the circle clockwise labels
Homework 2 should be: shells; electrons; protons/neutrons;
nucleus; protons/neutrons.
1 Draw a pencil line on the piece of
3 Missing information row by row: +1; 1; neutron;
chromatography paper; put spots of the ink
0; in the nucleus; electron.
from the cheque; and the suspects’ pens; on

Answers
4 Atoms usually have no charge. – There are SC3.5w Atomic number and mass
equal numbers of protons and electrons in an number – Strengthen
atom.
The nucleus is tiny compared to the size of the 1 a protons b neutrons c electrons, neutral
atom. – Most of the atom is empty space. 2 O – 8 protons, 8 electrons, 8 neutrons;
The properties of an element depend on its Zn – 30 protons, 30 electrons, 35 neutrons;
atomic structure. – Atoms of the same element
Au – 79 protons, 79 electrons, 118 neutrons
contain the same number of protons
3 mass, 13 and 14
SC3.3w Structure of an atom – Extend 4 Br – 35 protons, 35 electrons, 46 neutrons;
Ca – 20 protons, 20 electrons, 20 neutrons
1 a Diagram of an atom with 2 protons and 2
neutrons making up the nucleus; 2 SC3.6w Atomic number and mass
electrons in a shell around the nucleus;
number – Extend
the nucleus and electrons should be
labelled.
1 Most of the mass of an atom is found in its
b It is neutral because it has the same nucleus. The protons and neutrons, each with
number of protons (positive charges) and a relative mass of 1, are found in the nucleus.
electrons (negative charges); they cancel The mass of electrons is negligible, these are
each other out. found outside of the nucleus.
c Dalton’s model was a solid sphere; that 2 a atomic number = 32, mass number = 72
couldn’t be broken into smaller parts.
b There are 32 protons, 40 neutrons and 32
2 a It is attracted towards the negative charge electrons in this atom.
because protons are positively charged.
3 a atomic number = number of protons
b Particle (a) is an electron; which is
b mass number = number of protons +
negative so it is deflected/attracted
number of neutrons
towards the positively charged plate.
c number of electrons = number of protons
Particle (b) is a neutron; which is neutral
and is not affected by the electric field. d number of neutrons = mass number –
number of protons
c The electron (a) is deflected more than the
proton (c) because it is lighter. e number of protons = mass number –
number of neutrons
d Downwards; towards the negatively
charged plate. 4 It contains the same number of positive
charges (protons); and negative charges
e It would be deflected less than the proton
(electrons); of the same size/magnitude.
(c).
5 a 33 b 42 c 33 d 47 e 108 f 46 g 21 h 21 i 1 j 0
3 Atoms A and C are of the same element; they
k 1 l 11 m 11 n 11
have the same number of protons.
6 a Scandium (Sc) atoms are twice the mass
of sodium atoms (Na).
SC3.4w Facts about atoms
Homework 1 b The mass number of scandium is twice the
mass number of the sodium atom.
1 Circled: Atoms of elements are identical. 7 a 35 Cl and 37 Cl
17 17
Atoms are indestructible.
b They are the same element because they
2 a false b true c false d true e false f false have the same number of protons (and
g true h true electrons) in their atoms.
3 Corrected statements:
c Atoms are too small to see. SC3.7w Different atoms – Homework 1
e Electrons have a much smaller mass than
protons or neutrons. 1 a neutrons b electrons c protons and neutrons
f Electrons have a relative charge of −1 and 2 a A – nucleus; B – electrons

a negligible relative mass. b protons and neutrons
3 nickel 28 and 58; oxygen 8 and 18; osmium 76
and 190; tin 50 and 118; boron 5 and 11;
mercury 80 and 201
4 a 26 b 30 c 26.

Answers
SC3.8w Different atoms – Homework 2 the atom is mostly empty space

2 a i 9 ii 10 iii 9
1 Most of the following points: b i 42He ii 2 iii 2
the atom contains a central part
c i 92 ii 235 iii 143
the central part is called the nucleus
d i 127 I ii 53 iii 127
the protons and neutrons make up the nucleus 53
the nucleus/protons are positive e i 52He ii 2 iii 2

smaller particles circle the nucleus 3 a Atom C has the greatest mass as it has
the particles around the nucleus are called the highest mass number (largest number
electrons of protons and neutrons).
electrons are found in areas called shells (or b Atoms B and D are the same element;
energy levels) they have the same number of protons/
electrons are negatively charged electrons/atomic number.
the mass of the atom is concentrated in the c Atom D; its mass number is twice that of
nucleus A.
the mass of the protons and neutrons is much d 50 g of atom C; atom C is 5 times heavier
higher than that of the electrons than atom D; (110 / 22 = 5)
the model could be improved by making the 4 a The total mass of the electrons is far, far
nucleus smaller less than the mass of protons or neutrons.
with electrons even smaller and more spread b The charges are opposite; but have the
out same magnitude/size.
Pack SC3.10w Representing isotopes
1
Name Symbol Atomic Mass Number of Name and
number number mass number
(Z) (A) protons neutrons electrons
hydrogen H 1 2 1 1 1 hydrogen-2
hydrogen H 1 1 1 0 1 hydrogen-1
sodium Na 11 23 11 12 11 sodium-23
potassium K 19 40 19 21 19 potassium-40
germanium Ge 32 73 32 41 32 germinium-73
argon Ar 18 40 18 22 18 argon-40
2
Name Symbol Atomic Mass Number of X Name and
number number protons neutrons electrons mass number
207 Pb
lead Pb 82 207 82 125 82 82
lead-207
204 Pb
lead Pb 82 204 82 122 82 82
lead-204
27 Al
aluminium Al 13 27 13 14 13 13
aluminium-27
197 Au
gold Au 79 197 79 118 79 79
gold-197
9 Be
beryllium Be 4 9 4 5 4 4
beryllium-9

Answers
SC3.11w Isotopes – Strengthen
1 a atomic, mass
b neutrons
c 50, 50; tin-118, 50
2 neutrons, protons
Element symbol Atomic number Mass number Number of ...
(Z) (A) protons neutrons electrons
Mg 12 24 12 12 12
Zn 30 65 30 35 30
Te 52 128 52 76 52
Co 27 59 27 32 27
3 a 32S Step 2 Calculate the mass of 100.

b 4He and 2H; 32S and 16O Step 3 Calculate the mean mass of an atom
c The relative atomic mass of an element is by dividing by 100.
the average mass of the isotopes of the Step 4 The mean mass = the relative atomic
element, so is unlikely to be an exact mass.
whole number. 2 a 107.96; b 28.11; c 47.92
SC3.12w Isotopes – Extend
1 Step 1 Find data on the mass and abundance

of the isotopes.
3
Element name Atom in the Atomic Mass Number of

and symbol form AZX number number protons neutrons electrons
138 Ba
barium, Ba 56
56 138 56 82 56
60 Ni
nickel, Ni 28
28 60 28 32 28
b for example, 140

56
Ba (similar sized mass 4 a They are the same; in the ratio 1:1.
number) b Tl-203 is 30%; Tl-205 is 70%
c They have different numbers of neutrons
in the nucleus.
SC3.13w Making sense of atoms

Homework 1
1 a protons; b mass
2 a
Name Atomic Mass Number of
number number protons neutrons electrons
hydrogen 1 1 1 0 1
hydrogen 1 2 1 1 1
hydrogen 1 3 1 2 1
b isotopes; c neutrons; d electrons

Answers
3 a
Name Z A Number of Abundance in natural lead samples
protons neutrons electrons
lead 82 206 82 124 82 26.5%
lead 82 207 82 125 82 26.5%
lead 82 208 82 126 82 47%
b The relative atomic mass is the average

mass of its isotopes; which have different
masses.
SC3.14w Making sense of atoms

Homework 2
1 Chemical reactions don’t change the number

of protons in an atom’s nucleus; it is the atomic
number that defines an element.
2 electrons
3 The completed table is
Element Notation in Atomic Mass Number of

the form AZX number number protons neutrons electrons
235 U
uranium 92
92 235 92 143 92
140 Cs
caesium 55
55 140 55 85 55
93 Rb
rubidium 37
37 93 37 56 37
4 92 protons; 144 neutrons; on both sides Students must provide supporting arguments for
5 p = 37; q = 13; X is Al their answers, rather than just putting the elements
in the order seen in the periodic table.
6 a 115B has one more neutron than 105B.
b 10.8 SC4.2w Making predictions
7 The mass number of an atom is the number of
protons and neutrons in its nucleus; so it must 1 elements names correctly given: lithium,
be a whole number. The relative atomic mass sodium, potassium; chlorine, bromine, iodine
of an element is the average mass of the 2 predictions based on means of the information
isotopes of the element; so is unlikely to be an given, e.g.
exact whole number.
Property Na Ge Br
8 When a neutron hits and breaks up a large
Ar 23 73.5 81.25
nucleus; it produces two (or three or more)
neutrons; which could go on and break up metal/ metal non-metal/ non-metal
more large nuclei (and so the reaction keeps non-metal metal/
going). metalloid/
semi-metal
density 0.71 g/cm3 4.85 g/cm3 2.45 g/cm3
4. The periodic table melting 121.5 °C 823 °C 6.5 °C
point
SC4.1w Sorting elements
boiling 1050.5 °C 2933.5 °C 77.5 °C
point
Expected answer for Support:
final reacts very 4.79 g/cm3 coloured
Li, Na, K; Mg, Ca, Sr; F, Cl, Br. comment quickly liquid
Expected answer for Stretch: with water
Li, –, K; Mg, –, Sr; F, –, Br, I.

Answers
3 Li, Na, K are in group 1; Si, Ge, Sn are in SC4.6w Electronic configurations
group 4; Cl, Br, I are in group 7; in descending Strengthen
order
1 electronic configuration
SC4.3w Periodic table puzzle 2 from left to right: 3, 8, 13, 18
Correct order: 3 from left to right: 2.1; 2.6; 2.8.3; 2.8.8
4 Li: two crosses in first circle; one in second
period group chlorine circle. Al: two crosses in first circle; eight in
atomic number number of protons bromine second circle; three in third circle.
relative atomic tellurium iodine 5 Oxygen: O at centre; two concentric circles;
mass two crosses in first circle; six crosses in
second circle. Argon: Ar at centre; three
SC4.4w Atomic number and the concentric circles; two crosses in first circle;
eight in second circle; eight in third circle.
periodic table – Homework 1
6 They are the same/equal in number.
1 a features described in boxes, e.g.
clockwise from top left: relative atomic SC4.7w Electronic configurations
mass; element symbol; group number; Homework 1
period (4); group (2); atomic
number/proton number 1 The arrangement of electrons; around the
b zig-zag line drawn starting between B–Al nucleus; in an atom.
and Al–Si; ending between Po–At 2 a 2
2 a The relative atomic mass of tellurium; 128; b 2.4
is greater than that of iodine; 127. c 2.6
b The atomic number of tellurium; 52; is less d 2.8.7
than that of iodine; 53.
e 2.8.8.2
c isotopes
3 diagram shows symbol S at centre; three
3 a The number of protons; in the nucleus; of concentric circles; two dots or crosses in the
an atom. first circle; eight dots or crosses in the second
b They have similar (chemical) properties; circle; six dots or crosses in the third circle
they are both inert/unreactive; gases. 4 The number of electrons; in the outer shell; is
equal to the group number; so they are in
SC4.5w Twenty electronic group 1.
configurations 5 The number of numbers in the written
configuration/number of occupied shells in a
1 a 1 diagram; is equal to the period number; so
b a single cross on the dashed circle they are all in period 2.
2 Electronic configurations written out correctly
for each element SC4.8w Configurations and the periodic
H He Li Be B table – Homework 2
1 2 2.1 2.2 2.3
1 The arrangement of electrons; around the
C N O F Ne nucleus; in an atom.
2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2 He 2; C 2.4; O 2.6; Cl 2.8.7; Ca 2.8.8.2
Na Mg Al Si P 3 Nitrogen: N at centre; two concentric circles;
2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 two crosses in first circle; five crosses in
second circle. Argon: Ar at centre; two crosses
S Cl Ar K Ca
in first circle; eight in second circle; eight in
2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8 2.8.8.1 2.8.8.2 third circle.
3 Electronic configurations drawn correctly for 4 a The number of electrons; in the outer
each element; electrons shown as crosses shell; is equal to the group number; except
(see Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5 in the Student for group 0 when the outer shell is full;
Book for an indication). group 1 – 2.1, 2.8.1, 2.8.8.1; group 0 – 2,
2.8, 2.8.8.

Answers
b The period number is equal to the number c 40 + (2 × (16 + 1)) = 74

of numbers in the electronic configuration/ 2 a NH2
number of occupied shells in a diagram;
b C3H7
period 2 – 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7,
2.8. c C9H20
5 a group 7; its last number is 7 3 a Mg Cl
b period 4; it has four numbers/four 3.60 10.65
mass/Ar 24 35.5
occupied shells
c 2 + 8 + 18 + 7 = 35 = 0.15 = 0.3
d X and X (students may also identify X as 0.15 0.3
divide by 0.15 0.15
Br)
6 a Li (lose) 1; Be (lose) 2; B (lose) 3; C (lose smaller ratio 1 2
or gain) 4; N (gain) 3; O (gain) 2; empirical formula is MgCl2
F (gain) 1 b Li O
b They can gain or lose four electrons to 9.1 10.4
form ions. mass/Ar 7 16
= 1.3 = 0.65
5. Chemical formulae, equations divide by
1.3 0.65
and calculations, Part one 0.65 0.65
smaller ratio 2 1
SC5.1w Determining an empirical empirical formula is Li2O
formula – Strengthen 4 The empirical formula shows the simplest
whole number ratio of atoms in a formula; the
1 a Bunsen burner molecular formula shows the actual number of
b magnesium ribbon atoms in a molecule.
c crucible 5 a relative empirical formula mass =
d pipeclay triangle (4 × 12) + (9 × 1) = 57
e tripod 114
57 = 2
f heat-resistant mat
molecular formula is C8H18
2 mass of crucible and lid; mass of crucible, lid
and magnesium; mass of crucible, lid and b relative empirical formula mass =
magnesium oxide (2 × 12) + (4 × 1) + 16 = 44
3 to allow air/oxygen in for the magnesium to burn 88
44 = 2
but not to allow too much magnesium oxide to
escape molecular formula is C4H8O2
4 The magnesium does not flare up when the lid 6 a description to include: find the mass of an
is lifted. empty crucible; add a strip of magnesium
5 [ 5 ] Divide both answers by the smaller of the ribbon and find the mass of the crucible and
two to find the simplest ratio. magnesium; place a lid on the crucible; place
the crucible on a pipeclay triangle on a tripod;
[ 2 or 3 ] Find the mass of oxygen used.
heat the crucible; lift the lid at intervals to allow
[ 1 ] Look up the relative atomic masses of air to enter; but do not allow too much
magnesium and oxygen. magnesium oxide to escape; stop heating
[ 7 ] Write out the empirical formula. when all the magnesium has reacted; allow the
[ 4 ] Divide the mass of each element by its Ar. crucible to cool; find the mass of the crucible
and magnesium oxide
[ 2 or 3 ] Find the mass of magnesium used.
[ 6 ] Find the simplest whole number ratio.
SC5.3w Formulae – Homework 2
SC5.2w Masses and formulae 1 a (2 × 27) + (3 × 16) = 102
Homework 1
b 2(14 + (4 × 1)) + 12 + (3 × 16) = 96
1 a 39 + 127 = 166 c 56 + 3(14 + (3 × 16)) = 242
b (2 × 23) + 32 + (4 × 16) = 142 2 a CH

Answers
b C4H8O 123.5 g of CuCO3 makes 79.5 g of CuO
c C4H3O2 1 g of CuCO3 makes 79.5/123.5 g of CuO
3 The empirical formula shows the simplest y g of CuCO3 makes y × (79.5/123.5) g CuO
whole number ratio of atoms in a formula; the 3 student’s own results table
molecular formula shows the actual number of
4 calculation from student’s own mass
atoms in a molecule.
5 comparison between mass calculated in
4 a C H O
question 2 and experimental mass from
2.88 0.48 3.84 question 4
mass/Ar 12 1 16
6 The mass of copper oxide left may be higher
= 0.24 = 048 = 0.24 than expected as not all of the copper
0.24 0.48 0.24 carbonate has decomposed.
divide by 0.24 0.24 0.24 7 Heat the tube again, cool and reweigh. Repeat
smaller ratio 1 2 1 this until two identical masses are obtained.
empirical formula is CH2O This ensures that decomposition is complete.
b relative empirical formula mass =
SC5.5w Reacting masses
12 + (2 × 1) + 16 = 30
Strengthen
180
30 = 6 1 potassium chloride, water and carbon dioxide
molecular formula is C6H12O6 2 Carbon dioxide is a gas and it escapes (from
5 a description to include: find the mass of an the open container). The loss in mass is equal
empty crucible; add a strip of magnesium to the mass of carbon dioxide.
ribbon and find the mass of the crucible and 3 a (2 × 39) + 12 + (3 × 16) = 138
magnesium; place a lid on the crucible; place
b 39 + 35.5 = 74.5
the crucible on a pipeclay triangle on a tripod;
heat the crucible; lift the lid at intervals to allow 4 138 g of K2CO3 produces 2 × 74.5 = 149 g
air to enter; but do not allow too much KCl.
magnesium oxide to escape; stop heating 5 149/138
when all the magnesium has reacted; allow the 6 1.38 × (149/138) = 1.49 g
crucible to cool; find the mass of the crucible
and magnesium oxide 7 answer to include: find the relative formula
mass of the substance you are given the mass
6 In 100 g of the compound, there is 70 g of iron of; Mr Na2CO3 = (2 × 23) + 12 + (3 × 16) = 106;
and 30 g of oxygen.
find the relative formula mass of the substance
Fe O whose mass you are trying to find; Mr NaCl =
70 30 23 + 35.5 = 58.5; look at the balancing
mass/Ar 56 16 numbers of those two substances in the
= 1.25 = 1.875 equation; Na2CO3 makes 2NaCl; so the mass
1.25 1.875 of the Mr of Na2CO3 makes twice the mass of
divide by 1.25 1.25 the Mr of NaCl; so 106 g Na2CO3 makes
smaller ratio 1 1.5 2 × 58.5 = 117 g NaCl; find the mass of NaCl
formed from 1 g of Na2CO3 by dividing the
multiply by 2 2 3
mass of NaCl by 106; this is 117/106 g; find
empirical formula is Fe2O3 the mass of NaCl formed from 5.3 g Na2CO3
7 Mr = (2 × 39) + 32 + (4 × 16) = 174 by multiplying the fraction by 5.3 g; this is
%K = ((2 × 39)/174) × 100 = 44.8% 5.3 × (117/106) = 5.85 g
%S = (32/174) × 100 = 18.4%
SC5.6w Calculating percentage yields
%O = ((4 × 16)/174) × 100 = 36.8%
1 a 75%
SC5.4w Decomposition of copper
b 25%
carbonate
c 12.5%
1 student’s recorded mass (y g) d 32%
2 Mr CuCO3 = 63.5 + 12 + (3 × 16) = 123.5 e 20%
Mr CuO = 63.5 + 16 = 79.5 2 a 68.3%

Answers
b 16.9% e 47.7%
c 53.9% 2 a i 0.084 g
d 18.8% ii 0.129 g
e 63.6% b 92.1%
3 a 119 + (2 × 16) = 151 c Reasons may include: some of the
b i 151 g of SnO2 produces 119 g of Sn magnesium oxide escaped when the lid
was lifted, not all of the magnesium
119
so 1 g of SnO2 produces 151 g of Sn reacted, other products may form, e.g.
magnesium may react with nitrogen in the
119 air to form magnesium nitride.
and 302 g of SnO2 produces 151 ×
3 actual yield
302
percentage yield × theoretical yield
= 238 g of Sn = 100
or calculation using moles.
15 × 30
ii 238 kg = 100 = 4.5 tonnes
c 151 tonnes of SnO2 needs 24 tonnes of C
24 SC5.9w Calculating yields
so 1 tonne of SnO2 needs 151 tonnes of C
Homework 2
24
and 302 tonnes of SnO2 needs 151 × 302 1 Method A 51%
= 48 tonnes of C Method B 69%
or calculation using moles. Method C 43%
190 2 a 100 g of CaCO3 makes 56 g of CaO
d 238 × 100 = 79.8% 56
so 1 g of CaCO3 makes 100 g of CaO
e Reasons may include: the tinstone is not
pure SnO2, reaction is incomplete, 56
and 15 g of CaCO3 makes 100 × 15
practical losses, competing reactions.
= 8.4 g
SC5.7w Yields – Strengthen or
15
1 a 20% number of moles CaCO3 = 100 = 0.15
b 30%
number of moles CaO made = 0.15
c 75%
mass of CaO = 0.15 × 56 = 8.4 g
d 40%
7.2
e 87.5% b percentage yield = 8.4 × 100
2 a i 2.10 g percentage yield = 85.7%
ii 1.02 g 3 a 160 kg of Fe2O3 makes 112 kg Fe
iii 1.08 g 112
so 1 kg Fe2O3 makes 160 kg Fe
b 98.2%
c The magnesium carbonate may have 112
and 320 kg Fe2O3 makes 160 = 224 kg Fe
been impure and the impurities did not
decompose. or
The magnesium carbonate may not have number of moles Fe2O3 in 320 g
all decomposed.
320
= 160 = 2
SC5.8w Using percentage yields
Homework 1 number of moles Fe made = 2 × 2 = 4
mass of Fe = 4 × 56 = 224 g
1 a 60% so 320 kg Fe2O3 makes 224 kg Fe
b 40% 100
b percentage yield = 224 × 100 = 44.6%
c 62%
d 18.4%

Answers
4 a (3 × 2) = 6 tonnes H2 makes 2 possible table
[2 × (14 + 3)] = 34 tonnes NH3 mass of iron used (g)
34 mass of filter paper (g)
so 1 tonne H2 makes 6 tonnes NH3
mass of filter paper +
34 copper (g)
and 90 tonnes H2 makes 6 × 90
= 510 tonnes NH3 mass of copper (g)
or 3 mass of copper = (mass of filter paper +
copper) – mass of filter paper
90
number of moles H2 in 90 g = 2 = 45 4 Masses should show that iron(II) sulfate is
formed.
2
number of moles NH3 made = 45 × 3 = 30
Answers to questions on page 2
mass of NH3 = 30(14 + 3) = 510 g 1 Fe makes Cu, so 56 g of Fe makes 63.5 g of
so 90 tonnes H2 makes 510 tonnes NH3 Cu
5 b percentage yield 1 g of Fe makes 63.5/56 g of Cu
120 y g of Fe makes y × (63.5/56) g of Cu, where y
= 510 × 100 = 23.5% is the mass the students used
c The reaction reaches equilibrium so not all 2 2Fe makes 3Cu, so 2 × 56 = 112 g of Fe
of the hydrogen reacts, there could be makes 3 × 63.5 = 190.5 g Cu
practical losses during the manufacture, 1 g of Fe makes 190.5/112 g of Cu
there could be other unwanted reactions y g of Fe makes y × (190.5/112) g of Cu
taking place.
3 student’s own results
6 actual yield
4 student’s mass: mass of copper = (mass of
percentage yield × theoretical yield filter paper + copper) – mass of filter paper
= 100
5 The students should find that iron(II) sulfate is
95 × 50 also formed in this reaction.
= 100 = 47.5 tonnes
3.40 SC5.11w Limiting reactant – Strengthen
7 a moles AgNO3 = 108 + 14 + (3 × 16) = 0.02
b moles AgCl = 0.02 a moles Zn = 3.25/65 = 0.05

c mass of AgCl = 0.02(108 + 35.5) = 2.87 g b 0.05 mol CuSO
2.24 c moles CuSO4 = 10/(63.5 + 32 + (4 × 16)) =
d percentage yield = 2.87 × 100
0.0627
percentage yield = 78% d There are not enough moles of Zn to react
e A specific practical reason such as: some with all the CuSO , so CuSO is in excess
of the silver chloride stuck to the inside of and Zn is the limiting reactant.
the beaker, some small pieces of silver e 1 mol of Zn produces 1 mol of Cu, so 0.05
chloride passed through the filter paper. mol of Zn produces 0.05 mol Cu.
8 Overall yield in two-step process is 65 × 0.75 = mass Cu = 0.05 × 63.5 = 3.175 g
48.75% so is less efficient than a one-step f The reaction may not be complete or the
process with 60% yield. zinc may not be pure.
SC5.10w Reaction between iron and

copper sulfate solution 6. Chemical formulae, equations
and calculations, Part two
1 a Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu SC6.1w Chemical calculations
63.5
b mass of copper = mass of iron × 56 1 a 2g
c 2Fe + 3CuSO4 → Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Cu b 20 g
c mass of copper = mass of iron × c 110 g
(3 × 63.5) 2 a 0.50 mol
(2 × 56)

