B.P.E.S.

TC 201(2nd Semester)
Unit -I
Meaning of anatomy-
Anatomy is the study of structure and the relationships among structures. – Structure
refers to the shapes, sizes, and characteristics of the components of the human body. •
Anatomy is a Greek term that originates from 2 words: – Ana which means “up or
apart” – Tomos which means “to cut”Human anatomy is the scientific study of the
body’s structures. In the past, anatomy has primarily been studied via observing
injuries, and later by the dissection of anatomical structures of cadavers, but in the
past century, computer-assisted imaging techniques have allowed clinicians to look
inside the living body.

CELL
Cell is the fundamental, structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Robert
Hooke in 1665 observed slices of cork under a simple magnifying device. Cork is a
part of the bark of a tree. He took thin slices of cork and observed them under a
microscope. Study of structure and function of cells in Cytology.

Compound of cells-
1. Cell membrane
2. Protoplasm
3. Cytoplasm
4. Mitochondria
5. Golgy bodies
6. Lysosome
7. Ribosome
8. Endoplasmic reticulum
9. Vacuoles
10. Centrosome
11. Nucleus

1. cell membrane

Cell membrane, also called plasma membrane, thin membrane that surrounds every
living cell, delimiting the cell from the environment around it.
Just like any non-living body possesses a plastic or paper packaging material that
keeps the contents of the body intact, in shape, protected, and well-preserved, the cells

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have a protective outer layer called the “Cell membranes (CM)” or “Plasma
membrane (PM)” or cytoplasmic membrane.
Cell Membrane Functions

Moving on to the vital roles and functions the cell membrane serves in the biological
functioning of a cell, we can decipher the following points. What is the function of the
cell membrane in the biological world?

i. Shape & Structure of the cell – The cell membrane acts as an anchor to
the cytoskeleton.
ii. Barrier and gatekeeper of the cell – The cell membrane protects the cytosol
from the external environment.
iii. Cellular transport – It regulates the molecular transport of substances across
the membrane.
iv. Intercellular junctions – Gap junctions, tight junctions, etc.
v. Cell communication and recognition –help tissues work together in unison.
vi. Cell signaling – contains receptors and enzymes.

2. Protoplasm

The colourless material comprising the living part of a cell ,including the cytoplasm,
nucleus and other organelles like mitochondria ,lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum etc.
It means protoplasm ,the cytoplasm and nucleus of cell . The term was first defined in
1835 as the ground substance of living material and hence responsible for all living
processes.

Functions of Protoplasm

Protoplasm help the cell to perform all the essential steps. Various functions
performed by the protoplasms includes transforming food into living matter ,
removing waste products, providing nutrients and oxygen and renewing their worn
parts and helps in producing new cells. The functions performed by protoplasm are
discussed in brief :

Metabolism: Protoplasm is responsible for performing metabolisms activities which

helps the cell to keep alive.
Excretion: It is very important for a cell to excrete out the waste products as these
may be harmful for the cell and excretory products include urine, sweat, hormones
and digestive enzymes

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Reproduction: As we know that cells divide to form identical cells and it can help in
the process of reproduction of cells.
Chemical: As we have seen that cell perform many of its activities within the cell
itself, and some form of energy is compulsorily required for various organisms to
perform chemical reactions and the energy present in plants comes from the
photosynthesis process while in the energy that comes in animal cell comes through
the process of respiration.
Structure and Support: Protoplasm plays an important function in providing support
and structure to the cells.
Irritability: Protoplasm is having the ability to respond to things i.e. stimuli, and an
important aspect of life of the cell.
Transport: Cells have to transport the food and remove the waste excreted material
and cells produce the nutrients used.
Growth: increase in cell size will result in an increase in cytoplasm , and protoplasms
help in growth of cells and increase in height of the cell and number of cells will also
be increased

3. Cytoplasm

The cell is known as the building block of all life. Blocks are made up of numerous
particles and components before it becomes a full block. Just like a block, the cell of a
living organism is made up of many components as well.
Functions of cytoplasm-
The cytoplasm (of both eukaryotes and prokaryotes) is where the functions for cell
expansion, growth, and metabolism are carried out. Numerous chemical reactions
including cellular metabolism take part in the cytoplasm as it acts as a bridge between
the cell membrane and most organelles. The cytoplasm also has many other functions
including:
 Support and Structure
o To aid with cell structure and turbidity. It helps the cells maintain their
shape which is important for the arrangement of cells.
o To keep organelles in place. As mentioned previously, the cytoplasm
keeps the membrane-bound organelles in place within the cell and
prevents them from making unnecessary movements.
o The cytosol – part of the cytoplasm – fills up the empty spaces in the
cell that are not covered by the organelles (also part of the cytoplasm).
 Protection
o To protect the cell and its components from damage. The cytoplasm in
helping keep cell shape but also being able to keep organelles in place
places a major part in the cell’s defense strategies.

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 o Often the cytoplasm acts as a shock-absorber when the cell is attacked
and cushions that blow to the cell.
 Storage
o It contains materials such as storage units and enzymes that are
essential for many metabolic activities.
o In plant cells, they include important storage units that are used to store
excess glucose made during photosynthesis.
 Transport
o Through the process of cytoplasmic streaming, the cytoplasm assists
with the transport of organelles and cytoplasmic inclusions all over the
cell.
o The cytoplasm also transports waste material out of the cell.
If there was no cytoplasm in the cell, the cell would not be able to
function. It would be flat and have no shape. In addition, the organelles
would not be able to be suspended in the cell either.

4. Mitochondria

Mitochondria are often referred to as the powerhouses of the cell. They help turn the
energy we take from food into energy that the cell can use. But, there is more to
mitochondria than energy production(Figure 1).

Functions of Mitochondria
The most important function of mitochondria is to produce energy through the process
of oxidative phosphorylation. It is also involved in the following process:
1. Regulates the metabolic activity of the cell
2. Promotes the growth of new cells and cell multiplication
3. Helps in detoxifying ammonia in the liver cells
4. Plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death
5. Responsible for building certain parts of the blood and various hormones like
testosterone and oestrogen
6. Helps in maintaining an adequate concentration of calcium ions within the
compartments of the cell
7. It is also involved in various cellular activities like cellular differentiation, cell
signalling, cell senescence, controlling the cell cycle and also in cell growth.

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5. Golgy bodies

Golgi apparatus, also called Golgi complex or Golgi body, membrane bound organe
lle of eukaryotic cells (cells with clearly defined nuclei) that is made up of a series of
flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae. The Golgi apparatus is responsible for
transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery
to targeted destinations. It is located in the cytoplasm next to the endoplasmic
reticulum and near the cell nucleus. While many types of cells contain only one or
several Golgi apparatus, plant cells can contain hundreds.

Functions of Golgi bodies-

The function of the Golgi apparatus is processing and packaging proteins that have
exited the rough endoplasmic reticulum to be further transported inside and/or outside
the cell. In plant cells, the Golgi body also serves as the site for the synthesis of
complex polysaccharides.
The Golgi body contains Golgi stacks, which can be thought of as a series of
trafficking pathways that work by modifying protein and other complex
polysaccharides. The number of Golgi stacks a cell has largely depends on the cell
type. These Golgi stacks contain anywhere from 3 to 20 flattened membrane sacs,
which are called cisternae. These Golgi cisternae are usually classified based on what
they import and export into the Golgi body, and each contains a different set of
processing enzymes. Therefore, the Golgi cisternae are a very important part of the
packaging and processing that occurs in the Golgi body.
Transport vesicles usually pick up the molecules from the rough endoplasmic
reticulum and transport them to the cis face (i.e., area of the Golgi apparatus located
nearby to the endoplasmic reticulum) of the Golgi stacks, where they fuse with
the Golgi membrane and are sorted based on their next destination. They are then
moved through the Golgi cisternae as they undergo remodeling and other
modifications. The modified protein or lipid molecules then depart from the trans face
(i.e., area of the Golgi apparatus pointing towards the plasma membrane) of
the Golgi stacks where they are either secreted from the cell, or transported to another
cell compartment. The complex network of membranes and vesicles in
the Golgi stacks where molecules enter are also known as the cis Golgi network.

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6. Lysosome

Lysosome Definition

“Lysosomes are sphere-shaped sacs filled with hydrolytic enzymes that have the
capability to break down many types of biomolecules.”
In other words, lysosomes are membranous organelles whose specific function is to
breakdown cellular wastes and debris by engulfing it with hydrolytic enzymes.
Function of lysosome
1. Intracellular Digestion
 To digest food, the lysosome membrane fuses with the membrane of food
vacuole and squirts the enzymes inside.
 The digested food then diffuses through the vacuole membrane and enters the
cell to be used for energy and growth.
2. Autolytic Action
 Cell organelles that need to be get ridden are covered by vesicles or vacuoles
by the process of autophagy to form autophagosome.
 The autophagosome is then destroyed by the action of lysosomal enzymes.

8. Ribosome

The ribosome word is derived – ‘ribo’ from ribonucleic acid and ‘somes’ from the
Greek word ‘soma’ which means ‘body’. A ribosome is a complex molecular machine
found inside the living cells that produce proteins from amino acids during a process
called protein synthesis or translation. The process of protein synthesis is a primary
function, which is performed by all living cells.

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Ribosomes are specialized cell organelles and are found in both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells. Every living cell requires ribosomes for the production of proteins.
This cell organelle also functions by binding to a messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)
and decoding the information carried by the nucleotide sequence of the mRNA. They
transfer RNAs (tRNAs) comprising amino acids, and enter into the ribosome at the
acceptor site. Once it gets bind up, it adds amino acid to the growing protein chain on
tRNA

Function of Ribosome -
1. It assembles amino acid to form proteins that are essential to carry out cellular
functions.
2. The DNA produces mRNA by the process of DNA transcription.
3. The mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and transported to the cytoplasm for
the process of protein synthesis.
4. The ribosomal subunits in the cytoplasm are bound around mRNA polymers.
The tRNA then synthesizes proteins.
5. The proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm are utilized in the cytoplasm itself,
the proteins synthesized by bound ribosomes are transported outside the cell.

9. Endoplasmic reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum is a sub-cellular organelles composed of single membranous

network of membrane bound cavities, vesicles and tubules distributed throughout the
cytoplasm. It is a largest cell organelle discovered by Porter in 1948 and called it as
‘Endoplasmic Reticulum’ due to its net-like appearance; however it was first observed
by Garnier in 1897 and called it as ‘Ergastoplasm’. It is more concentrated in the
endoplasm than in the ectoplasm. It is mainly concerned with the biosynthesis of
proteins and lipids (post-translational modification).

Functions of endoplasmic reticulum -

Endoplasmic reticulum performs important functions of secretory, storage, circulatory
and nervous system for the cell. Its common functions are:
• Mechanical support: It divides the endoplasm into small fluid compartments
which gives strength to the cells by acting as cytoskeleton of the cells.
• Transport: It is involved in the import, export and intracellular circulation of
various substances of proteins, lipids, enzymes, etc.
• Protein synthesis: Ribosomes attached synthesize proteins which are collected
by the ER, processed and transported to other parts of the cell.
• Synthesis of cholesterol: Cholesterol is the precursor of the steroid hormones
which is synthesized by the ER.

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• Detoxification: Detoxification of drugs and pollutants are performed by the
liver cells in the ER. Enzymatic processing of the toxic materials in the ER
lets them to be soluble in water which finally excreted through urine.
• Lipid synthesis: It synthesizes triglycerides and phospholipids and also stores
lipids.
• Glycogenolysis: The degradation of glycogen into glucose is called as
glycogenolysis which is occurring mainly in liver and muscles. This process
takes place inside the ER (It coverts glucose-6-phosphate into glucose which
is then transported to the blood).

10. Vacoules

Vacoules are essentially enclosed compartment which are filled with water containing
minorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution, though in certain
cases they may contain solids which have been engulfed.

Functions of Vacuole
The important functions of vacuole include:
Storage A vacuole stores salts, minerals, pigments and proteins within the cell. The
solution that fills a vacuole is known as the cell sap. The vacuole is also filled with
protons from the cytosol that helps in maintaining an acidic environment within the
cell. A large number of lipids are also stored within the vacuoles.
Turgor Pressure
The vacuoles are completely filled with water and exert force on the cell wall. This is
known as turgor pressure. It provides shape to the cell and helps it to withstand
extreme conditions.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
The substances are taken in by a vacuole through endocytosis and excreted through
exocytosis. These substances are stored in the cells, separated from the cytosol.
Lysosomes are vesicles that intake food and digest it. This is endocytosis and it varies
in different cells.

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11. Centrosome

“Centrosome is a micCentrosomeStructurerotubule-organizing centre in

animal cells.”
centrosome an organelle near the nucleus of a cell which contains the
centrioles and from which the spindle fibres develop in cell division.

Functions of centrosome -
 The centrosomes help in cell division.
 They maintain the chromosome number during cell division.
 They also stimulate the changes in the shape of the cell membrane by
phagocytosis.
 In mitosis, it helps in organizing the microtubules ensuring that the
centrosomes are distributed to each daughter cell.
 They regulate the movement of microtubules and cytoskeletal structures,
thereby, facilitating changes in the shapes of the membranes of the animal cell.

12. Nucleus

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that contains the cell’s

hereditary information and controls the cell’s growth and reproduction.
Nucleus structure –
The structure of a nucleus encompasses the nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm,
chromosomes, and nucleolus.

Nucleoplasm
 Nucleoplasm is the gelatinous substance within the nuclear envelope.
 Also called karyoplasm, this semi-aqueous material is similar to the cytoplasm
and is composed mainly of water with dissolved salts, enzymes, and organic
molecules suspended within.

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 The nucleolus and chromosomes are surrounded by nucleoplasm, which functions
to cushion and protect the contents of the nucleus.
 Nucleoplasm also supports the nucleus by helping to maintain its shape.
Additionally, nucleoplasm provides a medium by which materials, such as
enzymes and nucleotides (DNA and RNA subunits), can be transported
throughout the nucleus. Substances are exchanged between the cytoplasm and
nucleoplasm through nuclear pores.

Nucleolus
 Contained within the nucleus is a dense, membrane-less structure composed
of RNA and proteins called the nucleolus.
 Some of the eukaryotic organisms have a nucleus that contains up to four
nucleoli.
 The nucleolus contains nucleolar organizers, which are parts of chromosomes
with the genes for ribosome synthesis on them. The nucleolus helps to
synthesize ribosomes by transcribing and assembling ribosomal RNA subunits.
These subunits join together to form a ribosome during protein synthesis.
 The nucleolus disappears when a cell undergoes division and is reformed after the
completion of cell division.

Chromosomes
 The nucleus is the organelle that houses chromosomes.
 Chromosomes consist of DNA, which contains heredity information and
instructions for cell growth, development, and reproduction.
 Chromosomes are present in the form of strings of DNA and histones (protein
molecules) called chromatin.
 When a cell is “resting” i.e. not dividing, the chromosomes are organized into
long entangled structures called chromatin.
 The chromatin is further classified into heterochromatin and euchromatin based
on the functions. The former type is a highly condensed, transcriptionally inactive
form, mostly present adjacent to the nuclear membrane. On the other hand,
euchromatin is a delicate, less condensed organization of chromatin, which is
found abundantly in a transcribing cell.

Function of Nucleus-
The nucleus provides a site for genetic transcription that is segregated from the
location of translation in the cytoplasm, allowing levels of gene regulation that are not
available to prokaryotes. The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene
expression and mediate the replication of DNA during the cell cycle.
 It controls the hereditary characteristics of an organism.
 The organelle is also responsible for protein synthesis, cell division, growth, and
differentiation.
 Storage of hereditary material, the genes in the form of long and thin DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) strands, referred to as chromatin.
 Storage of proteins and RNA (ribonucleic acid) in the nucleolus.
 The nucleus is a site for transcription in which messenger RNA (mRNA) are
produced for protein synthesis.
 During the cell division, chromatins are arranged into chromosomes in the
nucleus

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The role of anatomy in physical education
1. It helps in evaluation of a player’s capacity.
2. It helps in study the effects of exercises on human body.
3. It helps in positioning of body during training session.
4. It helps in preventing sports injuries.
5. It helps in providing adequate information of sports nutrition.
6. It helps in speedy rehabilitation from sports injuries.
7. It helps in improving the sports performance of a player.
8. It helps a player to choose any sport event as per his bodily capacity.
9. It helps in recovery of fatigue occurred during training session.
10. It helps in study the ill-effect of alcohol to human body.
11. It provides information of positive or negative aspects of a player’s bodily
structure

Anatomy of bones cartilage,s

Cartilage has many functions, including the ability to resist compressive forces,
enhance bone resilience, and provide support on bony areas where there is a need for
flexibility. The primary cell that makes cartilage is the chondrocyte, which resides
within the lacunae. The matrix of cartilage consists of fibrous tissue and various
combinations of proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans. Cartilage, once synthesized,
lacks lymphatic or blood supply and the movement of waste and nutrition is chiefly
via diffusion to and from adjacent tissues. Cartilage, like bone, is surrounded by a
perichondrium-like fibrous membrane. This layer is not efficient at regenerating
cartilage. Hence, its recovery is slow after injury. The lack of active blood flow is the
major reason any injury to cartilage takes a long time to heal. Cartilage has no nerve
innervation, and hence there is no sensation when it is injured or damaged. When
there is calcification of cartilage, the chondrocytes die. This is followed by the
replacement of cartilage with bone-like tissue. Unlike bone, cartilage does not have
calcium in the matrix. Instead, it contains high amounts of chondroitin, which is the
material that provides elasticity and flexibility
Structure and function-
Several types of cartilage are found in the human body, and their structure and
relevant function depend on this variation.
1. Hyaline Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage is the most copious type of cartilage in the human body. It has a pale
blue-white color and is smooth to the touch. It is primarily composed of type II
collagen and proteoglycans. The surface is usually moist, but with age, the cartilage
becomes dry, thinner, and more yellow. Hyaline cartilage is usually found in the
trachea, nose, epiphyseal growth plate, sternum, and ventral segments of the ribs.
Hyaline cartilage produces a resilient surface with minimal friction. It also has an
excellent ability to resist compressive forces at sites of bone articulation.
2. Elastic Cartilage
This cartilage appears a dull yellow and is most commonly found in the larynx, ear,
epiglottis, and eustachian tube. A perichondrium-like layer also surrounds it. It
provides flexibility and is resilient to pressure.

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3. Fibrouscartilage
This is abundant in type 1 collagen and contains significantly less proteoglycan than
hyaline cartilage. It can resist high degrees of tension and compression. It is
commonly found in tendons, ligaments, intervertebral discs, articular surfaces of some
bones, and in menisci. Unlike other cartilage, it has no perichondrium
Name and location and function of bones
Parts of the skeletal system include:
Bones (skeleton)
1. Joints
2. Cartilages
3. Ligaments

I. Bones (skeleton)

Divided into two divisions:

I. Axial skeleton
II. Appendicular skeleton

I. Axial skeleton
i. Skull-
a) Cranial -8 bones
b) Facial -14 bones
ii. Sternum and Ribs-
a) Sternum – 1
b) Ribs- 24
iii) Vertebral column –
 33 bones for new born baby
 26 bones for Adult

II. Appendicular skeleton-

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 i. Upper Limb
ii. Lower Limb

i. Upper Limb-
a) Shoulder girdles
girdles- 4 bones (2 bones at one side)
- Clavicle (1 )bones
- Scapula( 1 )bones
b) Upper Extremities
Extremities- 30 bones (2 bones at one side)
 Humerus (1)
 Radius(1)
 Ulna (1)
 Carpals (8)
 Metacarpals (5)
 Phalanges (14)

ii) Lower Limb

Limb-
a) Lower Extremities
Extremities- 31 bones (bones at one side)
- Lnnominate bone -1
- Femur -1
- Patella- 1
- Tobia -1
- Fibula -1
- Taesals-7
- Metatarsal bines -5
- Phalanges -14
14

I. Axial skeleton
iii. Skull-
a) Cranial -8 bones

1. Occipital Bone
2. Temporal Bones
3. Parietal Bones

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4. Sphenoid Bone
5.Ethmoid Bone
6.Frontal Bone

1. Occipital Bone
The occipital bone forms the base of the skull at the rear of the cranium. It articulates
with the first vertebra of the spinal cord and also contains the foramen magnum, the
large opening of the skill through which the spinal cord passes as it enters the
vertebral column. The occipital bone borders the parietal bones through the heavily
serrated lambdoidal suture, and also the temporal
bones through occipitomastoid suture.

