Computer Networks

Ch.1: Computer Networks and the

Internet

Prepared By
Dr. Ibrahim Attiya
© 2023 NMU
 Ch.1: Outline
❑ Data Communications
❑ Networks
❑ Network Topology
❑ Network Types
❑ Protocol Layering
❑ TCP/IP Protocol Suite
❑ The OSI Model
❑ Internet History
 Hardware and Software
➢ We have given the overview of the Internet
structure.
➢ For communication to happen, we need both
hardware and software. This is similar to a
complex computation in which we need both a
computer and a program.
➢ In this lecture, we show how these
combinations of hardware and software are
coordinated with each other using protocol
layering.
 Protocol Layering
➢ In data communication and networking, a
protocol defines the rules that both the sender
and receiver and all intermediate devices need
to follow to be able to communicate directly.
➢ When communication is simple, we may need
only one simple protocol.
➢ When the communication is complex, we may
need to divide the task between different layers,
in which case we need a protocol at each layer,
or protocol layering.
 Protocol Layering
➢ Let us develop two simple scenarios to better
understand the need for protocol layering.
➢ In the first scenario, communication is so
simple that it can occur in only one layer.
▪ Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of
common ideas. Communication between Maria and
Ann takes place in one layer, face to face, in the
same language, as shown below.
 Protocol Layering
➢ In the second scenario:
▪ We assume that Ann is offered a higher-level
position in her company, but needs to move to
another branch located in a city very far from Maria.
▪ They decide to continue their conversion using
regular mail through the post office.
▪ However, they do not want their ideas to be revealed
by other people if the letters are intercepted.
▪ They use an encryption/decryption technique.
▪ Now we can say that the communication between
Maria and Ann takes place in three layers.
Protocol Layering

A three-layer protocol
Advantages of Protocol Layering
➢ Protocol layering enables us to divide a
complex task into several smaller and simpler
tasks. This is referred to as modularity.
➢A layer (module) can be defined as a black box with
inputs and outputs, without concern about how
inputs are changed to outputs.
➢ Protocol layering also allows us to separate the
services from the implementation.
➢A layer needs to be able to receive a set of services
from the lower layer and to give the services to the
upper layer; we don’t care about how the layer is
implemented.
Advantages of Protocol Layering
➢ Another advantage of protocol layering, is that
communication does not always use only two
end systems; there are intermediate systems that
need only some layers, but not all layers.
▪ If we did not use protocol layering, we would have
to make each intermediate system as complex as the
end systems, which makes the whole system more
expensive.
 Principles of Protocol Layering
Some principles of protocol layering:
➢ The first principle dictates that if we want
bidirectional communication, we need to make
each layer so that it is able to perform two
opposite tasks, one in each direction.
➢ The second important principle that we need to
follow in protocol layering is that the two
objects under each layer at both sites should be
identical.
 Logical Connections
➢ After following the above two principles, we
can think about logical connection between
each layer as shown in this Figure.

Logical connection between peer layers

 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
➢ TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) is a protocol suite (a set of protocols
organized in different layers) used in the
Internet today.
➢ It is a hierarchical protocol made up of
interactive modules, each of which provides a
specific functionality.
➢ Today, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer
model.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite

 Layered Architecture
➢ To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol
suite are involved in communication between
two hosts, we assume that we want to use the
suite in a small internet made up of three LANs
(links), each with a link-layer switch.
➢ We also assume that the links are connected by
one router, as shown in Figure.
➢ Let us assume that computer A communicates
with computer B.
 Layered Architecture

Communication through an internet

 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol
Suite
➢ After the above introduction, we briefly discuss
the functions and duties of layers in the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
➢ To better understand the duties of each layer, we
need to think about the logical connections
between layers.
➢ The following Figure shows logical connections
in our simple internet.
➢ Using logical connections makes it easier for us
to think about the duty of each layer.
 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol
Suite

Logical connections between layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite

Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol
Suite

Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite

 Description of Each Layer in
TCP/IP
➢ After understanding the concept of logical
communication, we are ready to briefly discuss
the duty of each layer.
➢ Our discussion in this chapter will be very brief,
but we come back to the duty of each layer in
next chapters of the book.
➢ In the next chapters, we take a top-down
approach, first covering the application layer
and then proceeding downward.
 Application Layer
➢ Communication at the application layer is
between two processes (two programs running
at this layer).
➢ To communicate, a process sends a request to
the other process and receives a response.
➢ Process-to-process communication is the duty
of the application layer.
➢ The application layer in the Internet includes
many predefined protocols, such as the HTTP,
SMTP, FTP, TELNET, SSH, DNS, etc.
 Application Layer
➢ The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle for
accessing the World Wide Web (WWW).
➢ The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main
protocol used in electronic mail (e-mail) service.
➢ The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring
files from one host to another.
➢ The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH)
are used for accessing a site remotely.
➢ The Domain Name System (DNS) is used by other
protocols to find the network-layer address of a computer.
 Transport Layer
➢ The transport layer at the source host gets the
message from the application layer,
encapsulates it in a transport layer packet
(called a segment or a user datagram) and sends
it, through the logical connection, to the
transport layer at the destination host.
➢ The main protocol, Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP), is a connection-oriented
protocol that first establishes a logical
connection between transport layers at two
hosts before transferring data.
 Transport Layer
➢ The other common protocol, User Datagram
Protocol (UDP), is a connectionless protocol
that transmits user datagrams without first
creating a logical connection.
➢ UDP is a simple protocol that does not provide
flow, error, or congestion control.
➢ A new protocol, Stream Control Transmission
Protocol (SCTP) is designed to respond to new
applications that are emerging in the
multimedia.
 Network Layer
➢ The network layer is responsible for creating a
connection between the source computer and
the destination computer.
➢ The communication at the network layer is
host-to-host.
➢ However, since there can be several routers
from the source to the destination, the routers in
the path are responsible for choosing the best
route for each packet.
 Network Layer
➢ The network layer in the Internet includes the
main protocol, Internet Protocol (IP), that
defines the format of the packet, called a
datagram at the network layer.
➢ IP also defines the format and the structure of
addresses used in this layer.
➢ IP is also responsible for routing a packet from
its source to its destination, which is achieved
by each router forwarding the datagram to the
next router in its path.
 Network Layer
➢ The network layer also has some auxiliary
protocols that help IP in its delivery and routing
tasks.
➢ The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
helps IP to report some problems when routing a
packet.
➢ The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
is another protocol that helps IP in multitasking.
➢ The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
helps IP to get the network-layer address for a host.
 Data-link Layer
➢ We have seen that an internet is made up of
several links (LANs and WANs) connected by
routers.
➢ The data-link layer is responsible for taking the
datagram and moving it across the link.
➢ Any protocol that can take the datagram and
carry it through the link suffices for the network
layer.
➢ The data-link layer takes a datagram and
encapsulates it in a packet called a frame.
 Physical Layer
➢ We can say that the physical layer is responsible for
carrying individual bits in a frame across the link.
➢ The physical layer is the lowest level in the TCP/IP
protocol, the communication between two devices
at the physical layer is still a logical communication
because there is another, hidden layer, the
transmission media, under the physical layer.
➢ We need to know that the transmission medium
does not carry bits; it carries electrical or optical
signals.
Encapsulation / Decapsulation
Any Questions?