Answers
b 0.75 mol c Mr of O2 = 32;

c 2.5 mol mass of O2 = 0.24 g
3 a 36 dm3 3 a 0.0125 mol
b 120 dm3 b 0.0125 mol
c 0.60 dm3 c 300 cm3
4 a 0.50 mol 4 a 0.060 mol
b 0.15 mol b 0.040 mol
c 0.0050 mol c Mr of FeCl3 = 162.5;
mass of FeCl3 produced = 6.5 g
SC6.2w Gas volume calculations 5 a methane 30 dm3; steam 60 dm3
Strengthen
b 5.0 mol
1 a 1 mol c Mr of CO2 = 44;
b 100 cm3 amount of CO2 = 1.25 mol;
2 2 × 250 = 500 cm3 mass of CO2 = 55 g
3 a 48 000 cm3 6 amount of Cl2 = 7.50 × 10–4 mol;
b 240 cm3 amount of Cu = 7.50 × 10–4 mol;
4 a 0.050 mol mass of Cu = 0.048 g
b 0.0042 mol 7 a 29 cm
5 a 0.50 mol b i 18 cm
b 0.50 mol ii 36 cm
c 12 dm3
d 12 dm3 SC6.5w Finding concentration of salt in
sea water
SC6.3w Gases and calculations
Homework 1 If students have planned their own method, it
should be similar to the method given on the
1 a 160 cm3 worksheet.
b 0.01 mol Answers to questions on page 1
c 0.32 g 1 students’ own results
2 a 0.025 mol 2 a mass of salt = mass of evaporating basin
b 0.025 mol and salt – mass of empty evaporating
basin
c 600 cm3
b concentration of salt
3 a 0.30 mol
mass of salt in 20 cm3 sea water
b 0.20 mol = × 1000
20
c i 162.5 3 Possible errors: salt spits out of basin, which
ii 32.5 g results in a lower mass of salt and a lower
concentration; inaccurate volume of sea water
4 a i 30 dm3 measured – if the volume is greater than 20
ii 60 dm3 cm3, the calculated concentration will be higher
b Mr of H2 = 2; amount of H2 = 5.0 mol; mass than it should be and vice versa for a lower
of H2 = 10 g volume.
4 Heat the basin gently so the water evaporates
SC6.4w Mass and volume calculations slowly / use a boiling water bath to prevent salt
Homework 2 from spitting out of the basin; use a burette or
graduated pipette to measure the volume of
solution more accurately.
1 volume occupied by one mole; of molecules; of
any gas; at room temperature and pressure 5 Measure the mass of evaporating basin and
sea water before heating it: mass of water =
2 a 180 cm3
mass of evaporating basin and sea water –
b 0.0075 mol

Answers
mass of evaporating basin and salt. Then, 26.48

concentration = 207 + (2 × 14) + (6 × 16)
calculate:
mass of salt dissolved in 100 g of seawater concentration = 0.08 mol dm−3
mass of salt in mass of solution used or
= mass of water in the solution × 100
6.62
moles Pb(NO3)2 = 207 + (2 × 14) + (6 × 16)
1 students’ own results moles Pb(NO3)2 = 0.02
2 a mass of salt = mass of evaporating basin 0.02
concentration = 250 × 1000
and salt – mass of empty evaporating
basin concentration = 0.08 mol dm−3
b concentration of salt
mass of salt in 20 cm3 sea water
SC6.7w Solutions – Strengthen
= 20 × 1000
1 working to show concentration of solution
3 a Salt spits out of the basin.
2.0
b Heat the basin gently so the water = 100 × 1000 = 20.0 g dm−3
evaporates slowly / use a boiling water
5.2
bath to prevent salt from spitting out of the 2 concentration = 250 × 1000
basin.
concentration = 20.8 g dm−3
4 Measure the mass of evaporating basin and
sea water before heating it. 3 working to show concentration of solution
0.015
= 50 × 1000 = 0.30 mol dm−3
SC6.6w Calculating concentrations of
solutions 0.0015
4 concentration = 75 × 1000
1 working to show concentration of solution concentration = 0.02 mol dm−3
4.0 5 a Mr KCl = 39 + 35.5 = 74.5
= 250 × 1000 = 16.0 g dm−3
b working to show concentration of solution
2.5
2 concentration = 125 × 1000 14.9
= 74.5 = 0.2 mol dm−3
1.89
3 working to show concentration of solution 6 concentration = 65 + (2 × 14) + (6 × 16)
0.025 concentration = 0.01 mol dm−3
= 100 × 1000 = 0.25 mol dm−3
7 a Mr Na2SO4 = (2 × 23) + 32 + (4 × 16)
0.1
4 concentration = 200 × 1000 Mr Na2SO4 = 142
b working to show concentration of solution
concentration = 0.5 mol dm−3
= 0.2 × 142 = 28.4 g dm−3
5 working to show concentration of solution
8 concentration
28
= 39 + 16 + 1 = 0.5 mol dm−3 = 0.25 × [(2 × 27) + (3 × 32) + (12 × 16)]
32.2 = 85.5 g dm−3
6 concentration = 65 + 32 + (4 × 16)
concentration = 0.2 mol dm−3 SC6.8w Concentrations – Homework 1

7 working to show concentration of solution 0.26
= 0.2 × (23 + 35.5) = 11.7 g dm−3 1 concentration = 100 × 1000
8 concentration
= 0.25 × [(2 × 39) + 32 + (4 × 16)] 10
= 43.5 g dm−3 2 mass = 1000 × 50 = 0.5 g
6.62 0.00125
9 concentration = 250 × 1000 3 concentration = × 1000
25
concentration = 26.48 g dm concentration = 0.05 mol dm−3
0.05
4 moles = 1000 × 75 = 0.00375

Answers
2.02 0.208
5 concentration = 39 + 14 + (3 × 16) mass = 1000 × 25
concentration = 0.02 mol dm−3 mass = 5.2 × 10−3 g

6 concentration or
= 0.125 × [(2 × 23) + 12 + (3 × 16)] 1 × 10−3
moles = 1000 × 25
= 13.25 g dm−3
moles = 2.5 × 10−5
SC6.9w Concentrations and moles mass = 2.5 × 10−5 × [137 + (2 × 35.5)]
Homework 2 mass = 5.2 × 10−3 g
1.00
1 a concentration = 0.05 × (1 + 35.5) 3 a concentration = 100 × 1000
b concentration = 0.025 × [1 + 14 + (3 × 16)]
10.0
concentration = 1.575 g dm−3 concentration = 23 + 16 + 1
c concentration = 0.15 × (39 + 16 + 1) concentration = 0.25 mol dm−3
concentration = 8.4 g dm−3 or
d concentration 1.00
moles NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1
= 1.25 × 10−3 × [(2 × 23) + 12 + (3 × 16)]
= 0.1325 g dm−3 moles NaOH = 0.025
2 a concentration = 0.1 × (39 + 16 + 1) 0.025
= 5.6 g dm−3
5.6 concentration = 0.25 mol dm−3
mass = 1000 × 250 = 1.4 g 1.96
b concentration = 200 × 1000
or
0.1 concentration = 9.8 g dm−3
moles = 1000 × 250 = 0.025 9.8
concentration = (2 × 1) + 32 + (4 × 16)
mass = 0.025(39 + 16 + 1) = 1.4 g
b concentration = 0.125 × (23 + 35.5) concentration = 0.10 mol dm−3
concentration = 7.3125 g dm−3 or
7.3125 1.96
mass = 1000 × 100 = 0.73125 g moles H2SO4 = (2 × 1) + 32 + (4 × 16)
or moles H2SO4 = 0.02

0.125 0.02
moles = 1000 × 100 = 0.0125 concentration = 200 × 1000
mass = 0.0125 (23 + 35.5) = 0.73125 g concentration = 0.10 mol dm−3

c concentration 0.16
c concentration = 50 × 1000
= 0.25 × [(2 × 23) + 12 + (3 × 16)]
= 26.5 g dm−3
26.5 concentration
mass = 1000 × 75 = 1.9875 g 3.2
= 14 + (4 × 1) + 14 + (3 × 16)
or
0.25 = 0.04 mol dm−3
moles = 1000 × 75 = 0.01875 or
mass = 0.01875[(2 × 23) + 12 + (3 × 16)] moles NH4NO3
mass = 1.9875 g 0.16
= 14 + (4 × 1) + 14 + (3 × 16)
d concentration
= 1 × 10−3 × [137 + (2 × 35.5)] = 0.002
= 0.208 g dm−3 0.002

Answers
5.1 × 10−3 1.204 × 1021
d concentration = 25 × 1000 moles in 25 cm3 = 6.02 × 1023
concentration = 0.204 g dm−3 moles in 25 cm3 = 0.002

0.204 0.002
concentration = 108 + 14 + (3 × 16) concentration = 25 × 1000
concentration = 1.2 × 10−3 mol dm−3 concentration = 0.08 mol dm−3

or
5.1 × 10−3 SC6.10w Acid–alkali titrations
moles AgNO3 = 108 + 14 + (3 × 16) Homework 1
moles = 3 × 10−5
20.0
3 × 10−5 1 a moles of NaOH = 1000 × 0.10
moles of NaOH = = 0.002
concentration = 1.2 × 10−3 mol dm−3
b moles of HCl = 0.002
0.1
4 a 1000 × 25 = 2.5 × 10
−3
c concentration of HCl
1000
0.01 = 0.002 × 12.5
b 1000 × 50 = 5 × 10
−4
= 0.16 mol dm−3

0.136
c 1000 × 250 = 3.4 × 10
−2
2 a moles of HCl =
1.25 × 10−3 10.0
d 1000 × 21.2 = 2.65 × 10−5 1000 × 0.50
5 mass of sodium carbonate used = 0.005
= 21.246 – 18.664 = 2.582 g b moles of NaOH = 0.005
2.582 0.005
moles Na2CO3 = (2 × 23) + 12 + (3 × 16) c volume of NaOH = 0.20 × 1000
moles = 0.0244 volume of NaOH = 25.0 cm3

0.024 3 a 25.5
b 25.55 cm3
concentration = 0.0974 mol dm−3 c KOH + HCl → KCl + H2O
or
2.582 SC6.11w Titration calculations
Homework 2
25.0
10.32 1 moles of NaOH = 1000 × 0.100
concentration = (2 × 23) + 12 + (3 × 16)
moles of NaOH = 0.00250
moles of HCl = 0.00250
0.025
6 a moles = 1000 × 50 = 0.00125 1000
concentration of HCl = 0.00250 × 20.00
b Each magnesium nitrate produces 3 ions,
so total number of ions concentration of HCl = 0.125 mol dm−3
= 3 × 0.00125 × 6.02 × 1023 15.00
2 moles of H2SO4 = 1000 × 0.400
= 2.2575 × 1021
moles of H2SO4 = 0.00600
7 molecules in 1 dm3
1.204 × 1021 moles of NaOH = 0.0120
= 25 × 1000 concentration of NaOH
= 4.816 × 1022 1000
= 0.0120 × 10.0
4.816 × 1022
concentration = 6.02 × 1023 = 1.200 mol dm−3
concentration = 0.08 mol dm−3 25.00
3 moles of NaOH = 1000 × 0.250
or

Answers
moles of H2SO4 = 0.003125 concentration of lactic acid
concentration of H2SO4 1000
= 0.00108 × 25.0
1000
= 0.003125 × 25.0 = 0.0432 mol dm−3
= 0.0500 mol dm−3 b concentration of original lactic acid
10.0 100
4 moles of HCl = 1000 × 0.500 = 0.00500 = 0.0432 × 10.0
moles of NaOH = 0.00500 = 0.432 mol dm−3

1000 concentration of original lactic acid
volume of NaOH = 0.00500 × 0.200
= 0.432 [(3 × 12) + (6 × 1) + (3 × 16)]
volume of NaOH = 25.0 cm3 = 38.9 g dm−3
25.0
5 moles of HNO3 = 1000 × 0.100
7. Ionic bonding
moles of HNO3 = 0.00250
moles of KOH = 0.00250 SC7.1w Rules for forming ions
1000
volume of KOH = 0.00250 × 0.0950 1 Order: H He
volume of KOH = 26.3(2) cm3 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6 a concentration of Na2CO3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
1000 K Ca
= 1.40 × 250 = 5.60 g dm−3
2 the same number of electrons in their outer
concentration of Na2CO3 shell
5.6 3 1+; 2+; 3+; 4+ or 4−; 3−; 2−; 1−
= (2 × 23) + 12 + (3 × 16) 4 Elements in groups 1, 2 and 3 lose 1, 2 and 3
= 0.0528 mol dm−3 electrons, respectively. Elements in groups 5,
6 and 7 gain 3, 2 and 1 electrons, respectively.
or Elements in group 4 can gain or lose 4
moles of Na2CO3 electrons.
1.40 5 They do not form ions.
= (2 × 23) + 12 + (3 × 16) = 0.0132
6 a 13p/14n/10e b 7p/8n/10e
concentration of Na2CO3
1000 SC7.2w Atoms and ions information
= 0.0132 × 250 cards
= 0.0528 mol dm−3
Missing information: argon – no loss or gain;
25.0
b moles of Na2CO3 = 1000 × 0.0528 boron – B, loses 3e, B3+;
moles of Na2CO3 = 0.00132 beryllium – Be, loses 2e, Be2+;
calcium – loses 2e, Ca2+;
moles of HCl = 2 × 0.00132 = 0.00264
chlorine – Cl, gains 1e, Cl−;
concentration of HCl
fluorine – F, gains 1e, F−;
1000
= 0.00264 × 24.50 hydrogen – loses 1e;
= 0.108 mol dm−3 lithium – Li, loses 1e, Li+;
concentration of HCl = 0.108(1 + 35.5) = magnesium – loses 2e, Mg2+;
concentration of HCl 3.94 g dm−3 neon – Ne;
10.80 nitrogen – N, gains 3e, N3−;
7 a moles of NaOH = 1000 × 0.100
oxygen – O, gains 2e, O2−;
moles of NaOH = 0.00108 phosphorus – gains 3e;
moles of lactic acid = 0.00108 potassium – loses 1e; silicon – Si;
sodium – Na, loses 1e, Na+;
sulfur – S gains 2e, S2−.

Answers
SC7.3w Forming ions – Strengthen 3 The lithium atom has two electrons (two dots)
in the first inner shell. (The second and third
1 a electrons b positively, loses c negatively, shells are empty.) The fluorine has two
gains d complete, noble gas/group 0 electrons (two crosses) in the first inner shell
2 a lithium b fluorine c Li+ and F− and eight electrons (seven crosses and one
dot) in the second shell. (The third shell is
empty.)
4
Ion symbol Atomic number Mass Number Protons Neutrons Electrons
K+ 19 39 19 20 18
S2− 16 32 16 16 18
SC7.4w Ions and ionic bonds 5 a not crossed out, in order: sodium, chlorine
Homework 1 b Opposite charges attract (the sodium ion
is positive and the chloride ion is
1 charged, lost negative).
2 negative 6 Arrows go from the two outer electrons in shell
3 anions 3 of the magnesium and take them to the outer
shell of the oxygen atom. The bottom left
4
diagram should show two dots in the first shell
Group Group Group Group and eight dots in the second shell. The bottom
1 2 6 7 right diagram should show two crosses in the
Example Li or Mg or S F or Cl first shell and six crosses plus two dots in the
atom Na Ca second shell.
Ion charge 1+ 2+ 2− 1−
Example Li+ Mg2+ S2− F−
ion
SC7.5w Electron transfer and ions

Homework 2
1 When electrons are transferred between becomes a positive cation and the atom that
atoms, the atom that loses the electrons gains the electrons becomes a negative anion.
2
Element Electron Group Metal or Electrons How many Charge Ion
arrangement number non-metal lost or electrons on ion symbol
gained
Li 2.1 1 metal lost 1 1+ Li+
Na 2.8.1 1 metal lost 1 1+ Na+
Mg 2.8.2 2 metal lost 2 2+ Mg2+
Al 2.8.3 3 metal lost 3 3+ Al3+
O 2.6 6 non-metal gained 2 2− O2−
S 2.8.6 6 non-metal gained 2 2− S2−
F 2.7 7 non-metal gained 1 1− F−
Cl 2.8.7 7 non-metal gained 1 1− Cl−
3 a group 1 = 1+, group 2 = 2+, group 3 = 3+, b Metals form positive ions and non-metals
group 6 = 2− and group 7 = 1− form negative ions.

Answers
4 a i atomic number ii mass number iii ion 2

charge (iv) symbol of element
Ion name Ion Ion name Ion
b 38 protons, 50 neutrons and 36 electrons
formula formula
5 Diagrams should show that the magnesium
atom has two electrons in the first inner shell, carbonate CO32− phosphate PO43−
eight electrons in the second shell and two
electrons in the third shell.
The oxygen atom has two electrons in the first hydroxide OH− sulfate SO42−
inner shell and six electrons in the second
shell. Arrows go from the two electrons in the
third shell of magnesium towards the two ammonium NH4+ nitrate NO3−
spaces in the second (outer) shell of the
oxygen.
6 a Diagrams should show one aluminium chlorate ClO3− hydrogen HCO3−
atom with two electrons in the first inner carbonate
shell, eight electrons in the second shell
and three electrons in the third shell.
SC7.8w Looking at ionic structures
The one nitrogen atom has two electrons Strengthen
in the first inner shell and five electrons in
the second shell.
1 The missing words on the diagram are:
Arrows go from the three outer electrons negative; cation; lattice.
in the third shell of the aluminium atom
The missing words in the sentences are:
towards the three spaces in the second
electrostatic; positively/negatively; negatively/
(outer) shell of the nitrogen.
positively; ions; billions.
b Diagrams should show two sodium atoms 2 The correct names or formulae are: Na2O;
with two electrons in the first inner shell, calcium sulfide or CaSO4; NH4Cl; LiCl; MgO;
eight electrons in the second shell and
calcium nitrate or Ca3N2.
one electron in the third shell.
The one oxygen atom has two electrons in SC7.9w Lattice numbers
the first inner shell and six electrons in the
second shell.
Homework 1
Arrows go from the two outer electrons in 1 a a regular repeating pattern of atoms or
the third shell of each sodium atom ions
towards the second (outer) shell of the
b ionic bond
oxygen.
c electrostatic
SC7.6w Polyatomic ions 2 The missing information from the positive ion
table is: name: lithium, magnesium;
1 calcium carbonate CaCO3 formula: Al3+; charge: 1+, 1+, 2+, 2+.
aluminium nitrate Al(NO3)3 The missing information from the negative ion
sodium sulfate Na2SO4 table is: name: nitride, nitrate;
magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 formula: Cl−; charge: 3−, 1−, 2−, 2−.
aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3 3 a The missing formulae are: NaCl; Na3N;
ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 CaCl2; Ca3N2; Al2O3; AlN.
barium nitrate Ba(NO3)2 b The missing formulae are: NH4NO3;
lithium carbonate Li2CO3 (NH4)2SO4; Ca(NO3)2; CaCO3; NaNO3;
Na2SO4; Na2CO3.
calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2
ammonium chloride NH4Cl
SC7.10w Lattice formulae
potassium chlorate KClO3 Homework 2
magnesium hydrogen carbonate Mg(HCO3)2
1 a a regular repeating pattern of atoms or
ions
b drawing ca regular repeating pattern of
atoms or ionsext to Mg2+

Answers
c MgO electricity when it is a solid and ionic

d 1000 compounds do not.
e There would be twice as many Cl− ions as Substance D because although it has high
Mg2+ ions. melting and boiling points, it conducts
electricity when it is a solid and ionic
2 The forces involved are called electrostatic,
compounds do not.
which are forces of attraction between positive
and negative charges. Thus the positive and Substance E because it has fairly low
negative ions formed in ionic bonds are melting and boiling points and it does not
attracted to each other and form a lattice conduct electricity when it is a liquid,
structure. which ionic compounds do.
3 a NaI 3 conducts electricity when molten
b MgBr2
SC7.12w Properties of ionic
c CsCl
compounds – Strengthen
d BaO
e Mg3P2 1 a high
f Ca3N2 b high
g Al2(SO4)3 2 find out whether the substance conducts
h Ca(NO3)2 electricity when it is molten
i Sr(OH)2 3 a ions
j (NH4)2CO3 b electrostatic forces of attraction
4 –ide ending compounds contain two elements; c Ionic compounds have high melting points.
This is because there are strong
–ate compounds contain two elements + electrostatic forces of attraction between
oxygen. the ions; and so a lot of energy is needed
5 a cobalt chloride; Co3+ and Cl− to separate the ions/overcome the forces.
b potassium borate; K+ and BO 4 a a suitable, labelled circuit diagram
c sodium phosphate; Na+
and P including: low voltage supply, lamp and
d magnesium chlorate; Mg2+ and CIO3− two graphite electrodes connected with
wires, the graphite electrodes are dipping
e cobalt carbonate; Co3+ and CO32− into a beaker of solution
b The lamp would light.
SC7.11w Properties of ionic
5 B
compounds
6 They conduct electricity when the ions are free
1 a high to move.
b no
SC7.13w Ionic compounds
c yes
Homework 1
d yes
2 a Substance A because it has high melting 1 a NaI
and boiling points, does not conduct b K2O
electricity when it is a solid but does
c MgO
conduct when it is a liquid and in aqueous
solution. d CaBr2
Substance C because it has fairly high 2 diagram completed with alternating + and –
melting and boiling points, does not signs
conduct electricity when it is a solid but 3 Ionic compounds have high melting points.
does conduct when it is a liquid and in There are strong electrostatic forces of
aqueous solution. attraction between the ions so a large
Substance F because it has high melting amount of energy is needed to separate them.
and boiling points, does not conduct 4 upper label: lamp
electricity when it is a solid but does lower label: (graphite) electrode(s)
conduct when it is a liquid.
5 D
b Substance B because although it has very
6 the ions can move (between the electrodes)
high melting and boiling points, it conducts

Answers
7 Calcium ion is Ca2+ whereas potassium is K+ areas. There are a cross and a dot placed
and oxide ion is O2– whereas chloride is Cl–; inside each of the four overlapped areas.
there is much stronger attraction between ions 7 C
with two charges than between ions with one
charge. SC8.2w Covalent bonds – Extend
SC7.14w Using ionic substances 1 a A molecular formula tells you the number
Homework 2 of atoms of each element in a molecule. A
structural formula also shows which atoms
1 a Al2O3 are bonded together.
b AgNO3 b Four representations are: H2O; H–O–H; a
2 There are strong electrostatic forces of large circle with two smaller circles
attraction between the ions; a lot of energy is overlapped in different places, with a cross
needed to separate the ions/overcome the and a dot placed inside both overlapped
forces. areas and four more dots (or crosses) in
the large circle outside the overlaps; and
3 a Sodium chloride would melt at the high
one large sphere (symbol O) merged with
temperature in the kiln.
two smaller spheres (both symbol H)
b Aluminium ions have a higher charge (3+) forming a ‘<’ shape.
than sodium ions (+); oxide ions have a
2 a group of atoms held together by (covalent)
higher charge (2–) than chloride ions (–);
bonds
there is a stronger attraction between ions
with higher charges; so more energy is b non-metals
needed to separate them. c hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine (other
4 it contains ions (charged particles); that can possible answers)
move d hydrogen chloride, water, methane,
5 the ions cannot move carbon dioxide (other possible answers)
6 a 10 electrons in each ion e covalent bonding
b i The ions have lost the electrons in the f The outer shells of the atoms overlap, and
outer shell; the protons in the nucleus pairs of electrons are shared between the
attract the remaining electrons more atoms.
strongly. 3 There are one dot and one cross in the
ii Aluminium has more protons in the overlapped area. In the fluorine atom (F) there
nucleus than sodium has (with are two dots on the inner circle and seven dots
magnesium being intermediate on the outer circle outside the overlapped
between the two); the greater number area. In the chlorine atom (Cl) there are two
of protons attract the electrons more crosses on the inner circle, eight crosses on
strongly. the middle circle, and seven crosses on the
outer circle outside the overlapped area.
4 a 0.5 × 10−10
8. Covalent bonding b 0.9 × 10−6
SC8.1w Covalent bonds – Strengthen c 1 × 10−4
d 0.3 × 10−9
1 a group of atoms held together by (covalent) 5 because atoms and molecules are about 1
bonds nanometre (10−9) in size
2 covalent bonds
3 non-metals SC8.3w Covalent bonds and molecules
4 one of: hydrogen chloride, water, carbon dioxide Homework 1
or methane (other correct answers are possible)
1 groups; covalent; share; complete; noble;
5 electrons; covalent; complete/full; eight/8; positive; negative
sharing; two/2; helium
2 molecular elements (underlined):
6 Central atom has two dots on inner circle.
Each of the four surrounding atoms has two oxygen gas; hydrogen gas; chlorine gas
crosses on the inner circles and seven crosses molecular compounds (circled):
on the outer circles outside the overlapped carbon dioxide gas; water; nitrogen hydride