2. Temporal Bones
The temporal bones are situated at the base and sides of the skull, lateral to the
temporal lobes of the brain. The temporal bones consist of four regions the squamous,
mastoid, petrous and tympanic regions.The squamous region is the largest and most
superior region. Inferior to the squamous is the mastoid region, and fused between the
squamous and mastoid regions is the petrous region. Finally,
the small and inferior tympanic region lies anteriorly to the mastoid.

3. Parietal Bones
The two large parietal bones are connected and make up part of the roof and sides of
the human skull. The two bones articulate to form the sagittal suture. In the front, the
parietal bones form the coronal suture with the frontal bone, and in the rear, the
lambdoid suture is formed by the occipital bone. Finally, the squamosal suture
separates the parietal and temporal bones.

4. Sphenoid Bone
The sphenoid bone is situated in the middle of the skull towards the front and forms
the rear of the orbit. It has been described as resembling a butterfly due to its wing-
like processes. The sphenoid bone is divided into several parts: the body of the bone,
two greater wings, two lesser wings,and the pterygoid processes.

The sphenoid bone is one of the most complex in the body due to its interactions with
numerous facial bones, ligaments, and muscles. The body that forms the middle of the
sphenoid bone articulates with the ethmoid and occipital bone and forms a key part of
the nasal cavity; it also contains the sphenoidal sinuses. The greater wings form the
floor of the middle cranial fossa that houses the frontal lobes and pituitary gland, and
also the posterior wall of the orbit. The lesser wings project laterally and form the
floor of the anterior cranial fossa and the superior orbital fissure through which
several key optical nerves pass.

5. Ethmoid Bone
The ethmoid bone is a small bone in the skull that separates the nasal cavity from the
brain. It is lightweight due to its spongy, air-filled construction and is located at the
roof of the nose and between the two orbits. The ethmoid bone forms the medial wall
of the orbit, the roof of the nasal cavity, and due to its central location it articulates
with numerous bones of the viscerocranium. Inside the neurocranium it articulates
with the frontal and sphenoid bones.

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6. Frontal Bone
The frontal bone forms the front of the skull and is divided into three parts:

Squamous: This part is large and flat and forms the main region of the forehead.
1. Orbital: This part lies inferiorly and forms the superior border of the orbit.
2. Nasal: this part is smaller and articulates with the nasal bones and maxilla to
contribute to the roof of the nose.
The frontal bone borders two other neurocranial bones—
The parietal bones through the coronal sutures and the sphenoid bone through the
sphenofrontal suture. It also articulates with the zygomatic and nasal bones and the
maxilla.
Facial Bones- 14 Bones

The facial skeleton (also known as the viscerocranium) supports the soft tissues of
the face.
It consists of 14 bones, which fuse to house the orbits of the eyes, the nasal and oral
cavities, and the sinuses. The frontal bone, typically a bone of the calvaria, is
sometimes included as part of the facial skeleton.
The facial bones are:
 Maxilla (2)
 Zygomatic (2)
 Mandible (1)
 Nasal (2)
 Platine (2)
 Inferior nasal concha (2)
 Lacrimal (2)
 Vomer (1)

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 Maxilla (2) – comprises part of the upper jaw and hard palate.
 Zygomatic (2) – forms the cheek bones of the face and articulates with the
frontal, sphenoid, temporal and maxilla bones.
 Mandible (jaw) – articulates with the base of the cranium at
the temporomandibular joint (TMJ).
 Nasal (2) – two slender bones that are located at the bridge of the nose.
 Palatine (2) – situated at the rear of oral cavity and forms part of the hard
palate.
 Inferior nasal conchae (2) – located within the nasal cavity, these bones
increase the surface area of the nasal cavity, thus increasing the amount of
inspired air that can come into contact with the cavity walls.
 Lacrimal (2) – the smallest bones of the face. They form part of the medial
wall of the orbit.
 Vomer – forms the posterior aspect of the nasal septum.

Ear bones

1. Malleus (2)
2. Incus (2)
3. Stapes (2)
1. Malleus
While often referred to as the “hammer,” the malleus actually looks more like a club.
It’s one of three bones that collectively make up the ear bone (auditory ossicle), in the
middle ear. It’s attached to the inner surface of the eardrum and links to another ear
bone called the incus. It’s also:
• The largest of the three middle ear bones
• About eight millimeters in length in most adults
• Responsible for transmitting sound vibrations from the eardrum to the other two
middle ear bones.
 Not likely to be the reason for hearing loss since it directly connects to the
eardrum

2. Incus
Also called the anvil, the incus is the second of the three middle ear bones. It’s
sometimes said to resemble a premolar tooth with roots. The body of this bone is held
together with a joint located in the upper part of the eardrum cavity (attic).
This anvil-shaped bone receives sound vibrations once they are passed along from the
malleus. The surface of the incus pairs with the malleus to form the joint that supports
it. Additional features of the incus include:
• Long and short structures called crus

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• A hooked-shaped part that forms a joint with the next bone (stapes)
• An extension (short crus) that attaches to the back part of the middle ear
• A bent part that carries a small knoblike bone that links loosely to the stapes

3. Stapes
This bone is sometimes referred to as the stirrup because of its shape and appearance.
It sits in a horizontal position in the ear next to the incus, and it’s the smallest of the
three middle ear bones. The wall of the ear cavity where these bones are located has a
bony labyrinth with two openings. These openings are the perfect size for the
footplate of the stapes. It’s then held in place by the annular ligament. After sound
vibrations make it to the stapes, the hearing process is completed with the following
steps:
• Sound vibrations are sent to another part of the ear called the cochlea
• Vibrations are then turned into nerve signals
• Nerve signals are sent along their way to the brain.

Thorax
1. Sternum (1)
2. Ribs (24)

1. Sternum -
The sternum is a partially T-shaped vertical bone that forms the anterior portion of the
chest wall centrally. The sternum is divided anatomically into three segments:
manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. The sternum connects the ribs via the costal
cartilages forming the anterior rib cage.

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2. Ribs
(a) True ribs
 The first seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs.
 They are dorsally attached to the thoracic vertebrae and are ventrally
connected to the sternum with help of the hyaline cartilage.
(b) False ribs
 The three pairs of ribs i.e., 8th, 9th and 10th do not directly articulate with
the sternum rather it joins the cartilage of 7th pair of ribs and hence are called
false ribs.
(c) Floating ribs(False Ribs)
 The 11th and 12th pair of ribs are called floating ribs because one end of the
rib is attached to the vertebral column and the other end is free. They function
as the protection of kidney.
Vertebral Column

 Cervical vertebrae (7)

 Thoracic vertebrae (12)
 Lumbar vertebrae (5)
 Sacrum (1)
 Coccyx (1)
 Vertebrae are the 33 individual bones that interlock with each other to form
the spinal column. The vertebrae are numbered and divided into regions:
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, and coccyx (Fig. 2). Only the top 24 bones
are moveable; the vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are fused.The vertebrae
in each region have unique features that help them perform their main
functions.
 Cervical (neck -7 bone) - The main function of the cervical spine is to
support the weight of the head (about 10 pounds). The seven cervical
vertebrae are numbered C1 to C7. The neck has the greatest range of motion
because of two specialized vertebrae that connect to the skull. The first
vertebra (C1) is the ring-shaped atlas that connects directly to the skull. This
joint allows for the nodding or “yes” motion of the head. The second vertebra
(C2) is the peg-shaped axis, which has a projection called the odontoid, that
the atlas pivots around. This joint allows for the side-to-side or “no” motion of
the head.
 Thoracic (mid back -12) - the main function of the thoracic spine is to hold
the rib cage and protect the heart and lungs. The twelve thoracic vertebrae are
numbered T1 to T12. The range of motion in the thoracic spine is limited.
 Lumbar (low back -5) - the main function of the lumbar spine is to bear the
weight of the body. The five lumbar vertebrae are numbered L1 to L5. These
vertebrae are much larger in size to absorb the stress of lifting and carrying
heavy objects.
 Sacrum(5 in child ,1 in adult ) - the main function of the sacrum is to
connect the spine to the hip bones (iliac). There are five sacral vertebrae,
which are fused together. Together with the iliac bones, they form a ring
called the pelvic girdle.
 Coccyx region(4 bones) - the four fused bones of the coccyx or tailbone
provide attachment for ligaments and muscles of the pelvic floor.

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 II.Appendicular skeleton-
iii. Upper Limb
iv. Lower Limb

ii. Upper Limb-

a. Shoulder girdles- 4 bones (2 bones at one side)
-Clavicle (1 )bones
- Scapula( 1 )bones
b. Upper Extremities- 30 bones (2 bones at one side)
 Humerus (1)
 Radius(1)
 Ulna (1)
 Carpals (8)
 Metacarpals (5)
 Phalanges (14)
ii) Lower Limb-
a. Lower Extremities- 31 bones (bones at one side)
-Lnnominate bone -1
- Femur -1
-Patella- 1
- Tobia -1
- Fibula -1
- Taesals-7
-Metatarsal bines -5
-Phalanges -14
a. Shoulder girdles- 4 bones (2 bones at one side)

The shoulder girdle, also called the pectoral girdle, is an incomplete bony ring formed
by the clavicle and scapula on each side of the body, joined anteriorly by the
manubrium of the sternum.
The shoulder girdle functions as the anchor that attaches the upper limbs to the axial
skeleton. Additionally, the shoulder girdle allows for a large range of motion, mainly in
the highly mobile scapulothoracic joint

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 -Clavicle

The clavicle, or collarbone, is an S-shaped long bone lying superficial to the skin and is
palpable along its entire length. In conjunction with the scapula, it serves as a
connection between the axial and appendicular skeleton.
The clavicle is composed of a sternal (proximal) end, a shaft (body) and a acromial
(distal) end. The medial end of the clavicle articulates with the manubrium of sternum
(sternoclavicular joint), while the acromial end articulates with the acromion of the
scapula (acromioclavicular joint).
The acromial and sternal ends of the clavicle contain several bony landmarks that serve
as attachment points for ligaments of their respective joints. Likewise, the shaft of the
clavicle acts as an attachment site for several muscles, such as
the trapezius, deltoid, pectoralis major, and sternocleidomastoid muscles.
The surface markings of the clavicle include:
 The trapezoid line, which provides an attachment point for the trapezoid ligament.
 The subclavian groove in the medial third of the shaft, which is a site of attachment of
the subclavius muscle.
 The conoid tubercle, onto which the conoid ligament attaches

Scapula

The scapula, or shoulder blade, is a triangular flat bone that lies on the posterolateral
aspect of the thorax, overlying the 2nd – 6th or 7th ribs.

The convex posterior surface of the scapula is unevenly divided by a thick projecting
ridge of bone (spine of the scapula) into a small supraspinous fossa and a much
larger infraspinous fossa. The spine continues laterally as the flat expanded acromion,
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which forms the subcutaneous point of the shoulder and articulates with the acromial
end of the clavicle (acromioclavicular joint).

The concave anterior surface of the scapula forms a large subscapular fossa, which
forms a muscular connection with the posterior thoracic cage (scapulothoracic joint).
Superolaterally, the lateral surface of the scapula contains the glenoid fossa (Greek
word meaning “Socket”), which articulates with the head of the humerus to form
the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint. The glenoid fossa is a shallow, concave, oval cavity
directed anterolaterally and slightly superiorly, that is considerably smaller than the ball
(head of the humerus) for which it serves as socket. The beak-like coracoid process is
superior to the glenoid fossa and projects anterolaterally.The broad bony surfaces of the
three fossae provide attachments for several muscles. The spine and acromion serve as
levers for the attached muscles, particularly the trapezius muscle. The glenohumeral
(shoulder) joint is almost directly inferior to the acromioclavicular joint, thus the
scapula mass is balanced with that of the free limb, and the suspending structure
(coracoclavicular ligament) lies between the two masses.

The upper limb

 Humerus
 Ulna
 Radius
 Carpal Bones
 Metacarpal Bones
 Phalanx Bones
Humerus

The humerus is a long bone that supports the upper arm (upper arm bone). It
extends from the shoulder joint to the elbow joint.

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Anatomy of the Humerus bone:

1. At its proximal end, the humerus is attached to the axial skeletal by the
shoulder girdle or pectoral girdle, which consists of the scapula and clavicle
bones. The rounded humeral head fits into the glenoid fossa (cavity) of the
scapula. This shallow depression on the lateral side of the scapula allows the
shoulder joint to be very mobile but also reduces its stability.
2. A long, cylindrical shaft (body) makes up the middle part of the humerus.
Most of the shaft’s surface is smooth except for the deltoid tuberosity, which
is located near the midpoint of the lateral margin. The shaft is an attachment
site for several muscles that move the upper arm and lower arm.
3. Distally the humerus joins medially with the ulna and laterally with the radius
at the elbow joint.
4. The humeroulnar joint is formed by the pulley-shaped trochlea of the humerus
and the trochlear notch of the ulna. The humeroradial joint is formed by the
rounded capitulum of the humerus and the concave superior surface of the
radial head.

RADIUS
The radius is one of the two forearm bones and is on the thumb side of the forearm
near the hand, but is always on the outside of the elbow. The position of the radius
changes depending on how the hand is turned because the radius twists around the
other forearm bone, the ulna. At the elbow, the radius is part of the odd shaped joint
between the humerus and the two forearm bones. The joint between the radius and
humerus by itself is like a ball and socket joint, with the radius forming the socket.
The radius has many muscular attachments to move the elbow, forearm, wrist and
fingers. The end of the radius leads to the wrist joint. The radius and ulna are joined
by cartilage joints at the elbow and at the wrist. They are also joined by multiple
ligaments. There are many ways that people injure the radius and the forearm.
Breaking this bone is common because when we fall, the hands and arms are
typically used to break the fall.

ULNA
The ulna is one of the two forearm bones and is on the small finger side of the
forearm. Unlike the radius, this bone does not twist, so when the hand changes
position, the ulna is always in the same position on the inside part of the forearm.
Like the radius, the ulna has joints at the elbow and wrist. The joint between the ulna
and humerus is a hinge type of joint. At the wrist, the ulna has a smaller surface in
contact with the wrist bones and typically bears less of the force from the hand and
wrist. The ulna is joined to the radius throughout the forearm with cartilage joints at
the elbow and wrist and multiple ligaments connecting to the radius through the
whole length of the forearm. Like the radius, breaking the ulna bone is a common
reason for problems with the ulna.

Carpal bones
The carpal bones are a group of short bones [24] in the human hand that collectively
forms the wrist, along with the distal ends of radius and ulna [1]. Collectively referred
to as the carpus, they individually articulate with the long bones in the lower arm
radius and ulna, as well as the metacarpals, to make up the wrist joint.

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How Many Carpal Bones are there in the Wrist

There aree eight carpal bones in the human wrist, each one being named
according to their shape:

1. Scaphoid (boat-shaped)
shaped)
2. Lunate (crescent moon
moon-shaped)
3. Triquetrum (pyramidal)
4. Pisiform (pea-shaped)
shaped)
5. Trapezium (irregular trapezium
trapezium-shaped)
6. Trapezoid (wedge-shaped)
shaped)
7. Capitate (head-shaped)
shaped)
8. Hamate (wedge-shaped
shaped with a bony extension or ‘hook’

Metacarpal Bones
Metacarpals Definition: What are They
The metacarpals are a group of bones in the human hand, between the wrist and
the finger bones [1]. These bones are classified as long bones, and together, they are
pus, forming the palm of the hand [2]
called the metacarpus,
How Many Metacarpal Bones are there in the Palm of Hand
There are five metacarpals in each hand, with each bone being associated with a
specific finger :
1. First Metacarpal – for the thumb
2. Second Metacarpal – for the index finger
3. Third Metacarpal – for the middle finger
4. Fourth Metacarpal – for the ring finger
5. Fifth Metacarpal – for the little finger
Where are the Metacarpals Located
The metacarpals are located between the distal carpal bones (trapezoid
trapezoid, trapezium, ca
pitate, hamate)) and the proximal phalanges (the lowest of the three bones forming
each finger) [2]. They can be felt on the back of the palm, below each finger
finger.

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Phalanges
Definition: What are the Phalanges (Phalanx) of the Finger

The tubular bones forming the fingers and thumbs in human hands are known as
phalanges (singular term: phalanx) . These are commonly referred to as the digital or
finger bones [2].
This article deals only with the phalanges of the hands. Visit the phalanges of the feet
article for information about the toe bones.
What Type of Bones are the Finger Phalanges
The phalanges of the hand are classified as long bones .
How Many Phalanges are There in the Hand

There are three phalanges in each finger, with the thumb being the exception with just
two phalanges . So, there are fourteen phalanges in each hand,, meaning their total
number in both hands is twenty
twenty-eight.
Where are the Phalanges Located

Located within each digit, above the metacarpals,, these are the terminal bones
(located farthest from the center of the body) of the upper li mbs in humans [6] You can
limbs
feel the phalanges within your fingers and thumb, with each section of a finger having
one phalanx.
Names of the Phalanges According to Location

Proximal Phalanges
Phalanges: Located at the proximal end, articulating with the
metacarpals [6].
Middle Phalanges: Located in the middle, between the proximal phalanges and distal
phalanges. The middle phalanx is not present in the human thumb, which only has a
proximal and a distal phalanx
phalanx.

Functions of bones -
1. Support of the body
2. Protection of soft organs
3. Movement due to attached skeletal muscles
4. Storage of minerals and fats
5. Blood cell formation

Classification of bones on the basis of shape

shape-
1. Long bones
2. Short bones
3. Flat bones

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4. Irregular bones
5. Sesamiod bones

1. Long bones
A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is wide. Keep in
mind, however, that the term describes the shape of a bone, not its size. Long bones
are found in the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs (femur, tibia, fibula), as well
as in the fingers (metac
(metacarpals,
arpals, phalanges) and toes (metatarsals, phalanges). Long
bones function as levers; they move when muscles contract.

2. Short Bones
A short bone is one that is cube
cube-like
like in shape, being approximately equal in length,
width, and thickness. The only short bones in the human skeleton are in the carpals
of the wrists and the tarsals of the ankles. Short bones provide stability and support
as well as some limited motion.

3.Flat Bones
The term “flat bone” is somewhat of a misnomer because, although a flat bone is
typically thin, it is also often curved. Examples include the cranial (skull) bones, the
scapulae (shoulder blades), the sternum (breastbone), and the ribs. Flat bones serve
as points of attachment for muscles and often protect internal organs.

4.Irregular Bones
An irregular bone is one that does not have any easily characterized shape and
therefore does not fit any other classification. These bones tend to have more
complex shapes, like the vertebrae that support the spinal cord and protect it from
compressive
mpressive forces. Many facial bones, particularly the ones containing sinuses, are
classified as irregular bones.

5.Sesamoid Bones
A sesamoid bone is a small, round bone that, as the name suggests, is shaped like a
sesame seed. These bones form in tendons (the sheaths of tissue that connect bones

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to muscles) where a great deal of pressure is generated in a joint. The sesamoid
bones protect tendons by helping them overcome compressive forces. Sesamoid
bones vary in number and placement from person to person but are typically found in
tendons associated with the feet, hands, and knees.

Bone classification
Bone Features Function Examples
classification
Long Cylinder-like shape, Leverage Femur,tibia,fibula,
longer than it is wide metatarsals,
humerus,ulna,radius,
metacarpals,
phalanges
Short Cube-like shape, Provide stability, Carpals, tarsals
approximately equal support, while
in length, width, and allowing for some
thickness motion
Flat Thin and curved Points of Sternum, ribs,
attachment for scapulae, cranial
muscles; bones
protectors of
internal organs
Irregular Complex shape Protect internal Vertebrae, facial
organs bones

Sesamoid Small and round; Protect tendons Patellae

embedded in from compressive
tendons forces

Joints and their types

Joint
A joint generally means a point where two or more things are connected together. In
this scenario, it is the point where two bones intersect. Joint means an articulation or
in other words, a strong connection that joins the bones, teeth, and cartilage together.
It is necessary for all types of movement in the body involving bones. The force
generated by muscles is used to carry out movement through various joints. The
degree and ease of movement at different joints vary with a lot of different factors.
They could be classified based on two different things.
Types of joints
A joint is classified based on functionality as to how much movement it allows:
 Immovable: A joint which permits no kind of movement is called as a
synarthrosis. The sutures of the skull and also the gomphosis connecting teeth
to that of the skull are some of the examples of synarthrosis.
 Slightly movable: An amphiarthrosis usually allows a very little amount of
the movement at one of the joints. Examples of this amphiarthrosis include

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 some of the intervertebral disks present in the spine and also the pubic
symphysis present in the hips.
 Freely movable: The third class of functional joints is said to be freely
moving kind of diarthrosis joints. Diarthrosis are said to have the highest
range of the motion of any kind of joint and also includes the knee, elbow,
shoulder and also the wrist.
Tissue

 Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together
as a unit. A nonliving material, called the intercellular matrix, fills the spaces
between the cells. This may be abundant in some tissues and minimal in
others. The intercellular matrix may contain special substances such as salts
and fibers that are unique to a specific tissue and gives that tissue distinctive
characteristics. There are four main tissue types in the body: epithelial,
connective, muscle, and nervous. Each is designed for specific functions.
Epithelial tissues

 Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They form the covering
of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are the
major tissue in glands. They perform a variety of functions that include
protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, , and sensory
reception.

