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INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

-Sem-V
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
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 The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known as TCP/IP) is the set

of communications protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks.

 It is named from two of the most important protocols in it:

 the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)(layer 4) and

 the Internet Protocol (IP)(layer 3), which were the first two networking
protocols defined in this standard.
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
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Example: Computer A communicates with computer B.

 There are five communicating devices in this communication:
 The source host (computer A)

 The link-layer switch in link 1

 The router

 The link-layer switch in link 2

 The destination host (computer B)

 Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on the role of the device
in the internet.
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Example: Computer A communicates with computer B.

 The two hosts are involved in all five layers
 The router is involved in only three layers: network, data-link and physical
layer. There is no transport or application layer in a router.
 A link-layer switch in a link is involved only in two layers: data-link and
physical layer.

The connections that are in the same link uses only one set of protocols. If the
links are different then the set of protocols are also different
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
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Layer 5

Layer 4

Layer 3

Layer 2

Layer 1
 TCP/IP Layer Functions
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Application layer
 User interacts directly with the application software, where application process
creates user data and transmits this data to other application process on same
or another host via one of the transport layer protocol (TCP or UDP).
 Application layer protocols:
 HTTP(hyper text transfer protocol): It is the protocol that web browsers and
web servers use to communicate with each other.
 FTP protocol : Used to exchange computer files within hosts. Setting up an
FTP server becomes necessary for businesses that manage their own network
and need to establish a file transfer (exchange of documents) between
company employees.
 DNS protocol: Domain names are alphabetic which are easier to remember.
Internet is however based on IP addresses.DNS involves converting a host
name into its IP address.
 TCP/IP Layer Functions
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Transport Layer
 The transport layer receives the data from the application layer and splits it into
separate packets, with an order number and port number.
 It is also responsible for error and flow control
 Transport Layer Protocols:
 TCP - is a connection-oriented protocol.

Connection-oriented - Establishes a logical connection between sender and

receiver before sending any data packets.
 UDP(User Datagram Protocol) - is a connectionless, protocol.
Connectionless - Establishing a connection between sender and receiver is
not required.
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Network Layer
 The network layer is responsible for attaching the sender and destination IP
address.
 The IP addresses combined with the ports create sender and receiver sockets.
 It is also responsible for packet routing, forwarding the data packets to the next
router towards their destination.
 Network Layer Protocols:
 The protocol at the network layer is called the Internet protocol.
 IP prepares segments received from Transport layer for delivery by splitting
them into units called IP datagrams.
 IP attaches an IP header to the segment or packet's header, in addition to the
information that is added by TCP or UDP. Information in the IP header includes
the IP addresses of the sending and receiving hosts.
 TCP/IP Layer Functions
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Data Link Layer

 Framing: Divide the stream of bits received from network layer into data units
called frames
 Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to the frame in order to
define physical address of the sender or receiver of the frame, if the frames are to
be distributed to different systems on the network.
 Flow Control: A flow control mechanism to avoid a fast transmitter from
running a slow receiver by buffering the extra bit is provided by flow control.
This prevents traffic jam at the receiver side.
 Error Control: This is a mechanism to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames, prevent also duplication of frames. Error control is normally achieved
through a trailer added to the end of frame.
 Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine which of the devices has
control over the link at any given time, when two or more devices are connected
to the same link.
 TCP/IP Layer Functions
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Physical layer
 It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier.
Functions
1.Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits. The bits must
be encoded into signals for transmission. It defines the type of encoding i.e. how
0's and 1's are changed to signal.
2. Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the number of bits
per second.
3. Synchronization: It deals with the synchronization of the transmitter and
receiver. The sender and receiver are synchronized at bit level.
4. Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission interface between devices
and transmission medium.
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Physical layer
5. Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the medium: Point to
Point configuration(dedicated link between 2 devices) and Multipoint
configuration(shared link between more than 2 devices)
6.Topologies: Devices must be connected using the following topologies: Mesh,
Star, Ring and Bus.
7.Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: Simplex(signals can flow only in one direction), Half
Duplex(signals can flow in both directions not at the same time). Full
Duplex(signals can flow in both directions at the same time).
Similarities between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models
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 Both are based on the concept of a stack of independent protocols.

 The functionality of the layers in both models are roughly similar.

 In both models the layers up through and including the transport layer are there
to provide an end-to-end, network-independent transport service to processes
wishing to communicate.

 Again in both models, the layers above transport are application-oriented users
of the transport service.
Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models
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Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models
16 OSI TCP/IP

1. The OSI model has three concepts: 1. The TCP/IP model does not make a clear
Services, Interfaces and Protocols distinction between services, interfaces and
protocols

2. The OSI model has 7 layers. 2. The TCP/IP model has only 5 layers.
The layers are- Application, Presentation, The layers are - Application, Transport,
Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, Network, Data Link, Physical
Physical

3. Separate Presentation and Session Layer 3. TCP/IP combines the presentation and
session layer into its application layer

4. The OSI model supports both connectionless 4. The TCP/IP model has only connectionless
and connection-oriented communication in mode in the network layer but supports both
the network layer, but only connection modes in the transport layer, giving the
oriented communication in the transport users a choice
layer
Physical and Logical Addressing
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1 packet
87 10 Data accepted
87 10 Data

4
Physical Address
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 A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address
87. The two nodes are connected by a LAN.
 At the data link layer, this frame contains physical (link/MAC) addresses in the
header.. The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error detection.
 The data link layer at the sender receives data from an upper layer. It
encapsulates the data in a frame, adding a header and a trailer. The header,
among other pieces of information, carries the receiver and the sender physical
(link) addresses.
 The frame is propagated through the LAN. Each node with a physical address
other than 87 drops the frame because the destination address in the frame does
not match its own physical address.
 The intended destination computer, finds a match between the destination
address in the frame and its own physical address.
 The frame is checked, the header and trailer are dropped, and the data part is
decapsulated and delivered to the upper layer.
Logical Address
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• Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are

independent of underlying physical networks.
• Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment.
• A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be identified
uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network.
 A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32- bit address that can uniquely
define a host connected to the Internet.
• No two hosts on the Internet can have the same logical address.
• The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,but the logical addresses
remain the same
• These logical addresses are also called as IP addresses
IP address and Port Number
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 IP address: Defines the host among the different hosts in the world.

 After host is selected , the port address defines one of the processes on this
particular host.