Answers
3 The hydrogen chloride has one dot and one b forces of attraction between positive and
cross in the overlapped area. The chlorine negative charges (between the positive
atom has two crosses on the inner shell, eight nuclei and the negative electrons)
crosses on the middle shell, and seven c because two pairs of electrons are shared
crosses on the outer shell outside the between the atoms, forming a double
overlapped area. covalent bond
The carbon dioxide has two dots and two 3 a C60
crosses in both the overlapped areas. In
addition, both oxygen atoms have two dots on b three
the inner shell and four dots on the outer shell c two from graphene, graphite and diamond
outside the overlapped area. The carbon has
two crosses on the inner shell. SC8.5w Investigating melting points
SC8.4w Covalent bonding 6

Homework 2 Rank 1 = highest, Melting Letter (of
4 = lowest melting point sample)
1 a An element is a substance made up of temperature (°C)
only atoms with the same number of 1 69 Z, dotriacontane
protons in the nucleus (a simple substance 2 59 Y, heptacosane
that contains only one kind of atom).
3 42 X, docosane
Compounds are substances that can be
split into simpler substances, because 4 29 W, octadecane
they contain the atoms of two or more 7 a The sample with the highest melting point
elements joined together (in a set ratio). would be expected to have the longest
Atoms are the smallest neutral part of an carbon chain.
element that can take part in chemical b This is because longer polymers have
reactions. (They are the small particles more intermolecular forces between them.
that make up all matter.) In addition, longer chains get tangled up.
Molecules are particles consisting of two Therefore, more energy is required to
or more atoms joined together by covalent separate longer molecules.
bonding. c If there is a big spread in the values from
Covalent bonds are forces of attraction repeated experiments, and the spread
formed between atoms by the sharing of overlaps the dataset from another
(pairs of) electrons. experiment, then the conclusion will be
b oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), argon (Ar), uncertain as a result. If there is little spread
carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) in data then the outcomes may be more
certain.
c i argon, oxygen or nitrogen
d More repeated readings give you more
ii carbon dioxide or water
evidence of how big the spread is, and so
iii oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide or of how precise your results are.
water
iv argon SC8.6w Carbon compounds and their
d A central circle (carbon atom) with two properties – Homework 2
other circles overlapped on each side
(oxygen atoms) so that the atoms are in a 1 a As the number of carbon atoms increases,
row. There are two crosses and two dots the boiling and melting points increase.
inside both overlapped areas, and there b With increasing length of chain (more
are four more dots (or crosses) on the two carbon atoms), more energy is required to
outside circles (oxygen atoms) outside the break intermolecular forces of attraction
overlapped areas. between molecules. Even though the
2 a ‘strong covalent bonds’ pointing to the intermolecular forces are still weak, there
lines between the C and O atoms within are more along the longer molecules.
the molecules, and ‘weak forces of 2 No; they are simple covalent molecules so
attraction’ pointing to the hashed lines there are no free charge carriers and therefore
between the molecules they would not conduct electricity.
3 a The actual melting temperature of ethene
is –169 °C. A reasonable suggestion might

Answers
be anywhere between –200 °C and – Metallic bonding is strong because there is a strong
150 °C, using the graph as a guide. electrostatic force of attraction between the positive
b Joining monomers increases the melting ions and delocalised electrons.
temperature. The outer shell electrons in a metal move freely
c Poly(ethene) may contain more than and randomly because they are delocalised and
60 carbon atoms in its chains. not located in the outer shell of a particular atom.
d The longer the chain, the higher the Explanation of properties
melting point. Poly(ethene) molecules
come in different lengths. Metals have high densities because the ions are
packed closely together.
4 Branching of the chains will increase the
amount of tangling between the molecules, Metals have high melting points because a lot of
making them harder to separate. So, the more energy is needed to overcome the strong
branching there is, the higher the melting electrostatic forces of attraction between the
points will be. positive ions and delocalised electrons.
Metals are good conductors of electricity because
9. Metallic bonding the delocalised electrons flow through the structure
towards the positive terminal.
SC9.1w Properties of metals and non- Metals are malleable because the layers of ions
metals can slide over each other.
1 SC9.3w Properties of metals

Test Copper Iodine Unknown Strengthen
substance
X 1 False. Non-metals can be solids, liquids or
Appearance brown, grey, shiny grey, shiny gases.
shiny crystals powder 2 False. Only three metals are magnetic.
foil 3 True
Does it yes no yes 4 True
conduct 5 True
electricity?
6 False. Metals have high melting points
Effect of covered changes stays grey, because strong metallic bonds have to be
heat in black to a purple does not broken to melt them/Metals have high melting
powder, gas melt points because there is a strong electrostatic
does force of attraction between the positive ions
not melt and delocalised electrons that needs to be
2 solid, conducts electricity, high melting point overcome.
3 solid, does not conduct electricity, forms a gas 7 False. Metals are malleable because the
at low temperature layers of (positive) ions can slide over each
4 both shiny solids other.
5 X is likely to be a metal. It is grey like iodine 8 False. Metals conduct electricity because
but it conducts electricity like copper and it has delocalised electrons flow through the
a high melting point. structure.
9 True
SC9.2w Metals
SC9.4w Metals and non-metals
Starts and ends correctly matched and arranged in Homework 1
two groups for ‘Bonding and structure’ and
‘Explanation of properties’. 1 a Most metals have a high melting point.
Bonding and structure b Metals are shiny when polished and they
are good conductors of electricity.
Metal ions are always positive because the atoms
c Solid non-metals are brittle when they are
lose the electrons in their outer shell.
hit with a hammer.
Metals are crystalline because the layers of ions d Non-metals are poor conductors of
are packed together in a giant lattice. electricity.

Answers
2 a labels to positive ion and electron b Copper has metallic bonding. It consists of
b positive ions packed closely together in positive ions packed closely together in
layers in a giant lattice, delocalised layers, surrounded by a sea of delocalised
electrons moving randomly between the electrons. It conducts electricity as the
ions delocalised electrons flow to the positive
terminal. It can be scratched by harder
3 a False. Metal atoms need to lose one, two
objects and is malleable as the layers of
or three electrons to get a full outer shell.
ions slide over each other without
b True breaking bonds/attractions.
c False. A metal contains layers of positive Diamond does not have any delocalised
ions in a ‘sea of delocalised’ electrons. electrons or ions so it does not conduct
4 The layers of ions can slide over each other. electricity. It is hard as it consists of a giant
5 Metals consist of positive ions in a sea of structure of carbon atoms held together in
delocalised electrons. The delocalised a rigid lattice by strong covalent bonds. It
electrons flow towards the positive terminal. is brittle as the atoms cannot slide over
each other.
SC9.5w Metals and bonding 6 Metal atoms lose their outer shell electrons to
Homework 2 become positive ions surrounded by a ‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons and, when they are
1 a any two from: high melting points; high connected to a potential difference, the
densities; shiny (when polished); electrons flow to the positive terminal. Graphite
malleable; conduct electricity consists of layers of carbon atoms. Each
carbon atom is joined to three others by
b any two from: can be solids, liquids or
covalent bonds. This leaves one outer shell
gases with low boiling points; low
electron not involved in the bonding. These
densities; solids are not usually shiny;
electrons are delocalised between the layers,
solids are brittle; solids or liquids do not
and when graphite is connected to a potential
conduct electricity (except graphite)
difference, the electrons flow to the positive
2 strong electrostatic force of attraction between terminal.
the positive ions and the negative delocalised
Metal ions are arranged in layers. When the
electrons
metal is hit or bent the layers slide over each
3 The layers of ions can slide over each other. other and the delocalised electrons move and
4 Metals consist of positive ions in a sea of attract the ions again in the new shape so
delocalised electrons. The delocalised metals are malleable. Graphite has only weak
electrons flow towards the positive terminal. forces of attraction between the layers so they
5 a similarity – high melting point can slide over each other and stick to a new
surface. Graphite is not malleable; for
differences – any two from: copper
example, graphite is used in pencil leads as
conducts electricity but diamond does not;
the layers slide over each other and stick to
diamond is hard but copper is more easily
the paper.
scratched; copper is malleable but
diamond is brittle
SC9.6w Bonding models and properties
1, 2
Substance Melting point Soluble in Conductor in Conductor when Type of bonding/
(high/low) water? normal state? in solution? structure
A hexane low no no – covalent, simple
molecular
B sodium chloride high yes no yes ionic (lattice)
C silicon(IV) oxide high no no – covalent, giant
molecular
D sucrose (sugar) low yes no no covalent, simple
molecular
E copper high no yes – metallic (lattice)
F aluminium high no yes – metallic (lattice)

Answers
G magnesium high yes no yes ionic (lattice)

sulfate
H carbon/ graphite high no yes – covalent, giant
molecular
I liquid paraffin low no no – covalent, simple
molecular
J copper sulfate high yes no yes ionic (lattice)
c It is insoluble so it cannot be tested to see

3 It must contain freely moving charged particles.
whether it conducts electricity in solution.
4 Substances that have low melting points are d To test the substance to see if it is ionic,
usually covalent, simple molecular structures. we would need to melt it, and test its
5 Substances that are conductors in the solid conductivity.
state are usually metals. 8 a lithium fluoride (most compounds of a
6 substance H (carbon/graphite) metal and a non-metal)
b carbon dioxide (most non-metal elements
7 a Substances that are non-conductors of
and compounds)
electricity when solid, that conduct when
dissolved in water and that have a high c carbon/diamond
melting point are ionic. d iron (any metal element)
b substance C (silicon(IV) oxide)
SC9.7w Bonding models – Strengthen
1 Missing words are in bold.

Type of bonding Ionic Covalent, simple Covalent, giant Metallic
and structure molecular molecular
Where it occurs mostly compounds most non-metallic a few non-metallic metal/metallic
formed by metals elements and elements and elements and alloys
and non-metals compounds compounds
How bonds form loss and gain of by sharing pairs of by sharing pairs of a sea of freely
electrons electrons between electrons between moving delocalised
atoms atoms electrons
Type of structure billions of positive small groups of giant lattice billions of metal
and negative ions in atoms called structure containing ions held in a lattice
a lattice structure molecules billions of atoms structure
Melting and boiling high (all are solids) low (all states) high (all are solids) high (most are
points solids)
Solubility in water many are soluble in most are insoluble all are insoluble in all are insoluble in
water in water water water
Conductivity do not conduct most do not non-conductors in conductors when
when solid but conduct electricity any state (except solid and when
conduct in liquid or in any state graphite) liquid
solution
Examples NaCl, MgO (or CO2, H2O (or any C (graphite and Fe, Al
any other ionic other simple diamond)
compound) molecular
substance)

Answers
2 a missing words: cross; different; same b Ionic substances conduct electricity when
b atoms; bonds; close molten or dissolved in water because the
ions are free to move (when molten or
SC9.8w Bonding models – Extend in solution).
4 a missing words: dot; electrons; bond; shape
1 The following are sample answers, other b missing words: ions; lattice; bonds
correct answers are possible.
a Strength: It shows what happens to the SC9.10w Using bonding models
electrons to form a bond. Homework 2
Weakness: It looks like the electrons from
different atoms are different. 1 a The magnesium atoms lose two electrons
b Strength: It shows which atoms are joined and the oxygen atoms gain two electrons,
in the molecule. forming positive and negative ions which
are attracted into a lattice structure
Weakness: It looks like there are spaces containing very many ions.
between the atoms.
b Two pairs of electrons are shared between
c Strength: It shows how the ions are an oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms,
arranged in the lattice. forming small, simple molecules of water.
Weakness: It does not show what c The outer electrons of the sodium atoms
happens with the electrons to form the are free to move in all directions and hold
bond. the positive metal ions together in a lattice
2 a A 3D structural diagram showing several structure.
carbon atoms, with each carbon atom d Each carbon atom shares four pairs of
joined to four others, would explain why electrons with four other carbon atoms,
diamond has a very high melting point, as forming a giant molecular (lattice)
lots of strong bonds need to be broken. structure containing many atoms.
b A dot and cross diagram would show one 2 a i C ii A iii D iv B
electron being transferred from the sodium
atom to the chlorine atom. b conductor when in solution or liquid but not
when solid
3 Substance X – covalent, giant molecular due
to very high melting point and non-conductor in c Sodium chloride conducts when molten
any state. and when in solution, as the ions are free
to move. Sodium chloride does not
Substance Y – covalent, simple molecular as conduct when solid, as the ions are locked
low melting point (and does not conduct into the lattice structure.
electricity).
3 The following are sample answers, other
Substance Z – metallic as it is a solid that is a correct answers are possible.
good conductor of electricity.
a&b The dot and cross diagram shows that
one nitrogen atom shares a pair of
SC9.9w Bonding models – Homework 1
electrons with three hydrogen atoms.
1 a Complete dot and cross diagram for It does not show the shape of the
fluorine atom, with two crosses in the first molecule formed.
shell and seven crosses in the second The structural formula shows that three
shell. Complete arrow going from the outer hydrogen atoms are joined to one nitrogen
electron on the lithium atom to the outer atom with single covalent bonds between
shell of the fluorine atom. the nitrogen and hydrogen atoms.
b Complete diagram with positive signs (+) It does not show what happens to the
in blank atoms. electrons to form the bond.
2 structure and bonding types: A, metallic; B, 4 a Enzymes work by having a specific shape
covalent, simple molecular; C, covalent, giant that a specifically shaped substrate fits
molecular; D, ionic; E, covalent, simple into (like a key in a lock). 3D models allow
molecular the visualisation of the shapes.
3 a Simple molecular substances have low b One of: they do not explain how the
melting points because there are only enzyme might react; they do not show the
weak forces of attraction between their changes of shape involved during an
molecules. enzyme-catalysed reaction.

Answers
10. Electrolysis 2 a the process in which electrical energy from

a d.c. supply decomposes electrolytes
SC10.1w Electrolysis definitions b an ionic compound that is molten or
dissolved in water
An anion is a negatively charged particle. The c the positively charge electrode
anode is the positive electrode. d the negatively charged electrode
The cathode is the negative electrode. A cation is a 3 the ions cannot move
positively charged particle. 4 (aq) aqueous; dissolved in water
An electrode is a rod made of a metal or graphite (l) molten or liquid
that carries the current into or out of the electrolyte. 5 With a d.c. the electrons are moving in the
Electrolysis is the process in which electrical same direction so one electrode is always
energy, from a direct current supply, decomposes positive and the other is always negative and
electrolytes. ions of opposite charges will be attracted and
react; with an a.c. supply the electrons are
An electrolyte is an ionic compound that is molten changing directions so the electrodes will
or dissolved in water. alternate between positive and negative
A half equation is an ionic equation showing the charges and the ions will not be able to react.
electrons gained or lost in oxidation or reduction 6 Dichromate ions are orange and have a
reactions. negative charge.
Oxidation is a reaction in which a substance gains
oxygen or loses electrons. SC10.4w Electrolysis and half
equations – Homework 2
Oxidation occurs at the anode.
Reduction is a reaction in which a substance loses 1 a the ions cannot move
oxygen or gains electrons. b the negative electrode
Reduction occurs at the cathode. c towards the positive electrode
d Pb2+(l) + 2e → Pb(l)
SC10.2w Electrolysis – Strengthen e reduction as each lead ion gains two
electrons
1 a electrodes f 2Br−(l) → Br2(g) + 2e / 2Br−(l) – 2e → Br2(g)
b positive
g oxidation as each bromide ion loses an
c negative electron
d negative 2 a cathode
e positive b Na+(l) + e → Na(l)
2 a they contain ions; but the ions cannot c reduction as each sodium ion gains an
move electron
b the ions can move d anode
c it decomposes e 2Cl−(l) → Cl2(g) + 2e / 2Cl−(l) – 2e → Cl2(g)
d when they are dissolved in water f oxidation as each chloride ion loses an
e electrolyte electron
3 a Cl−, O2− 3 a i iodine
b Li+, Ca2+, Zn2+ ii potassium
b 2KI → 2K + I2
SC10.3w Ions and electrolysis
Extra challenge
Homework 1
4 2O2−(l) → O2(g) + 4e / 2O2−(l) – 4e → O2(g)
1 a any two from: Cl−, CO3 , NO3 , SO4 b Al3+(l) + 3e → Al(l)
b any two from: Al3+, Ca2+, H+ c 2Al2O3 → 4Al + 3O2
c any two from: CH4, CO2, H2O, SO2
d any two from: Cl−, CO32−, NO3−, SO42− SC10.5w Examples of electrolysis
e CaCO3
1 unreactive
f AlCl3
2 a bromine

Answers
b potassium arrows drawn from Cl− and OH− towards

3 H+ and OH− the positive electrode
4 a They each gain two electrons. c copper
b They each lose an electron to form an d chlorine
atom, then two atoms join together to form 3 a hydrogen/H2
a molecule. b H+ ions gain electrons to form atoms then
c CuCl2(aq) → Cu(s) + Cl2(g) pairs of atoms join together to form
5 a hydrogen ions gain electrons more easily molecules.
than sodium ions c oxygen/O2
b sodium hydroxide solution d 2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
6 a cathode – hydrogen; anode – chlorine e sulfuric acid
b potassium hydroxide solution 4 a aqueous copper sulfate
7 a Cu2+, SO 2−, H+ and OH−. b copper atoms lose two electrons each; to
b brown solid deposited form copper ions; the ions dissolve in the
solution; the impurities do not form ions;
c Cu2+(aq) + 2e → Cu(s) reduction
they fall to the bottom of the beaker; and
d effervescence form an anode sludge
e 4OH−(aq)→ O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e oxidation c copper ions gain two electrons each; to
f H2SO4 form copper atoms; which stick to the
cathode
SC10.6w Electrolysis of salts d no change
Strengthen
SC10.8w Electrolysis and equations
1 a unreactive Homework 2
b cathode
c they gain two electrons 01 Hydrogen ions gain electrons more easily than
sodium ions.
d anode
02 hydroxide ions, from the water, lose electrons
e they lose an electron to form an atom then to form oxygen and water
two atoms join together
03 a oxygen
2 a there are water molecules in the solution
and some of them split up to form ions b hydrogen
b they lose an electron to form an atom then c magnesium sulfate
two atoms join together 04 a anode – oxygen; cathode – copper
c it turns damp blue litmus paper red then b anode – copper dissolves; (cathode –
white copper still formed); (solution stays the
d hydrogen ions gain electrons more easily same)
than sodium ions 05 anode – chlorine formed, chloride ions lose
e they gain an electron to form an atom then electrons to form atoms, pairs of atoms join
together to form molecules/2Cl−(aq) → Cl2(g)
two atoms join together
f sodium hydroxide, NaOH cathode – hydrogen formed, hydrogen ions
gain electrons to form atoms, pairs of atoms
g use molten sodium chloride or any other join together to form molecules/2H+(aq) + 2e →
molten sodium salt H2(g)
SC10.7w Electrolysis summary 06 a Al3+ + 3e → Al

Homework 1 b 2Cl− → Cl2 + 2e
c 4OH−→ O2 + 2H2O + 4e
1 a zinc
07 a reduction as the aluminium ions have
b bromine
gained electrons
2 a positive electrode labelled as anode
b and c
negative electrode labelled as cathode
oxidation as the chloride and hydroxide
b arrows drawn from Cu2+ and H+ towards ions have lost electrons
the negative electrode

Answers
Extra challenge SC11.2w The alkali metals – Strengthen

08 a anode: 2Cl−(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e
1 a soft
cathode: 2H+(aq) + 2e → H2(g)
b low
product left in solution: NaOH
c float
b anode: 4OH−(aq)→ O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e
2 The lithium drawing should show a solid piece
cathode: 2H+(aq) + 2e → H2(g) of metal forming bubbles of gas on the surface
product left in solution: H2SO4 of the water.
c anode: 4OH−(aq)→ O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e bubbles; melt; flames
cathode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e → Cu(s) 3 sodium hydroxide; Na; 2: H2
product left in solution: H2SO4 4 The least reactive of these metals is – lithium.
09 2CuSO4 + 2H2O → 2Cu + O2 + 2H2SO4 After cutting, these metals become dull – as
they react with oxygen.
10 Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e
When alkali metals react – their atoms lose
one electron.
11. The alkali metals The most reactive alkali metals – have the
largest atoms.
SC11.1w The alkali metals The metals with the largest atoms – lose
electrons more easily.
1 Students’ own tables Of these, the metal with the largest atoms is –
2 Compared to common metals such as iron and potassium.
copper, the alkali metals are generally softer,
and have lower melting points, boiling points SC11.3w Chemical equations – Extend
and densities. Both are good conductors of
electricity. 1 When alkali metals react they lose their outer
3 a lithium + oxygen → lithium oxide electron; this is easier the further away the
4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s) outer electron is from the nucleus. Therefore,
the reactivity will increase as the size of the
sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide
atoms increases going down the group of alkali
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s) metals.
potassium + oxygen → potassium oxide 2 a i lithium + water → lithium hydroxide +
4K(s) + O2 (g) → 2K2O(s) hydrogen
b lithium + water → lithium hydroxide + ii rubidium + oxygen → rubidium oxide
hydrogen b i 2Cs + 2H2O → 2CsOH + H2
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g) ii 4K + O2 → 2K2O
sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + c i 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
hydrogen
ii 4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s)
2Na(s) + 2H O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H (g)
d i 2Rb + 2H2O → 2Rb+ + 2OH– + H2
potassium + water → potassium hydroxide or 2Rb(s) + 2H2O(l)
+ hydrogen
→ 2Rb+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) + H2(g)
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
ii 2Li + 2H2O → 2Li+ + 2OH– + H2
4 lithium < sodium < potassium or 2Li(s) + 2H2O(l)
5 Reactivity increases down the group in the → 2Li+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) + H2(g)
periodic table.
3 a Compared to iron, sodium will have lower
6 The larger the atoms (the further from the melting and boiling points.
nucleus the outer electrons) the more reactive
the alkali metal. b Compared to iron, sodium will have a
lower density.
7 The melting points, boiling points and
hardness of elements decreases down the c Iron and sodium will have similar
alkali metal group. conductivity properties.
d Compared to iron, sodium will be softer.