 The cells in epithelial tissue are tightly packed together with very little
intercellular matrix. Because the tissues form coverings and linings, the cells
have one free surface that is not in contact with other cells. Opposite the free
surface, the cells are attached to underlying connective tissue by a non-
cellular basement membrane. This membrane is a mixture
of carbohydrates and proteins secreted by the epithelial and connective tissue
cells.

 Epithelial cells may be squamous, cuboidal, or columnar in shape and may be

arranged in single or multiple layers.

 Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in glandular tissue and in

the kidney tubules. Simple columnar epithelium lines the stomach and
intestines. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium lines portions of
the respiratory tract and some of the tubes of the male
reproductive tract. Transitional epithelium can be distended or
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 stretched. Glandular epithelium is specialized to produce and secrete
substances.

Connective Tissue

 Connective tissues bind structures together, form a framework and support for
organs and the body as a whole, store fat, transport substances, protect against
disease, and help repair tissue damage. They occur throughout the body.
Connective tissues are characterized by an abundance of
intercellular matrix with relatively few cells. Connective tissue cells are able
to reproduce but not as rapidly as epithelial cells. Most connective tissues have
a good blood supply but some do not.

 Numerous cell types are found in connective tissue. Three of the most
common are the fibroblast, macrophage, and mast cell. The types of
connective tissue include loose connective tissue, adipose tissue,
dense fibrous connective tissue, elastic connective tissue, cartilage, osseous
tissue (bone), and blood.

Muscle Tissue

 Muscle tissue is composed of cells that have the special ability to shorten or
contract in order to produce movement of the body parts. The tissue is highly
cellular and is well supplied with blood vessels. The cells are long and slender
so they are sometimes called muscle fibers, and these are usually arranged in
bundles or layers that are surrounded by connective
tissue. Actin and myosin are contractile proteins in muscle tissue.

 Muscle tissue can be categorized into skeletal muscle tissue, smooth

muscle tissue, and cardiac muscle tissue.

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 

 Skeletal muscle fibers are cylindrical, multinucleated, striated, and under

voluntary control. Smooth muscle cells are spindle shaped, have a single,
centrally located nucleus, and lack striations. They are called involuntary
muscles. Cardiac muscle has branching fibers, one nucleus per cell, striations,
and intercalated disks. Its contraction is not under voluntary control.

Nervous Tissue

 Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is responsible
for coordinating and controlling many body activities. It
stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and
plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning. To do all these things,
cells in nervous tissue need to be able to communicate with each other by way
of electrical nerve impulses. The cells in nervous tissue that generate and
conduct impulses are called neurons or nerve cells. These cells have three
principal parts: the dendrites, the cell body, and one axon. The main part of the
cell, the part that carries on the general functions, is the cell body. Dendrites
are extensions, or processes, of the cytoplasm that carry impulses to the cell
body. An extension or process called an axon carries impulses away from the
cell body.

 Nervous tissue also includes cells that do not transmit impulses, but instead
support the activities of the neurons. These are the glial cells (neuroglial cells),
together termed the neuroglia. Supporting, or glia, cells bind neurons together
and insulate the neurons. Some are phagocytic and protect against bacterial
invasion, while others provide nutrients by binding blood vessels to the
neurons.

Organs and system of body

Humans have five vital organs, and survival without any of these would not be possible.
These organs are the brain, heart, lungs, liver and kidneys. These organs are then
categorized into various organ systems. Let us educate ourselves about organs and organ
system.
The organ systems include
1. Skeletal system
2. Muscular system
3. Respiratory system
4. Cardiovascular system (Circulatory system)
5. Digestive system
6. Nervous system
7. Endocrine system
8. Reproductive system

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 9. Urinary system
10. The lymphatic system (Humeral system)
11. Integumentary system

1. Skeletal system
 This system consists of the bones of the body.
 These bones are made of bone cells and cartilage cells, which are hardened.
 They provide the body a proper shape, frame, and support to the organs.
 In some places, they form bony compartments.
 These compartments include the skull and thorax, eye sockets, etc., which
protect the essential organs like the brain, heart, lungs, eyes.
 The skeletal system is also flexible and movable at places called joints.
 These joints help in the body’s movements in coordination with skeletal
muscles

2. Musculoskeletal System
 This system comprises muscles that are responsible for the movements of the
body.
 They are of three types as skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles.
1. Skeletal muscles help in moving the body from one place to another.
Functions like walking, running, moving, lifting, bending are possible due to
skeletal muscles.
2. On the other hand, the cardiac muscles form the heart and help in the
pumping of the blood. It forces the blood to flow through the arteries such that
it reaches the deep and remote areas of the body.
3. While the smooth muscles form the organs like the stomach, intestine, uterus,
urinary bladder, etc.
4. These smooth muscles bring about movement within the body to aid
physiology.

3. Respiratory System
The respiratory system contains the:
 Lungs
 Trachea (windpipe)
 Airways of the respiratory tree
It's responsible for breathing, which is the controlled movement of air in and out of
the body (ventilation). It also moves oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of the
bloodstream (respiration).4
One of the least understood responsibilities of the respiratory system is to help
regulate the body's pH balance, or the body's balance of acids and bases.
Carbon dioxide is made into carbonic acid, which affects the pH balance. The
respiratory system regulates this pH level when it releases carbon dioxide from the
body.5 Breathing issues may indicate a condition that affects the body's acidity.

4. Crculatory System
When we think of—and talk about—the circulatory system, we're usually talking
about thecardiovascular system, which includes the:
 Heart
 Blood vessels (arteries and veins)
 The blood itself

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The circulatory system transports oxygen and nutrients to all corners of the body. It
also carries away carbon dioxide and other waste products.1
In order for blood to make it everywhere it needs to go, the circulatory system
maintains the blood flow within a certain pressure range.
Blood pressure that's too high puts undue stress on other organs and tissues. Low
blood pressure means the blood—and its nutrients—won't make it to where it needs to
go.

5. Digestive system

 This system is meant to break down the food and absorb nutrients into the
blood circulation.
 It consists of the mouth, teeth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas,
intestine, rectum, and anus.
 It is the only route through which the food can enter into the body.
 The food is breakdown into smaller forms like carbohydrates (disaccharides),
amino acids, and fatty acids for easy absorption into the body.

6. Nervous System
The nervous system includes the:
 Brain
 Spinal cord
10
 All the nerves connected to both of these organs
The nervous system is incredibly detailed and includes the only tissue that isn't fed
directly through contact with blood.
1. Endocrine system
 This system acts as complementary to the nervous system.
 Endocrine glands like the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, pineal,
adrenal glands and testes and ovaries are present in this system.
 The glands secrete their specific hormones, which act on different systems of
the body and induce changes. These hormones are chemical messengers.
 For example, the melatonin, a pineal gland hormones, induce sleep at night.
 There are different hormones controlling specific physiological processes.

8. Reproductive System
The reproductive system is the only system that is split into two parts. Half of us
have:
 Penis
 Testicles
The other half has:
 Vagina
 Uterus
 Ovaries
This is the only organ system that is not complete in any one body and requires
another person (or medical intervention) to complete its mission.

9. Urinary (Excretory) System

The urinary system is made up of the:
 Kidneys
 Ureters

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  Bladder
 Urethra8

These organs work together to filter blood and remove toxins and waste from body
tissues. The removal of excess fluid through the urinary system also helps to regulate
blood pressure

10. Lymphatic System

The heart and blood vessels are not the only organs circulating fluid around the body,
and blood is not the only circulated fluid.
The lymphatic system transports lymph (a fluid) using:
 Lymph vessels
 Lymph nodes
 Lymph ducts
 Various glands

The lymphatic system plays an important role in your immunity, blood pressure
regulation, digestion, and other functions.2
The lymphatic system is the drainage system of the body. It carries excess fluid,
proteins, fats, bacteria, and other substances away from the cells and spaces between
cells.
The lymphatic vessels filter the lymph fluid. They then move the fluid into collecting
ducts, which return the fluid to your bloodstream.3
The lymphatic system also helps create and circulate vital cells that fight disease (part
of the immune system, which is covered below). This includes lymphocytes and
monocytes (white blood cells) and antibodies (proteins that recognize bacteria and
viruses).

11. Integumentary System

The integumentary system is skin and all the structures in it, including the:
 Sweat glands
 Hair follicles
 Nails
 Nerves
The integumentary system is unique because it is the only single-organ system. Skin
is both an organ and the entire organ system.

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 Unit –II
Anatomy of muscular system
Muscle is a general term for all contractile tissue. The term muscle comes from the
Latin word mus, which means “mouse,” because the movement of muscles looks like
mice running around under our skin.

Muscles of the Head and Neck

Humans have well-developed

developed muscles in the face that permit a large variety
of facial expressions. Because the muscles are used to show surprise, disgust, anger,
fear, and other emotions, they are an important means of nonverbal communication.
Muscles
scles of facial expression include frontalis, orbicularis oris, laris oculi, buccinator,
and zygomaticus. These muscles of facial expressions are identified in the illustration
below.

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There are four pairs of muscles that are responsible for chewing movements
or mastication. All of these muscles connect to the mandible and they are some of the
strongest muscles in the body. Two of the muscles, temporalis and masseter, are
identified in the illustration above.

There are numerous muscles associated with the throat, the hyoid bone and
the vertebral column; only two of the more obvious and superficial neck muscles are
identified in the illustration: sternocleidomastoid and trapezius.

Muscles of the Trunk

The muscles of the trunk include those that move the vertebral column, the muscles
that form the thoracic and abdominal walls, and those that cover the pelvic outlet.

The erector spinae group of muscles on each side of the vertebral column is a
large muscle mass that extends from the sacrum to the skull. These muscles are
primarily responsible for extending the vertebral column to maintain erect posture.
The deep back muscles occupy the space between the spinous
and transverse processes of adjacent vertebrae.

The muscles of the thoracic wall are involved primarily in the process of breathing.
The intercostal muscles are located in spaces between the ribs. They contract during
forced expiration. External intercostal muscles contract to elevate the ribs during the
inspiration phase of breathing. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that forms a
partition between the thorax and the abdomen. It has three openings in it for structures
that have to pass from the thorax to the abdomen.

The abdomen, unlike the thorax and pelvis, has no bony reinforcements or protection.
The wall consists entirely of four muscle pairs, arranged in layers, and the fascia that
envelops them. The abdominal wall muscles are identified in the illustration below.

The pelvic outlet is formed by two muscular sheets and their associated fascia.

Muscles of the Upper Extremity

The muscles of the upper extremity include those that attach the scapula to the thorax
and generally move the scapula, those that attach the humerus to the scapula and
generally move the arm, and those that are located in the arm or forearm that move

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the forearm, wrist, and hand. The illustration below shows some of the muscles of the
upper extremity.

Muscles that move the shoulder and arm include the trapezius and serratus anterior.
The pectoralis major, latissimusdorsi, deltoid, and rotator cuff muscles connect to the
humerus and move the arm.

The muscles that move the forearm are located along the humerus, which include the
triceps brachii, biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis. The 20 or more muscles
that cause most wrist, hand, and finger movements are located along the forearm.

Muscles of the Upper Extremity

The muscles of the upper extremity include those that attach the scapula to the thorax
and generally move the scapula, those that attach the humerus to the scapula and
generally move the arm, and those that are located in the arm or forearm that move
the forearm, wrist, and hand. The illustration below shows some of the muscles of the
upper extremity.

Muscles that move the shoulder and arm include the trapezius and serratus anterior.
The pectoralis major, latissimusdorsi, deltoid, and rotator cuff muscles connect to the
humerus and move the arm.

The muscles that move the forearm are located along the humerus, which include the
triceps brachii, biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis. The 20 or more muscles
that cause most wrist, hand, and finger movements are located along the forearm.

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Structure of Skeletal Muscle

A whole skeletal muscle is considered an organ of the muscular system. Each organ
or muscle consists of skeletal muscle tissue, connective tissue, nerve tissue,
and blood or vascular tissue.

Skeletal muscles vary considerably in size, shape, and arrangement of fibers.

They range from extremely tiny strands such as the stapedium muscle of the middle
ear to large masses such as the muscles of the thigh. Some skeletal muscles are broad
in shape and some narrow. In some muscles the fibers are parallel to the long axis of
the muscle; in some they converge to a narrow attachment; and in some they are
oblique.

Each skeletal muscle fiber is a single cylindrical muscle cell. An individual skeletal
muscle may be made up of hundreds, or even thousands, of muscle fibers bundled
together and wrapped in a connective tissue covering. Each muscle is surrounded by a
connective tissue sheath called the epimysium. Fascia, connective tissue outside the
epimysium, surrounds and separates the muscles. Portions of the epimysium project
inward to divide the muscle into compartments. Each compartment contains a bundle
of muscle fibers. Each bundle of muscle fiber is called a fasciculus and is surrounded
by a layer of connective tissue called the perimysium. Within the fasciculus, each
individual muscle cell, called a muscle fiber, is surrounded by connective tissue called
the endomysium.

Skeletal muscle cells (fibers), like other body cells, are soft and fragile. The
connective tissue covering furnish support and protection for the delicate cells and
allow them to withstand the forces of contraction. The coverings also provide
pathways for the passage of blood vessels and nerves.

Commonly, the epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium extend beyond the fleshy
part of the muscle, the belly or gaster, to form a thick ropelike tendon or a broad, flat
sheet-like aponeurosis. The tendon and aponeurosis form indirect attachments from
muscles to the periosteum of bones or to the connective tissue of other muscles.
Typically a muscle spans a joint and is attached to bones by tendons at both ends. One
of the bones remains relatively fixed or stable while the other end moves as a result of
muscle contraction.

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Skeletal muscles have an abundant supply of blood vessels and nerves. This is directly
related to the primary function of skeletal muscle, contraction. Before a skeletal
muscle fiber can contract, it has to receive an impulse from a nerve cell. Generally,
an artery and at least one vein accompany each nerve that penetrates the epimysium of
a skeletal muscle. Branches of the nerve and blood vessels follow the connective
tissue components of the muscle of a nerve cell and with one or more minute blood
vessels called capillaries.

Muscle Types-

In the body, there are three types of muscle: skeletal (striated), smooth, and cardiac.

Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle, attached to bones, is responsible for skeletal movements.
The peripheral portion of the central nervous system (CNS) controls the skeletal
muscles. Thus, these muscles are under conscious, or voluntary, control. The basic
unit is the muscle fiber with many nuclei. These muscle fibers are striated
(having transverse streaks) and each acts independently of neighboring muscle fibers.

Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle, found in the walls of the hollow internal organs such
as blood vessels, the gastrointestinal tract, bladder, and uterus, is under control of
the autonomic nervous system. Smooth muscle cannot be controlled consciously and
thus acts involuntarily. The non-striated (smooth) muscle cell is spindle-shaped and
has one central nucleus. Smooth muscle contracts slowly and rhythmically.

Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle, found in the walls of the heart, is also under control of the autonomic
nervous system. The cardiac muscle cell has one central nucleus, like smooth muscle,
but it also is striated, like skeletal muscle. The cardiac muscle cell is rectangular in
shape. The contraction of cardiac muscle is involuntary, strong, and rhythmical.

Smooth and cardiac muscle will be discussed in detail with respect to their
appropriate systems. This unit mainly covers the skeletal muscular system

Properties of muscle-
All muscle cells share several properties: contractility, excitability, extensibility, and
elasticity:
1. Contractility is the ability of muscle cells to forcefully shorten. For instance,
in order to flex (decrease the angle of a joint) your elbow you need
to contract (shorten) the biceps brachii and other elbow flexor muscles in the
anterior arm. Notice that in order to extend your elbow, the posterior arm
extensor muscles need to contract. Thus, muscles can only pull, never push.
2. Excitability is the ability to respond to a stimulus, which may be delivered
from a motor neuron or a hormone.
3. Extensibility is the ability of a muscle to be stretched. For instance, let's
reconsider our elbow flexing motion we discussed earlier. In order to be able
to flex the elbow, the elbow extensor muscles must extend in order to allow
flexion to occur. Lack of extensibility is known as spasticity.
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4. Elasticity is the ability to recoil or bounce back to the muscle's original length
after being stretched.

Muscle work and fatigue-

The sliding filament theory is given by A. F. Huxley and R. Niedergerke (1954), and
H. E. Huxley and J. Hanson (1954) explain how muscles in the human body contract
to produce force.). In 1954, using high-resolution microscopy, these scientists noticed
changes in the sarcomeres as muscle tissue shortened. They observed that during
contraction, one zone of the repeated sarcomere arrangement, the ‘A band’, remained
relatively constant in length.

The ‘A band’ contains thick filaments of myosin which suggests that the myosin
remained central and constant throughout the length while other regions of the
sarcomere shortened. The investigators observed that the ‘I’ band, which is rich in
thin filaments made of actin, changed its length along with the sarcomere. These
observations led them to propose the sliding filament theory or the muscle contraction
theory. The theory states that the sliding of actin past myosin generates muscle
tension. As actin is tethered to structures located at the lateral ends of each sarcomere
(Z discs or ‘Z’ bands) any shortening of this filament length would result in a
shortening of the sarcomere which would, in turn, shorten the muscle.

Sarcomere
When muscle cells are viewed under the microscope, a striped pattern (striations) can
be observed. This pattern is formed by a series of basic units called sarcomeres.
The sarcomeres are arranged in a stacked pattern throughout muscle tissue and a
single muscle cell can have thousands of them. Sarcomeres are highly stereotyped and
are repeated throughout muscle cells, and the proteins within them can change in
length. The change in length causes the overall length of a muscle to change.
An individual sarcomere contains many parallel myosin and actin filaments. The
interaction of these proteins is at the core of the sliding filament theory.

Sliding Theory of Muscle Contraction

The sliding filament theory can be best explained as the following. For a muscle
contraction to take place, there must be a stimulation first to form an impulse (action
potential) from a neuron that connects to the muscle. The individual motor neuron
plus and the muscle fibers it stimulates, in a combination is called a motor unit. The
motor endplate which is also known as the neuromuscular junction is the location of
the motor neuron’s axon and the muscle fibers it stimulates.
When an impulse stimulates the muscle fibers of a motor unit, it starts a reaction in
each sarcomere between the myosin and actin filaments. It results in the start of a
contraction and the sliding filament theory.
The reaction, created from the arrival of an impulse stimulates the 'heads' on the
myosin filament to reach forward, attach to the actin filament and pull actin towards
the center of the sarcomere. This process is carried out simultaneously in all
sarcomeres and the end process is the shortening of all sarcomeres.
Troponin, which is a complex of 3 proteins that are integral to muscle contraction.
This complex is attached to the protein tropomyosin within the actin filaments. When

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a muscle is relaxed tropomyosin blocks the attachment sites for the myosin cross-
bridges (heads), thus preventing contraction.
When a muscle is stimulated to contract by the action potential, calcium channels
open in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and release calcium into the sarcoplasm. Some of
this released calcium attaches itself with troponin which causes a change in the
muscle cell that moves tropomyosin out of the way to the cross-bridges that can attach
and produce muscle contraction.
The Sliding Filament Theory Steps are as follows
 Muscle Activation: The motor nerve stimulates a motor impulse to pass down
a neuron to the neuromuscular junction. It stimulates the sarcoplasmic
reticulum to release calcium into muscle cells.
 Muscle Contraction: Calcium floods into the muscle cell and it binds with
troponin allowing actin and myosin to bind. The myosin and actin cross-
bridges bind and contract using ATP.
 Recharging: ATP is resynthesized which allows actin and myosin to maintain
their strong binding state.
 Relaxation: Relaxation takes place when stimulation of the nerve stops.
Calcium is then pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum which breaks
the link between actin and myosin. Myosin and actin return to their unbound
state causing the muscle to relax. Alternatively, relaxation (failure) also occurs
when ATP is no longer available.

Muscle Contraction
The thin filaments move across the thick filaments during contraction. Muscle
contraction is initiated by a signal sent by the central nervous system via a motor
neuron. The neuromuscular junction connects a motor neuron to the sarcolemma.
When a brain signal reaches this junction, acetylcholine is released and an action
potential is formed in the sarcolemma. Calcium ion is released in the sarcoplasm as
this moves across the muscle fiber. Calcium then binds to troponin on actin filaments,
exposing myosin active sites. Using energy from ATP hydrolysis, myosin binds to the
exposed active site on actin. This attracts action to the center. The Z lines that are
connected to them are likewise pulled, causing contraction. Myosin is in a state of
relaxation.
As a result, the hydrolysis of ATP at the myosin head proceeds, causing more sliding.
This is repeated until calcium ions are pushed back to the sarcolemma, resulting in the
actin sites being covered again. The Z lines revert to their initial places. This results in
relaxation. Muscular fatigue develops as a result of recurrent muscle activation, which
results in the accumulation of lactic acid.
Muscles are red because of a pigment called myoglobin. Red fibers are myoglobin-
rich muscles. They also have a large number of mitochondria, which may be used for
energy production. White fibers are muscles that lack myoglobin and are white

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Muscle Fatigue
Fatigue is a term used to describe an overall feeling of tiredness or lack of energy. It
isn’t the same as simply feeling drowsy or sleepy. When you’re fatigued, you have no
motivation and no energy. Being sleepy may be a symptom of fatigue, but it’s not the
same thing.

Causes of muscle fatigue

Exercise and other physical activity are a common cause of muscle fatigue. Other
possible causes of this symptom include:
 Addison’s disease

 age
 anaerobic infections
 anemia
 anxiety
 botulism
 cerebral palsy
 chemotherapy
 chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS)
 dehydration
 depression
 fibromyalgia
 hepatitis C
 HIV
 hypothyroidism
 influenza (the flu)
 lack of exercise
 lactic acid production
 medications
 mineral deficiency
 muscular dystrophy
 myasthenia gravis
 myositis (muscle inflammation)
 poor muscle tone due to a medical condition
 pregnancy
 sleep deprivation
 stroke
 tuberculosis
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Anatomy of respiratory organs

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Tissue and palmary respiration-

Respiration through lungs is called pulmonary respiration.

The mechanism of pulmonary respiration: It includes breathing movement, exchange

of gases, in lungs, transport of gases by blood and exchange of gase by tissue.

Upper respiratory tract: Composed of the nose, the pharynx, and the larynx, the
organs of the upper respiratory tract are located outside the chest cavity.

 Nasal cavity: Inside the nose, the sticky mucous membrane lining the nasal
cavity traps dust particles, and tiny hairs called cilia help move them to the
nose to be sneezed or blown out.
 Sinuses: These air-filled spaces along side the nose help make the skull
lighter.
 Pharynx: Both food and air pass through the pharynx before reaching their
appropriate destinations. The pharynx also plays a role in speech.
 Larynx: The larynx is essential to human speech.
Lower respiratory tract: Composed of the trachea, the lungs, and all segments of the
bronchial tree (including the alveoli), the organs of the lower respiratory tract are
located inside the chest cavity.

 Trachea: Located just below the larynx, the trachea is the main airway to the
lungs.
 Lungs: Together the lungs form one of the body’s largest organs. They’re
responsible for providing oxygen to capillaries and exhaling carbon dioxide.
 Bronchi: The bronchi branch from the trachea into each lung and create the
network of intricate passages that supply the lungs with air.
 Diaphragm: The diaphragm is the main respiratory muscle that contracts and
relaxes to allow air into the lungs.

Anatomy of heart
The heart is the organ that helps supply blood and oxygen to all parts of the body. It is
divided by a partition (or septum) into two halves. The halves are, in turn, divided into
four chambers. The heart is situated within the chest cavity and surrounded by a fluid-
filled sac called the pericardium. This amazing muscle produces electrical impulses
that cause the heart to contract, pumping blood throughout the body. The heart and
the circulatory system together form the cardiovascular system.
Heart Anatomy
The heart is made up of four chambers:
 Atria: Upper two chambers of the heart.
 Ventricles: Lower two chambers of the heart.

Heart Wall
The heart wall consists of three layers:
 Epicardium: The outer layer of the wall of the heart.

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  Myocardium: The muscular middle layer of the wall of the heart.
 Endocardium: The inner layer of the heart.

Cardiac Cycle
The Cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occurs when the heart beats. Below
are the two phases of the cardiac cycle:
 Diastole phase: The heart ventricles are relaxed and the heart fills with blood.
 Systole phase: The ventricles contract and pump blood to the arteries

Valves
Heart valves are flap-like structures that allow blood to flow in one direction. Below
are the four valves of the heart:
 Aortic valve: Prevents the backflow of blood as it is pumped from the left
ventricle to the aorta.
 Mitral valve: Prevents the backflow of blood as it is pumped from the left
atrium to the left ventricle.
 Pulmonary valve: Prevents the backflow of blood as it is pumped from the
right ventricle to the pulmonary artery.
 Tricuspid valve: Prevents the backflow of blood as it is pumped from the
right atrium to the right ventricle.

Blood Vessels
Blood vessels are intricate networks of hollow tubes that transport blood throughout
the entire body. The following are some of the blood vessels associated with the heart:
Arteries
 Aorta: The largest artery in the body, of which most major arteries branch off
from.
 Brachiocephalic artery: Carries oxygenated blood from the aorta to the head,
neck, and arm regions of the body.
 Carotid arteries: Supply oxygenated blood to the head and neck regions of
the body.
 Common iliac arteries: Carry oxygenated blood from the abdominal aorta to
the legs and feet.
 Coronary arteries: Carry oxygenated and nutrient-filled blood to the heart
muscle.
 Pulmonary artery: Carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the
lungs.
 Subclavian arteries: Supply oxygenated blood to the arms.

Veins
 Brachiocephalic veins: Two large veins that join to form the superior vena
cava.
 Common iliac veins: Veins that join to form the inferior vena cava.
 Pulmonary veins: Transport oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.
 Venae cavae: Transport de-oxygenated blood from various regions of the
body to the heart.

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Heart beat
The heart pumps the blood by contraction and relaxation of chambers of the heart.Heart rate is the number
of contractions of the heart per minute.A stethoscope is the instruments used to measure the
heartbeat..Average heartbeat is 72 per minute.

Stroke volume
The volume of blood pumped from a ventricle of the heart in one beat.
The definition of stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out of the left
ventricle of the heart during each systolic cardiac contraction.

Cardiac output
Cardiac output (CO) is the blood volume the heart pumps through the systemic
circulation over a period measured in liters per minute. There are various parameters
utilized to assess cardiac output comprehensively, but one of the more conventional
approaches involves multiplying the product of the heart rate (HR) and the stroke
volume.

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 Unit III
Anatomy of digestive organs
Mouth
 The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts
before you even take a bite. Your salivary glands get active as you see and
smell that pasta dish or warm bread. After you start eating, you chew your
food into pieces that are more easily digested. Your saliva mixes with the food
to begin to break it down into a form your body can absorb and use. When you
swallow, your tongue passes the food into your throat and into your
esophagus.
 Esophagus: A hollow tubular organ in the neck and chest area that connects
the mouth to the stomach. Muscles here propel food to the stomach.
 Stomach: A large organ that holds and digests food through a cocktail of
enzymes and acids. Food remains here for two to eight hours.
 Liver: This organ helps filter toxins from the blood and produces bile, which
helps break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
 Gallbladder: This sac-like organ stores bile produced by the liver and then
releases it as necessary.
 Pancreas: This organ produces insulin, which aids in the metabolism of
sugars.
 Small intestine: The small intestine receives food from the stomach and
begins to break down the food while absorbing the majority of its nutrients.
 Large intestine: This organ is filled with billions of harmless bacteria that
turn food into feces while removing water and electrolytes for the body’s use.
 Rectum: At the end of the large intestine, this small space is a temporary
storage area for feces.
 Anus: This is the external opening of the rectum, through which feces are
expelled.
Structure and function of excretory system
The Excretory System is defined as a biological system that helps in the
elimination of the nitrogenous waste products of metabolism and also helps in
maintaining homeostasis in our body.

Excretory System Organs

The human excretory system organs include:
 A pair of kidneys
 A pair of ureters
 A urinary bladder
 A urethra
Kidneys
Kidneys are bean-shaped structures located on either side of the backbone and are
protected by the ribs and muscles of the back. Each human adult kidney has a length
of 10-12 cm, a width of 5-7 cm and weighs around 120-170g.
The kidneys have an inner concave structure. The blood vessels, ureter and nerves
enter the kidneys through the hilum, which is a notch at the inner concave surface of

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the kidney. The renal pelvis, a large funnel
funnel-shaped
shaped space is present inner to the hilum,
is has many projections known as calyces.
Structure of Kidney
The structure of the kidney is explained below:
Capsule
The outer layer is called the capsule. Inside the kidney, there are two zones-
zones the outer
zone is the cortex and the inner zone is the medulla. The cortex extends in between
the medullary pyramids
mids as renal columns called columns of Bertin.
Nephrons
Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney. Each nephron has two part parts-
glomerulus and renal tubule. Glomerulus consists of a bunch of capillaries formed by
afferent arterioles.
terioles. Blood from glomerulus is carried away by efferent arterioles.
The renal tubule starts with a cup
cup-like
like structure called Bowman’s capsule and this
encloses the glomerulus. The malpighian body consists of glomerulus and Bowman’s
capsule. The highly coiled structure in tthe
he tubule next to the Bowman’s capsule is the
proximal convoluted tubule.
Ureter
A pair of thin muscular tubes called the ureter comes out of each kidney extending
from the renal pelvis. It carries urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
Urinary Bladder
It is a muscular sac-like
like structure, which stores urine. The urinary bladder is emptied
by the process of micturition, i.e. the act of urination.
Urethra
This tube arises from the urinary bladder and helps to expel urine out of the body. In
males, it acts
cts as the common route for sperms and urine. Its opening is guarded by
sphincter muscles.

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Meaning of Endocrine glands and structure of the following
glands-pituitary
pituitary gland, ingridparathyroid ,adrenal glands.
Endocrine system glands are spaced throughout the entire body. They release a wide
number of hormones which control the metabolism and function of other cells.

Pituitary Gland
It is present at the back of the brain. The other name of the pituitary gland is the
master gland as it is responsible for regulating all the other glands of the body,
especially the thyroid gland. These glands should have nay problems while
functioningg as they can affect menstrual cycles in women, bone growth, and even the
release of breast milk.

Adrenal Glands
These glands are present in the kidneys and are responsible for the release of human
cortisol. These glands release epinephrine and non
non-epinephrine.
rine. These hormones help
in the regulation of stress hormones throughout the body. This gland is essential as it
helps us to deal with the lowest times of our lives gracefully.

Parathyroid
These glands are present in the neck region and are responsible for bone development.
They are present in the body to regulate and keep a track record of calcium intake and
usage. The number of Parathyroid glands present inside the body is four
four.

Unit IV

Effect of exercise and training on cardiovascular system

Immediate effects when first exercising

 Heart contracts more often – increased heart rate.

 Heart contracts more powerfully – increased stroke volume,, which is the volume
of blood pumped from heart with each beat.

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  blood diverted to muscles, eg it is diverted from the digestive system to the
muscles.
 Blood temperature rises.
 Blood vessels near skin open to allow heat to be lost.
Effects of regular training

 Heart muscle increases in size and strength.

 Cardiac output increases. Cardiac means relating to the heart so this is the amount
of blood that the heart pumps out to the body.
 Lower resting heart rate, quicker recovery from exercise.
 Reduced risk of heart disease.
 Increased number of capillaries in muscles.
 Increased volume of blood and red blood cells.

Effect of exercise and training on Respiratory system

Immediate effects when first exercising

 Increased rate of breathing.

 Increased depth of breathing – rise in tidal volume.

Effects of regular training

 Increased strength of diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

 Greater number of alveoli.
 Increased ability of the lungs to extract oxygen from the air.
 Increased vital capacity.
 Increased amount of oxygen delivered to, and carbon dioxide removed from, the
body.

Effect of exercise and training on muscular system

(I) Hypertrophy of the muscle: Due to resistance training the size of muscle fibres
increases. The total amount of protein increases which is essential for muscle growth.

(II) Biochemical changes in muscles:

( i) Aerobic Changes: Myobin content increases. Oxydation of carbohydrates and flats
increases. Amount of mitochondria increases thus more muscular force is produced.
(ii)Anaerobic changes: ATP + PC system capacity increases, thereby more energy is
released. Glycolytic also increases as result of training.
(III) Body composition changes: there can be significant losses of relative and
absolute body fat. Fat free weight or muscle mass increases significantly. After
training flexibility increases which plays an important role in physical activities to
endurance the performance and prevent muscular injury.

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 Paper II
Unit –I

1..1 yoga – Meaning concept, Mis-conceptions about Yoga –

relationship with physical education.

Meaning and Concept of Yoga-.The term Yoga has its verbal root as युज् (Yuj) in
Sanskrit. Yuj means joining, यु ते अने नइितयोगः (YujyateAnenaitiyogah). Yoga is
that which joins. What are the entities that are joined? In the traditional terminology it
is joining of जीवा ा (JivAtmA) - the individual self with परमा ा (ParamAtmA) - the
universal self. It is an expansion of the narrow constricted egoistic personality to an
all pervasive, eternal and blissful state of reality.

Patanjali Yoga is one among the six systems of Indian Philosophy known as Sat
Darshanas. One of the great Rishis (seer) of the lore, Patanjali, compiled the essential
feautures and principles of YogA (which were earlier interspersed in YogA
Upanishads) in the form of Sutras or aphorisms and made avital contribution in the
field of Yoga. According to Maha Rishi Patanjali, Yoga is a conscious process of
gaining mastery over the mind.

Mis-conceptions about Yoga –Relationship with Physical education.

1.2 Historical background of yoga- yogic practices.

The practice of Yoga is believed to have started with the very dawn of civilization. The
science of yoga has its origin thousands of years ago, long before the first religions or
belief systems were born. In the yogic lore, Shiva is seen as the first yogi or Adiyogi, and
the first Guru or Adi Guru.

Several Thousand years ago, on the banks of the lake Kantisarovar in the Himalayas,
Adiyogi poured his profound knowledge into the legendary Saptarishis or "seven sages”.
The sages carried this powerful yogic science to different parts of the world, including
Asia, the Middle East, Northern Africa and South America. Interestingly, modern
scholars have noted and marvelled at the close parallels found between ancient cultures
across the globe. However, it was in India that the yogic system found its fullest
expression. Agastya, the Saptarishi who travelled across the Indian subcontinent, crafted
this culture around a core yogic way of life.

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 Unit -II

2.1 Yoga as a discipline of life mode of living ,cuits of yoga.

2.1.1 Raj Yoga
Raja yoga is one of the four classical schools of yoga alongside Jnana (knowledge or
self-study), Bhakti (devotion) and Karma (action), each offering a path
to moksha (spiritual liberation) and self-realization.

In Sanskrit, raja means ‘king" or ‘royal," referring to the status of Raja yoga as a
"royal path"’ or principal form of yoga. Traditionally, Raja yoga refers to both the
goal of yoga and the method of attaining it. As such, it is also considered to be the
state of peace and contentment that arises from sustained yoga and meditation
practice.

In essence, Raja yoga is the yoga of mind and body control, with a focus on
meditation and energetics. It encompasses teachings from all the different paths, and it
is from Raja yoga that hatha yoga and modern asana practice developed

2.12 Bhakti yoga

The term Bhakti originates from the Sanskrit word “Bhaj” which means love,
attachment, faith, devotion, &prayer.Bhakti is a very deep and intense emotion
of love of the devotee for the Divine (Supreme energy). It’s the purest, unselfish
and most beautiful form of love where the devotee feels connected with God in
his/her every breath.

History of Bhakti Yoga

Bhakti Yoga is the oldest form of Yoga with its roots in the ancient Indian
scriptures like Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Bhagavad-Gita, and Bhagavad-
Purana. However, it was only after the composition of Bhagavad-Gita around
500 B.C that Bhakti Yoga was recognized as one of the paths to liberation
(Moksha).

2.1.3 Karma yoga

Karma yoga is often defined as “the yoga of action” or “the path of selfless
service.” The Sanskrit word “Karma” is derived from the root word “Kru,” which
translates as “work, deed or action.” Yoga is a set of practices to unite the body, mind,
and heart into a state of oneness. Karma yoga is a disciplined and conscious path to
attaining this unitive state through unselfish, kind, and generous actions.

History of Karma Yoga

The foundations of Karma yoga were laid in one of the first Upanishadic
scriptures, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, which was composed around 500 BCE.
The yoga of action was further explained in the epic text, the Bhagavad
Gita. Krishna explains the practice of Karma yoga and links it to one’s fulfillment of
Dharma or personal duty.

Benefits of Karma Yoga

Karma yoga is said to purify the mind and cleanse the heart. It promotes positive
feelings like humility, kindness, compassion, honor, gratefulness, generosity, love,

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and joy. Karma yoga reduces and removes negative emotions like envy, hatred, fear,
greed, selfishness, and jealousy.

2.1.4 Gyna Yoga

The Sage Patanjali in his yoga Sutra on Gyan Yoga described 108,000 yogic asanas,
each one appropriate for different people, depending on their age, health problems and
requirements for healing. Many of these asanas have been lost over time. "Gyan"
means understanding, knowledge & wisdom.
Gyan Yoga is the highest & most powerful form of yoga, which is a valuable tool for
those who are on a spiritual journey and seek self realisation. You will feel calmer,
relaxed, more peaceful, have more energy & start the understanding and healing of
your body. It can help you find peace of mind on your Spiritual journey, and provide
you the tools you need to understand your self and attain unity with the creator.

2.1.5 Hatha yoga philosophy

Hatha means ‘force’ and is more traditionally defined as ‘the yoga of force’, or ‘the
means of attaining a state of yoga through force’.
Hatha in Sanskrit literally means ‘stubborn’. So Hatha Yoga practice means the
stubborn practice of yoga, without the interference of the five senses and the mind.
Generally, people think of Hatha Yoga only as asana practice. But it is the austere
practice of asana, pranayama, dharana, and dhyana to achieve the sublime state of
samadhi. In samadhi the yogi becomes free from the illusion of form, time, and space.
Asana is just one of the six practices in this path.

Benefit of hatha Yoga

 It improves mobility in the joints.
 It improves flexibility in the connective tissue.
 It stretches the fascia and improves its condition.
 It improves metabolism.
 It improves the functioning of all body systems.
 It stimulates cell repair and regeneration.
 It improves blood flow in the spinal cord and brain.
 It rejuvenates the ligaments.
 It helps to stimulate the lymphatic system and cleanses the body.
 It improves the overall range of motion of the body.
 It improves energy levels.
 It improves the function of the lungs and heart.
 It brings balance to the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
 It helps to calm down the senses.
 It helps to improve concentration.
 It sharpens the focus.
 It brings balance to the emotions.
 It relieves anxiety and depression.
 It removes mental fatigue.
 It stimulates creativity.
 It stimulates learning facilities.

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 Unit –III

3.1 Astanga Yoga with special reference to-

3.1.1 Yama-Yama - These are the moral ethics that are also referred to as the
“abstinences” or the “don’ts”. Patanjali states five yamas that must be followed to
gain eternal bliss - Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (Non-
stealing), Brahmacharya (chastity) and Aparigraha (non-avarice).

3.1.1 Niyama - The rules that must be followed to attain self-purification - Shauch
(purity), Santosha (satisfaction), Tapas (persistence), Svadhyaya (self-introspection)
and Ishvarapranidhana (contemplation of the Supreme Being).

3.1.3 Asanas - It is assumed that asanas are the crux of Ashtanga Yoga. But this is not
true. Asanas just form a part of this Yoga and is not just a medium of physical
activity. It is about sitting for long hours with a straight spine without making any
movement. It takes a calm mind and a flexible body to attain a meditative state with a
stable posture.