Answers
SC11.4w Group 1 – Homework 1 b The metal would be above sodium in the

periodic table as it is less reactive than
1 The names of the groups are: group 1 – alkali sodium.
metals, group 7 – halogens and group 0 – 4 a lithium + oxygen → lithium oxide
noble gases. The symbols for the group 1 b 4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s)
elements are, in order: Li, Na, K.
5 a Missing information (from top left) is: 3;
2 a Y 2.1; 2; 11; 2.8.1; 3; 2.8.8.1; 4.
b potassium b Because they contain more occupied
c lithium electron shells.
d sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + c When alkali metals react they lose their
hydrogen outer electron; this is easier the further
away the outer electron is from the
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
nucleus. Therefore, the reactivity will
3 Q is the alkali metal because it has the lowest increase as the number of occupied
melting and boiling points and is soft, electron shells increases.
compared to the other three metals. 6 Y is the alkali metal as all alkali metals are
relatively soft, low melting point metals.
SC11.5w Group 1 – Homework 2
7 40 °C ± 5 °C
1 Rubidium would vigorously burst into flames/ as melting points are decreasing down the
rubidium would explode. group, with the gap between them getting
smaller as we go down the group
2 2Rb(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2RbOH(aq) + H2(g)
8 2Cs + 2H2O → 2Cs+ + 2OH– + H2
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
OR
3 a The sodium reacts with the oxygen in the
air OR the sodium oxidises OR sodium 2Cs(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2Cs+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
oxide is formed. + H2(g)
12. The halogens

SC12.1w Displacement reactions
Page 1
1
Potassium chloride Potassium bromide Potassium iodide Extra challenge
Halogen solution solution solution effect on blue
litmus paper
chlorine water ✗ ✓ ✓ quickly turns blue

litmus red then
bleaches
bromine water ✗ ✗ ✓ turns blue litmus
red and bleaches
very slowly or not
at all
iodine water ✗ ✗ ✗ no change in blue
litmus paper
2 chlorine > bromine > iodine 3 Fluorine will be the most reactive and astatine
The more reactive halogens will take part in will be the least reactive, as reactivity
more (displacement) reactions. decreases down the group.
4 Sample answer (other answers possible).
When chlorine reacts with potassium bromide

Answers
Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq) 5 The trend in reactivity was that the halogens
the chlorine atoms form potassium chloride/ are more reactive near the top of the group.
chloride ions/lose electrons. This fits with the displacement reactions, as
the halogens near the top of the group can
The bromide ions form the element bromine/
displace halogen/halide ions from solutions of
bromine molecules/gain electrons.
those further down the group, and are
therefore more reactive.
Page 2
1
Potassium Potassium Potassium iodide Extra challenge
Halogen chloride bromide solution
effect on blue litmus paper
solution solution
chlorine water ✗ ✓ ✓ quickly turns blue litmus red then

bleaches
bromine water ✗ ✗ ✓ turns blue litmus red and bleaches very
slowly or not at all
iodine water ✗ ✗ ✗ no change in blue litmus paper
2 chlorine > bromine > iodine b The sodium ion/Na+ ion. It can be missed
3 The reactivity decreases down the group. out of the ionic equation as it doesn’t
change during the reaction.
4 Only halogens higher up the group can
displace halogen (halide) ions further down the c This is a redox reaction because electrons
group. are transferred. Fluorine gains electrons
so is reduced and sodium chloride loses
5 It will be the most reactive, as reactivity
electrons and so is oxidised.
decreases down the group.
6 It will be the least reactive as reactivity SC12.3w Halogen reactivity
decreases down the group.
Strengthen
7 Because mixing some solutions makes the
colour paler as the solution is diluted. 1 The missing information from the table, from
8 React the three halogens with something else left to right is: bromine; 53; 7; 7; 3;
(e.g. a metal) and note the difference in de(creasing); burns quickly/brightly.
reactivity. The missing words from the sentences are:
seven/7; gain; ion; electron; more; decreases;
SC12.2w Thinking about halogens extra.
2 Only chlorine and sodium bromide react as
1 a sodium bromide + chlorine → sodium only in this pair is the halogen more reactive/
chloride + bromine higher up the group than the halide ion in the
2NaBr(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(aq) + compound.
Br2(aq) 3 a potassium bromide + chlorine →
b missing words: displacement, displacing, potassium chloride + bromine
compound b lithium iodide + chlorine →
2 a iodine then bromine then chlorine lithium chloride + iodine
b The greater the number of electron shells, c 2KBr(aq) + Cl2(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
the less reactive the halogen, as the d 2NaCl(aq) + F2(g) → 2NaF(aq) + Cl2(aq)
incoming electron is less attracted to the
nucleus that is further away.
SC12.4w Halogen reactivity
3 Chlorine + sodium iodide will react as chlorine
Homework 1
is more reactive than iodine and will displace it
from a compound.
1 a false
4 a F2(g) + 2NaCl(aq) → 2NaF(aq) + Cl2(aq)
F2(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) → 2F–(aq) + Cl2(aq) b true

Answers
c false has a greater attraction for the electron being

d true added.
2 a The order of increasing reactivity of group 3 a More reactive element takes the place of a
7 elements is I2 < Br2 < Cl2 < F2. less reactive element in a compound.
c Fluorine will displace iodine from lithium b Br2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → 2KBr(aq) + I2(aq)
iodide solution. 4 Chlorine reacts with sodium bromide (bromine
3 The halogen fluorine is the … most reactive in does not react with potassium chloride) as only
the group. a more reactive halogen, one higher up the
group, will react with / displace a less reactive
When fluorine reacts it forms … fluoride ions
halide ion, one lower down the group, from its
by gaining electrons.
compounds.
Fluorine atoms have fewer … occupied
5 a Oxidation is the loss of electrons (by an
electron shells than other halogens.
atom, molecule or ion) and reduction is the
The fluorine atoms gain … electrons more gain of electrons (by an atom, molecule or
easily than other halogens. ion); OIL RIG.
4 a Astatine is less reactive than other b Halogens are usually reduced as they
halogens as it is at the bottom of group 7 have seven electrons in their outer shell.
and reactivity decreases down the group. They will gain one electron to attain a
b Astatine has more electron shells than stable outer electron shell, like a noble
other halogens so the nucleus has less gas.
attraction for outer electrons and will react 6 a The chlorine is reduced as it gains
less easily. electrons.
c i sodium + astatine → sodium astatide b Ca → Ca2+ + 2e−
ii Br2(aq) + 2KAt(aq) → 7 a The fluorine molecules are reduced and
the bromide ions are oxidised.
At2(aq) + 2KBr(aq)
b reduction: F2(g) + 2e− → 2F−(aq)
SC12.5w Halogen reactivity oxidation: 2Br−(aq) → Br2(aq) + 2e−
Homework 2 8 a An ion that doesn’t take part in the
reaction or is not changed by the reaction.
1 iodine < bromine < chlorine < fluorine as the b Br2(aq) + 2I−(aq) → 2Br−(aq) + I2(aq)
trend is that the reactivity decreases down the
c Br2(aq) + 2e− → 2Br−(aq) reduction 2I−(aq)
group of halogens.
→ I2(aq) + 2e− oxidation
2 Fluorine is more reactive than chlorine
because it has fewer electron shells and so
SC12.6w Properties of halogens
1 Other answers are possible for sources and uses.

Formula Appearance Sources Uses
chlorine Cl2 pale green gas; smells chloride in sea salt bleaches, disinfectants and
choking, like swimming pools water treatment
bromine Br2 brown liquid bromide in sea salt disinfectants and pesticide
iodine I2 purple/black solid iodide in sea salt disinfectants
other medicines
2
Atomic Atomic Bonding and structure Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C) Density
number size (pm)* (g dm–3)
17 99 covalent molecular –101 –35 3.2
35 114 covalent molecular –7 59 3120
53 133 covalent molecular 114 184 4930
* covalent radius, other values possible

Answers
3 They are all covalent molecular with two atoms b sodium + bromine → sodium bromide
in each molecule (formula X2). 2 a Br2(l) + 2Na(s) → 2NaBr(s)
4 Both increase. b H2(g) + F2(g) → 2HF(g)
5 melting point = 250°C ± 80 °C boiling point = 3 a Br2(l) + H2(g) → 2HBr(g)
350 °C ± 80 °C
b F2(g) + Fe(s) → FeF2(s)
6 Fluorine is a pale coloured gas and astatine is
4 a iodine + magnesium → magnesium iodide
a black solid.
I2(s) + Mg(s) → MgI2(s)
7 Increasing atomic number means increasing
numbers of electrons/electron shells, which b chlorine + potassium → potassium
account for most of the volume of an atom, so chloride
Cl2(l) + 2K(s) → 2KCl(s)
atomic size increases with atomic number.
8 Place moist blue litmus paper in chlorine and it c chlorine + hydrogen → hydrogen chloride
Cl2(l) + H2(g) → 2HCl(g)
first goes red then bleaches white.
5 a 3F2(l) + 2Al(s) → 2AlF3(s)
SC12.7w Equations for the reactions of b 2Br2(l) + Pb(s) → PbBr4(s)
halogens c 2Li(s) + F2(g) → 2LiF(s)
d 5Cl2(g) + 2P(s) → 2PCl5(s)
1 a hydrogen + chlorine → hydrogen chloride
SC12.8w Group 7 – Strengthen
1
Halogen Symbol Formula Colour State
chlorine Cl Cl2 pale green gas
bromine Br Br2 brown liquid
iodine I I2 purple/black solid
missing text: halogens; molecular; two; covalent

2 (a) increase 5 There would be a slow change in colour (on
(b) 300 °C heating). It would be less reactive than the
other three halogens as the trend is to become
3 (a) hydrogen + iodine → hydrogen iodide less reactive down the group.
(b) copper + chlorine → copper chloride The product formed would be called zinc
astatide.
(c) hydrogen chloride + water
6 Place moist blue litmus paper in chlorine and it
→ hydrochloric acid first goes red then bleaches white.
4 (a) iodine < bromine < chlorine
(b) Both fluorine and astatine would react with SC12.10w Group 7 – Homework 2
metals, forming metal halides, and with
hydrogen, forming hydrogen halides 1 a Chlorine is a pale green gas, bromine is a
(which are acidic). Fluorine would be the brown liquid and iodine is a purple/black
most reactive and astatine the least solid.
reactive. b Astatine is predicted to be a dark/black
solid.
SC12.9w Group 7 – Homework 1 2 covalent bonding
1 Across: 4 iodide, 5 fluoride, 7 covalent, 8 two, 3 a Scatter graph with axes correctly labelled,
9 brown, 10 chlorine scales chosen to include all data (including
the atomic number of astatine: 85) and to
Down: 1 acid, 2 hydrochloric, 3 lead, 5 fluorine, fit graph.
6 bromine
b Best fit line giving a prediction of relative
2 a increasing atomic mass of 210 ± 5.
b gas; –200 °C ± 50 °C 4 a Scatter graph with axes correctly labelled,
3 sodium + iodine → sodium iodide scales chosen to include all data (including
4 H2(g) + F2(g) → 2HF(g)

Answers
the atomic number of astatine: 85) and to use the composition of substances in the
fit graph. layers.
b Best fit line giving predicted melting point b One from: clearly demarked rings, rings
of about 300 °C ± 80 °C. that are a consistent width around a trunk
5 a Cl2(g) + 2Ag(s) → 2AgCl(s) and don’t form wave-like patterns, trees
that naturally produce thicker rings
b 3Br2(l) + 2Al(s) → 2AlBr3(s)
because they grow faster.
6 Place moist blue litmus paper in chlorine and it
c Both sets of data may also be influenced
first goes red then bleaches white.
by other factors such as nutrient sources
7 a i F2(g) + H2(g) → 2HF(g) and local variations.
ii F2(g) + Zn(s) → ZnF2(s) 6 Both temperature change and carbon dioxide
b The reaction of fluorine with zinc foil would concentration change in similar ways at the
be very violent/the zinc would burn same time.
violently in fluorine. 7 Carbon dioxide absorbs infrared radiation.
c i hydrofluoric acid Satellite data shows that there has been a
ii H+ and F– reduction in infrared radiation leaving the Earth
as carbon dioxide levels have risen. This
d The pH value will be about 3.0 (± 0.5).
shows a possible mechanism as to how and
Explanation: As we go down the group the why average global atmospheric temperature
decrease in pH value gets smaller so the may have risen.
decrease between fluorine and chlorine
8 Points in support of the idea:
will be slightly greater (1.0) than the
difference between chlorine and bromine ● Carbon dioxide levels have risen a lot
(0.8). recently (top graph) and this has been due
to more people/industry using more and
8 a Scatter graph with axes correctly labelled,
more fossil fuels.
and scales chosen to include all data, the
period number of astatine (6) and to fit ● The bottom graph shows that temperature
graph paper. and carbon dioxide levels are correlated
and so the extra carbon dioxide produced
b Scatter graph with axes correctly labelled,
by people has probably caused the recent
and scales chosen to include all data, the
rise in global temperatures.
atomic number of astatine (85) and to fit
graph paper. Points against/missing evidence:
9 The predicted value using period number will ● There is no information on the sheet that
be slightly lower than that using atomic shows that fossil fuel use has increased
number. during this time period. We need this
information in order to be more sure that
the idea is correct.
13. Gases in the atmosphere ● We cannot be sure that rises in carbon
dioxide in pre-history caused temperature
SC13.2w Carbon dioxide and increases or whether it was the other way
temperature variations around.
● We need information to show that carbon
1 a 1950–2000 dioxide does indeed ‘trap’ energy.
b This is where the line is steepest.
2 About 125 ppmv SC13.3w The atmosphere today
3 burning of fossil fuels, increased deforestation
Strengthen
4 Either concentrations of gases in the cores 1 a Accept answers between 130 000 and
might change over time (due to diffusion, 140 000 years ago.
dissolving, etc.) or ice cores can only be taken
b correlation
from very cold places and the concentration of
carbon dioxide in hot places in 1750 may have c emits, greenhouse, transferred, warm,
been very different. absorb, infrared, increased, decreased
5 a Similarities: both produce bands, one band 2 carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour
per year. Differences: trees are used to 3 causal link – evidence that explains how and
estimate air temperature/coral for water why one variable causes changes in another
temperature, tree measurements use the
width/size of the ring/coral measurements

Answers
correlation – two variables change in a way c Either the laboratory demonstration that
that seems to be linked carbon dioxide absorbs energy or infrared
resolution – the smallest change that can be satellite data.
measured d Thermometers today are more accurate/
4 a Thermometers today are more accurate/ have a better resolution/record
have a better resolution or they record temperature continuously and so are less
temperature continuously and so are less affected by sudden anomalous changes.
affected by sudden anomalous changes.
b The temperature changes in one place in SC13.5w Evidence of a changing
central England are caused by different atmosphere – Homework 2
factors than cause temperature changes
in other parts of the world. 1 air
2 a Answers should include: there are troughs
SC13.4w The composition of the and peaks; where the peaks have
atmosphere – Homework 1 occurred, where the troughs have
occurred, that troughs/peaks seem to have
1 A Energy is transferred from the Sun. a regular 100 000 year cycle.
B Energy from the Sun reaches the Earth’s b A positive correlation only shows that one
surface. variable changes at the same time and in
the same manner as another. There are
C Some emitted energy is transferred to
three different interpretations of this graph:
space.
● that increasing carbon dioxide levels
D Some of the energy that reaches the
cause increasing temperature
Earth’s surface is reflected back into
space. ● that increasing temperature causes
increasing carbon dioxide levels
E The warm Earth emits energy.
● that some other variable causes an
F Most of the energy is absorbed by the
increase in both carbon dioxide and
Earth’s surface, increasing its
temperature at the same time.
temperature.
You cannot tell from the graph alone
G Some of the energy emitted by the Earth is
which of these is correct.
absorbed by greenhouse gases.
3 There was not thought to be any ice present
H When energy is re-emitted it can be
when the Earth was very young.
transferred back to the Earth.
4 a The carbon dioxide level is thought to be
I Greenhouse gases re-emit the energy that
at its highest level for over 400 000 years
they absorb.
now.
2 global warming – a gradual increase in the
b human activity in burning fossil fuels/
temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere
human activity causing deforestation
climate change – alterations to global weather
5 Two from: there is more data; more modern
patterns
measuring systems have a greater resolution/
greenhouse effect – atmospheric gases are more accurate; we can now use data from
trapping energy many monitoring stations placed around the
3 a A relationship between two variables, world (not just Hawaii); we can now use many
whereby if one changes, so does the different ways of measuring carbon dioxide
other. (ground-based monitoring stations,
b Methane, water vapour. There are others oceanbased systems, satellites).
(e.g. nitrous oxide) that should be marked
on their merits.
6 a A, B, D, C
Limestone A B C D
180 : 160 ratio 192 : 800 167 : 937 220 : 1426 89 : 533
180/160 0.24 0.18 0.15 0.17

Answers
b At higher temperatures more of the H218O magnesium ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕
will evaporate and so there will be less H2 sulfate
18O in the water. So, at higher
zinc sulfate ✕ ✕ ✔ ✕
temperatures the shells will contain less
18O. The lowest ratio is C, which means 3 a magnesium, zinc, iron, copper
that this sample has the lowest amount of b An explanation to include: magnesium is
18O compared with 16O. This is therefore the most reactive as it reacted with all the
limestone formed from shells made in the other metal sulfate solutions/had the most
warmest water. ticks; zinc reacted with iron sulfate and
copper sulfate so is more reactive than
iron and copper; iron only reacted with
14. Reactivity series copper sulfate so is more reactive than
copper; copper did not react with any of
SC14.1w Reactions of metals the other metal sulfates so is the least
reactive.
1 a sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + 4 Equations can be in any order.
hydrogen Mg + CuSO4 → MgSO4 + Cu
b zinc + sulfuric acid → zinc sulfate + Mg + FeSO4 → MgSO4 + Fe
hydrogen
Mg + ZnSO4 → MgSO4 + Zn
2 a 2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
b Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Zn + FeSO4 → ZnSO4 + Fe
3 a Cu(NO3)2
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
b (aq)
5 Mg + Cu2+ → Mg2+ + Cu
4 a no reaction
Mg + Fe2+ → Mg2+ + Fe
b Mg + CuO → MgO + Cu
Mg + Zn2+ → Mg2+ + Zn
c no reaction
Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
d Ca + MgSO4 → CaSO4 + Mg
Zn + Fe2+ → Zn2+ + Fe
e no reaction
Fe + Cu2+ → Fe2+ + Cu
f Zn + 2AgNO3 → Zn(NO3)2 + 2Ag
6 In the first three equations above, magnesium
g Mg + 2AgNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + 2Ag
atoms have been oxidised as they have lost
h CuSO4 + 2Ag (two) electrons; Cu2+, Fe2+ and Zn2+ ions have
5 a Mg + Cu2+ → Cu + Mg2+ been reduced as they have gained electrons.
b Mg → Mg2+ + 2e/Mg – 2e → Mg2+ In the next two equations, zinc atoms have
Cu2+ + 2e →Cu been oxidised as they have lost (two)
electrons; Cu2+ and Fe2+ ions have been
c Magnesium atoms have been oxidised as reduced as they have gained electrons.
they have lost (two) electrons; copper ions
have been reduced as they have gained In the last equation, iron atoms have been
(two) electrons. oxidised as they have lost (two) electrons and
Cu2+ ions have been reduced as they have
gained electrons.
SC14.2w Displacement reactions
Answers to questions on page 1 1
1 A suitable table such as the one shown above. Solution
Magnesium
2 Results presented to show reactions, for

example:
Copper
Solution
Zinc
Iron
Magnesium
✕ ✔ ✔ ✔3
Copper
copper sulfate
Zinc
iron sulfate ✕ ✕ ✔ ✔
Iron
magnesium ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕
copper sulfate ✕ ✔ ✔ ✔ sulfate
iron sulfate ✕ ✕ ✔ ✔ zinc sulfate ✕ ✕ ✔ ✕

Answers
2 a magnesium, zinc, iron, copper 2 a potassium + water → potassium hydroxide

b An explanation to include: magnesium is + hydrogen
the most reactive as it reacted with all the b iron + sulfuric acid → iron sulfate +
other metal sulfate solutions/had the most hydrogen
ticks; zinc reacted with iron sulfate and 3 a Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2
copper sulfate so is more reactive than
b Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
iron and copper; iron only reacted with
copper sulfate so is more reactive than 4 a MgCl2
copper; copper did not react with any of b (aq)
the other metal sulfates so is the least
c the blue solution will become paler/
reactive.
colourless; pink/brown copper will form
3 Equations can be in any order.
5 a CaO + Fe
magnesium + copper sulfate → magnesium
b no reaction
sulfate + copper
c ZnO + Fe
magnesium + iron sulfate → magnesium
sulfate + iron d ZnSO4 + Cu
magnesium + zinc sulfate → magnesium e MgCl2 + Zn
sulfate + zinc f ZnCl2 + Cu
zinc + copper sulfate → zinc sulfate + copper g no reaction
zinc + iron sulfate → zinc sulfate + iron 6 a It loses an electron.
iron + copper sulfate → iron sulfate + copper b an ion with one or more positive charge
4 Equations can be in any order. c Sodium atoms form cations more readily
Mg + CuSO4 → MgSO4 + Cu as the higher the metal is in the reactivity
Mg + FeSO4 → MgSO4 + Fe series, the more readily it forms ions.
Mg + ZnSO4 → MgSO4 + Zn
SC14.5w Metals and equations
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
Homework 2
Zn + FeSO4 → ZnSO4 + Fe
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu 1 a J, M, K, L
b J displaced all of the other metals from
SC14.3w The reactivity series their oxides; M displaced K and L but not
Strengthen J; K displaced L but not J or M; and L did
not displace any of the other metals.
1 a calcium + water → calcium hydroxide + 2 a Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2
hydrogen b Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
b zinc + hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + 3 a Ca + FeO → CaO + Fe
hydrogen
b no reaction
2 a 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
c Zn + FeO → ZnO + Fe
b Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2
d 2Al + 3CuO → Al2O3 + 3Cu
3 A description to include: add a piece of zinc to
some copper sulfate solution in a test tube/ e Mg + 2AgNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + 2Ag
beaker; leave it for a few minutes; observe the f no reaction
tube/beaker for any changes; a pink/brown 4 a It loses two electrons.
coating of copper forms on the zinc; the
b Calcium atoms form cations more readily
solution gets paler blue; zinc + copper sulfate
as the higher the metal is in the reactivity
→ zinc sulfate + copper.
series, the more readily it forms ions.
4 It loses two electrons.
Extra challenge
SC14.4w Reactivity of metals 5 a Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
Homework 1 b an ion that does not change during a
reaction
1 A description to include: effervescence/fizzing, c Zn → Zn2+ + 2e/Zn – 2e → Zn2+
floats, moves around, melts/turns to a silver
Cu2+ + 2e → Cu
ball, disappears.