3.1.4 Pranayamas ; Type of Asanas and Pranayama

Pranayama – Pranayama is casually referred to as “control of breath.” But what we
are actually controlling is not just our breath but rather the flow of energy in our body
that moves along with the breath. We can draw the positive energy from the outer
environment through inhaling and exhale out the negative energy of the body. Due to
this reason, pranayama is such an important component of Ashtanga Yoga.
Type of Asanas
1. Katichakrasana muscles.
2. Bhujangasana
3. Kurmasana
4. SetuBandhaSarvangasana.
5. Matsyasana
6. AdhoMukhaSvanasana
7. PadaRajakapotasana
8. Balasana
9. Gomukhasana.
10. Tadasana
11. Pavanamuktasana
12. Ustrasana
13. VayuNishkasana
14. Trikonasana
15. Virabhadrasana I
16. Virabhadrasana II
17. Sarvangasana
18. Sukhasana
19. Utthita Hasta Padangusthasana.
20. Uttanpadasana
21. Sasakasana
22. Shalabhasana
23. Uttanasana
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24. ChaturangaDandasana.
25. Utkatasana
26. ArdhaPinchaMayurasana
27. Vrksasana.
28. Navasana.
29. Makarasana
30. Dhanurasana
31. Paschimottanasana
32. Padmasana
33. Bakasana
34. Vajrasana.
35. BaddhaKonasana
36. PinchaMayurasana
37. Halasana.
38. SuptaPawanmuktasana
39. Jyestikasana
40. Natarajasana.
41. Sirsasana.
42. Savasana
43. ArdhaHalasana.
44. Chakrasana.
45. Garudasana
46. AnandBalasana
47. ArdhaMatsyendrasana.
48. UtthanPristhasana.
49. Mandukasana
50. Parighasana

Types of pranayamas-
1. NadiShodhanaPranayama(Alternate Nostril Breathing)
2. BhastrikaPranayama(Bellows Breath)
3. Kapalbhati Pranayama
4. BhramariPranayama(Bee Breath)
5. AnulomVilom Pranayama
6. SheetaliPranayama(Cooling Breath)
7. Surya BhednaPranayama(Right Nostril Breathing)
8. Chandra Bhedna Pranayama
9. SheetkariPranayama(Hissing Breath)
10. UjjayiPranayama(Ocean Breath)
11. Plavini Pranayama
12. Murcha Pranayama (Swooning Breath)
13. SamaVrittiPranayama(Box Breathing)
14. DirghaPranayama(Three-Part Breathing)

3.2 Shath karma –Personal hygiene of yoga –Six purifactory methods of

yoga –Neti ,Dhauti, VastiNauli, Gajkarni, Kunja

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Neti
It is a nasal cleaning procedure that purifies the nasal passages. It achieves the effect
of cleaning the sinuses too. You can perform this exercise by using a neti pot or by
using a thread. When you use a thread, make sure that it enters through the nose and
comes out from the mouth. These two processes are called Jalaneti and sutra neti.
Dhauti
This cleaning procedure cleans the alimentary canal. In total, there are eleven dhauti
techniques that clean different parts of the gut. The best way is to swallow a lengthy
cloth and use it to remove phlegm and other impurities.
Nauli
It is a cleaning technique for the abdomen in which we use the abdominal muscles to
stimulate the digestive organs. The abdominal muscles move in a wave wave-like motion
and perform the cleaning
eaning procedure.
Basti
This technique aims to purify the large intestine by using or not using water. When
you use water, the yogi sits calmly in a tub of water and draws it into the rectum by
using uddiyanabandha and naulikriya. Later, the water is expelled.
Kapalbhati
In this cleansing technique of shatkarma, the breath is exhaled forcefully from the
nostrils. The abdominal muscles are drawn in and inhalation is done naturally.
Trataka
This cleansing process helps to clean the eyes and accentuates mental focus. A
popular method involves gazing at a candle flame.

Unit –IV
4.1 Bandhas ,Mudras and Chakras of Yoga
Bandha -Bandha is a Sanskrit word, that means ‘lock or ‘to bind’. As the
practice of Bandha locks or binds prana in certain parts of the body, therefore,
its name is Bandha.
Type of Bandhas
1. Minor Bandhas
These are performed by locking our hand & feet area.
1. Hasta Bandha – Hand locks
2. PadaBandha – Feet locks

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2. Major Bandhas
These are performed by locking muscles near to pelvis, abdomen & throat
respectively.
1. MulaBandha
2. UddiyanaBandha
3. JalandharaBandha
3. MahaBandha
This body lock is when all 3 major bandhas are performed altogether,
called MahaBandha

1. Minor Bandhas
1.HastaBandha –As As the name suggests, Hasta Bandha means “hand
lock”. This bandha locks the prana in the hand and arms. Besides, this Bandha
awakens the energy channels up the arm.
2.PadaBandha –TheThe word Pada literally means foot. Padabandha locks energy
in our feet and activates the arches of the feet. This bandha provides stability
and balance in Yoga practice .
2. Major Bandhas
1. MulaBandha-MoolaBandha
MoolaBandha literally means ‘Root lock’. This bandha locks
the energy in the pelvic region of the body. This lock includes the contraction
of perineal muscles to lock the energy in the pelvic area.
2.UddiyanaBandha--Uddiyanabandha is an abdomen lifting ifting lock that locks
the Prana in the abdomen region. In this bandha, we draw our navel
part (abdomen) in and upward
3.Jalandhara Bandha
Bandha-Jalandhar
Jalandhar bandha is also known as ‘Chin
Lock’ or ‘Throat Lock’. This bandha locks the prana in the throat region.

Mudras
“Mudra” can be translated as “seal”, “mark”, or “gesture”.
Mudras are symbolic gestures often practiced with the hands and fingers.
Connecting the fingers in certain combinations, you can activate the meridians and
direct energy throughout the body, restore the flow of energy and eliminate
“breakdowns” in diseased organs.

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Type of Mudras
1.Prana Mudra (Mudra of Life)-This mudra is designed to increase energy, restore
energy potential, give strength, inspiration, increase endurance, and even improve
vision. Prana mudra provides energy and health. Also, it reduces hunger pangs during
fasting and gives you a good night’s sleep.
2.Padma Mudra (Lotus Mudra)- The Lotus Mudra opens the Heart Chakra
(Anahata). It is a symbol of purity, light, and beauty emerging from the darkness.
The message of the lotus mudra is to stay connected to your roots, open yourself to
the light and realize that the greatest sense of steadiness in life is an open heart.
The Lotus Mudra helps to heal a “broken heart”, strengthens unconditional love for all
living beings or for a particular person, opens the heart, helps to attract a soul mate,
drains out the misunderstanding, helps to release tension. It is also practiced to
enhance the fire element in the body.
3.Apana Mudra -Apana Mudra is a Cleansing – Energy Gesture. The Sanskrit word
“Apana” refers to a cleansing form of subtle energy in our bodies that moves
downwards and outwards.
Apana Mudra is especially beneficial to women, helping to regulate the menstrual
cycle and easing childbirth.
This mudra strengthens the immune system on all levels, detoxifies the body and
balances the elements of space and earth within
4.Gyan Mudra (Mudra of Knowledge)
The Mudra of Knowledge evokes the most expansive version of the self, so you can
flow through your life lessons with ease and calm. It stimulates wisdom and
knowledge.
This beautiful mudra helps to eliminate stress, sadness, and sorrow. It gives hope and
confidence in the future. In addition, Gyan mudra improves concentration and helps
those who need to process large amounts of information, memorize and concentrate.
This mudra improves memory and attention.
5.Varun Mudra (Mudra of Water)-This powerful mudra helps to improve kidneys
and liver health. It helps to remove excess fluid from the body, accelerates
metabolism and improves health. Also, it reduces the dryness of the skin and helps to
improve its luster and softness.The Mudra of Water is known as a seat of mental
clarity. It encourages openness and fluid communication and balances the water
element in the body.
6. Mudra of Earth (Prithvi Mudra)-This is the mudra of protection. If you suffer
because of the strong pressure of the surrounding world, if events or specific people
take away your peace, perform the Prithvi mudra and you will feel that you are under
the protection of the natural forces. It helps to relieve stress quickly.

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7.Vajra Arrow Mudra
Mudra-This
This mudra helps to heal the cardiovascular system.
sys If the
body has accumulated too much energy or if the mental tension has reached its peak,
perform the Vajra Arrow Mudra. This powerful Mudra can help you to accumulate
more energy in your body
body.
8. Anjali Mudra (The Mudra of Gratitude) Gratitude)-Anjali
Anjali Mudra stabilizes
st the
lower chakras and opens the heart chakra.It is a mudra of devotion and offering, of
balance and composure, of returning to the heart. It connotes gratitude for self and
others. This is a very peaceful and safe gesture, and you will often see it come out
unconsciously. It is often used alongside the word Namaste in salutations
9.Kashyapa Mudra-This This is a powerful protection Mudra you can use anytime you
face toxic people, energy vampires, or people with bad attitudes. Also, if you are
an empath,, this mudra will protect you from absorbing the negative energy of people
around you. In other words, this is the mudra you need to protect your energy. It
balances and grounds you while creating a seal against negative energy.
Chakras of yoga

The word Chakra is an old Sanskrit word and can be translated as ‘spinning wheel’.
According to yogic beliefs, the human body has seven Chakras, Chakras which can be
thought of as intersections of different energy channels. The life force, called Prana,
travels through these channels or Nadis. According to the concept, the physical
phys human
body does not only consist of bones, muscles, organs, and skin. It’s rather made up
of various layers of energy fields surrounding the physical body. These layers are
said to form the so-called
called subtle body,, which is also called the energy body. ‘Subtle’
in this context means ‘that what is most delicate’, ‘that what is most refined’.
1.Root Chakra (Muladhara)
(Muladhara)-The The first of the 7 chakras, the root chakra, is center is
found at the pelvic floor
floor.. It is our tap root and our connection to the Earth. It keeps us
grounded into embodied reality, physically strong and secure. It holds our instinctual
urges around food, sleep, sex, and survival. It is also the realm ooff our avoidances and
fears. Importantly muladhara holds our most powerful latent potential (Kundalini
Shakti). Through yoga and meditation,, we begin to breathe life into the sleeping

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power that sits in our root. Asanas such as Warrior stances, hip-openers, Chair Pose,
deep lunges, and squats helps bring our awareness to this center
2.Pelvic Chakra (Svadishthana)-This chakra is held in our sacrum. It is our water
center, home of the reproductive organs and our desires. When our consciousness
moves freely through this area, we access our potential for self-healing and sensual
pleasure. When this chakra remains asleep to our consciousness, we may be ruled by
our attachments. Similar to the root chakra, asanas such as forward bends, hip-
openers, deep lunges, and squats helps us bring our awareness to this center
3.Navel Chakra (Manipura)-Located at the navel, the third of the 7 chakras, the
navel chakra, is associated with the digestive system, the element of fire, and
individual power and purpose. Think of manipura as your body’s energy power-
house, as it holds a vast amount of our physical vitality. When consciousness moves
freely in this center, we are empowered by the energy of transformation. When this
area is blocked, we may experience imbalances associated with aggressive ambition,
heightened ego, and the pursuit of personal power. Twists are the asanas par
excellence for purifying and healing manipura
4.Heart Chakra (Anahata)-At the center of the chest, the heart chakra is said, in the
Himalayan Tantric tradition, to be the most powerful center of all, the very “seat of
the soul.” Associated with the lungs and the element of air, we can imagine the heart
as the meeting ground for the vast spectrum of our human emotional experience. The
heart has the capacity to radiate the highest aspects of the human being: compassion,
unconditional love and total faith in the Divine. But it also has the capacity to radiate
our deepest feelings of insecurity, disappointment, loneliness and despair. To bring
more light into the chakra of the heart, work with pranayama, heart-centric
meditation, and heart-felt prayer. Backbends will also help open the energetic centers
of the heart.
5.Throat Chakra (Vishuddhi)-The fifth of the 7 chakras, vishuddhi chakra is
associated with the element of ether. It is the energetic home of speech and hearing,
and the endocrine glands that control metabolism. On a spiritual level, this chakra is
all about expanding our conversation to the Divine. To heal and purify the throat, we
can work with chant, JalandharaBandha, as well as asanas such
as Plow, Camel, Shoulderstand, and Fish Pose.
6.Third-Eye Chakra (Ajna)-The ajna chakra, or “command center,” is located
eyebrow level mid-brain. It is the meeting point between two important energetic
streams in the body, the ida and pingalanadis, and the place where the mind and the
body converge. Physically, it is connected to the pituitary gland, growth, and
development. When relaxed consciousness flows here, we have more intuition, inner-
knowing, and a feeling that we are much more than a physical body. To heal and
purify this center, we can practice alternate nostril breathing (nadishodhana) and
meditations focused on this center
7.Crown Center (Sahasrara)-The last of the 7 chakras, the crown chakra, is what
links us to everything that is beyond our individual ego. It is everything that lies
beyond our linear intellect and personal needs, preferences and emotional
experiences. It is the gateway and source point into enlightenment.
4.2. Recent advances in Yoga Education;Yoga as a Science.
The science of yoga is the scientific basis of modern yoga as exercise in human
sciences such as anatomy, physiology, and psychology. Yoga's effects are to some
extent shared with other forms of exercise.

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1.Moderates Stress Hormones-When our body gets severely stressed, it secretes a
hormone called cortisol which keeps us alert in crisis situations, but also disturbs the
body functioning in the long term. Yoga reduces the stress level of a person, thus
moderating the production of the cortisol hormone and keeping the individual calm.
2.Secretes Antioxidant Enzymes-Repeated exposure to environmental pollutants and
metabolic by-products result in the formation of free radicals, which contribute to
many diseases including cancer and expedite the aging process. To counteract free
radicals, the human body has a powerful internal defense system in the form of
antioxidant enzymes. The levels of antioxidant enzymes were found to be
significantly higher in people practicing yoga, thus enhancing the defense against free
radical damage.
3.Stimulates Parasympathetic Nervous System-Yoga actually stimulates the
parasympathetic nervous system, which calms us down and restores balance after a
major stress is over. When the parasympathetic nervous system switches on, blood is
directed toward endocrine glands, digestive organs, and other organs, thus reducing
the heartbeat rate and lowering the blood pressure.
4.Improves Immunity Function-This is attributed to the fact that yoga reduces
cortisol hormone. Too much of cortisol can dampen the effectiveness of the immune
system by immobilizing our defense system in the body (WBC). Yoga moderates the
production of cortisol, thus boosting immunity
5.Cures Addiction-Dopamine, a chemical in the brain that gives one contentment
during a high on ones drug of choice is generated naturally by doing yoga. Thus, the
craving for that level of contentment from addiction is no longer manifested. Yoga
can give one the same level of dopamine high or contentment, thus cutting out the
craving of addiction.
6.Enlarges the Brain-After conducting MRI scans, scientists have discovered that
people practicing yoga have more gray matter (brain cells) than the non-practitioners
do. It was found that with more hours of practice per week, certain areas were more
enlarged – a finding that hints that yoga was a contributing factor to the bigger brain
size.
5.1 The therapeutic values of Yogic practices.
1. Yoga improves strength, balance and flexibility-Slow movements and deep
breathing increase blood flow and warm up muscles, while holding a
pose can build strength.

2. Yoga helps with back pain relief.-Yoga is as good as basic stretching for easing
pain and improving mobility in people with lower back pain. The American College
of Physicians recommends yoga as a first-line treatment for chronic low back pain..
3. Yoga can ease arthritis symptoms.

4. Yoga benefits heart health - Regular yoga practice may reduce levels of stress and
body-wide inflammation, contributing to healthier hearts. Several of the factors
contributing to heart disease, including high blood pressure and excess weight, can
also be addressed through yoga.

5. Yoga relaxes you, to help you sleep better.

6. Yoga can mean more energy and brighter moods.-You may feel increased
mental and physical energy, a boost in alertness and enthusiasm, and fewer negative
feelings after getting into a routine of practicing yoga.

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7. Yoga helps you manage stress. -According to the National Institutes of Health,
scientific evidence shows that yoga supports stress management, mental health,
mindfulness, healthy eating, weight loss and quality sleep.
8. Yoga connects you with a supportive community. -Participating in yoga classes
can ease loneliness and provide an environment for group healing and support. Even
during one-on-one sessions loneliness is reduced as one is acknowledged as a unique
individual, being listened to and participating in the creation of a personalized yoga
plan.
9. Yoga promotes better self-care.

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 Paper III
1.1 Introduction to Kinesiology
1.1.1. Definition-
The term Kinesiology coined in 1854 by Carl Georgii , the Swedish medical gymnast and
kinesiologist, is a literal translation of Greek + English meaning ‘Movement Science’ which
was the foundation of medical gymnastics..

Kinesiology is the study of the mechanics of body movements to provide information

about the state of health of all body organs and systems. It also employs many other
healing therapies to achieve recovery.

1.1.2 Objective of kinesiology-

 Relaxation
 Correcting the alignment and posture of the body
 Increasing joints mobility
 Increasing muscle strength
 Increasing muscular endurance
 Coordination, control, balance
 Exercise training
 Respiratory re-education
 Sensory re-education
1.1.3 Role of kinesiology in physical education
1. To understand the basic princeples of activies , mechanical analysis of various
sports event.
2. It help to avoid unwanted movements, i.e., minimum expenditure of energy and
maximum output.
3.It helps to perfecting the performance and perfecting the performers himself.
4.For the analysis of muscular activities and utilizing this knowledge to improve the
performance level.
4. To know about posture and prescribe suitable corrective exercises.
5. For evaluation of activities and the performer.
6. To know the individual’s need the preparing programs according needs-selecting
exercises according to the age ,sex, etc.
7.For evaluation of activities and the performer.
8. To prepare a program for physical fitness.

1.2 Fundamental concepts of following terms with their application to

the human body.
1.2.1 Axes and Planes
Axes -All body movements occur in different planes and around different axes.
Planes- A plane is an imaginary flat surface running through the body.
Axis is actually an imaginary line about which movement occurs and the plane is an
imaginary surface on which the movement occurs.
Axis and plane describe the movement of human movement. Whatever movement we
do or motion that takes place in our joint occurs in an axis and plane. For example, if
I’m bending my forearm at the elbow we can define this motion at the elbow joint
with an axis and plane.

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Types of the axis

1. Frontal axis
2. Sagittal axis or transverse axis
3. Vertical axis

1. Frontal axis - this line runs from left to right through the centre of the body. For
example, when a person performs a somersault they rotate around this axis.
2. Sagittal (also known as the antero
antero-posterior) axis - this line runs from front to
back through the centre of the body. For example, when a person performs a
cartwheel they are rotating about the sagittal axis.
3. Vertical axis - this line runs from top to bottom through the centre of the body.
For example, when a skater performs a spin they are rotating around the vertical
axis

Frontal axis Sagittal axis Vertical axis

Types of planes

1. Frontal plane
2. Sagittal plane
3. Horizontal plane
1.Frontal plane - passes from side to side and divides the body into the front
and back. Abduction and adduction movements occur in this plane, eg
jumping jack exercises, raising and lowering arms and legs sideways,
cartwheel.
2.Sagittal plane - a vertical plane that divides the body into left and right
sides. Flexion and extension types of momovement
vement occur in this plane, eg kicking
a football, chest pass in netball, walking, jumping, squatting.
3.Horizontal plane
plane- passes through the middle of the body and divides the
body horizontally in an upper and lower half. Rotation types of movement
occur in this plane, eg hip rotation in a golf swing, twisting in a discus throw,
pivoting in netball, spinning in skating.

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1.2.2 Center of Gravity

The Centre of gravity is a theoretical point in the body where the body’s total weight
is thought to be concentrated. It is important to know the centre of gravity because it
predicts the behaviour of a moving body when acted on by gravity. It is also useful in
designing static structures such as buildings and bridges.
In a uniform gravitational field, the ccentre
entre of gravity is identical to the centre of mass.
Yet, the two points do not always coincide. For the Moon, the centre of mass is very
close to its geometric centre. However, its centre of gravity is slightly towards the
Earth due to the stronger gravit
gravitational
ational force on the Moon’s near side.
In a symmetrically shaped object formed of homogenous material, the centre of
gravity may match the body’s geometric centre. However, an asymmetrical object
composed of various materials with different masses is likel likely
y to have its centre of
gravity located at some distance away from its geometric centre. In hollow bodies or
irregularly shaped bodies, the centre of gravity lies at a point external to the physical
material.
1.2.3 Line of Gravity
The line of gravity is an imaginary vertical line from the centre of gravity to the
ground or surface the object or person is on. It is the direction that gravity is acting
upon the person or object. In the image above you can see the line of gravity in red
going down to the groun
groundd from the centre of gravity, indicating the force of gravity
upon the sprinter.
The location of this line in relation to the base of support has a huge influence on
balance and stability. In the anatomical position (right) the line of gravity is between
the legs and feet right under the person.