Answers
d Zinc atoms have been oxidised as they c Rust flakes off the metal, exposing the
have lost (two) electrons; copper ions metal to air/oxygen and water.
have been reduced as they have gained 3 a Oil: this lubricates the moving parts. Paint
(two) electrons. or plastic would wear away.
6 a Al + Fe3+ → Al3+ + Fe b Painting: this protects the bridge and looks
b Al → Al3+ + 3e/Al – 3e → Al3+ attractive. Oil would wash away. Plastic
Fe3+ + 3e → Fe would be damaged easily.
c Aluminium atoms have been oxidised as c Coating with plastic: plastic is flexible and
they have lost electrons; iron ions have will bend with the wire. Paint would flake
been reduced as they have gained off. Oil would wash away.
electrons. 4 a zinc
b Zinc is more reactive than iron, so it
SC14.6w Oxidation and corrosion oxidises before the iron does/it oxidises
Strengthen instead of the iron.
1 a 4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3 SC14.8w Corrosion and rusting

b Iron reacts with oxygen/gains oxygen. Homework 2
2 a tick placed in box i only
1 a Copper gains oxygen/reacts with oxygen.
b Correct versions of sentences ii, iii and iv,
for example: b Copper oxide is a base. Hydrogen sulfide
acts as an acid. Copper sulfide is a salt.
ii The rusting of iron needs oxygen and
Water is the only other product.
water.
c Copper sulfide gains oxygen/reacts with
iii Rusting does not protect iron from
oxygen.
further corrosion.
d The patina stops oxygen/hydrogen sulfide/
iv A metal for sacrificial protection must be
substances in the environment reaching
more reactive than iron.
the copper and reacting with it.
3 Ticks placed in correct boxes, i.e.
2 a oxygen; water
Method Oxygen Water b hydrated iron(III) oxide
painting ✓ ✓ c Rust flakes off the metal, exposing the
metal to air/oxygen and water.
oiling ✓ ✓
3 a Oil: this lubricates the moving parts. Paint
desiccant ✓ or plastic would wear away.
b Painting: this protects the bridge and looks
argon ✓
attractive. Oil would wash away. Plastic
plastic ✓ ✓ would be damaged easily.
c Coating with plastic: plastic is flexible and
4 a Magnesium is more reactive than iron, so
will bend with the wire. Paint would flake
its reaction with oxygen/air is more violent.
off. Oil would wash away.
b Zinc is also more reactive than iron.
4 a Zinc is more reactive than iron, so it
c Magnesium/zinc/the more reactive metal oxidises before the iron does. The layer
reacts with oxygen and water, instead of does not have to be complete for this to
the iron reacting with oxygen and water/ happen.
before the iron does.
b i Zn  Zn2+ + 2e–
SC14.7w Corrosion – Homework 1 ii Zinc atoms lose electrons.
5 Sodium is too reactive/very reactive; it will
1 a Oxygen is gained/they are reactions with react with water to form sodium hydroxide,
oxygen. which is soluble, so it will wash away.
b The patina stops oxygen/sulfur dioxide/ Extra challenge
substances in the environment reaching
6 a Fe  Fe2+ + 2e–; oxidation, because iron
the copper and reacting with it.
atoms lose electrons
2 a oxygen; water
b 2H2O + O2 + 4e–  4OH–; reduction,
b hydrated iron(III) oxide because water and oxygen gain electrons

Answers
c Fe2+ + 2OH–  Fe(OH)2 5 Tip the mixture into a beaker of water; the
d This is where water and oxygen can react charcoal should float on the top and the
to form hydroxide ions, which react with particles of metal are more dense so they
iron(II) ions forming iron(II) hydroxide, should sink to the bottom.
which becomes rust. Answers to questions on page 2
1
SC14.9w Electroplating – Strengthen
Metal oxide Observations Was metal
1 Oxygen and water only are ticked. formed?
2 a chromium + oxygen chromium oxide copper oxide brown powder yes
b Chromium reacts with oxygen/gains aluminium black powder no
oxygen. oxide
c Chromium oxide is insoluble/does not lead oxide grey solid yes
dissolve in water. magnesium black powder no
d The layer of chromium oxide stops air and oxide
water reaching the metal; it is thin enough 2 copper oxide + carbon → copper + carbon
to see the shiny metal through it. dioxide/copper oxide + carbon → copper +
e Table completed correctly, i.e. carbon monoxide
Feature Corrosion Appearance lead oxide + carbon → lead + carbon dioxide/
resistance lead oxide + carbon → lead + carbon monoxide
shiny ✓ 3 2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO2/CuO + C → Cu + CO
does not corrode ✓ ✓ 2PbO + C → 2Pb + CO2/PbO + C → Pb + CO
covers the surface ✓ ✓ 4 The metals that were formed are lower than
carbon in the reactivity series.
silver coloured ✓
5 It is often difficult to tell if a metal has been
3 Table completed correctly, i.e. formed as it is coated with black charcoal
Steel Zinc Zinc powder.
object chloride 6 Tip the mixture into a beaker of water; the
solution charcoal should float on the top and the
anode ✓ particles of metal are more dense so sink to
cathode ✓ the bottom.
electrolyte ✓
SC15.2w Redox reactions
1 a reduced as it loses oxygen

15. Extraction and uses of metals
b oxidised as it gains oxygen
SC15.1w Extracting metals from their c reduced as it loses oxygen
oxides d reduced as it loses oxygen
e reduced as it loses oxygen
Answers to questions on page 1 f oxidised as it gains oxygen
1 expected results – copper and lead are g reduced as it loses oxygen
formed, aluminium and magnesium are not
formed h reduced as it loses oxygen
2 The results should agree with predictions as i oxidised as it gains oxygen
the metals that are formed are less reactive j oxidised as it gains oxygen
than carbon. 2 a lead oxide + carbon → lead + carbon
3 2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO2/CuO + C → Cu + CO dioxide
2PbO + C → 2Pb + CO2/PbO + C → Pb + CO b 2PbO + C → 2Pb + CO2
4 It is often difficult to tell if a metal has been c carbon/C has been oxidised as it has
formed as it is coated with black charcoal gained oxygen
powder. d lead oxide/PbO has been reduced as it
has lost oxygen

Answers
3 a oxidation as the chloride ions have lost and keep it molten; less energy is used when
electrons aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite
b the anode as oxidation always takes place at 900 °C.
at the anode 3 cathode/negative electrode
4 a C + O2 → CO2
SC15.3w Oxidation and reduction b the carbon/graphite burns away as carbon
Strengthen dioxide
5 a 2O2– → O2 + 4e oxidation
1 a magnesium
Al3+ + 3e → Al reduction
b It has gained oxygen.
2 a copper oxide SC15.6w Metal extraction – Strengthen
b It has lost oxygen.
3 a zinc + lead oxide → lead + zinc oxide 1 a rock that contains enough of a compound to
b Zn + PbO → Pb + ZnO extract a metal for profit
c zinc/Zn as it has gained oxygen 2 gold, silver
d lead oxide/PbO as it has lost oxygen 3 a electrolysis
4 a rusting b heating with carbon
b The coating of paint prevents air and water 4 Aluminium is more reactive than carbon so it
reaching the surface of the iron. forms a stronger bond with oxygen than
carbon forms with oxygen.
c oxidation as the metal gains oxygen
5 Electrolysis of molten iron oxide requires more
d The higher the metal in the reactivity energy to keep the salt molten and for the
series, the more quickly the metal electrolysis than heating with carbon so it is a
corrodes. more expensive method of extraction.
e It is coated with a layer of aluminium oxide 6 a zinc oxide + carbon → zinc + carbon
that prevents air and water from reaching dioxide/monoxide
the aluminium.
b 2ZnO + C → 2Zn + CO2/ZnO + C →
f Gold does not corrode.
Zn + CO
SC15.4w Redox reactions and
equations – Homework 1 SC15.7w Extracting metals
Homework 1
1 a …it gains oxygen.
1 copper is more reactive than gold/gold is less
b …it loses oxygen.
reactive than copper
2 a carbon dioxide
2 a a rock that contains enough of a
b copper compound to extract a metal for profit
c copper oxide + carbon → copper + carbon b tin oxide + carbon → tin + carbon dioxide/
dioxide monoxide
d Copper oxide is reduced because it loses c Electrolysis of molten tin oxide would
oxygen. require more energy to keep the tin oxide
e Carbon dioxide is a gas; it escapes from molten and for the electrolysis than
test tube X; so the mass decreases. heating with carbon so it is a more
3 Magnesium corrodes faster; magnesium is expensive method of extraction.
more reactive than iron; the more reactive a 3 a liquid
metal is, the faster it corrodes. b carbon/graphite
4 The coating of zinc prevents air and water c calcium
reaching the iron.
d chlorine
e Calcium is more reactive than carbon so it
SC15.5w Extraction of aluminium
forms a stronger bond with oxygen than
carbon forms with oxygen.
1 a anodes
b cathode
2 The melting point of aluminium oxide is very
high and a lot of energy is needed to melt it

Answers
4 a 2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO2 c Magnesium/zinc/the more reactive metal
b Bubble it through limewater; the limewater reacts with oxygen and water, instead of
turns milky/cloudy if carbon dioxide is the iron reacting with oxygen and water/
produced. before the iron does.
c The mass will decrease because carbon
dioxide is a gas and it escapes from the SC15.10w Corrosion – Homework 1
test tube.
1 a Oxygen is gained/they are reactions with
oxygen.
SC15.8w Investigating rusting
b The patina stops oxygen/sulfur dioxide/
1 Part 1: the untreated nail should be substances in the environment reaching
surrounded by a blue colour (showing rusting). the copper and reacting with it.
The treated nail should not have rusted 2 a oxygen; water
(except where there may be a break in the b hydrated iron(III) oxide
coating).
c Rust flakes off the metal, exposing the
Part 2: all three nails may be surrounded by a metal to air/oxygen and water.
blue colour (showing rusting). However, the
3 a Oil: this lubricates the moving parts. Paint
nail in contact with magnesium should show
or plastic would wear away.
the least rusting. The nail in contact with
copper often rusts more than the control. b Painting: this protects the bridge and looks
attractive. Oil would wash away. Plastic
2 Only the nail exposed to air and water (the
would be damaged easily.
half-covered nail) should have rusted.
3 It is a control/the other nails can be compared
will bend with the wire. Paint would flake
with it.
off. Oil would wash away.
4 Air and water are needed for iron and steel to
4 a zinc
rust.
b Zinc is more reactive than iron, so it
SC15.9w Oxidation and corrosion oxidises before the iron does/it oxidises
instead of the iron.
Strengthen
1 a 4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3

SC15.11w Corrosion and rusting
Homework 2
b Iron reacts with oxygen/gains oxygen.
2 a tick placed in box i only 1 a Copper gains oxygen/reacts with oxygen.
b Correct versions of sentences ii, iii and iv, b Copper oxide is a base. Hydrogen sulfide
for example: acts as an acid. Copper sulfide is a salt.
ii The rusting of iron needs oxygen and Water is the only other product.
water. c Copper sulfide gains oxygen/reacts with
iii Rusting does not protect iron from oxygen.
further corrosion. d The patina stops oxygen/hydrogen sulfide/
iv A metal for sacrificial protection must be substances in the environment reaching
more reactive than iron. the copper and reacting with it.
3 Ticks placed in correct boxes, i.e. 2 a oxygen; water
Method Oxygen Water b hydrated iron(III) oxide
c Rust flakes off the metal, exposing the
painting ✓ ✓ metal to air/oxygen and water.
oiling ✓ ✓ 3 a Oil: this lubricates the moving parts. Paint
or plastic would wear away.
desiccant ✓
b Painting: this protects the bridge and looks
argon ✓ attractive. Oil would wash away. Plastic
would be damaged easily.
plastic ✓ ✓
4 a Magnesium is more reactive than iron, so will bend with the wire. Paint would flake
its reaction with oxygen/air is more violent. off. Oil would wash away.
b Zinc is also more reactive than iron.

Answers
4 a Zinc is more reactive than iron, so it b Aluminium is stronger/has a higher tensile

oxidises before the iron does. The layer strength; aluminium has no reaction with
does not have to be complete for this to water.
happen. 3 a The alloy is denser than lithium, but less
b i Zn  Zn2+ + 2e– dense than aluminium.
ii Zinc atoms lose electrons. b The alloy is stronger than lithium/50 times
5 Sodium is too reactive/very reactive; it will stronger, and stronger than aluminium/six
react with water to form sodium hydroxide, times stronger.
which is soluble, so it will wash away. c lower density, so parts are more
lightweight; higher tensile strength, so
Extra challenge parts are stronger
6 a Fe  Fe2+ + 2e–; oxidation, because iron
atoms lose electrons SC15.14w Metals, alloys and their uses
b 2H2O + O2 + 4e–  4OH–; reduction, Homework 1
because water and oxygen gain electrons
c Fe2+ + 2OH–  Fe(OH)2 1 a table completed with ticks for: good
conductor of electricity, low density, strong
d This is where water and oxygen can react
when alloyed with other metals
to form hydroxide ions, which react with
iron(II) ions forming iron(II) hydroxide, explanation could include: cable must be
which becomes rust. able to conduct electricity well; it should be
strong but lightweight
SC15.12w Metals – their properties and b table completed with ticks for: ductile,
uses good corrosion resistance
explanation could include: pipes must not
1–4 Students should identify these areas for react with water; plumbers may need to
improvement in the sample answers, with bend pipes into shape
suggested improvements: c table completed with ticks for: very
A The information in the table is restated rather malleable, excellent corrosion resistance
than used. No uses of the metals are given. explanation could include: gold must be
hammered into thin sheets/moulded into
B Most of the information in the table is restated
shape; it must not corrode/it must stay
rather than used. A use of copper is the only
shiny
use given.
d table completed with ticks for: tough,
C Information in the table is used to explain the
makes a ringing sound when hit
uses of two metals, gold and copper. The
reasons for the stated use of aluminium are explanation could include: the bell must
not given. not crack when hit; it must vibrate when hit
so that it makes a ringing sound
SC15.13w Uses of metals and their
alloys – Strengthen SC15.15w Uses of different metals and
alloys – Homework 2
1 Table completed correctly, i.e.
1 a Copper is a very good electrical conductor/
Electrical Roofs for Heat the best conductor of the four metals; it is
Property
wires buildings sinks the second strongest metal; it is more
thermal ✓ expensive than aluminium but much
conductor cheaper than pure gold and 22-carat gold;
electrical it has the second highest tensile strength,
✓
conductor so it will not break easily.
resists b Aluminium has the lowest electrical
✓
corrosion conductivity and tensile strength of the
four metals, but it is the cheapest of the
2 a i Lithium, because its density is less four metals; its density is the lowest, so
than 1 g/cm3. the cables will not be too heavy; its
ii Lithium reacts rapidly with water, corrosion resistance is very good, so it will
forming hydrogen and lithium not corrode easily in use.
hydroxide.

Answers
2 22-carat gold is cheaper than pure gold; it is copper heat sink, because an aluminium one
harder and stronger than pure gold, so it will work almost as well and be more
should not wear away as easily; its resistance lightweight.
to corrosion is excellent/the same as pure 4 a It contains steel, which has a high tensile
gold, so it will stay shiny. strength, and concrete, which has a high
3 Advantages of aluminium: it is cheaper; it is compressive strength.
less dense, so the heat sink will have less b The concrete keeps air/oxygen and water
mass. away from the steel; these are needed for
Disadvantages of aluminium: its thermal rusting to happen.
conductivity is not as good, so it will not c Rusting will cause the steel to expand,
transfer heat so well. which could push the concrete apart. If
Advantages of copper: its thermal conductivity pieces of concrete break off, rusting will
is better, so it should transfer heat better. happen faster/to other areas of steel.
Disadvantages of copper: it is more expensive;
it is denser, so the heat sink may be very
heavy (and might separate if the computer is
16. Acids, alkalis and titrations
moved).
SC16.1w The colours of indicators
Conclusion: for example, it is worth paying
more for a copper heat sink, because it will
1 solution X, pH = 1, acid;
transfer heat more effectively although it may
be heavier; or it is not worth paying more for a solution Y, pH = 13, alkaline
2
Indicator Universal indicator Litmus Phenolphthalein Methyl orange
Colour in acid red red colourless red
Colour in alkali purple blue pink yellow
3 Universal indicator can be a range of different ii green to blue (or purple)

colours depending on the pH; the others have b i blue ii pink iii yellow
only two specific colours.
4 a greater resolution means that smaller
4 where you are testing a range of solutions with changes can be measured (there are more
a range of pH values incremental values) so measurements are more
5 where you want a sharp colour change to accurate
judge when a reaction is complete
6 describing some of the colours was difficult SC16.3w pH and concentration
(other answers possible)
7 recording colours using photographs 1 Flask 1 has the highest concentration and flask
6 has the lowest concentration.
SC16.2w Types of solution 2 a Flask 1 is 10× more concentrated than
Homework 2 flask 2.
b Flask 2 is 10× more concentrated than
1 a add a few drops of universal indicator and flask 3.
compare colour with pH colour chart/use a c Flask 2 is 100× more concentrated than
pH meter flask 4.
b A, B and C d Flask 1 is 100 000× more concentrated
c E and F than flask 6.
d A 3 As the H+ ion concentration increases by a
e i no change ii pH would decrease factor of 10, the pH decreases by 1.
2 a increasing pH: A, C, B and D 4 The lowest concentrations were tested first so
that any contamination of the following
b the highest concentration of H+ ions will solutions would have the least effect on their
have the lowest pH as they are most pH measurement.
acidic and the highest concentration of
OH− ions will have the highest pH as they 5 Both give a measure of pH but the results
are most alkaline using universal indicator were less accurate
because they use whole numbers only.
3 a i red to orange (or yellow or green)

Answers
6 a 0.000001 SC16.7w Soluble salts and titration

b pH = 7 Homework 2
c This is unlikely as a pH of 7 represents a
neutral solution and there must be some 1 a hydrogen ions react with hydroxide ions to
acid still in the solution, as we started with make water; and/or equation given
an acid. H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)
b hydrogen ions from acid; hydroxide ions
SC16.4w A method for titration from alkali (this might also be stated in
part a)
1 Correct order spells NEUTRAL.
2 a sodium sulfate
b sodium sulfate is a soluble salt; salt
SC16.5w Using titration – Strengthen
solution must be neutral; to prevent
contamination from excess acid or alkali
1 a hydrogen
c H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) →
b hydroxide
Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2 a burette
3 a (volumetric) pipette
b clamp/burette holder
b burette
c conical flask
4 a phenolphthalein/methyl orange
d acid
b colour change for indicator named in
e tap
part a, e.g. colourless to pink/red to yellow
f alkali and indicator
5 a measure alkali into a conical flask; usinga
3 H2O(l) pipette and pipette filler; add a few drops of
4 neutralisation indicator; add acid from a burette; continue
5 (volumetric) pipette to end-point/colour change; record start
and end readings; calculate titre
6 boxes 2 and 4 ticked
b two from: wear eye protection/do not
7 (Titration must be used if a soluble salt is
overfill burette/do not fill burette above eye
made from an acid and an) alkali.
level/other suitable safety precaution
(Titration makes sure that the reactants
c two from: add acid drop by drop near the
produce) a neutral solution.
end-point/repeat (until concordant results)/
make sure burette is vertical/take readings
SC16.6w Titration and soluble salts at eye level/use a pipette to measure the
Homework 1 alkali
6 add salt solution to an evaporating basin; heat
1 a H+ = hydrogen ion; OH– = hydroxide ion
to evaporate some of the water; pour off/filter
b H+ from acid; OH– from alkali excess liquid; dry crystals using filter paper/
c (aq) means aqueous solution/dissolved in warm oven
water; (l) means liquid
Extra challenge
2 a sodium sulfate
7 a Graph plotted using a scale that allows the
b allows acid and alkali to be mixed in the plotted points to cover at least 50% of the
correct proportions/produces a salt and area between the axes; axes labelled with
water only quantity and unit; points plotted correctly;
c sulfuric acid + sodium hydroxide → reasonable curve of best fit drawn;
sodium sulfate + water suitable title included.
3 a (volumetric) pipette b volume taken from graph at pH 7; e.g.
b burette 25.0 cm3
c pink to colourless c concentrations must be the same; if same
volumes needed to produce a neutral
d methyl orange solution; students may also provide the
e pour off the liquid/filter to separate the equation HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
crystals; pat the crystals with filter paper/ d The acid is neutralising the alkali; so the
leave the crystals in a warm place to dry pH decreases.

Answers
e The pH changes very rapidly near the end- 10 Repeat the experiment until concordant results
point; she wanted to obtain accurate are obtained / results that agree to within
results near the end-point. 0.2 cm3, this is not necessarily twice more.
f Excess acid is being added to a neutral Take the average of the concordant results, not
solution; so the pH continues to decrease. all results.
SC16.8w Titrations and calculations 17. Acids, bases and salt

1 a i (graduated) pipette preparations
ii to make sure there is no other
solution or water in it that would dilute SC17.1w Words to balanced equations
the sodium hydroxide
1 a HCl
iii Use a pipette filler.
b HNO3
b burette
c H2SO4
c i The acid, alkali and salt solution are
colourless so an indicator is needed d H3PO4
to see when the solution is just e NaOH
neutral.
f Ca(OH)2
ii methyl orange – yellow to
peach/orange 2 a NaCl
or b NaNO3
phenolphthalein – pink to colourless c Na2SO4
d 24.30 cm3 d Na3PO4
25.0 e CaCl2
2 a moles of NaOH = 1000 × 0.20
f Ca(NO3)2
g CaSO4
b moles of HCl = 0.005
h Ca3(PO4)2
c concentration of HCl
3 a NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
1000
= 0.005 × 23.40 = 0.214 mol dm−3 b NaOH + HNO3 → NaNO3 + H2O
SC16.9 Titration experiment c Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + 2H2O

Strengthen d 2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
1 The pipette should be filled with sodium e Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + 2H2O
hydroxide solution, not hydrochloric acid. f Ca(OH)2 + 2HNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O
2 The solution must be on the mark, not above it, g 3NaOH + H3PO4 → Na3PO4 + 3H2O
before being emptied into the conical flask.
3 The jet below the tap must be full of acid, not SC17.2w Balancing equations
empty.
Strengthen
4 Remove the funnel from the top of the burette
instead of leaving it there. 1 a base; water
5 The phenolphthalein must be added to the b alkali
solution in the conical flask, not to the burette.
c acid; neutralisation
6 The white tile should be on the burette stand
2 acidic solution below pH 7; neutral solution pH 7
with the flask on top, do not stand the burette
on the white tile. 3 pH increases; goes higher than 7 if enough
alkali is added
7 The hydrochloric acid is added to the sodium
hydroxide solution, not the other way around. 4 lithium Li+; barium Ba2+; hydroxide OH−
8 Phenolphthalein changes from pink to 5 a LiOH
colourless, not yellow to orange, or methyl b Ba(OH)2
orange changes from yellow to orange, not c HCl
phenolphthalein.
6 solid; (l); gas; (aq)
9 Read the volume from the bottom of the
7 LiOH + HCl → LiCl + H2O
meniscus, not the top.

Answers
8 Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → BaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) it will form an alkaline solution; copper(II)
9 same number of atoms of each element on oxide is insoluble so it will not form an
both sides; 2 K atoms; 6 O atoms; 4 H atoms; alkaline solution.
1 S atom 4 a use universal indicator and a pH colour
chart/use a pH meter
SC17.3w Alkalis and equations b neutralisation
Homework 1 c The pH increases; from below 7; to above
7.
1 a Na+ d Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + 2H2O
b Mg2+
5 a 2CsOH + H2SO4 → Cs2SO4 + 2H2O
c Ca2+
b Ba(OH)2 + 2HNO3 → Ba(NO3)2 + 2H2O
d OH–
c 3Sr(OH)2 + 2H3PO4 → Sr3(PO4)2 + 6H2O
2 a NaOH
b Ca(OH)2 d 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
c H2SO4 e 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
d H2O 6 a Fe2O3 + 2H3PO4 → 2FePO4 + 3H2O
3 substance that reacts with acids to produce b Mr of Fe2O3 = 160; Mr of H3PO4 = 98;
salts and water only Mr of FePO4 = 151; Mr of H2O = 18
4 alkali c 160 + (2 × 98) = 160 + 196 = 356
5 a use universal indicator and a pH colour d (2 × 151) + (3 × 18) = 302 + 54 = 356
chart/use a pH meter
e The answers are the same; atoms are not
b neutralisation made or destroyed in chemical reactions;
c The pH increases; from below 7; to above so the total mass stays the same; and the
7. number of atoms of each element must
d Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + 2H2O also stay the same.
6 a KOH + HNO3 → KNO3 + H2O
SC17.5w Making and testing gases
b Ba(OH)2 + H2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2H2O
Strengthen
7 a 2KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2H2O
b Ba(OH)2 + 2HCl → BaCl2 + 2H2O 1 a iron or magnesium
c Mg(OH)2 + 2HNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + 2H2O b copper or silver
8 State symbols show the physical state of each c potassium or sodium
substance in the reaction; (s) solid; (l) liquid; 2 a zinc + sulfuric acid →
(g) gas; (aq) aqueous solution/dissolved in
zinc sulfate + hydrogen
water.
b Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
SC17.4w Modelling reactions c effervescence/fizzing/bubbles
Homework 2 d place a lighted splint in the gas; if a
squeaky pop is heard, the gas is hydrogen
1 a Na+ 3 a zinc carbonate + sulfuric acid + →
b Mg2+ zinc sulfate + water + carbon dioxide
c Cu2+ b ZnCO3 + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2O + CO2
d OH– c effervescence/fizzing/bubbles and the zinc
2 a KOH carbonate disappears
b Mg(OH)2 d bubble the gas through limewater; if the
c H2SO4 limewater turns milky, the gas is carbon
dioxide
d HNO3
4 a magnesium + hydrochloric acid →
3 a base magnesium chloride + hydrogen
b calcium hydroxide b magnesium carbonate + nitric acid →
c Alkalis are soluble bases; alkalis form magnesium nitrate + water + carbon
alkaline solutions; because they release
dioxide
hydroxide ions; calcium oxide dissolves so

Answers
SC17.6w Gases – Homework 1 half the water to evaporate; leave the basin to
cool down and crystals to form; dry the crystals
1 an unreactive metal such as copper, silver or on tissue paper
gold 9 a observations to include: effervescence/
2 a reactive metal such as sodium or potassium fizzing/bubbles; the magnesium
3 a zinc sulfate, ZnSO4 disappears; a colourless solution is left
b Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
b zinc chloride, ZnCl2
c Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e
4 a magnesium + hydrochloric acid →
2H+(aq) + 2e → H2(g)
magnesium chloride + hydrogen
d i the magnesium atoms are oxidised as
b Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
they lose electrons
c effervescence/fizzing/bubbles ii the hydrogen ions are reduced as
d place a lighted splint in the gas; if a they gain electrons
squeaky pop is heard, the gas is hydrogen 10 a observations to include: effervescence/
5 a copper sulfate, CuSO4 fizzing/bubbles; the magnesium carbonate
b calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2 disappears; a colourless solution is left
6 a magnesium carbonate + hydrochloric b 2H+(aq) + CO32−(s) → H2O + CO2(g)
acid → c the hydrogen ions and carbonate ions
magnesium chloride + water + carbon react to form water molecules and carbon
dioxide dioxide molecules
b MgCO3 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2O + CO2
SC17.8w Acids, bases and salts
c effervescence/fizzing/bubbles and the Extend
magnesium carbonate disappears
d bubble the gas through limewater; if the 1 a the acid gel is heated to speed up the
limewater turns milky, the gas is carbon reaction
dioxide b iron(III) oxide
c iron(III) oxide + phosphoric acid →
SC17.7w Gases and equations
Homework 2 iron(III) phosphate + water
d the phosphate is 3– and the iron(III) is 3+
1 a copper is low in the reactivity series and 2 a C, E, B, A, D
does not react with dilute acids b C, iron(III) oxide is added to phosphoric
b sodium is high in the reactivity series and acid; E, The mixture is heated to speed up
reacts violently/explosively with dilute the reaction; B, excess iron(III) oxide is
acids filtered out; A, the iron(III) phosphate
2 a zinc sulfate, ZnSO4 solution is heated to evaporate some of it;
b iron(II) chloride, FeCl2 D, crystals of iron(III) phosphate form it.
3 a If the iron(III) oxide was in excess then
3 Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
some of the oxide would not dissolve. If the
4 place a lighted splint in the gas; if a squeaky phosphoric acid was in excess then all the
pop is heard, the gas is hydrogen iron(III) oxide added will dissolve (react).
5 bubble the gas through limewater; if the b iron(III) phosphate; FePO4
limewater turns milky, the gas is carbon dioxide
4 Al2O3(s) + 6HNO3(aq) →
6 a copper ethanoate
2Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
b barium chloride
7 CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → SC17.9w Bases and salts – Homework 1
Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
8 an answer to include: place (25 cm3) dilute 1 a zinc sulfate + water
sulfuric acid in a beaker; add zinc carbonate a b magnesium oxide
spatula at a time until all the acid has reacted c NiSO4 + H2O
and some solid remains at the bottom of the
2 Ion that is removed during neutralisation. –
beaker; filter the mixture; collect the filtrate in
hydrogen ion
an evaporating basin; place the basin and
contents on a boiling water bath; allow about Substance that reacts with acids. – base

Answers
Clear liquid formed when a base reacts with an are larger and cannot pass through the
acid. – water holes and so get stuck in the paper.
Ionic compound formed during neutralisation. – 6 ZnO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
salt 7 Step 1: heat some hydrochloric acid.
Solution that has a pH of less than 7. – acid Step 2: add excess magnesium oxide to the
Happens when a metal oxide is added to an warm hydrochloric acid.
acid. – neutralisation Step 3: filter out the excess magnesium oxide.
3 a Acid: sulfuric acid. Base: copper oxide. Step 4: heat the magnesium chloride solution
b to make the reaction happen faster to evaporate some of the water.
c if it was soluble it would mix with the salt Step 5: leave the magnesium chloride solution
solution to allow the water to evaporate and crystals to
d to make sure all the acid is used up form.
4 a correct labels on: filter paper, filter funnel, MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
beaker and filtrate
b copper sulfate SC17.11w Salts summary
SC17.10w Types of solution 1 a salt + hydrogen

Homework 2 b salt + water
c salt + water
1 a copper oxide, zinc oxide, cobalt oxide d salt + water + carbon dioxide
b magnesium chloride, cobalt sulfate, iron 2 a chlorides
nitrate b nitrates
c zinc oxide, nitric acid c sulfates
d any base from the box plus any acid to d ethanoates
make a salt and water
3 a Similarity: they both react with an acid to
2 a H2SO4(aq) + MgO(s) → MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
form a salt and water only.
b H2SO4(aq) + NiO(s) → NiSO4(aq) + H2O(l) Difference: a base may be soluble or
c H2SO4(aq) + CoO(s) → CoSO4(aq) + H2O(l) insoluble in water, an alkali is always
3 a LiCl soluble.
b MgCl2 4 a base
c AlCl3 b neither
d Li2SO4 c neither
e MgSO4 d alkali
f Al2(SO4)3 5 a HNO3
g LiNO3 b (NH4)2CO3
h Mg(NO3)2 c K2SO4
i Al(NO3)3 d Mg(NO3)2
4 a base: copper oxide; acid: sulfuric acid 6 CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O
b the reaction happens faster 7 a it gives a squeaky pop with a lighted splint
c to make sure all the acid is used up b it turns limewater milky
d When no more base (oxide) 8 a to separate the salt solution from the
reacts/dissolves (when some base is left excess insoluble reactant
unreacted) all the acid must be used up.
b When the solution becomes more
5 a x, residue or copper oxide; y, filter funnel concentrated, it will start to ‘spit’ out of the
or filter paper; z, filtrate or copper sulfate basin when heated directly with a Bunsen
solution flame; heating slowly with a boiling water
b excess copper oxide from copper sulfate bath will reduce this effect.
solution c The crystals need some water to form;
c The particles in the copper sulfate solution without water they will form as an
can pass through the tiny holes in the filter anhydrous powder.
paper, but the particles of copper oxide 9 titration

Answers
SC17.12w Making ammonium sulfate in e no precipitate, sodium sulfate and copper

the lab chloride are both soluble
2 a any soluble sulfate, e.g. sodium sulfate
2 Reasons for obtaining less than the theoretical b lead sulfate, PbSO4
yield: practical losses, e.g. during pouring/mixing/
3 a any soluble carbonate, e.g. sodium
sampling for pH/evaporating. The reaction is not
carbonate
likely to be incomplete, and side reactions are
unlikely, but these may be given in the answer. b zinc carbonate, ZnCO3
4 a lead nitrate and any soluble chloride, e.g.
SC17.13w Preparation of insoluble salts sodium chloride
b e.g. sodium nitrate
Answers to questions on page 1 c e.g. lead nitrate + sodium chloride →
1 Silver chloride is formed as a white precipitate. lead chloride + sodium nitrate
Students may notice that it turns purple in
5 a 2NaOH(aq) + CuCl2(aq) →
sunlight. Copper carbonate is formed as a
blue/green precipitate. 2NaCl(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)
2 to make sure that all the silver nitrate reacted sodium hydroxide + copper chloride →
3 to rinse off all the remaining solutions sodium chloride + copper hydroxide
4 AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq) b Ca(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) →
Equation for the solutions used, e.g. CaCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → calcium nitrate + sodium carbonate →
CuCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) calcium carbonate + sodium nitrate
c (NH4)2SO4(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) →
2NH4NO3(aq) + PbSO4(s)
1 a silver nitrate + sodium chloride →
ammonium sulfate + lead nitrate →
silver chloride + sodium nitrate
ammonium nitrate + lead sulfate
b silver chloride
c to make sure that all the silver nitrate SC17.15w Making an insoluble salt
reacted
Strengthen
d white precipitate/solid formed (students
may see it begin to change colour) 1 a barium nitrate or barium chloride
e to rinse off all the remaining solutions b a soluble sulfate, e.g. sodium sulfate
f AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → c word equation, e.g.
AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq) barium nitrate + sodium sulfate →
2 a a soluble copper salt, e.g. copper nitrate, barium sulfate + sodium nitrate
copper sulfate, copper chloride
2 a magnesium chloride + sodium
b a soluble carbonate, e.g. sodium carbonate →
carbonate, potassium carbonate
magnesium carbonate + sodium chloride
c a blue/green precipitate/solid
b MgCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) →
d equation for the solutions used, e.g.
MgCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
copper nitrate + sodium carbonate →
3 a filtration/filtering
copper carbonate + sodium nitrate
b add distilled/deionised water to the solid in
e equation for the solutions used, e.g.
the filter paper to wash it, open the filter
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → paper, dry the solid in a warm oven or
CuCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) other method of drying
c AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) →
SC17.14w Making predictions AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
1 a barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)2
b barium sulfate, BaSO4
c silver chloride, AgCl
d calcium carbonate, CaCO3

Answers
SC17.16w Precipitates – Homework 1 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) →

CuCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
1 Soluble – magnesium chloride, ammonium 4 a 2NaOH(aq) + BaCl2(aq) →
carbonate
2NaCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(s)
Insoluble – lead sulfate, silver chloride
b BaCl2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) →
2 a An insoluble product formed when
solutions of two soluble reactants are BaSO4(s) + 2KCl(aq)
mixed. c AgNO3(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) →
b barium chloride + sodium sulfate → AgCl(s) + NH NO (aq)
barium sulfate + sodium chloride d (NH4)2CO3(aq) + Ca(NO3)2(aq) →
c barium sulfate 2NH4NO3(aq) + CaCO3(s)
3 a magnesium carbonate as most carbonates e CaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) →
are insoluble and magnesium carbonate is CaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
not one of the exceptions; sodium sulfate
is soluble 5 a Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
→ AgCl(s)
b MgSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → b Ba2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → BaSO4(s)
MgCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq) c Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) → PbCl2(s)
4 an answer to include: mix the zinc nitrate d Mg2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Mg(OH)2(s)
solution and sodium hydroxide solution in a e 2Al3+(aq) + 3CO32−(aq) → Al2(CO3)3(s)
beaker/suitable container; stir with a glass rod; 6 a Fe2+
filter the mixture through a filter funnel with
b b Fe3+
filter paper; rinse the beaker with a little
distilled/deionised water and pour the
washings through the solid in the funnel; pour 18. Chemical tests
a little distilled/deionised water over the solid in
the funnel; open the filter paper; dry the solid in SC18.1w Chemical tests puzzle
a warm oven/other suitable method of drying
dilute
barium chloride
hydrochloric white
SC17.17w Precipitates and equations acid
solution
Homework 2
dilute nitric silver nitrate
cream
acid solution
1 a sodium, potassium or ammonium
carbonate limewater turns milky yellow
b e.g. barium nitrate + sodium carbonate →

SC18.2w Tests for negative ions
barium carbonate + sodium nitrate Strengthen
2 a lead nitrate and a soluble sulfate, e.g.
sodium sulfate 1 a silver nitrate + sodium chloride
b an answer to include: mix the lead nitrate → sodium nitrate + silver chloride
solution and the sulfate solution in a b i nitric
beaker/suitable container; stir with a glass
rod; filter the mixture through a filter funnel ii insoluble
with filter paper; rinse the beaker with a 2 Cl− - white; Br− - cream; I− - yellow.
little distilled/deionised water and pour the 3 a hydrochloric
washings through the solid in the funnel; b white
pour a little distilled/deionised water over
the solid in the funnel; open the filter c insoluble
paper; dry the solid in a warm oven/other 4 a from top to bottom: 3, 2, 5, 1, 4
suitable method of drying b carbon dioxide
3 a any soluble copper compound, e.g. copper 5 carbonate ions, because these react with acids
nitrate, and any soluble carbonate, e.g. (to produce carbon dioxide/bubbles)
sodium carbonate
b balanced equation, with state symbols for
the solutions chosen in a, e.g.

Answers
SC18.3w Testing for sulfate, carbonate b Add dilute nitric acid to the sample, then
and halide ions – Homework 1 silver nitrate solution. If a precipitate
forms, add dilute ammonia solution.
1 a nitric acid If the precipitate disappears, chloride ions
b white were present. If the precipitate does not
disappear, add concentrated ammonia
c SO42−
solution. If the precipitate disappears,
2 a Pass the bubbles/gas through limewater, bromide ions were present. If the
which turns milky/cloudy white if the gas is precipitate does not disappear, iodide ions
carbon dioxide. were present.
b carbonate ion
3 a hydrochloric acid 19. Energetics
b chloride; Cl−
c Sodium iodide solution produces a yellow SC19.1w Using exothermic and
precipitate. Potassium bromide produces endothermic reactions
a cream precipitate.
4 21 g dm−3 is below the 83 g dm−3 3 Organised pile for hand warmer:
recommended, and safer than higher a iron + oxygen → iron(III) oxide
concentrations. The concentration is still
enough to obtain precipitates in chemical tests. a 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)
b The reaction is exothermic.
SC18.4w Detecting anions b The reaction gives out heat energy to
Homework 2 the surroundings.
b The reaction mixture reaches 40 °C.
1 a i barium chloride + aluminium sulfate
c The reaction is started by opening an
→ aluminium chloride + barium airtight container.
sulfate
c Sodium chloride and water are included
ii BaSO4 to speed up rusting.
iii Ba2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → BaSO4(s) d A hot powder similar to rusted iron is left
b i hydrochloric acid at the end.
ii Bubbles are seen. Organised pile for cold pack:
iii Pass the bubbles through limewater. a barium hydroxide + ammonium
The limewater should turn thiocyanate → barium thiocyanate +
milky/cloudy white, due to gas being water + ammonia
carbon dioxide. a Ba(OH)2(s) + 2NH4SCN(s)
2 a Precipitates are formed only if C was in → Ba(SCN)2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
the reaction mixture. No precipitates are b The reaction is endothermic.
formed when A and B are mixed together. b The reaction takes in heat energy from
b A is potassium iodide, because iodide ions the surroundings.
form a yellow precipitate with silver
b The reaction mixture reaches -25 °C.
ions/silver nitrate solution. B is potassium
bromide, because bromide ions form a c The reaction is started by mixing the
cream precipitate with silver ions/silver solids together.
nitrate solution. d A cold corrosive slush is left at the end.
c A white precipitate forms. d Ammonia gas is toxic and causes skin
d nitric acid burns.
3 a i when dilute ammonia solution is 4 The endothermic reaction might not be suitable
added, and when concentrated ammonia for a cold pack because it gets very cold/too
solution is added cold; a corrosive slush is left at the end;
ii There is no effect when dilute ammonia gas is produced, which is toxic and
ammonia solution is added or when causes skin burns.
concentrated ammonia solution is Both reactions allow only a single use, so the
added. products and their packaging create waste.

Answers
SC19.2w Exothermic and endothermic accurate temperature reading/make sure

reactions – Strengthen the mixture was an even temperature.
e Add a lid/more insulation; to reduce heat
1 Table completed correctly: losses/energy transfers from the reaction
Exothermic Endothermic mixture.
2 not enough sodium chloride dissolved/too
Heat energy ✓ much water/thermometer resolution too low
is given out
3 a Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)
Heat energy ✓
is taken in → 2NaNO3(aq) + MgCO3(s)
Temperature ✓ b i Endothermic, because heat energy is
goes up taken in from the surroundings.
Temperature ii (Some of) it is transferred to the
✓
goes down reacting ions.
2 a Heat energy is given out; and the iii The temperature goes
temperature goes up/increases. down/decreases; because energy is
transferred from the surroundings.
b Heat energy is taken in; and the
temperature goes down/decreases. 4 a 0.100 kg
3 a thermometer b 0.100 × 4180 × 5.5 = 2299 J
b start temperature; end temperature = 2.3 kJ to 2 significant figures
c Look at the difference between the two c heat losses/energy transfers from the
measurements; temperature should reaction mixture; so the temperature rise
increase. is less than expected
4 Ticks placed in all three boxes.
SC19.5w Energy transfers and bonds
5 The temperature goes down/decreases.
2
SC19.3w Investigating heat energy
changes – Homework 1 Reaction a b c
1 864 679 endothermic
1 D
2 1895 1954 exothermic
2 a 24.6 Celsius degrees
3 2144 2354 exothermic
b Exothermic; because the temperature
went up/increased. 4 3508 3354 endothermic
c To mix the reactants/make sure the
3 If the C–H bond is 435 kJ mol–1; the total
reaction was complete; to obtain an
energy in the reactants is 1983 kJ mol–1; so
accurate temperature reading/make sure
answer a becomes greater than answer b; and
the mixture was an even temperature.
the reaction is endothermic (not exothermic).
d Add a lid/more insulation; to reduce heat
losses/energy transfers from the reaction SC19.6w Energy changes in reactions
mixture.
Strengthen
3 precipitation
4 not enough sodium chloride dissolved/too 1
much water/thermometer resolution too low
Reactants Products
SC19.4w Reactions and heat energy Bonds break ✔

changes – Homework 2 Bonds form ✔
Energy
1 a displacement/redox ✔
transferred to the
b 24.6 Celsius degrees substances
c Exothermic; because the temperature Energy
went up/increased. transferred to the ✔
d To mix the reactants/make sure the surroundings
reaction was complete; to obtain an

Answers
2 a Energy transferred to substances/ SC19.8w Bond energy calculations

reactants; to break bonds. Homework 2
b Energy transferred to surroundings; as
bonds form in products. 1 Energy is taken in to break bonds in the
3 a less crossed out reactants; energy is given out when bonds
form in the products; more energy is given out
b In an endothermic reaction, less energy is
making bonds than is needed to break bonds.
given out than is taken in from the
surroundings. 2 minimum amount of energy needed by
reacting particles for a reaction to happen
4 a Completed diagram will be similar to
Figure 19.5 and Figure 20.25 in the 3 Diagram (similar to Figure 19.8 in the Student
Student Book, to show: ‘progress of Book) showing: ‘progress of reaction’ on
reaction’ on horizontal axis; ‘heat energy’ horizontal axis; ‘heat energy’ on vertical axis;
on vertical axis; higher part of the line first horizontal line lower than last part of line;
extended to the right with a dashed line ‘N2(g) + O2(g)’ on first part of line; ‘2NO(g)’ on
and labelled ‘reactants’; lower part of the last part of line; upwards arrow from the level of
line extended to the left with a dashed line the reactants line to the level of the products
and labelled ‘products’; downwards arrow line and labelled ‘overall energy change’;
from the level of the reactants line to the upwards arrow from the level of the reactants
level of the products line and labelled line to the top of the hump and labelled
‘overall energy change’; horizontal dashed ‘activation energy’.
line at the top of the hump; upwards arrow 4 a (4 × 413) + 612 + 436 = 2700 kJ mol–1
from the level of the reactants line to the b (6 × 413) + 347 = 2825 kJ mol–1
top of the hump and labelled ‘activation
c 2700 – 2825 = –125 kJ mol–1
energy’.
d Reaction is exothermic.
b Exothermic reaction; reactants line is
higher than products line. 5 a energy in = 1077 + (2 × 436)
energy in = = 1949 kJ mol–1
SC19.7w Reactions and energy energy out = (3 × 413) + 336 + 464
changes – Homework 1 energy out = = 2039 kJ mol–1
change = 1949 – 2039 = –90 kJ mol–1
1 a making of bonds
b +90 kJ mol–1
b breaking of bonds
6 energy in = (6 × 413) + 347 + (3.5 × 498)
2 The reactants contain more heat energy than
the products; the difference in energy between energy in = = 4568 kJ mol–1
them is given out. energy out = (4 × 805) + (6 × 464)
3 minimum amount of energy needed by energy out = = 6004 kJ mol–1
reacting particles for a reaction to happen change = 4568 – 6004 = –1436 kJ mol–1
4 a Diagram (similar to Figure 19.8 in the The reaction is exothermic because the overall
Student Book) showing: ‘progress of energy change is negative/more energy is
reaction’ on horizontal axis; ‘heat energy’ released when bonds form than is taken in to
on vertical axis; first horizontal line lower break bonds.
than last part of line; ‘N2(g) + O2(g)’ on first
7 a energy in
part of line; ‘2NO(g)’ on last part of line;
upwards arrow from the level of the = (3 × 413) + 336 + 464 + (1.5 × 498)
reactants line to the level of the products = 2786 kJ mol–1
line and labelled ‘overall energy change’; energy out = (2 × 805) + (4 × 464)
upwards arrow from the level of the
energy out = 3466 kJ mol–1
reactants line to the top of the hump and
labelled ‘activation energy’. change = 2786 – 3466 = –680 kJ mol–1
b Energy is taken in to break bonds in the b Number of C atoms increases by 1, and H
reactants; energy is given out when bonds atoms by 2 each time; energy change
form in the products; less energy is given decreases by 618 kJ mol–1 each time;
out making bonds than is needed to break butanol has 1 more C atom and 2 more H
bonds. atoms than propanol, so predicted energy
change for butanol is –2534 kJ mol–1.

Answers
20. Rates of reaction b Three of: the form/surface area/size of the

chips of calcium carbonate, the mass of
calcium carbonate, the concentration of
SC20.1w Data analysis on rates
the acid and the volume of the acid.
1 a the concentration of the acid c As the temperature increases the time to
produce the set loss in mass decreases
b Three of: the temperature of the solution,
quickly, so increasing temperature greatly
the form of the magnesium, the mass of
increases the rate of the reaction.
magnesium used and the volume of the
acid used.
SC20.3w Rates of reaction
c The rate of the reaction increases as the
concentration increases (the rate of the
Homework 1
reaction is directly proportional to the
1 a graph A
concentration).
b Graph A shows the fastest reaction, as the
2 a the temperature
line rises more steeply (levels off more
b Three of: the form of the calcium quickly), so this must be the higher
carbonate, the mass of calcium carbonate, temperature.
the concentration of the acid and the
2 nickel chloride, water
volume of the acid.
3 The labelled diagram should show a stoppered
c As the temperature increases, the rate of
flask containing nickel carbonate and
reaction increases. (A 10 °C rise roughly
hydrochloric acid, with a delivery tube leading
doubles the reaction rate.)
to a measuring cylinder upside down in a
3 a the surface area (size of solid lumps) beaker of water. The flask should be in a water
b Three of: the mass of rhubarb, the bath.
concentration of potassium 4 volume of gas produced (in a set time),
manganate(VII), the volume of potassium temperature
manganate(VII) and the temperature.
5 concentration (or volume), nickel carbonate
c As the surface area increases (size of
6 The lines become less steep as the reactions
pieces decreases), the rate of reaction
slow down, because the concentration of the
increases.
acid decreases. The graphs level off when
4 Graph 1: a straight line rising steadily as the (one of) the reactants has been used up.
concentration increases
Graph 2: a curve bending upwards as SC20.4w Rates of reaction
temperature increases Homework 2
Graph 3: a straight line falling steadily as the
surface area increases 1 the mass of calcium carbonate chips and the
5 Graph 1 shows that the rate is directly volume of hydrochloric acid
proportional to the concentration. Double the 2 The shorter the time (to produce 0.5 g of gas),
concentration, and the rate doubles. the faster the rate of the reaction.
Graph 2 shows that the rate greatly increases 3 a Increasing concentration increases the
with increases in temperature. (A 10 degree rate of the reaction, and doubling the
rise roughly doubles the reaction rate.) concentration doubles the rate.
Graph 3 shows that if you double the surface b Experiments 1, 2 and 3 show that as the
area then the time taken for the solution to go concentration of the acid is doubled (and
colourless roughly halves. (The rate is directly all other variables are kept constant) the
proportional to the surface area. Double the time roughly halves, which means the rate
surface area, and the rate roughly doubles.) must be twice as fast.
4 a the powder
SC20.2w Rates of reaction – Strengthen b Increasing the surface area (to volume
ratio) increases the rate of the reaction.
1 a concentration, temperature, surface area
c Experiments 2, 4 and 5 (with all other
b The missing information is: mass, carbon
variables constant) show that the larger
dioxide, flask, reactants, volume,
surface area (powder) reacts faster.
decrease.
2 a temperature

Answers
The time taken to produce the set loss in more collisions occur and more particles
mass is smallest with powder and greatest have enough energy to react when they
with large chips. collide.
5 a The graph should be drawn using 2 a As the pressure is increased, the
experiments 1, 6, 7 and 8, and should molecules get closer together.
show a downward curve, as time b As the molecules are closer together,
decreases as temperature increases. collisions occur more frequently and the
b The graph shows that the rate of reaction reaction is faster.
increases (greatly) as the temperature 3 a 2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) →
increases. CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
c The rate almost doubles with every 10
b The graph curves upwards, getting less
degrees rise in temperature.
steep and finally levelling off at five
6 So that the reaction is completed in a minutes.
reasonable time. The powder reaction would
c At the start the reactant concentrations are
be over too quickly at higher temperatures.
greatest, so collisions occur more
7 Because the reactions would be too quick and frequently and the reaction is fastest.
the hot acid would be very dangerous
d As the reaction is finished (as one of the
(corrosive).
reactants is used up).
8 CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
e The second graph would rise and level off
9 5 moles of calcium chloride, 5 moles of water more quickly, but would finish at the same
and 5 moles of carbon dioxide increases the level.
rate of reaction, as the surface area to volume
f 23.0 cm3/min ± 2.0
ratio is greater, and so more collisions occur.
g 11.2 cm3/min ± 0.5
SC20.5w Explaining collisions
Strengthen SC20.7w Factors affecting reaction
rates – Homework 1
1 If there are more particles, the reactant
particles are closer together, therefore 1 a concentration
collisions occur more frequently. b temperature
2 Collisions occur more frequently. c surface area
More particles have enough energy to react d gas pressure
when they collide. 2 a From left to right, the missing words are:
3 Increasing the surface area (decreasing the chlorine, hydrogen chloride, energy.
lump size of the solid) while keeping the total b hydrogen, collide, energy, activation
volume/mass constant makes the reaction energy, increases, frequently, decreases,
faster because there is more surface for less, energy
collisions and so collisions occur more
3 a Mince is made up of smaller pieces with a
frequently.
larger surface area, so collisions occur
more frequently and those that do take
SC20.6w Factors affecting reaction place are more likely to have enough
rates – Extend energy.
b In the fridge, at lower temperature,
1 a New diagram drawn with more oxygen
particles have less energy, collisions occur
molecules in the same area. Label similar
less frequently and fewer particles have
to: molecules of oxygen closer together,
enough energy to react.
so collisions occur more frequently and
reaction is faster. c At higher pressure, particles are closer
together, so collisions occur more
b New diagram drawn with iron atoms
frequently and the reaction is faster
broken into two or more blocks.
(explosion).
Label similar to: more surface area for
oxygen to get at iron, so collisions occur
more frequently and reaction is faster.
c Increasing the temperature increases the
rate of a reaction, because the reactant
particles have more energy/speed, so