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 Unit II
2.1 Anatomical and Physiological fundamentals.

2.1.1 Classification of Joints and Muscles-

Classification of Joints
There are two different types of joints- Structural and Functional classification of
joints.
Structural classification of joints.
According to the structural classification of joints, they are divided into 3 types,
namely:
Fibrous Joints
Fixed joints, also called immovable joints, are found where bones are not flexible. In
such joints, bones have been fused together in such a way that they are fixed to that
part, most commonly to create a structure. A prominent example of a fixed joint is the
skull, which is made up of a number of fused bones.
Other examples include the upper jaw, rib cage, backbone, and pelvic bone, etc.
Cartilaginous Joints
Cartilaginous joints are partly movable joints comprising of symphysis or
synchondrosis joints. These joints occur only in those regions where the connection
between the articulating bones is made up of cartilage. Synchondrosis are temporary
cartilaginous joints which are present in young children and last until the end of their
puberty.
For example, the epiphyseal plates present at each end of the long bones is
responsible for bone growth in children. The symphysis or the secondary cartilaginous
joints (the place where bones join) is permanent. Examples include the pubic
symphysis. Other examples of cartilaginous types of joints include the spinal column
and the ribcage.
Synovial Joints
The synovial joints are the most common type of joint because this joint helps us to
perform a wide range of motion such as walking, running, typing and more. Synovial
joints are flexible, movable, can slide over one another, rotatable and so on. These
joints are found in our shoulder joint, neck joint, knee joint, wrist joint, etc.
Functional classification of joints.
Functional classification of joints is based on the type and degree of movement
permitted. Based on the type and degree of movement permitted. There are six types
of freely movable joint and are mentioned below with the examples:
Ball and Socket Joints
Here, one bone is hooked into the hollow space of another bone. This type of joint
helps in rotatory movement. An example ball and socket joint are the shoulders.
Pivotal Joints
In this type of joint, one bone has tapped into the other in such a way that full rotation
is not possible. This joint aid in sideways and back-forth movement. An example of a
pivotal joint in the neck.
Hinge Joints
Hinge joints are like door hinges, where only back and forth movement is possible.
Example of hinge joints is the ankle, elbows, and knee joints.

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Saddle Joints
Saddle joint is the biaxial joint that allows the movement on two planes–
flexion/extension and abduction/adduction. For example, the thumb is the only bone
in the human body having a saddle joint.
Condyloid Joints
Condyloid joints are the joints with two axes which permit up-down and side-to-side
motions. The condyloid joints can be found at the base of the index finger, carpals of
the wrist, elbow and the wrist joints. This joint is also known as a condylar, or
ellipsoid joint.
Gliding Joints
Gliding joints are a common type of synovial joint. It is also known as a plane or
planar joint. This joint permit two or more round or flat bones to move freely together
without any rubbing or crushing of bones. This joint is mainly found in those regions
where the two bones meet and glide on one another in any of the directions. The
lower leg to the ankle joint and the forearm to wrist joint are the two main examples
of gliding joints.

2.1.3 Terminology of fundamental movement

The body movements in humans are of the following types:

 Flexion
 Lateral Flexion
 Dorsiflexion
 Plantarflexion
 Extension
 Hyperextension
 Abduction
 Adduction
 Transverse Abduction
 Transverse Adduction
 RotationLateral Rotation
 Medial Rotation
 Supination
 PronationProtraction
 Retraction
 Elevation
 Depression
 Reversion
 Eversion
 Opposition
2.1.3 Type of muscle contraction
 Isometric: A muscular contraction in which the length of the muscle does not
change.
 isotonic: A muscular contraction in which the length of the muscle changes.
 eccentric: An isotonic contraction where the muscle lengthens.

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  concentric:: An isotonic contraction where the muscle shortens.
A muscle fiber generates
enerates tension through actin and myosin cross cross-bridge cycling.
While under tension, the muscle may lengthen, shorten, or remain the same. Although
the term contraction implies shortening, when referring to the muscular system, it
means the generation of ttension
ension within a muscle fiber. Several types of muscle
contractions occur and are defined by the changes in the length of the muscle during
contraction.
Isotonic Contractions
Isotonic contractions maintain constant tension in the muscle as the muscle change
changes
length. Isotonic muscle contractions can be either concentric or eccentric.
Concentric Contractions
A concentric contraction is a type of muscle contraction in which the muscles shorten
while generating force, overcoming resistance. For example, when lif lifting a heavy
weight, a concentric contraction of the biceps would cause the arm to bend at the
elbow, lifting the weight towards the shoulder. Cross Cross-bridge
bridge cycling occurs,
shortening the sarcomere, muscle fiber, and muscle.
Eccentric Contractions
An eccentric contraction results in the elongation of a muscle while the muscle is still
generating force; in effect, resistance is greater than force generated. Eccentric
contractions can be both voluntary and involuntary. For example, a voluntary
eccentric contraction would be the controlled lowering of the heavy weight raised
during the above concentric contraction. An involuntary eccentric contraction may
occur when a weight is too great for a muscle to bear and so it is slowly lowered while
under tension. Cross-bridge
bridge cycling occurs even though the sarcomere, muscle fiber,
and muscle are lengthening, controlling the extension of the muscle.

Angle of Pull
The angle of pull is used to describe the angle of any muscle and the bone to which
it’s attached.
angle of pull is the angle between line of pull of the muscle and bone on which it
inserts on .when drawing the line of pull,the direction must always from the insertion
point to the origin point .Angle of pull change when the degree of movement change
Also ,the force needed to undergo a movement depends on the angle of pull.
Kinesiology of joints

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 Unit III

3.1 Upper Extremity

3.1.1 Major characteristics of joints
When discussing hand joints, we refer to the palmar or volar surface (the palm side),
the dorsal surface (the back of the hand), the radial side (toward the thumb), and the
ulnar side (toward the little finger).
 Finger Joints
 Wrist Joints
 Elbow Joints
 Shoulder Joints
3.1.2 Location and action of major muscle acting at the following joints
3.1.2.1 Shoulder
a) Deltoid
Location: The deltoid, a triangular multitenant muscle, is located on the
shoulder, with an angle pointing down the arm and the other two
bentaroune should erto front and rear. It is proportionately far larger in
mantha primitivemammalian forms.

Action:
1 Flexion and extension of humer is
2. Help so the parts in abduction of the humerus
3. For ward and back ward movement of the arms through a transverse
plane when arm starts in abducted position.

b) Supraspiantus-
Location- the supraspinatus is a small but relatively powerful muscle filling the
supraspinous fossa and is covered by the second part of the trapezius.
Action-
 Abduction of the humerus
 Pull the head of the humerus directly into the glenoidfossa ,protecting the
joint from dislocation.
c) Pectoralis major
Location- this muscle is a large multipennate muscle lying immediately beneath the
skin over the front of the chest.the pectoral muscles originally compressed a single
mass of which the pectoalismojor was the superficial layer and the pectoralis minor
the deeper layer.

Action-

 Adduction of the humerus.

 Flexion of the humerus or depression of humerus depending upon starting
position of arm
 Inward rotation of humerus

d) Coracobrachilis
Location- The Coracobrachilis a small muscle named from its attachments is located
deep beneath the deltoid and pectoralis major on the front and inner side of the arm.

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 Action-Adduction of the humerus.
 Flexion of the humerus if arm starts at side.
 Depression of humerus if arm starts in elevated position

e) Latissimus Dorsi
Location- It is a very broad muscle , situated on the lower half of the back and lies
immediately beneath the skin except for a small space where it is covered by the
lower trapezus.
Action:
 Depression of the humerus.
 Adduction of the humerus.
 Inward rotation of the humerus.
 Rotation of the trunk backward when the arms are fixed overhead.

f) Teres Major
Location: A small round muscle lying along the axillary border of the scapula named
larger round in comparison with the teres minor of small round muscle.
Action:
 Depression of the humerus.
 Adduction of the humerus
 Inward rotation of the humerus.

g) Intraspinatus and teres minor

Location: The infraspinatus and teres minor are located on the back of the
scapula,have identical action,and hence will be studies together.
Action:
Outward rotation of the humerus.
Extension of humerus backward in horizontal plane when arm starts in an abducted
position.

h) Subcapularis
Location
This mucle is named from its position on the costal surface of scapula ,next to the
chest wall.
Action: Inward rotation of humerus.

3.1.2.3.Elbow

a. Bicepsbrachi
Location –The biceps brachi is one of the best know muscles of the body, which is
presend in the upper arm with to separate places origin.
Action: Flexion of forearm
Supination of hand
Flexion of the humerus.

b. Tricepsbrachi
Location:
This mucle is on the posterior side of the upper arm and as its name implies has three
separate places of origin.

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Action:
Extension of the forearm.

c. Anconeus
Location:
The anconeus a small triangular muscle on the back of the arm,appears to be a
continuation of the triceps.
Action:
Extension and stabilization of the elbow joint are the main functions of the anconeus.

d. Brachioradilis
Location: this mucles a fusiform muscle situated on the outer border of the forearm
gives rise to the elbow to the base on the thumb.
Action:
Flexion of the forearm
Help to start supination depending upon the stating position of the forearm.

e. Brachialis
Location:
This muscles is located between biceps and the humerus near the elbow.
Action:
Simple flexion of the elbow.

f. Pronation teres
Location : The pronator teres is a small spindle shaped muscle lying obliquely across
the elbow in front and is partly covered by the brachiordialis.
Action:
Pronation of the head.
Flexion of the forearm.

g. Pronator Quadratus
Location:
This muscle is a thin saqare sheet of parallel fibers lying deep on the front of the
forearm near the wrest.
Action:
Prime mover in pronation of the forearm regardless of the angle of the elbow joint.

h. Supinator
Location: This muscle is a broad muscle situated under the brachioradialis and the
extensor muscles attached to the lateral epicondyle.
Action:
Supination of the hand.

3.1.2.3 Wrist
a. Flexor Carpi Radialis
Location;
This muscle is a fusiform muscle lying on the upper half of the front of the forearm
just beneath the skin halfway from the brachioradialis to the ulnar side.
Action:
Flexion and abducation of the wrist.

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b. Palmaris Longus
Location :This muscle is a slender muscle lying just on the medial side of the flexor
carpi radialis. It is absent in about 13% of the individuals.
Action:
Tightens facia of the palm ,causing the palm to cup.
Flexion of the wrist.

c. Flexor Carpi ulnaris

Location:
This muscle is located on the medoal side of the forearm.
Action:
Flexion of the wrist
Adduction of the hand

d. Extensor carpi radialislongus

Location: This muscle is on the radial side of the upper forearm just posterior to the
brachioradialis.
Action:
Extension and abduction of the wrist.

e. Extensor carpi radialisbrevis

Location :
This muscle is situated just beneath the extensor carpi redialislongus.
Action:
Extension and abduction of the wrist.

f. Extensor carpi ulnaris

Location:
The extensor carpi ulnaris is situated on the back and ulnar side of the forearm.
Action:
Extension and adduction of the wrist.

3.2 Upper Extremity

3.2.1 Major characteristics of joints
3.2.2 Location and action of mojor muscle acting at the following joints
3.2.2.1 Hip

a. Psoas
Location:
Nearly all the poses lies in the abdominal cavity behind the internal organs where it
cannot be easily observed in vivo.
Action:
This muscle is a prime mover for hip flexion and assists in abduction and outward
rotation.

b. Lliacus
Location: This muscle surface of the ilium and a part of the inner surface of the
sacrum near the ilium.
Action: Hip joint flexion and stabilization.

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c. Sartoios
Location:
This muscle so called because the ancient anatomis notices that it is the muscle used
in taking the crossed-legged sitting position on the floor.
Action:
Directly assists in flexion ,abduction and outward rotation of the thigh at the hip joint
and knee inward rotation.

d. Rectus femoris
Location:
This muscle a large bipennate muscle is named from its position straight down the
front of the thigh corresponds closely to the long head of the triceps on the arm being
the middle part of a three headed extensor.
Action:
The rectus femoris is a prime mover for hip joint flexion and assists with hip joint
abduction .

e. Pectineus
Location: This muscle is a short thick muscle just below the groin ,partly covered by
the Sartorius and the rectus femoris.
Action:Thepectineus is a prime mover for hip join flexion and adduction.it is a weak
assistant for inward roation.

f. Tensor fasciae latae

Location: A small muscle at the front and side of hip is called Tensor fasciae latae
from its action to tighten the fascia of the thigh.
Action:A prime mover for inward rotation and an assist for flexion and abduction of
the hip joint.

g. Gluteus maximus
Location: This muscle is a large muscle at the back of the hip.
Action: Extension, outward rotation and abduction of the thigh at the hip joint.

h. Biceps femoris
Location: This muscle is a fusiform muscle similar in several respects to the biceps
brachi.
Action: It is prime mover for extension and an assistant for outward rotation.

i. Semitendinosus
Location:This muscle a unipennate muscle is named from its long tendon of insertion
which reaches halfway up the thigh.
Action: This muscle extends the thigh and assists in inward rotation of the hip joint .

j. Semimembranosus
Location:This muscle which is named from its membranous tendon of origin ,lies in
the posterior and media aspects of the thigh.
Action:This muscle extends the thigh and asssists in inward rotation of the hip joint.

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k. Gluteusmedius
Location: This muscle a short thick muscle situated at the side of the ilium gives the
rouned contour to the side of the hip.
Action:The mechanical leverage of the gluteus medius is well situated for power
abduction of the hip joint.

l. Gluteus minimus
Location:This muscle a smaller companion of the gluteus medius lying just beneath
it.
Action:The anterior fibers cause strong inward rotation at the hip joint and assist with
flexion and the posterior fibers assist with extension.

m. Gracilis
Location: This muscle is a slender muscle passing down the inner side of the thigh.
Action: Adduction at the hip joints assists with flexion and inward rotation.

n. Abductor Longus
Location: The abductor longus lies just to the inner side of the pectineus.
Action:Adduction of the hip joint.

o. Adductor brevis
Location: The adductor brevis is a short triangular muscle behind and above the
adductor longus.
Action:Adduction of the hip joint.

p. Adductor magnus:
Location:One of the largest muscles of the body is the adductor magnus situated on
the medial side of the thigh.
Action:The whole muscle adducts the hip joint.

3.2.2.2 Knee
a. Popliteus
Location: this muscle side of tibia , superior to the origin of the soleus.
Action: inward rotation of the tibia or when the tibia is fixed during weight bearing
outward rotation of the femur on the tibia.

b. Vastus Lateralis
Location: This muscle is a large bipennate muscle located halfway down the outer
side of the thigh and making the rouned eminence to be found there. It corresponds
closely to the lateral head of the triceps brachi.
Action: Prime mover for knee extension.

c. Vastusmedialis
Location: this muscle located on the medial side of the thigh.
Action: Prime mover for knee extension.

d. Vastusintermedius
Location :The vastusintermedius is a companion of the 2 preceding muscles lying
between them and beneath the rectus femoris.
Action: prime mover for knee extension.

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3.2.2.3. Ankle and foot

a. Tibialis Anterior
Location:The tibialis anterior muscle is the largest muscle located in the anterior
(front) compartment of the leg.
Action: prime mover for dorsiflexion and inversion.

b. Extensordigitorumlongus
Location: The extensor digitorumlongus muscle is located at the front of the leg and
is adjacent to the peroneus brevis muscle and the tibialis anterior muscle. This wing-
shaped muscle works to extend the foot at the ankle, along with the four smallest toes.
Action: prime mover for toe extension, dorsiflexion and eversion.

c. Peroneustertius
Location :Fibularistertius muscle, also called peroneus tertius, is located on the lower
lateral aspect of the leg. It is part of the anterior, or extensor, compartment of the leg,
together with three additional muscles; extensor digitorumlongus, extensor
hallucislongus and tibialis anterior. Collectively, they are responsible
for ankle dorsiflexion.
Action: prime mover for dorsifiexion and eversion of the foot.

d. Extensor halluces longus

Location: The Extensor hallucislongus (EHL) is a thin muscle, situated between
the Tibialis anterior and the Extensor DigitorumLongus[1] in the anterior
compartment of the lower leg.
Action:Extends the metatarsophalangeal and interphalangeal joints of the big toe
and assist in the in the inversion of the foot and dorsiflexion of the ankle.

e. Gastrocnemius
Location: the large muscle that gives the rounded form to the calf of the leg is
the gastrocnemius.
Action:A prime mover for plantar flexion; assists with knee flexion.

f. Plantaris
Location: The plantar is muscle consists of a small, thin muscle belly, and a long thin
tendon that forms part of the posterosuperficial compartment of the calf.Together with
the gastrocnemius, and soleus, they are collectively referred to as the triceps surae
muscle.
Action: very weak assistant for knee flexion and plantar flexion.

g. Soleus
Location: The soleus muscle arises from the soleal line on the dorsal surface of
the tibia, medial border of the tibia, head of the fibula, and posterior border of the
fibula. Part of the fibers arises from the tendinous arch of the soleus, which spans
between the tibia and fibula and arches over the popliteal vessels and tibial nerve.
Action: prime mover for plantar flexion.

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h. Peroneuslongus
Location: Fibularis (peroneus) longus is a long muscle located superficially in the
lateral compartment of the leg, together with the fibularisbrevis muscle. Fibularislongus
spreads from the proximal aspect of the fibula to the medial cuneiform and the first
metatarsal bones.
Action: prime mover for eversion.

i. Peroneusbrevis
Location :PeroneusBrevis (also known as FibularisBrevis) is a short muscle that
lies in the lateral part of the lower leg deep to the Peroneus Longus. It is one of
the three ankle everters known as the peroneus muscles (Pernoeus Longus,
Peroneus Brevis and Peroneus Tertius)
Action: prime mover for eversion assists with plantar flexion.

i. Flexordigitorumlongus
Flexor digitorumlongus muscle originates from the medial part of the posterior surface
of the tibia, medial to the origin of tibialis posterior muscle and inferior to soleus
muscle. From here, the muscle fibers descend through the medial aspect of the posterior
compartment of the leg.
Action : Metatarsophalangeal and interphalangeal joints 2-5: toe flexion
Talocrural joint: foot plantar flexion Subtalar joint: foot inversion

J. Flexor halluces longus

Flexor hallucislongus muscle is a powerful muscle that comprises the deep layer of
the posterior compartment of the leg. It belongs to a group called the deep flexors of the
calf, which also include popliteus, flexor digitorumlongus and tibialis posterior muscles
Action: flexion and inversion.

k.Tibialis posterior
Tibialis posterior is attached between the bones of the leg and the foot. The muscle
consists of two parts close to its origin; medial and lateral. The medial portion arises
from the upper two-thirds of the posterior surface of tibia, inferior to the soleal line, and
from the posterior surface of interosseous membrane of leg.

 Action:Plantar flexion of the foot at the talocrural (ankle) joint.

 Inversion of the foot at the subtalar joint.

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 Unit IV

4. Application of Mechanical Concepts.

4.1 Motion
4.1.1 Definition –“When
When a body moves from one position to another position in
relation to a fixed point /reference point with in a certain time, it indication that the
motion has occurred” .
4.1.2 Newton’s Law of Motion
4.1.3 Application to sports activites
Newton’s First Law of Motion

Newton’s First Law of Motion: A body will remain at rest or keep moving at a constant
speed unless it is acted upon by a force (law of inertia).
The law of inertia is easily noticeable and applicable in all sorts of situations, including
in sports. Inertia keeps an object moving in motion in a straight line at a constant speed
or a stationary object at rest. This concept applies to most sports and is crucial in
understanding sports movement and techniques.
Examples in Sports
Throwing A Ball
When a ball is thrown and is in mid mid-air,
air, the only force acting upon it is the force of
gravity. If the force of gravity did not exist, the ball would keep travel
travelling at a constant
speed until it was affected by an object or if another person touched it. If this ball was
thrown upwards, it would end up travelling into space!
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Newton’s Second Law of Motion: If the external net force on an object is not zero, the
object accelerates in the direction of the net force. The acceleration is directly
proportional to the net force and inversely proportion to the net force and inversely
proportional to the object’s mass.mass.What
What exactly does this mean? mea Basically no
acceleration will occur if the net force acting on an object is zero. In equation form,

Often, there are multiple forces acting on an object, so all forces must be considered
when determining the mass and the acceleration of the object in question. Free body
diagrams allow us to determine what forces are acting on an object at any given time
and provide a visual representation of how these forces are affecting the motion of an
object. This law helps us mathematically determine the accelera acceleration objects
experience, such as the acceleration of a hockey puck once it has been passed or shot.
As well, it helps us determine other quantities in kinematics, such as velocity,
displacement, and time.