Answers
SC20.8w Factors affecting reaction SC20.9w Catalytic converters

rates – Homework 2
1 to reduce pollution/emission of poisonous
1 concentration, temperature, surface area, gases
pressure 2 Two of: platinum, rhodium and palladium.
2 a A chemical reaction occurs when reactant 3 a carbon monoxide (CO), nitrous oxide or
particles collide with enough energy dinitrogen oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4)
(activation energy). b carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2) and
b Smaller marble chips have a larger total water (H2O)
surface area, so there is more space for 4 It is poisonous (blocks oxygen uptake by red
collision. Therefore, collisions occur more blood cells).
frequently and the reaction is faster.
5 a carbon monoxide + nitrogen oxide
3 The diagram of low pressure contains a → carbon dioxide + nitrogen
number of molecules of hydrogen and chlorine.
The diagram of the higher pressure has the CO + N2O → CO2 + N2
same number of each molecule in a smaller b CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
space. 6 a Larger surface area, so more collisions
Explanation: At the higher pressure the with reactants occur.
molecules are closer together, so collisions b They are expensive.
occur more frequently and the reaction is
c Increased temperatures increase reaction
faster.
rates.
4 a The best-fit line curves downwards and
7 a Bar chart with data from the table for
levels off at 12 minutes.
different cars, side by side, for each of the
b Because a gas (carbon dioxide) is gases produced.
produced and lost to the surroundings.
b The catalytic convertor reduces the
c At higher concentrations the graph would amount of carbon monoxide, nitrogen
be steeper and the mass loss faster, oxides and unburnt hydrocarbons, but the
because there would be more collisions amount of carbon dioxide stays the same.
and a faster reaction.
c Diesel emissions contain less carbon
d 0.25 g/min ± 0.02 monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbons but
e 0.08 g/min ± 0.01 more oxides of nitrogen (and more carbon
5 a Because there are very few molecules particles).
with energy at or above the activation
energy. SC20.10w Catalysts and activation
b energy – Strengthen
1 increases, used up, unchanged, living, catalyst

2 a Missing labels, left to right: reactants and
activation
b Dotted line starting and finishing at the
same points as the given graph, with a
peak somewhere below the given graph.
c Arrow starting level with the energy level
of the reactants, pointing up to a line
which is level with the peak of the drawn
catalysed reaction graph, labelled
‘activation energy of the catalysed
reaction’.
c The graph for the higher temperature
d The activation energy of the catalysed
shows that more molecules have energy
reaction is lower, so more molecules have
at or above the activation energy, so more
enough energy and react on collision, and
molecules can react when they collide and
the reaction is faster.
the reaction is faster.
3 active, substrate, key, energy, reused

Answers
SC20.11w Catalysts and activation work faster at higher temperatures and are
energy – Homework 1 unaffected by pH changes. Enzymes,
which catalyse specific biological
1 Catalysts are used to ... speed up chemical reactions, work best at particular
reactions. temperatures and pH values.
Catalysts allow chemical reactions to ... b Dotted line starting and finishing at the
happen at lower temperatures. same points as the given graph, with a
peak somewhere above the given graph.
Catalysts can be used again and again ...
because they are not used up. c Labelled activation energy of the reaction
with an enzyme: arrow starting level with
Catalysts work by lowering ... the activation
the energy level of the reactants, going up
energy.
to level with the peak of the original
Using a catalyst means more molecules ... enzyme reaction graph.
have enough energy needed for reaction.
Labelled activation energy of the reaction
2 a Arrow starting level with the energy level without the enzyme: arrow starting level
of the reactants, going up to level with the with the reactants, going up to level with
peak of the catalysed reaction graph, the peak of the self-drawn graph of the
labelled ‘activation energy of the catalysed reaction without enzyme.
reaction’.
Labelled overall energy change of both
b Dotted line starting and finishing at the reactions: arrow starting level with the
same points as the given graph, with a reactants going down to level with the
peak somewhere above the given graph. products.
c higher, fewer, energy, reaction, slower d The reaction is slower without the enzyme,
3 a enzyme because the activation energy is higher, so
b active site fewer molecules have enough energy, so
fewer collisions result in a reaction.
c denatured
4 a Inhibitors work by changing the reaction
d substrate
pathway to one with a higher activation
energy, so the reaction is slower.
SC20.12w Catalysts and activation
b Any suggestion where a slower reaction
energy – Homework 2 would be an advantage, e.g. preventing
the discolouration of paint, the ageing of
1 a 4CO + 2NO2 → 4CO2 + N2
plastics or the oxidation of oils.
b A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction
by providing a different reaction path that
requires a lower activation energy. This 21. Reversible reactions and
speeds up the reaction, because more equilibria
molecules have enough energy to react,
and more collisions result in a reaction. SC21.1w Equilibrium role-play
The catalyst is not used up during the
reaction and is left at the end, so it can be Students develop a role-play activity about
used again. reversible reactions in both open and closed
2 a scatter graph of data in table systems. (A variety of activities are possible.)
b ZnO is less effective than CuO, which is
less effective than MnO2. Explanation: The SC21.2w Dynamic equilibrium
most effective catalysts produce a larger Homework 2
volume of gas in a set time.
c Four of: volume of hydrogen peroxide, 1 a 3H2(g) + N2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
concentration of hydrogen peroxide, b that the reaction is reversible (it works
volume of metal oxide and form of metal both ways)
oxide. c that the forward and backward reactions
d Measure and use the same mass of metal continue to occur
oxide each time. 2 a CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
3 a Both enzymes and catalysts speed up b CaO(s) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s)
chemical reactions by lowering the
activation energy of the reaction. Catalysts c decomposition

Answers
d because the product gases will be lost and ii no change

the backward reaction cannot occur iii no change
3 a The yield of hydrogen increases, as the
equilibrium position shifts in the SC21.4w Choosing reaction conditions
endothermic direction forming more Strengthen
hydrogen and carbon monoxide. It shifts in
this direction to reduce the change (the 1 a underlined: increase in temperature;
increase in temperature) and endothermic increase in pressure; increase in
reactions cause the temperature of the concentration
surroundings to fall.
b underlined: increase in temperature;
7 b The yield of hydrogen decreases, as the adding a catalyst
equilibrium position shifts in the direction
2 ‘Decreased’ column ticked for all four rows
which forms fewer gas molecules, which is
in the direction forming methane and 3 a A high pressure increases the rate of
water. It shifts in this direction to reduce reaction; and the equilibrium yield; but
the change (the increase in pressure) and increases costs; a very high pressure
forming less gas molecules reduces would be too expensive.
pressure. b A catalyst does not increase the
4 a When the sodium hydroxide is added it equilibrium yield; but it increases the rate
reacts with (neutralises) the H+ ions and of reaction; and increases the costs only a
removes them. The equilibrium position little.
shifts to replace the H+ ions, this is the c Very low temperatures decrease the rate
backward reaction that also produces the of reaction; very high temperatures
yellow coloured CrO4 d increase the rate of reaction; but decrease
7 b Pressure only affects reversible the equilibrium yield; and increase costs;
(equilibrium) reactions which involve a 450 °C is a compromise.
change in the number of gas molecules
from one side to the other. This reaction SC21.5w Making methanol
does not involve gases. Homework 1
5 The missing words from the boxes are: top left,
methane or CH4(g); bottom left, air; second 1 Two from: increasing temperature; increasing
left, H2 or hydrogen; and far right, NH3. pressure (if reacting gases are involved);
The top label should read: unreacted nitrogen increasing concentration (if reacting solutions
and hydrogen are recycled. are involved).
The bottom label should read: catalyst iron; 2 a i Steam is readily obtained by heating
temperature 450 °C, pressure 200 water, e.g. from rivers or lakes;
atmospheres. methane is more expensive.
ii The reaction is endothermic so
SC21.3w Reaching equilibrium energy is gained from the
surroundings; water must be heated
1 a The balanced equation has the reversible to make steam.
symbol; ⇋. b Two from: the forward reaction is
b i It is the same. endothermic/takes in energy; position of
ii They do not change; they are equilibrium moves to the right (making
constant. more synthesis gas); rate of reaction is
higher.
c i Time is decreased.
c i Sulfur compounds must be removed;
ii Time is decreased. because sulfur poisons the catalyst/
2 a i 4 stops the catalyst working.
ii 2 ii Natural gas contains fewer sulfur
b The forward reaction is exothermic; so the compounds; so purification is
backward reaction is endothermic; if the cheaper.
temperature is increased, the position of d i The energy can heat the reaction
equilibrium moves in the direction of the mixture (for making synthesis gas).
endothermic change. ii Synthesis gas from natural gas
c i Time is decreased. contains more hydrogen.

Answers
iii Methanol production needs 2 mol of Conclusion as to which raw material (natural
hydrogen; synthesis gas from natural gas or coal) is better, and supported by
gas contains 3 mol (per mole of CO); information in the answer.
but synthesis gas from coal only 4
contains 1 mol of hydrogen. 4 a 32 × 100 = 12.5%
2
SC21.6w Reaction pathways b i 30 × 100 = 6.7%
Homework 2 6
ii 34 × 100 = 17.6%
1 a i Increases the rate.
c There is only one product; so all the atoms
ii no change/no effect
in the reactants become atoms in the
b i Increases the rate. useful/desired product.
ii Very high pressures are expensive/
cost more than the value of the extra
product made. 22. Introduction to organic
c i Equilibrium yield reduced; because chemistry
the forward reaction is exothermic;
and the position of equilibrium moves SC22.1w Modelling hydrocarbons
in the direction of the endothermic
reaction. Students use molecular modelling kits to model
ii The reaction is exothermic; so energy hydrocarbons.
is transferred to the surroundings by
heating; a lower temperature SC22.2w Modelling alkanes and alkenes
produces a higher equilibrium yield of
methanol. 1 correctly completed table
2 a Two from: to increase the equilibrium yield 2 C=C double (covalent) bond
of synthesis gas; to increase the rate of 3 a Two cocktail sticks or two plastic joiners or
reaction/rate of attainment of equilibrium; only shown by decreased number of
to provide energy needed for the hydrogen atoms attached to carbon atoms
endothermic reaction. in the double bond. Answer will depend on
b i equilibrium yield increased modelling apparatus used.
ii Two from: steam is readily obtained b two lines (between carbon atoms) (like an
by heating water, e.g. from rivers or = sign)
lakes; methane is more expensive; c two pairs of shared electrons
unreacted steam is more easily
4 a Advantages: simple to write out, can be
recycled.
written out using a computer/keyboard.
c i Sulfur compounds must be removed;
Disadvantages: doesn’t show where the
because sulfur poisons the catalyst/
double bond is, more difficult to tell
stops the catalyst working.
whether it’s an alkane or an alkene.
ii Natural gas contains fewer sulfur
b Advantages: simple to show where the
compounds; so purification is
double bond is.
cheaper.
Disadvantages: More difficult to show
3 Advantages of natural gas: synthesis gas
using a computer/keyboard.
produced from it contains enough hydrogen/
more than enough hydrogen to react with the c Advantages: shows information about
carbon monoxide; excess hydrogen could be what a covalent bond is, shows the
used as a fuel; synthesis gas contains fewer structure of single and double bonds.
sulfur/sulfur compounds; cheaper to purify. Disadvantages: much more difficult to
Disadvantages of coal: synthesis gas draw.
produced from it does not contain enough d Advantages: can show different sizes of
hydrogen to react with the carbon monoxide; the atoms, can show the shape of a
so additional coal is needed; synthesis gas molecule, is better to be able to visualise
contains more sulfur/sulfur compounds; more the molecule.
expensive to purify. Disadvantages: difficult to represent on
paper (particularly if the model is large),
needs apparatus.

Answers
SC22.3w Hydrocarbon matching b C4H10

c i Structural formula of pentane drawn,
2 Correctly grouped cards, put in ascending showing five C; joined by single lines;
order of carbon chain length. each C has four lines; 12 H joined
(left to right to a C – 3, 2, 2, 2, 3)
SC22.4w Modelling different [CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3].
homologous series ii Pentane has one more C atom/one
more C–C bond; two more H
1 Alkane similarities: hydrocarbons/contain atoms/two more C–H bonds.
carbon and hydrogen only; all single bonds/ C–
d Differ by CH2/one carbon atom and two
C bonds; number of hydrogen atoms is twice
the number of carbon atoms plus two. Alkane hydrogen atoms.
differences: different numbers of carbon 3 a They are compounds of carbon; and
atoms/hydrogen atoms; differ from each other hydrogen; only.
by CH2. b i boiling point
Alcohol similarities: contain carbon, hydrogen ii Boiling point increases; as the number
and oxygen only; all single bonds/C–C bonds; of carbon atoms increases/size of the
have an O–H group/one oxygen atom. molecules increases.
Alcohol differences: different numbers of
carbon atoms/hydrogen atoms; differ from SC22.7w Homologous series and
each other by CH2. alkanes – Homework 2
Alkene similarities: hydrocarbons/contain
carbon and hydrogen only; one double bond/ 1 a Two from: contain carbon/hydrogen/
C=C bond; number of hydrogen atoms is twice oxygen atoms; all contain one oxygen
the number of carbon atoms. atom; the number of hydrogen atoms is
Alkene differences: different numbers of double the number of carbon atoms.
carbon atoms/hydrogen atoms; differ from b Differ by CH2/one carbon atom and two
each other by CH2. hydrogen atoms.
2 Drawings/structures showing covalent bonds c The boiling points increase as the number
are two-dimensional (not three-dimensional); of carbon atoms increases.
do not show the shape; bond angles are not d butanoic acid
accurate, relative sizes of atoms not shown.
2 a C8H18
SC22.5w Homologous series b Structural formula of butane drawn,

showing four C; joined by single lines;
Strengthen each C has four lines; ten H joined (left to
right to a C – 3, 2, 2, 3).
1 a i increases by 1
c C50H102. General formula is CnH2n+2/
ii increases by 2
number of hydrogen atoms is twice the
iii no change/stays the same number of carbon atoms plus two.
b Changes by one carbon atom and two d i From lowest boiling point to highest
hydrogen atoms/changes by CH2. boiling point: butane, octane,
c C4H9Br pentacontane. Boiling point increases
d CnH2n+1Br circled as the number of carbon atoms
increases; butane has 4 carbon
e The boiling points increase. atoms, octane has 8 carbon atoms,
f Br atom; because it is lost in the reaction/ pentacontane has 50 carbon atoms.
swapped for OH in the reaction/is not ii There is a trend in a physical
present in ethane. property/ their boiling points; same
general formula.
SC22.6w Alkanes and homologous
3 a The first four alkanes have very low
series – Homework 1 densities; compared to the last four;
particles in gases are very far apart
1 Table completed correctly (second and third compared to particles in liquids; so gases
boxes only ticked). occupy much larger volumes/have much
2 a i four less mass for the same volume.
ii ten

Answers
b Density is a physical property; their ‘cannot be used again after being used up’ is
densities increase/show a trend; as the an unused distractor.
number of carbon atoms increases. 3 Table completed correctly, e.g.
c Answer in the range 590–610 kg/m3 Fossil fuel From crude From natural
(actual value is 601 kg/m3). Next alkane is oil gas
pentane; its density is 626 kg/m3 and the
densities between each of the last four diesel oil ✔
alkanes differ by 19–34 kg/m3. kerosene ✔
methane ✔
23. Crude oil petrol ✔
4 A raw material.
SC23.1w Investigating melting points
6
SC23.3w Hydrocarbons in oil and gas
Rank 1 = highest, Melting Letter (of Homework 1
4 = lowest melting point sample)
temperature (°C) 1 a compound 1; compound 3
1 69 Z, dotriacontane b They contain hydrogen; and carbon; only.
2 59 Y, heptacosane 2 a Table completed correctly, e.g.
3 42 X, docosane State of individual

components at room
4 29 W, octadecane temperature
7 a The sample with the highest melting point solid liquid gas
would be expected to have the longest natural gas ✓
carbon chain.
crude oil ✓ ✓ ✓
b This is because longer polymers have
more intermolecular forces between them. b chains; rings
In addition, longer chains get tangled up. 3 It is not being made any more/it is being made
Therefore, more energy is required to extremely slowly.
separate longer molecules. 4 a a substance made from crude oil
c If there is a big spread in the values from b It is a raw material.
repeated experiments, and the spread
5 a Two from: petrol/diesel oil/fuel oil.
overlaps the dataset from another
experiment, then the conclusion will be b methane
uncertain as a result. If there is little spread c non-renewable
in data then the outcomes may be more
certain. SC23.4w Oil fractions and their uses
d More repeated readings give you more
evidence of how big the spread is, and so 1 Correct order (top to bottom): gases,
of how precise your results are. petrol, kerosene, diesel oil, fuel oil,
bitumen.
SC23.2w Crude oil and natural gas 2 Correct order (top to bottom): domestic heating
Strengthen and cooking, fuel for cars, fuel for aircraft, fuel
for some cars and trains, fuel for large ships
1 a carbon; hydrogen and some power stations, surfacing roads and
b i 4/four roofs.
ii 1/one
SC23.5w Fractional distillation of crude
c Carbon atoms; can join to one another; oil – Strengthen
because they form four bonds/more than
one bond; forming chains and rings.
1 a compound; of carbon and hydrogen;
2 Two lines drawn: only
finite – not being made any more, or being 2 a Top of the column labelled ‘cool’.
made extremely slowly
b Upwards vertical arrow drawn next to the
non-renewable – being used up faster than it column.
can be replaced

Answers
c i gases ii fuel for some cars; fuel for some

trains
ii gases
2 a Diesel oil; because smaller hydrocarbons
3 boiling point have weaker intermolecular forces; so
4 condensation/condensing lower boiling points.
5 All four ‘similar’ boxes ticked. b Diesel oil; because it has the lower boiling
point.
SC23.6w Oil fractions – Homework 1 c Fuel oil; because it has the larger
hydrocarbon molecules.
1 a Table completed correctly, e.g. 3 a fractional distillation
Name of Use of fraction b Crude oil is evaporated/boiled; vapours
fraction rise and cool down; vapours condense
gases domestic heating and where they reach a part cool enough/a
cooking part at or below their boiling point; liquids
petrol fuel for cars condense at different heights/column is
cooler at the top; gases leave at the top;
kerosene fuel for aircraft
bitumen leaves at the bottom.
diesel oil fuel for some trains
4 a Scatter graph plotted with number of
fuel oil fuel for some power carbon atoms on the horizontal axis;
stations flashpoint on the vertical axis; suitable title;
bitumen surfacing roads and roofs points plotted ± 1 space square; scales
chosen so that the plotted points occupy
b i fuel for some cars
an area at least 50%of the space between
c ii fuel for some ships axes.
2 a gas to liquid b i The flashpoint increases as the
b i Petrol; because it condenses higher number of carbon atoms
up the fractionating column; increases/the flashpoint is
temperature decreases going up the proportional to the number of carbon
column. atoms.
ii Petrol; because smaller hydrocarbons ii answer in the range 113–117 °C
travel further up the column/petrol has iii Alkanes with fewer than nine carbon
the lower boiling point (so weaker atoms have flashpoints 13 °C or
intermolecular forces). lower; which is less than room
iii Petrol; because ease of ignition temperature/20 °C; so they vaporise
increases going up the to form a mixture with air that could
column/smaller hydrocarbon be ignited; which would be
molecules ignite more easily. dangerous.
(iv) Kerosene; because viscosity
decreases going up the column/it has SC23.8w Modelling combustion
larger molecules (with stronger
intermolecular forces). 1 Names correctly matched: carbon C; carbon
3 Crude oil is evaporated/boiled; vapours rise dioxide CO2; carbon monoxide CO; methane
and cool down; vapours condense where they CH4; oxygen O2; water H2O.
reach a part cool enough/a part at or below 2 a Equal numbers of atoms of each element
their boiling point; liquids condense at different on both sides/one C, four H and four O.
heights/column is cooler at the top; gases b methane + oxygen
leave at the top; bitumen leaves at the bottom.
carbon dioxide + water
3 a ticked
SC23.7w Fractions and fractionation
Homework 2 1
b 2H2 + O2 2H2O or H2 + 2 O2 H2O
1 a i kerosene c C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O

ii gases d C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O
iii bitumen e C5H12 + 8O2 5CO2 + 6H2O
b i fuel for large ships; fuel for some 1
power stations f C4H10 + 6 2 O2 4CO2 + 5H2O or

Answers
2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H2O b Two from: smoke produced; soot

1 produced; orange flame colour (due to hot
4 a 2C + O2 2CO or C + 2 O2 CO carbon particles glowing).
b C2H4 + 2O2 2CO + 2H2O c Two from: blackened/dirty surfaces;
chimneys/flues blocked; breathing
1 problems; causes fires.
c CH4 + 1 2 O2 CO + 2H2O or
d Carbon atoms; in the hydrocarbon fuel;
2CH4 + 3O2 2CO + 4H2O are only partially oxidised/not fully
d C2H6 + 2O2 C + CO + 3H2O oxidised.
e C4H8 + 3O2 2C + 2CO + 4H2O 4 a To warn if carbon monoxide is being
f C6H12 + 6O2 2C + 2CO + 2CO2 + 6H2O produced; because we cannot see or
smell it; and it causes unconsciousness/
death.
SC23.9w Complete and incomplete
b Carbon monoxide is breathed in; gets into
combustion – Strengthen
the bloodstream; combines with
haemoglobin in the red blood cells;
1 a limited
reduces amount of oxygen carried in the
b incomplete blood.
c less
2 Ticks placed in correct boxes, e.g. SC23.11w Hydrocarbon fuels and
Possible problem (✔) combustion – Homework 2
smoke and soot formed ✔ 1 a carbon dioxide; water
surfaces become damp b CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
surfaces become black or dirty ✔ c Two from: heating; light; sound/movement.
enhanced greenhouse effect 2 a If the supply of air/oxygen is limited.
may cause breathing problems ✔ b Two from: smoke produced; soot
flue pipes from boilers get blocked ✔ produced; orange flame colour (due to hot
3 haemoglobin; red; reduces; brain cells carbon particles glowing).
4 Answer could include these points: nest c Two from: blackened/dirty surfaces;
reduces the amount of oxygen/air getting in; so chimneys/flues blocked; breathing
incomplete combustion happens; carbon/ soot problems; causes fires.
produced; surfaces get dirty; breathing d Carbon atoms; in the hydrocarbon fuel;
problems; reduces the amount of waste gases are only partially oxidised/not fully
getting out; carbon monoxide gets into house; oxidised.
carbon monoxide is toxic. 1
e C8H18 + 6 2 O2 → 4C + 4CO + 9H2O or
SC23.10w Combustion of hydrocarbon 2C8H18 + 13O2 → 8C + 8CO + 18H2O
fuels – Homework 1 3 a To warn if carbon monoxide is being
produced; because we cannot see or
1 Table completed correctly, e.g.
smell it; and it causes
Complete Incomplete unconsciousness/death.
combustion combustion b Symptom of carbon monoxide poisoning,
Blue flame ✓ e.g. drowsiness/unconsciousness/death.
Luminous ✓ c Carbon monoxide is breathed in; gets into
orange flame the bloodstream; combines with
Hottest flame ✓ haemoglobin in the red blood cells;
reduces amount of oxygen carried in the
Air hole closed ✓ blood.
2 a carbon dioxide; water 1
d CO + 2 O2 → CO2 or 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
b methane + oxygen
carbon dioxide + water 4 a i Carbon; because the carbon atoms
c Two from: heating; light; sound/movement. have not reacted with oxygen.
3 a If the supply of air/oxygen is limited.

Answers
ii More energy is released during b Crop yields decreased; limestone

complete combustion, 1.65 to 2.2 weathers more quickly.
times more energy; compared to 4 a 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) 4HNO3(aq)
incomplete combustion.
b Nitrogen and oxygen react together; at the
iii As the amount of oxygen available high temperatures in engines; to produce
decreases, the amount of energy nitrogen dioxide, which reacts with oxygen
released decreases; because the and water in clouds to form dilute nitric
most energy is released during acid.
complete combustion when the most
oxygen is available, and the least
energy when the least amount of
SC23.14w Pollution from hydrocarbon
oxygen is available. fuels – Homework 1
b Incomplete combustion releases less
1 a sulfur
energy than complete combustion; so
more fuel is needed/fuel is wasted; this b It is present as an impurity.
costs more money. c i Products: calcium sulfate; carbon
dioxide; water.
SC23.12w Building materials and acid ii Products: iron sulfate; hydrogen.
2 a A substance that can harm the
1 Substances giving a visible reaction named. environment or the organisms that live
2 Explanations of possible damage (wearing there.
away, holes, corrosion) to buildings given, e.g. b high temperatures
zinc roofs damaged; steel nails, screws and
c Oxygen; and nitrogen; from the air; react
(exposed) girders damaged; aluminium
together; at high temperatures.
window frames damaged; walls damaged if
they are made from limestone, marble or d One problem caused by nitrogen dioxide,
concrete. e.g. breathing difficulties/bronchitis/acid
rain.
3 Advantages could include: indoors rather than
outdoors; faster; buildings are not damaged. 3 a Plants/trees/crops damaged/killed.
Disadvantages could include: acid may not be b Fish killed/insects killed/fish eggs do not
at the same concentration as acid rain; hatch.
materials often not used separately; results c Stonework eroded/stonework weathered/
may not accurately reflect long-term exposure structure broken down.
to acid rain. d Increased rate of corrosion/metals
Conclusion given, supported by one or more weakened.
advantages and/or disadvantages.
SC23.15w Hydrocarbon fuels and
SC23.13w Combustible fuels and pollution – Homework 2
pollution – Strengthen
1 Sulfur/sulfur compounds; are present as
1 a carbon; hydrogen impurities; in some hydrocarbon fuels; the
b sulfur sulfur reacts with oxygen when the fuel burns;
producing sulfur dioxide.
c The fuel contains carbon and hydrogen
only/does not contain sulfur. 2 a SO2 + H2O H2SO3
2 a high 1
b i H2SO3 + 2 O2 H2SO4 or
b nitrogen; oxygen
c air 2H2SO3 + O2 → 2H2SO4
3 a Table completed correctly, e.g. ii It gains oxygen/reacts with oxygen
Possible problem 3 a a substance that can harm the
(✔)
environment or the organisms that live
crop yields increased
there
fish eggs fail to hatch ✔ b Oxygen; and nitrogen; from the air; react
limestone weathers more slowly together; at the high temperatures inside
metals corrode more quickly ✔ the engines; to form oxides of nitrogen.
trees and fish are killed ✔

Answers
c One problem caused by nitrogen dioxide, SC23.17w Cracking and hydrogen

e.g. breathing difficulties/bronchitis/acid Strengthen
rain.
4 a CaCO3 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2O + CO2 1 a Table completed correctly, e.g.
b The structure of the limestone/marble is 1 2 3
broken down; rain/wind removes the Largest molecule ✓
products formed.
Smallest molecule ✓
5 a Acid rain causes extra acidity in the soil;
trees/crops are damaged/killed. Contains C–C bonds ✓ ✓
b Acid rain causes extra acidity in the water; Contains C=C bonds ✓
fish killed/insects killed/fish eggs do not b 3
hatch. c i 3
c The acid rain reacts with the iron/steel; ii 1; 2
forming (soluble) salts/iron sulfate; this
weakens the structure of the metal/ 2 saturated; alkanes; unsaturated
increases the rate of corrosion. 3 a carbon dioxide; water
6 Strengths: graph shows that emissions of b water
sulfur dioxide and the rate of new cases of c Greenhouse gas/global warming/
asthma decrease between 2004 and 2011; and acidification of the oceans.
increase from 2011 to 2012. 4 Two advantages, e.g. more likely to live near to
Weaknesses: emissions increase from 2009 to a filling station; the car is likely to be able to
2010 but rate of new cases of asthma make longer journeys.
decreases over the same period; around 6%
(100% minus 94%) of sulfur dioxide emissions SC23.18w Fuels and cracking
are not due to the combustion of hydrocarbon
Homework 1
fuels.
Conclusion, e.g. data show a relationship but 1 Table completed correctly, e.g.
this does not mean that sulfur dioxide
Alkanes Alkenes
emissions cause asthma; there may be a
common factor to both variables/other causes Saturated ✔
for change in new cases of asthma. compounds
Unsaturated ✔
SC23.16w Supply and demand compounds
2 alkanes with shorter chains
1 increasing size
3 alkenes
2 a fuel oil
4 Breaking down of larger, saturated
b petrol; kerosene; diesel oil hydrocarbon molecules/alkanes; into smaller,
3 Fraction in over-supply contains larger more useful ones; some of which are
molecules than the fractions in under-supply. unsaturated/alkenes.
4 Answer could include: the oil refinery should 5 There is a surplus of fractions with larger
use cracking; on the excess fuel oil barrels; molecules, e.g. fuel oil and bitumen; but a
this will convert the larger alkanes into smaller shortage of fractions with smaller molecules,
alkanes; and alkenes. Smaller alkanes are e.g. gases, petrol, kerosene, diesel oil; smaller
useful as fuels; the demand for them is hydrocarbons are more useful as fuels/
greater; than the supply of them. feedstock for petrochemicals; cracking helps to
match supply with demand; cracking produces
smaller more useful hydrocarbons.
6 a One advantage of hydrogen, e.g. can be

manufactured in different ways/can be
manufactured using renewable energy
resources/does not produce carbon
dioxide (greenhouse gases) when in use.
b Two disadvantages of hydrogen, e.g. it is
expensive to produce/it is a gas at room

Answers
temperature/difficult to store/fewer filling 25. Alkenes

stations.
SC25.1w Alkanes and alkenes
SC23.19w Cracking and fuels Strengthen
Homework 2
1 a Ring drawn around C=C double bond.
1 a They are compounds of carbon and
hydrogen; only. b X is a molecule made of hydrogen and
carbon only. Y contains oxygen but no
b i All their carbon atoms are joined by carbon and so is not a hydrocarbon.
C-C bonds.
c Z
ii They contain a C=C bond.
d The molecule only contains C–C single
c Ethene is an alkene/unsaturated bonds, it does not contain C=C double
hydrocarbon; but ethane is an alkane/ bonds.
saturated hydrocarbon; so acidified
potassium manganate(VII) reacts with the e Z
C=C bond in ethene. 2 Contains covalent bonds: alkane and alkene
2 a alkane ticked.
General molecular formula CnH2n – alkene
b Breaking down of larger, saturated
hydrocarbon molecules/alkanes; into ticked.
smaller, more useful ones; some of which General molecular formula CnH2n+2 – alkane
are unsaturated/alkenes. ticked.
c To match supply with demand; larger Hydrocarbon – alkane and alkene ticked.
hydrocarbon molecules are lower in Saturated – alkane ticked.
demand than smaller hydrocarbon
molecules; smaller hydrocarbons are more Contains a bond in which 2 carbon atoms
useful as fuels/feedstock for share 2 pairs of electrons – alkene ticked.
petrochemicals. Unsaturated – alkene ticked.
3 a Carbon dioxide is produced by the 3 Correct but-2-ene structure as shown in Table
combustion of petrol; but not by the 25.1 of the Student Book.
combustion of hydrogen; carbon dioxide is
a greenhouse gas; linked to global SC25.2w More about alkanes and
warming/climate change alkenes – Homework 1
b Manufacture of hydrogen requires energy;
for heating water to make steam/ for 1 a butene ethane ethene
generating electricity for electrolysis; propene methane ethane
which may use hydrocarbon fuels. b methene
c Advantage of hydrogen, e.g. can be 2 a Correct but-1-ene structure as shown in
manufactured in different ways/can be Table 25.1 of the Student Book.
manufactured using renewable energy
resources. b They are both unsaturated because they
both contain a C=C double bond.
Two disadvantages of hydrogen, e.g. it is
expensive to produce/it is a gas at room c (carbon–carbon) double (covalent) bond
temperature/difficult to store/fewer filling d (carbon–hydrogen) single (covalent) bond
stations. e (carbon–carbon) double (covalent) bond
4 a It needs higher temperatures/pressures; f isomer
these need a large amount of energy; 3 a 10
which is expensive.
b 24
b So it can supply both feedstock for
petrochemicals and fuels. c 2
c Temperature around 900 °C; as this is the d alkanes
highest temperature; so the carbon chains
are broken near the ends; producing
ethene/alkene with two carbon atoms;
ethene is the monomer for making
poly(ethene).

Answers
SC25.3w Comparing and contrasting SC25.6w Reactions of alkanes and

hydrocarbons – Homework 2 alkenes – Strengthen
1 Student 1 – 2 marks 1 a 1,2-dibromoethane

Good points – correct alkane formula, one b ethene
similarity and one difference listed. c bromine
Poor points – no diagrams, only one formula. d alkenes circled (top row first and third)
Student 2 – 6 marks
2 Alkene: general molecular formula CnH2n;
Good points – 2 correct diagrams and decolourises bromine water; complete
formulae, similarities and differences given. combustion forms water and carbon
Student 3 – 1 mark dioxide only.
Good points – correct formula for methane, Alkane: general molecular formula CnH2n+2;
one correct similarity given. complete combustion forms water and carbon
Poor points – question doesn’t ask to compare dioxide only.
propene, methane does not have more 3 a C3H6 + 2O2 → 2C + CO + 3H2O
hydrogen in it than propene, alkane and alkene
b when there is not enough oxygen for
are the wrong way round.
complete combustion
SC25.4w Distinguishing alkanes and SC25.7w Differences between alkanes
alkenes and alkenes – Homework 1
4 test a larger number of alkanes and alkenes
1 saturated molecule: butane
SC25.5w Chemical reactions with used to test for one product of the complete
combustion of hydrocarbons: limewater
alkanes and alkenes
turns orange bromine water colourless: hexene
1 carbon monoxide, carbon used to test for unsaturated molecules:
2 a carbon dioxide + water bromine water
b carbon dioxide + water 2 a CH4 + 2O2 → 2H2O + CO2
c methane + oxygen → carbon dioxide 1
b C3H6 + 42 O2 → 3CO2 + 3H2O
+ water
3 a C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O c oxidation
b C3H6 + 2O2 → 2C + CO + 3H2O 3 a correct 1,2-dibromoethane structure (see
Figure 25.2 in the Student Book), i.e. add
c 3b shows incomplete combustion Br to both blank bonds
4 Bromine water … turns pale in the presence of b 1,2-dibromoethane
an alkene.
c addition
Cyclohexane … is a saturated hydrocarbon.
d ethene
Cyclohexene … is a molecule containing a
e The bromine turns from orange to
carbon–carbon double bond.
colourless.
Addition reaction … is when reactants form
f The carbon=carbon double bond reacts
one larger product molecule.
with the bromine.
5 Y is an alkene. X and Z are alkanes.
g propene
6 a ethene + bromine → 1,2-dibromoethane
4 a The bromine reacts with the C=C double
b correct ethane structure (see Table 24.1 in bond, and is therefore used up and so it is
the Student Book) taken out of the solution. It is the bromine
c the bromine atoms are bonded to the first in bromine water that gives it its colour.
two carbon atoms in the chain b correct (displayed) structures of but-1-ene
d nothing and 1,2-dibromobutane drawn as part of
an equation

Answers
SC25.8w Alkanes, alkenes and their 26. Alcohols

reactions – Homework 2
SC26.1w Investigating the preparation
1 a methane of ethanol by fermentation
b carbon/soot, carbon monoxide
c i C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 1 Student’s investigation results
2H2O(g) 2 Correctly plotted and drawn scatter graph and
ii 2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + line of best fit for student’s results. The graph
6H2O(g) should have the concentration of glucose on
2 a orange/yellow the horizontal axis and volume of gas
b The bromine reacts with the C=C double produced on the vertical axis.
bond, and is therefore used up and so it is 3 The volume of gas produced (speed of
taken out of the solution. It is the bromine fermentation).
in bromine water that gives it its colour. 4 As the concentration of the glucose solution
c Equation with correct (displayed) structural increased, the volume of gas produced
formulae. (CH3-CH=CH-CH3 + Br2 increased (or statement fitting the results
→ CH3-CHBr-CHBr-CH3) obtained).
d 2,3-dibromobutane 5 The enzyme helped the glucose break up to
e a reaction in which two (or more) small form two products, ethanol and carbon dioxide.
reactant molecules join together to form a 6 Collecting the gas for a longer period or
single bigger product molecule controlling the temperature better would
3 ethene improve the reliability of the results.
4 a The bromine water will no longer be 7 C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
decolourised as it enters the conical flask. 8 The yeast supplies enzymes (biological
b Some students may have calculated catalysts) that speed up the reaction but are
means (as shown in the table below) but not one of the reactants.
this is not necessary to answer the
question. Less bromine water is required
to reach the end point for butter, which
27. Carboxylic acids
means that there are fewer double bonds
for the bromine to react with in the fats in SC27.1w Reactions of carboxylic acids
the butter. The butter is more saturated
than the vegetable spread. 1 Student’s results table, similar to the
one below.
Butter Vegetable spread
Test Methanoic Ethanoic Propanoic
1st 2nd 1st 2nd acid acid acid
titration titration titration titration
pH of
Reading 3–4 3–4 3–4
solution
on 33.2 24.5 3.0 5.1
Reaction reacts reacts reacts
burette to form to form to form
with
at start
magnesium bubbles of bubbles of bubbles of
(cm3) hydrogen hydrogen hydrogen
Reading Reaction reacts reacts reacts
on 44.1 31.6 45.4 47.2 with to form to form to form
burette sodium bubbles bubbles bubbles
at end carbonate of carbon of carbon of carbon
(cm3) dioxide dioxide dioxide
Titre Reaction reacts to reacts to reacts to

10.9 7.1 42.5 42.1 with form blue form blue form blue
(cm3)
copper solution solution solution
Mean of copper of copper of copper
14.5 42.3 oxide
(cm3) methanoate ethanoate propanoate
5 40 because the iodine number is a measure of 2 a 3–4
saturation and beef fat is from animals, as is b hydrogen
butter. So it will have a similar saturation to
c carbon dioxide
butter.

Answers
3 blue, salt magnesium oxide + propanoic acid joined to

4 a lithium; ethanoic acid salt and water
b ethanoate; dioxide
SC27.4w About carboxylic acids
c copper ethanoat; water
Homework 2
SC27.2w Carboxylic acids – Strengthen 1 methanoic acid (HCOOH or CH2O2), ethanoic
acid (CH3COOH or C2H4O2), propanoic acid
1 Missing from column 1: propanoic acid; (C2H5COOH or C3H6O2) and butanoic acid
butanoic acid
(C3H7COOH or C4H8O2)
Missing from column 2: C2H5COOH (C3H6O2);
2 a C9H8O4
C3H7COOH (C4H8O2)
b because it contains the (carboxylic acid) –
Missing from column 3: First structure shows a
COOH group
C atom with a single bond to an H atom a
single bond to an OH group and a double bond 3 a A base is any substance that neutralises
to an O atom (H–C(=O)OH). Second structure an acid, forming a salt and water; for
shows two C atoms joined by a single bond. example, copper oxide, sodium hydroxide,
First C has single bonds to three H atoms. calcium carbonate. An alkali is a soluble
Second C has a single bond to an OH group base; for example, sodium hydroxide,
and a double bond to an O atom (H3C– sodium carbonate.
C(=O)OH). b i butanoic acid + sodium oxide
Missing from column 4: ethanoate; propanoate → sodium butanoate + water
2 a Attached group has a C atom with a single ii butanoic acid + potassium carbonate
bond to an OH group and a double bond → potassium butanoate + carbon
to an O atom. dioxide + water
b hydrogen; copper oxide; calcium citrate; iii butanoic acid + lithium hydroxide
water → lithium butanoate + water
c barium + ethanoic acid
SC27.3w About carboxylic acids → barium ethanoate + hydrogen
Homework 1 d Using solutions of equal concentration of
ethanoic acid and hydrochloric acid test
1 Column 1: ethanoic acid; propanoic acid their pH or reactivity with magnesium/
Column 2: HCOOH or CH2O2; C2H5COOH or copper carbonate. The weak ethanoic acid
C3H6O2 will have a higher pH and slower reaction
than the strong hydrochloric acid.
Column 3: First structure shows a C atom with
a single bond to an H atom a single bond to an 4 a Changing ethanol, formula C2H5OH or
OH group and a double bond to an O atom (H– C2H6O, into ethanoic acid, formula
C(=O)OH). Second structure shows two C CH3COOH or C2H4O2, is an oxidation
atoms joined by a single bond. First C has reaction as oxygen has been added.
single bonds to three H atoms. Second C has b i The black copper oxide powder turns
a single bond to an OH group and a double pink or brown coloured.
bond to an O atom (H3C–C(=O)OH). ii ethanol + copper oxide → ethanoic
2 a butanol acid + copper + water
b butanoic acid 5 a Three C atoms joined by single bonds, the
c hydrogen first C with single bonds to three H atoms,
the next C with single bonds to two H
d oxygen
atoms and the third with single bonds to
3 a −COOH two H atoms and a single bond to an OH
b Functional groups are responsible for the group (CH3CH2CH2OH).
main chemical properties/reactions of a b Propan-1-ol has the –OH group attached
molecule. to the first (end) carbon atom and propan-
4 magnesium + butanoic acid joined to salt and 2-ol has the –OH group attached to the
hydrogen second (middle) carbon in the chain. OR
sodium carbonate + methanoic acid joined to To distinguish between the two different
salt, water and carbon dioxide structures (isomers).
c During oxidation two H atoms are removed
from the C attached to the –OH group.

Answers
Propan-2-ol only has one H atom attached 2 b

to the C atom attached to the –OH group.
29. Synthetic polymers

d
SC29.1w Making polymers
Note – repeating units are acceptable with or

without square brackets and n as they are not part
of balanced equations. 3 b
1 c
SC29.2w Monomers, polymers and uses
Name of Structure of Repeating Name of polymer Common name Uses of

monomer monomer unit of of polymer polymer
polymer
ethene D G poly(ethene) polythene plastic bags,
cling film
propene B C poly(propene) polypropylene ropes, carpets
chloroethene F H poly(chloroethene) polyvinyl window

chloride, PVC frames,
covering for
electrical wires
tetrafluoroethene J A poly(tetrafluoroethene) PTFE non-stick
coating on
frying pans,
burette taps
phenylethene I E poly(phenylethene) polystyrene packaging,
thermal
insulation on
ceilings
Allow other suitable properties and uses of the 2 a

polymers.
Allow repeating units without square brackets and
n.
b
SC29.3w Polymers and their uses
Strengthen
1 PTFE, slippery; PVC, electrical insulator;

polystyrene, heat insulator
c slippery, tough

Answers
3 a
b
c any related property and use, for example,
making ropes as it is strong and can be
made into fibres
2 a PVC/poly(chloroethene)/polyvinylchloride
as it is tough/waterproof
b PTFE/poly(tetrafluoroethene) as it is
c Can be made into fibres, flexible. slippery
3 a
SC29.4w Polymers, properties and uses
Homework 1
1 a
b any suitable property; for example, can be
made into fibres, heat insulator
4 a but-2-ene
b b
5 a poly(ethenyl ethanoate)
b
c any property and related use; for example,

flexible so used for covering electrical
wires, or tough so used for window frames
2 a poly(vinyldiene chloride)
6 a methyl 2-methylpropenoate
b
b
c any two suitable properties; for example,

flexible, waterproof, non-toxic SC29.6w Advantages and
3 a methylpropene
disadvantages of polymer disposal
methods
b
Landfill:
Advantage – It may be possible to extract and sell
the methane produced.
SC29.5w Addition polymers Disadvantages – Uses valuable land. Harmful
Homework 2 chemicals leak into the soil and may end up in
water supplies. Most polymer waste is non-
1 a biodegradable.
Incineration:
Advantage – Produces useful energy.
b
Disadvantage – May produce harmful or toxic
gases.
Recycling:

Answers
Advantages – New items can be made. Conserves c/d

supplies of crude oil.
Disadvantages – Items need to be collected, sorted
and washed. Polymers need to be melted.
SC29.7w Problems with polymers

Strengthen
1 crude oil
2 Non-renewable, as it is used up at a much
faster rate than it is being formed/it is a finite
resource/it is not being replaced.
2 d water
3 a Does not break down in the environment. e
b They last for a long time.
c They are difficult to dispose of as they do
not rot.
4 Ticked: Polymers do not rot. Landfill site uses
up valuable land. The landfill site fills up.
5 Ticked: May produce toxic gases. Produces Ignore missing brackets and n.
useful energy. Landfill site will not fill up as
SC29.10w Monomers and polymers
quickly.
6 recycling Polyester Monomer Monomer
A I K
SC29.8w Polymers – Homework 1 B H N
C F L
1 Crude oil is non-renewable, so once it is used
up it is not replaced. D J M
2 a China E G 0
b i China, Europe, North America, rest of
Asia SC29.11w Polyesters – Strengthen
ii 81%
1 C Monomer molecules react and a water
iii A suitable suggestion such as: molecule is eliminated.
They contain the most industrialised 2 a
countries so there is most demand for
polymers./They have the most crude
oil available to produce polymers.
3 a recycling
b A suitable suggestion such as: Some b
countries have banned sending polymer
waste to landfill./People are more aware
that polymers do not rot so they make
c See the answer to question SC24c.1 1c/d
more effort to recycle.
for how the ester linkage should be
circled.
SC29.9w Esters and polyesters
d An alcohol group at each end of the
1 a molecule and a carboxylic acid group at
each end of the molecule or an alcohol
group at one end and a carboxylic acid
group at the other end.

Answers
3 a b a molecule of water is eliminated
2
Ignore missing brackets and n.

3
SC29.12w Carboxylic acids, alcohols
and polyesters – Homework 1
1 a
c/d
SC29.13w Polyesters and their

monomers – Homework 2
1 a


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Answer Key - Igcse - Pearson Edexcel Chemistry

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1. States of matter 2 A Melting: become able to move around

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b Ethanol thermometer; because the ethanol c physical

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students may include a description of 3 Explanations should include reference to:

SC2.7w Filtration and crystallisation – Strengthen

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SC2.8w Filtration and crystallisation SC2.9w Filtration and crystallisation

1 1 Each step should be accompanied by a

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SC2.18w Paper chromatography

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f Electrons have a relative charge of −1 and 2 a A – nucleus; B – electrons

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SC3.8w Different atoms – Homework 2 the atom is mostly empty space

the nucleus/protons are positive e i 52He ii 2 iii 2

Pack SC3.10w Representing isotopes

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SC3.11w Isotopes – Strengthen

3 a 32S Step 2 Calculate the mass of 100.

SC3.12w Isotopes – Extend

1 Step 1 Find data on the mass and abundance

Element name Atom in the Atomic Mass Number of

b for example, 140

SC3.13w Making sense of atoms

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b The relative atomic mass is the average

SC3.14w Making sense of atoms

1 Chemical reactions don’t change the number

Element Notation in Atomic Mass Number of

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b The period number is equal to the number c 40 + (2 × (16 + 1)) = 74

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b moles AgCl = 0.02 a moles Zn = 3.25/65 = 0.05

SC5.10w Reaction between iron and

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b 0.75 mol c Mr of O2 = 32;

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mass of evaporating basin and salt. Then, 26.48

concentration = 0.2 mol dm−3 SC6.8w Concentrations – Homework 1

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concentration = 0.02 mol dm−3 mass = 5.2 × 10−3 g

or moles H2SO4 = 0.02

mass = 0.0125 (23 + 35.5) = 0.73125 g concentration = 0.10 mol dm−3

concentration = 0.04 mol dm−3

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concentration = 0.204 g dm−3 moles in 25 cm3 = 0.002

concentration = 1.2 × 10−3 mol dm−3 concentration = 0.08 mol dm−3

= 0.16 mol dm−3

moles = 0.0244 volume of NaOH = 25.0 cm3

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moles of NaOH = 0.00500 = 0.432 mol dm−3

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