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Examples in Sports
Tennis
In tennis, the acceleration of the player’s racket will allow a maximum amount of force
to be applied to the ball, which in turn will travel at speeds up to 160 mph!
Throwing a Ball
Newton’s Second Law applies to throwing a football, baseball and basketball. If the
same amount of force is applied to each ball, a baseball will have a much greater
acceleration than a football with all else being equal. This is because the mass of the
football is more than three times greater (397–425 g) than a baseball (142–149 g).
However, if a basketball was thrown with this same force, the football would travel
further than the basketball since the basketball weighs more (624 g) than a football.
Although the size and shape of the ball matter as well, more force would have to be
applied to the basketball and football for them to have the same acceleration as the
baseball and travel close to the same distance as the baseball.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Newton’s third law of motion is also known as the action-reaction law. applies in all
sorts of scenarios in sports, and some sports will rely on this concept more than others.
Examples in Sports
Golf
This law is the basis of golf, as the golfer swings his/her club to hit a motionless ball
and send it into flight. During impact, the club is applying force to the ball. At the
same time, the ball is pushing back with an equal and opposite force. However, it is not
very noticeable because of the difference in mass between the ball and the club.
Although the club will slow down a little due to the ball applying force back to the
club, it is a minimal decrease in speed.
4.2 Force
4.2.1 Definition
“It is the effect that one body has on another body.”

A push or pull acting on a body used to descrive the causes of motion .

4.2.2 Magnitude of force

An external or internal agent that acts on a body to bring change in its physical
appearance or motion is known as force. We will be discussing the magnitude of
force.
The magnitude of the force is the measure of its strength to bring about the necessary
change. Force has magnitude and also it acts in a particular direction. Force can be
contact or non-contact. Almost all the day-to-day work is done by applying some
force in one way or another.
Example- when we kick a football with large amount of force it will move with faster
speed and will cover a long distance.
4.2.3 Direction of application of force
The effect of force is always along its line of action or in the direction in which force
acts.
Example- When a hockey ball is hit in the forward direction it will travel in the
direction in which force has been applied.

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4.2.4 Application to sports activities

1. Helps to move
2. Stops the moving object
3. Helps to accelerate
4. Helps in throwing object.
5. Helps to lift the object.
6. Helps to pull the object

4.3 Equilibrium
4.3.1 Definition
Equilibrium is the state in which market supply and demand balance each other,
and as a result prices become stable. Generally, an over-supply of goods or services
causes prices to go down, which results in higher demand—while an under-supply or
shortage causes prices to go up resulting in less demand. The balancing effect of
supply and demand results in a state of equilibrium.
Equilibrium is the state of no acceleration (no change of speed or direction) of body.
o Static Equilibrium refers to the body at rest or motionless.
o Dynamic Equilibrium refers to the body in motion with unchanged
acceleration created by balanced applied and inertial force.
4.3.2 Major factors affecting Equilibrium
Breathing
Breathing affects body equilibrium and balance in a number of ways. Relaxed deep
breathing provides oxygen necessary for brain function and interaction with the sense
organs that detect equilibrium and balance. Blockages in the nasal passageways may
create spinal misalignment as the head shifts forward to open the airways. Tense
diaphragm and/or abdominal muscles limit breathing to the upper lungs. This causes
the center of gravity to shift the upper chest and the body to become top-heavy.
Vision
Through peripheral and ambient vision, the brain senses the body’s movement,
orientation in space and relationship to objects in the environment. Vision also detects
the stability of a surface or object. For example, seeing a swaying rope bridge causes
a different response in the body than seeing a sturdy pillared one. When the eyes
focus on a steady object, the vestibular system of the inner ear can orient the head
vertically, horizontally and spatially. This helps stabilize the body.
Musculoskeletal Alignment
Balance within muscle groups and alignment of the skeletal system affect body
equilibrium and balance. Small shifts of bones can affect the whole skeletal system.
When the bite of the jaw is off or one leg is longer than the other, the entire spine
compensates for the misalignment. Opposing muscle groups stabilize the joints of the
body through the balance of strength and tension. If one muscle is tight and its
opposite is weak, the joint is pulled in the direction of tightness.
Vestibular Function
The vestibular system includes the organs within the inner ear. It coordinates with the
visual and auditory systems to sense direction and speed of head movement. A fluid
called endolymph flows through the three canals of the inner ear as the head tilts and
shifts. Tiny hairlike cells send impulses to the brain as the endolymph bends each
hair. Disorders of vestibular function can cause vertigo or difficulty balancing on
unstable surfaces. Dehydration, food allergies and head/neck trauma can cause
vestibular dysfunction.

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Proprioception
Proprioceptors are reflexive organs within muscles and tendons that response to
changes in position of the body or limbs. Muscle spindles cause contraction of muscle
fibers in response to these changes. Golgi tendon organs cause the tendons to
lengthen. The most sensitive areas of proprioception are the neck and the feet. The
proprioceptors of the neck work with the vestibular system to adjust head position.
Proprioceptors of the feet spread or contract the toes or roll the bones of the feet
laterally to keep the body upright.
4.4 Lever
4.4.1 Definition Lever
“A rigid bar that is used to overcome a resestance when a force is applied to one side
of the fulcrum”.
LEVER: Lever is a rigid bar which is capable of rotating about a fixed point called
the fulcrum.
Example: see-saw, scissors, pulley etc. Skeletal system also acts like lever.
4.4.2 Types of Lever
 CLASS I LEVER – A first class lever has the fulcrum located between the
force and the resistance.

Example- See-saw, a pair of scissors, bicycle brake.

 CLASS II LEVER – A second class lever has the load or resistance located
Between the fulcrum and the force.

Example- wheel barrow, punching machine, Straight pushups, calisthenics etc.

 CLASS III LEVER – A third class lever has the force located between the
fulcrum and the resistance.

Example- baseball bat, Tennis racket, boat-paddles

4.4.3 Application of Human body
Class 1 lever – nod your head

The pivot is the place where your skull meets the top of your spine. Your skull is the
lever arm and the neck muscles at the back of the skull provide the force (effort)
to lift your head up against the weight of the head (load). When the neck muscles
relax, your head nods forward.

Class 2 lever – stand on tip toes

The pivot is at your toe joints and your foot acts as a lever arm. Your calf muscles and
Achilles tendon provide the effort when the calf muscle contracts. The load is your
body weight and is lifted by the effort (muscle contraction) .

Class 3 lever – bend your arm

The pivot is at the elbow and the forearm acts as the lever arm. The biceps muscle
provides the effort (force) and bends the forearm against the weight of the forearm
and any weight that the hand might be holding.

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 Paper IV
Sports Nutrition
Unit I
Concepts of Nutrition, Sport Nutrition and health

TYPES AND SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS

Nutrients are compounds in foods essential to life and health , providing us with
energy , the building blocks for repair and growth and substances necessary to
regulate chemical processes . There are six major nutrients : Carbohydrates ( CHO ) ,
Lipids ( fats ) , Proteins , Vitamins , Minerals , Water . There are seven main classes
of nutrients that the body needs . These are carbohydrates , proteins , fats , vitamins ,
minerals , fibre and water . It is important that everyone consumes these seven
nutrients on a daily basis to help them build their bodies and maintain their health .

Proteins
Protein is a macronutrient . It is one of the three nutrients found in food that the body
needs in large amounts . It is essential for the maintenance and building of body
tissues and muscle . Proteins are made of small compounds called amino acids .
Hundreds of amino acids exist in nature , but the human body only uses 22 of them .
animal proteins like meat , dairy , and eggs contain all the essential amino acids .
Similarly plant – based proteins from foods like beans , grains , nuts , and soy are rich
in some amino acids but may lack others . A well - balanced diet with a variety of
foods can provide sufficient protein for the body’s needs .

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates , or carbs , are sugar molecules . Along with proteins and fats ,
carbohydrates are one of three main nutrients found in foods and drinks . In fact , the
chemical structures of carbohydrates contain carbon , hydrogen , and oxygen atoms .
Human body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose .Glucose , or blood sugar , is
the main source of energy for your body’s cells , tissues , and organs . Glucose can be
used immediately or stored in the liver and muscles for later use . Carbohydrates are
found in a wide array of both healthy and unhealthy foods – bread , beans , milk ,
popcorn , potatoes , cookies , spaghetti , soft drinks , corn , and cherry pie . They also
come in a variety of forms . The most common and abundant forms are sugars , fibers,
and starches .

Fats
Fats are one of the three main macronutrient groups in human diet , along with
carbohydrates and proteins , and the main components of common food products like
milk , butter , tallow , lard , salt pork , and cooking oils . They are a major and dense
source of food energy for many animals and play important structural and metabolic
functions , in most living beings , including energy storage , waterproofing , and
thermal insulation . The human body can produce the fat it requires from other food
ingredients , except for a few essential fatty acids that must be included in the diet .

Fibres
Fibres It is also a complex carbohydrate . Your body cannot break down most fibers ,
so eating foods with fiber can help you feel full and make you less likely to overeat .
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Diets high in fiber have other health benefits . They may help prevent stomach or
intestinal problems , such as constipation . They may also help lower cholesterol and
blood sugar . Fiber is found in many foods that come from plants , including fruits ,
vegetables , nuts , seeds , beans , and whole grains , Dietary fiber helps promote
regular bowel movements , lowers blood sugar and cholesterol , and may help reduce
a person’s calorie intake .

Vitamins and Minerals

Some important nutrients ( vitamins& minerals ) required for human body along with
their sources and usefulness is described below :
Vitamin A
Helps form and maintain healthy teeth , skeleton and soft tissue , mucus membranes ,
and skin . It is also known as retinol because it produces the pigments in the retina of
the eye . It promotes good vision , especially in low light .
Sources : Carrots , sweet potato , pumpkin , green leafy vegetables , squash ,
cantaloupe , bell pepper , Chinese cabbage , beef , eggs , peaches .
Vitamin B12
Helps to make red blood cells , which carry oxygen around the body and helps the
nervous system function normally . It also helps to reduce tiredness . Effect of
Deficiency : Symptoms include pernicious anemia , neurological problems and sprue .
Sources : Fortified cereals , liver , milk , cheese , trout , salmon , tuna , haddock , and
egg .
Vitamin C
Helps to protect cells from damage . Helps with the formation of collagen , which is
important for normal bones , gums , teeth and skin .
Sources : Guava , bell pepper , kiwi , orange , grapefruit , strawberries , Brussels
sprouts , cantaloupe , papaya , coli , sweet potato , pineapple , cauliflower , kale ,
lemon juice , parsley .
Vitamin D
Helps the body to absorb calcium and helps to keep bones strong . It also helps
muscles to function normally .
Sources : Sunlight , fortified foods , mushrooms , salmon , mackerel , sardines , tuna ,
eggs
Vitamin E
Helps to protect the cells in our bodies against damage .
Sources : Green leafy vegetables , almonds , sunflower seeds , olives , blueberries ,
most nuts , most seeds , tomatoes , avocado .
Iron
Iron is an essential element for the formation of hemoglobin in red blood cells and
plays an important role in transport of oxygen to body’s tissues . It also helps the
brain to function normally .
Sources : Almonds , apricots , baked beans , dates , lima beans , kidney beans ,
raisins , brown rice , green leafy vegetables , broccoli , pumpkin seeds , tuna ,
flounder , chicken meat , pork .
Calcium
Helps to build and maintain strong bones and teeth , as well as the normal functioning
of nerves and muscles . It also helps blood clot normally .
Sources : Green leafy vegetables , legumes , tofu , molasses , sardines , okra , perch ,
trout , Chinese cabbage , rhubarb , sesame seeds .

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Phosphorus
Helps to build strong bones and teeth and helps to release energy from food .
Sources : Legumes , nuts , seeds , whole grains , eggs , fish , buckwheat , seafood ,
corn , wild rice .
Potassium
Helps regulate the water content in the body and maintain a normal blood pressure . It
also helps the nerves and muscles function normally .
Sources : Sweet potato , tomato , green leafy vegetables , carrots , prunes , beans ,
molasses , squash , fish , bananas , peaches , apricots , melon , potatoes , dates ,
raisins , mushrooms .
Sodium
Helps regulate the water content in the body .
Sources : Very small amounts found naturally in foods . Often added as salt ( sodium
chloride ) during processing , preparation , preservation and serving . Currently
intakes of sodium are too high and most people need to reduce their intake
substantially .
Magnesium
Helps to release energy from food . It also helps to maintain strong bones and helps
muscles and nerves to function normally .
Sources : legumes , nuts , seeds , whole grains , fruits , avocado .
lodine
Helps to make thyroid hormones . It also helps the brain to function normally .
Sources : Sea vegetables , iodized salt , eggs , green leafy vegetables .
Folic acid
Folic acid is vital for making red blood cells , as well as : the synthesis and repair of
DNA and RNA . It is also needed for the normal development of the nervous system
in unborn babies .
Sources : Green leafy vegetables , asparagus , broccoli , Brussels sprouts , citrus
fruits , black eyed peas , spinach , great northern beans , whole grains , baked beans ,
green peas , avocado , peanuts , lettuce , tomato juice , banana , papaya , organ meats.

MAIN FUNCTION OF MACRO AND MICRO NUTRIENTS IN HEALTH

AND SPORTS
Nutrients can be subdivided into macronutrients ( fats , protein , and carbohydrate )
and micronutrients ( minerals and vitamins ) . The seven major classes of nutrients are
carbohydrates , fats , fiber , minerals , proteins , vitamins , and water .
Macronutrients and their Functions
Macronutrients can be defined as the chemical elements ( carbon , hydrogen ,
nitrogen, oxygen , phosphorus and sulphur ) or the classes of chemical compounds (
carbohydrates , proteins , fats , water and atmospheric oxygen ) that humans consume
in the largest quantities .
Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon , hydrogen , and oxygen atoms.
Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides( glucose , fructose , galactose ) to
complex polysaccharides ( starch ) . Fats are triglycerides , made of assorted fatty acid
monomers bound to a glycerol backbone . Some fatty acids , but not all , are essential
in the diet : they cannot be synthesized in the body . Protein molecules contain
nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon ,oxygen , and hydrogen . The fundamental
components of protein are nitrogen containing amino acids , some of which are
essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally . Some of the amino
acids are convertible ( with the expenditure of energy ) to glucose and can be used for

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energy production just as ordinary glucose , in a process known as gluconeogenesis .
By Breaking down existing protein , some glucose can be produced internally ; the
remaining amino acids are discarded , primarily as urea in urine . This occurs
naturally when atrophy takes place , or during periods of starvation .
Since macronutrients ( carbohydrate , fat , protein , and alcohol ) are the sources of
energy , it is logical to consider energy balance and macronutrient balance together as
the opposite side of the same coin . The macronutrients ( excluding fiber and water )
provide structural material ( amino acids from which proteins are built , and lipids
from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built ) , and energy .
Macronutrients have the potential to alter cognitive function by exerting effects on
neuronal cell structure , neurotransmission , energy supply to the brain and
metabolism . The current chapter discusses evidence for the effects of macronutrients
on cognitive performance with consideration of potential moderating factors and
mechanisms of action . Portion size and macronutrient composition of meals and the
time of day meals are taken are considered . The effect of glucose on cognitive
performance is discussed with a focus upon the impact of GlycaemicIndex
,Glycaemic Load and evidence for the moderating effect of fibre on glucoregulatory
function

Micronutrients and their Functions

The term micronutrients refers to vitamins and minerals , which can be divided into
macrominerals , trace minerals and water- and fat – soluble vitamins .
Vitamins are organic compounds made by plants and animals which can be broken
down by heat , acid or air . On the other hand , minerals are inorganic , exist in soil or
water and cannot be broken down . The micronutrient content of each food is different
, so it’s best to eat a variety of foods to get enough vitamins and minerals .
Micronutrients can be divided into four groups – water Soluble vitamins , fat –
soluble vitamins , macrominerals and trace minerals . The functions , food sources
and recommended intakes of each vitamin and mineral vary .
Initially vitamins , minerals , fiber , and water do not provide energy , but are required
for other reasons . A third class of dietary material , fiber ( i.e. , non – digestible
material such as cellulose ) , seems also to be required , for both mechanical and
biochemical reasons , though the exact reasons remain unclear . Keep this in mind that
some nutrients can be stored – the fat – soluble vitamins – while others are required
more or less continuously . Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients ,
or for some vitamins and minerals , too much of a required nutrient . Essential
nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body , and must be obtained from food .
macronutrients include fats , carbohydrates , and proteins , micronutrients ( micros )
refer to essential vitamins and minerals . The body needs both types to stay healthy
and function correctly , but it requires more macronutrients than micronutrients .
Experts measure macronutrients in grams ( g ) , and micronutrients in milligrams (
mg) or micrograms (mcg) . This is due to people consuming micronutrients in smaller
quantities .

BALANCED DIET
A balanced diet is a diet that contains differing kinds of foods in certain quantities and
proportions so that the requirement for calories , proteins , minerals , vitamins and
alternative nutrients is adequate and a small provision is reserved for additional
nutrients to endure the short length of leanness .

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In addition , a balanced diet ought to offer bioactive phytochemicals like dietary fiber,
antioxidants and nutraceuticals that have positive health advantages . A balanced diet
should offer around 60-70 % of total calories from carbohydrates , 10-12 % from
proteins and 20-25 % of total calories from fat . A balanced diet gives your body the
nutrients it needs to function correctly . In fact , a balanced diet is one which provides
all the nutrients in required amounts and proper proportions .
balanced diet will usually include the followiof nutrients
• vitamins , minerals , and antioxidants .
• carbohydrates , including starches and fiber
• protein
• healthy fats . At the same time a balanced diet will include a variety of foods from
the following groups • fruits
• vegetables
• grains
• dairy
• protein foods . Examples of protein foods include meat , eggs , fish , beans , nuts ,
and legumes .

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 Unit II

ENERGY FOR SPORTS PERFORMANCE AND THE ROLE OF

CARBOHYDRATE , PROTEIN , FAT AND THEIR SOURCES
It is pertinent to note that energy is essential for strength work . Without effective
energy to fuel your body you will not perform to the best of your ability , especially
when it comes to strength work . Strength and focus are also interlinked as strength
work requires pure focus . Nutrition can help enhance athletic performance .

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates consist of ‘ simple ‘ sugars ( monosaccharides and disaccharides ) and
starches ( polysaccharides or ‘ complex ‘ carbohydrates ) . Once eaten , carbohydrates
are broken down to glucose and used for energy by the body . This group of foods (
bread , rice , pasta , grains , some vegetables , legumes , milk and fruit ) are good
sources of nutrients , as well as energy . Current recommendations for carbohydrate
requirements vary depending on the duration , frequency and intensity of exercise .
Foods rich in unrefined carbohydrates , like wholegrain breads and cereals , should
form the basis of the athlete's diet . More refined carbohydrate foods ( such as white
bread , jams and lollies ) are useful to boost the total intake of carbohydrate ,
particularly for very active people . Carbohydrates can be classified as :
Monosaccharides ( one sugar molecule )
• glucose ( also called dextrose )
• fructose ( fruit sugar )
• galactose ( formed during the digestion of milk ) Disaccharides ( two sugar
molecules )
• lactose ( glucose and galactose ) sucrose , better known as table sugar ( glucose
and fructose )
• maltose ( two molecules of glucose ) Polysaccharides ( three or more sugar
molecules )
• foods made up of polysaccharides may contain thousands of sugar molecules and
are sometimes referred to as ‘ starchy ‘ foods ( for example : bread , cereals , rice ,
potato , pasta and some legumes ) .

Proteins
Protiens are the building blocks of the human body . The body uses them to make its
own proteins ( for example : enzymes , hormones , antibodies , collagen etc. ) .
Proteins are made of a chain of molecules known as amino acids . In the body , we
need 20 different amino acids to make the proteins required . Amino acids are
obtained from eating a variety of foods from animals and plants . Only animal foods
contain all the amino acids needed by the body in sufficient quantities . Plants contain
a variety of amino acids as well .However , they are often deficient in one or more
amino acid . For those people who do not eat animal protein , this is not a problem , as
long as a wide variety of plant foods are consumed across the day . Protein is an
important part of a training diet and plays a key role in post – exercise recovery and
repair . Protein needs are generally met by following a high – carbohydrate diet ,
because many foods , especially cereal – based foods , are a combination of
carbohydrate and protein . Examples of non – animal protein combinations which
provide all of the essential amino acids include , corn and legumes ( for example :
Mexican bean enchilada ) , or cereal and legumes ( for example : Asian Tofu and rice
or Australian baked beans on toast ) .

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Sugars
It is important to monitor the amount of added sugar in foods such as refined cereals .
Naturally occurring sugars in foods are not a problem ( for example : lactose in milk
or fructose in fruit ) . However , when sugars are extracted from their natural source
they are devoid of nutrients , and in excess , replace other valuable nutrients in the
diet and provide excess kilojoules . Added sugar is not always just white table sugar .
Some products contain more than one type of added sugar . All sugars have the same
amount of kilojoules no matter where they are derived from . Some common names
for added sugar used on labels in Australia include brown sugar , dextrose , fruit juice
concentrate , fructose , glucose , golden syrup , honey , lactose , malt extract ,
maltose, modified carbohydrate , molasses , maple syrup , raw sugar , sucrose .

Fibres
Fibre is a type of carbohydrate that humans cannot digest using the normal digestive
acids and enzymes in the stomach and small intestine and is found in plant foods such
as vegetables , fruits , legumes and cereals . Actually there are two major categories of
fibre , soluble and insoluble . Bacteria in the large intestine can break down some
types of fibre( mostly soluble ) and produce by – products like gas and a small amount
of healthy fats ( small chain fatty acids ) . Fibre absorbs water and increases the bulk
of stools ( ‘ poo ‘ ) , making them moist and easy to pass . In addition ,fibre helps
excrete cholesterol , promotes ‘ healthy ‘ bowel bacteria , delays the digestion of
simple sugars and promotes a feeling of fullness . Population studies linking the
increased consumption of fibre from whole grains to a reduction in the risk of
cardiovascular disease , Type 2 diabetes and colon cancer have shown consistent
results .
Fats and Oils ( lipids )
Most people refer to lipids as fats . Fats are solid at room temperature and oils are
liquid at room temperature . Lipids are further classified as saturated or unsaturated .
This classification is according to their chemical structure . All fats contain a mixture
of saturated and unsaturated fats but their overall classification is determined by the
type of fat that is the predominant fat . The saturated fats are often referred to as ‘ bad
fats ‘ as they are known to contribute to plaque formation in the arteries and the
prevalence of cardiovascular diseases . The foods high in saturated fats are meats ,
cold meats , butter , cheese , yoghurt , milk , coconut milk and cream and palm oil (
which is often disguised as vegetable oil on food labels ) . The unsaturated fats can
further be divided into monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats . These are
considered the healthy fats and are listed in the table below . Foods containing a high
proportion of unsaturated fats include plant foods ( except coconut and palm ) , eggs ,
lean meat and fish . The omega fats , omega – 3 and omega – 6 fats are
polyunsaturated fats . Lipids contribute more than twice as many kilojoules per gram
as either protein or carbohydrates . All lipids have the same amount of kilojoules no
matter where they are derived from.
A FACTOR AFFECTING THE ENERGY NEEDS IN DIFFERENT
CATEGORIES OF SPORTS EVENTS
A well knownfact , success in sports depends mainly on three factors , the genetic
endowments , the state of training and nutrition . Nutrition has always been of great
interest to athletes . Proper nutrition is an important component of the total training
programme . Athletes need the same amount of essential nutrients as non – athletes

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with varied increases in their caloric requirements as well as other macro and
micronutrients due to increased physical activity .Therefore , it is essential to explore
and assess these increased demands of macro and micronutrients , especially the
energy to support their training before , during and after the competition for achieving
desirable body weight and composition and optimal sports performance . All sporting
events involve some degree of intense muscular training , which depend on the type
of sport and phase of training . Hence , the nutritional needs , especially the energy
requirements , differ greatly from athlete to athlete . The energy requirements of an
athlete is also influenced by the body size and composition , age and the gender apart
from the type of sport , different phases of training and non training activities . As a
result , a wide range of energy intake levels is observed among athletes when
considering within and between the sporting events . Therefore , it is essential to
consider these factors when recommending energy allowances apart from dietary
preferences of athletes for achieving performance . desirable body weight ,
composition and optimal sports To determine an athlete’s nutritional needs , it is
important to revisit the concept of energy metabolism . Energy intake is the
foundation of an athlete’s diet , because it supports Optimal body functions , affects
intake of macronutrients and micronutrients , and assists in maintaining body
composition . Energy needs for athletes increase depending on their energy
expenditure . The amount of energy expended during physical activity is contingent
on the intensity , duration , and frequency of the exercise . Competitive athletes may
need 3,000 to over 5,000 calories daily compared to a typical inactive individual who
needs about 2,000 calories per day . Energy needs are also affected by an individual’s
sex , age , and weight . Weight - bearing exercises , such as running , burn more
calories per hour than non – weight – bearing exercises , such as swimming , since
weight – bearing exercises require your body to move against gravity . Additionally ,
men typically burn more calories than women for the same activity , because men
have more muscle mass which requires more energy to support and move around .
The composition of macronutrients in the diet is a key factor in maximizing
performance for athletes . As discussed on the previous page , carbohydrates , fat ,
and protein can all be utilized for energy production during exercise , though the
amount utilized of each nutrient varies depending on the intensity and duration of the
exercise . We have given a detailed account of diet recommended for different times
of sports and athletio activities.
SPORTS SUPPLEMENTS AND THEIR EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE
supplements are considered an addition to an already healthy diet . Active adults or
athletes may include supplements to help meet their nutritional needs , improve
nutrient deficiencies , enhance athletic performance or achieve personal fitness goals .
But without a well – designed nutrition plan in place , supplementation is said to be
rarely effective . Sports supplements represent a multi – million dollar industry .
Active adults and athletes are often enticed by effective supplement marketing . The
promises of enhanced performance among other claims are motivating factors to
purchase alternative nutrition to achieve results . It’s estimated that in 2016 , the
dietary supplement industry garnered more than $ 40 billion in sales , with sports
nutrition supplements accounting for nearly 14 % . According to the Office of Dietary
Supplements at the National Institutes of Health , athletes , especially elite athletes ,
are more likely to use dietary supplements and sports nutrition products compared to
the general U.S. population . ‘ Despite the popularity of supplements , however , a
lack of federal regulation and quality control may mean that unreliable and ineffective
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products are being used Dietary supplements have been placed in a special food
category and not considered drugs . Supplements aren’t required to be submitted to
the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) for regulation . Although the FDA has the
ability to review ingredients and health claims of supplements , very few are
investigated . 1 Sport supplement manufacturers are allowed to make health claims
with FDA approval as long as the product statements are true and based on scientific
evidence .Unfortunately , very few supplements claiming ergogenic benefits are
supported by clinical research . This leaves the active adult or athlete without a
guarantee of safety .effectiveness , potency or purity of supplements for dietary or
ergogenic purposes . Dietary supplements include vitamins , minerals , amino acids ,
herbs , botanicals , extracts , or concentrates from plants or foods . They are typically
sold as capsules , tablets , liquids , powders or bars and required to be clearly labeled
as a dietary supplement . Ergogenic aids include substances , drugs or techniques used
to enhance athletic performance . They can range from acceptable practices of
carbohydrate loading to illegal and and even unsafe approaches including the use of
anabolic androgenic steroids .
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND ALLOWANCES FOR
SPORTSPERSON OF DIFFERENT CATEGORIES : COMPETITION
NUTRITION AND ITS MANAGEMENT , GLYCAEMIC INDEX AND
SPORTS NUTRITION
nutrition is essential to your performance during all types of exercise . As an athlete ,
the foods consumed in your diet are used to provide the body with enough energy and
specific nutrients to fuel an activity and maximize performance . Athletes have
different nutritional needs than the general population in order to support their
vigorous activity levels in both practice and competition . On this page , we’ll explore
the specific nutrient needs of athletes and how they differ from the nutrient needs of
less active individuals . To determine an athlete’s nutritional needs , it is important to
revisit the concept of energy metabolism . Energy intake is the foundation of an
athlete’s diet , because it supports optimal body functions , affects intake of
macronutrients and micronutrients , and assists in maintaining body composition .
Energy needs for athletes increase depending on their energy expenditure . The
amount of energy expended during physical activity is contingent on the intensity ,
duration , and frequency of the exercise . Evidently competitive athletes may need
3,000 to over 5,000 calories daily compared to a typical inactive individual who needs
about 2,000 calories per day . Energy needs are also affected by an individual’s sex ,
age , and weight . Weight bearing exercises , such as running , burn more calories per
hour than non – weight – bearing exercises , such as swimming , since weight –
bearing exercises require your body to move against gravity . Additionally , men
typically burn more calories than women for the same activity , because men have
more muscle mass which requires more energy to support and move around .
Competition nutrition and its management Basically competition nutrition is an
extension of training nutrition . The correct nutritional strategies before , during and
after competition will help you achieve your event goal . Planning your meals for
competition is a good way of focusing on the event . By knowing when , what and
how much you are going to eat and drink , you can be confident that you have the best
possible nutritional preparation . Planning ensures that the food you want is available ,
whether you’re at home or travelling . Fueling with the right nutrition for competition,
a combination of carbohydrates , proteins , and fats , provides energy for top
performance . Carbohydrates are the most important source of fuel , 60 % to 70 % of
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daily calories , for short – duration , high – intensity activities . In true sense ,
preparation is key to making sure young athletes are adequately fuelled for
competitions and tournaments where they have more than one event in the same day .
When competition is fierce , taking some time out in the build – up to a big event
could be the key difference between gold and silver .
Follow these simple steps below to maximise your performance and make all the hard
work and training pay off on the big day . Pre - competition Nutrition The goal of
carbohydrate loading is to superload muscles with glycogen to delay fatigue and
enable you to maintain high intensity exercise for longer . When competing for over
90 minutes normal glycogen stores will not be enough to maintain exercise .
Carbohydrate loading is a method of increasing stored glycogen by 200 300 % ,
thereby allowing the athlete to delay fatigue and maintain high intensity exercise for
longer . Carbohydrate loading is of no benefit for sports of short duration , and is
Undesirable in sports with strict weight criteria .
Eating well balanced and nutritious meals is essential in the build – up to games and
competitions for young athletes .
• Keep it simple and stick to what you know there’s nothing worse than an upset
stomach the day before a competition .
• Focus on complex carbohydrates sources in every meal to maximise energy stores.
• Hydration is essential – carry a water bottle and drink plenty throughout the day to
avoid dehydration . •Eat small meals every 2-4 hours to maximisefuelling . Big
meals the night before can leave athletes feeling sluggish the next day . What to
Eat On The Day Timing is key . Your pre – event meal should be eaten 2 4 hours
before your first event to give your body time to digest . If you’ve got an early
morning start and won’t have time for a full breakfast , then go for a carbohydrate
– rich snack or light meal instead
. • Aim for comfortably full , not stuffed .
• Pre – event ideas : bowl of cereal with milk , toast with honey , a banana , yoghurt
and dried fruit
• Start hydrating as soon as you wake up – sip on 500ml of water or diluted fruit
juice or squash in the hours before . If any athlete has got multiple events in the
same day , then fuelling between is essential to maintain your stamina and energy
. Find out your start times and plan your snacks around that . Choose a light meal
if you have a longer lunch break , or stick to snacks if time is limited .
● Keep drinking throughout the day – sports drinks or energy boost you need . fruit
squash will keep you hydrated and give you the • Have a snack as soon as you
finish your first event – remember to leave enough time for this to digest before
you compete again.
• Pasta , rice , sandwiches , wraps and rolls are great options for a light lunch .
• Don’t try anything new on competition day and don’t rely on the canteen ! What
to Eat After A Competition Whether you’ve got another day of competition the
following day or not , recovery is key . Refuelling and rehydrating are essential to

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 prepare your body for the next training session or competition and to reduce the
risk of illness or injury .
• Drink 500ml of fluids within the first 30 minutes of your event . Isotonic solutions
are a must if you’re dehydrated .
• If you’ve got an event the next day then consuming a high carbohydrate and
protein snack within 30 minutes will kick – start recovery , top – up your energy
stores and replenish tired muscles .
• Eat a nutritious meal high in protein and carbohydrates within 60-90 minutes of
finishing the event for optimum recovery.

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 Unit III
MANAGEMENT OF HYPERTENSION , ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND
DIABETES MELLITUS IN SPORTSPERSON Prevalence of atherosclerotic
vascular disease is markedly increased among individuals with diabetes – mellitus and
hypertension . Its major clinical manifestations are consequences of atherosclerosis of
coronary arteries , cerebral arteries and large arteries of lower extremities . Thus ,
atherosclerotic vascular disease is the major cause of mortality and significant
morbidity in diabetes and hypertension . Dyslipidemia ,hyperinsulinemia , and central
obesity seem to be associated with increased risk of atherosclerosis , along with the
development of hypertension and diabetes ( NIDDM ) .

Hypertension
High blood pressure ( hypertension ) is a common condition in which the long – term
force of the blood against your artery walls is high enough that it may eventually
cause health problems , such as heart disease . Blood pressure is determined both by
the amount of Blood your heart pumps and the amount of resistance to blood flow in
your arteries . The more blood your heart pumps and the narrower your arteries , the
higher your blood pressure . A blood pressure reading is given in millimeters of
mercury ( mm Hg ) It has two numbers .
Top number ( systolic pressure ) . -The first , or upper , heart beats . number
measures the pressure in your arteries when your
Bottom number ( diastolic pressure ) .- The second , or lower , number measures
the pressure in your arteries between beats.
. Athletes will be asked to rest quietly for five minutes prior to the blood pressure
check and may have it taken both sitting and lying down . The physician may also ask
the athlete to record the blood pressure throughout a week or more with a home blood
pressure cuff to obtain an average . Depending on the athlete’s level of fitness and
other medical conditions , the physician may emphasize lifestyle modifications such
as an improved diet , along with modifying or enhancing the current exercise plan .
Other lifestyle changes can include decrease in alcohol , caffeine , weight loss and
stopping the use of over – the – counter diet pills or other products that can lead to an
elevated blood pressure . The physician may also prescribe medication to help lower
blood pressure . Prior to starting medications , the physician may also order blood
tests to evaluate other problems related to high blood pressure . Injury Prevention
Athletes should strive to live a healthy lifestyle that includes a proper diet , apart from
the exercise they derive from sports participation . Return to Play Athletes in vigorous
sports may return once their blood pressure has been controlled . Some may be
cleared to play with an elevated blood p pressure while others will be required to have
better control prior to engaging in activity . Consideration of return to play in athletes
with other underlying medical conditions such as kidney disease and heart failure may
be limited or restricted based on the assessment by the sports medicine physician .
Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis is the buildup of fats , cholesterol and other
substances in and on your artery walls . This buildup is called plaque . The plaque can
cause your arteries to narrow , blocking blood flow . The plaque can also burst ,
leading to a blood clot . Although atherosclerosis is often considered a heart problem ,
it can affect arteries anywhere in your body . Atherosclerosis can be treated . Healthy
lifestyle habits can help prevent atherosclerosis . Mild atherosclerosis usually doesn’t

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have any symptoms . You usually won’t have atherosclerosis symptoms until an
artery is so narrowed or clogged that it can’t supply enough blood to your organs and
tissues . Sometimes a blood clot completely blocks blood flow , or even breaks apart
and can trigger a heart attack or stroke . Symptoms of moderate to severe
atherosclerosis depend on which arteries are affected . For example : If you have
atherosclerosis in your heart arteries , you may have symptoms , such as chest pain or
pressure (angina). If you have atherosclerosis in the arteries leading to your brain ,
you may have signs and symptoms such as sudden numbness or weakness in your
arms or legs , difficulty speaking or slurred speech , temporary loss of vision in one
eye , or drooping muscles in your face . These signal a transient ischemic attack (TIA)
, which , if left untreated , may progress to a stroke . If you have atherosclerosis in the
arteries in your arms and legs , you may have signs or symptoms of peripheral artery
disease , such as leg pain when walking ( claudication ) or decreased blood pressure in
an affected limb . If you have atherosclerosis in the arteries leading to your kidneys ,
you develop high blood pressure or kidney failure . Higher levels of physical activity
are associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular events .Nevertheless , there is
debate on the dose - response relationship of exercise and cardiovascular disease
outcomes and whether high volumes of exercise may accelerate coronary
atherosclerosis . We aimed to determine the relationship between lifelong exercise
volumes and coronary atherosclerosis .
Diabetes Mellitus in Sportsperson
Diabetes mellitus is a condition in which the level of glucose in the blood is too high
because the body is unable to Process it properly due to either a lack of , or
insensitivity to , the hormone insulin . Glucose is an essential fuel , derived from food,
transported in the blood and used by the body’s cells . Without insulin , glucose
cannot enter the cells , cannot be stored as glycogen and cannot be used as fuel . We
therefore need insulin to survive . There are two types of diabetes mellitus – type 1
and type 2. Improvements in the management of diabetes mellitus in the twentieth
century have made it possible for athletes with diabetes to compete in sport at a
professional level . While it is rare for professional athletes to have type 2 diabetes , a
number of notable athletes have type 1. Literature on the management of diabetes in
competitive sports focuses on the difficulties with balancing energy and insulin intake
during periods of strenuous exercise . Exercise and sport can affect your blood
glucose levels . Depending on the type of activity you do , it may cause your blood
glucose levels to rise ( hyperglycaemia ) or drop ( hypoglycaemia ) . Moderate
exercise that lasts a while , like levels . walking or cycling , can cause a slow drop in
blood glucose.
MANAGEMENT OF THE FEMALE SPORTSPERSON : MENARCHE AND
MENSTRUATION – AMENORRHEA , ANEMIA AND IRON
SUPPLEMENTATION ; BONE HEALTH AND CALCIUM
SUPPLEMENTATION
There are several challenges a female athlete faces when she’s on her period , but
does it affect her performance ? Until a few years ago , female athletes were wary of
speaking about their periods ‘ on a public platform . Although the situation has
improved , there’s still a long way to go . In 2016 , Chinese swimmer Fu Yuanhui had
spoken of having her period during the 2016 Summer Olympics , after she won the
bronze medal . She had also gone on to clarify that she wasn’t using her period as an
excuse ! The Female athlete triad was originally defined as an interrelation of

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amenorrhea , osteoporosis , and disordered eating that would exist simultaneously .
More recently , it has been recognized that these 3 conditions exist on a spectrum and
they have since been renamed menstrual dysfunction , low bone mineral density , and
low energy availability with or without an eating disorder . It is important to note that
not all components of the triad need to be present to make the diagnosis ; only one is
needed .
Abnormalities and menstrual changes . Prevention and early intervention are
important in averting permanent debilitating damage . The cornerstone of treatment is
creating a positive net energy availability , which requires a multidisciplinary
approach comprised of a licensed physician , nutritionist , exercise physiologist ,
mental health practitioner , athletic trainer , coaches , the athlete and their parents .
Amenorrhea Amenorrhea is the medical term for the lack of a menstrual period .
Amenorrhea is not a disease , but it can be a symptom of another condition . Primary
amenorrhea occurs when a girl has not had her first period by age 16. Secondary
amenorrhea describes women who experience an absence of more than three
menstrual cycles after having regular periods . Amenorrhea is the absence of a
menstrual period . Missing a period , when not caused by pregnancy , breastfeeding .
or menopause , may be a sign of a health problem . Missing a period is the main sign
of amenorrhea . Other symptoms can include excess facial hair , hair loss , headache ,
lack of breast development , and vision changes . Risk factors for amenorrhea include
excessive exercise obesity , eating disorders , a family history of amenorrhea or early
menopause , and genetic changes . Amenorrhea may be a sign of another health
problem rather than a disease itself . It also can occur as a natural part of life , such as
during pregnancy or breastfeeding . Treatment for amenorrhea depends on the
underlying cause , as well as the health status and goals of the individual . It may
include lifestyle changes , watchful waiting , medication , or surgery . Anemia and
Iron Supplementation Iron deficiency anemia is a common type of anemia – a
condition in which blood lacks adequate healthy red blood cells . Red blood cells
carry oxygen to the body’s tissues . Anemia is defined as a decrease in the number of
red blood cells or the amount of hemoglobin in the blood . When onset is slow ,
symptoms are often vague such as feeling tired , Weak , short of breath , or having
decreased ability to exercise . Anemia that comes on quickly often has more severe
symptoms , including : confusion , feeling like one is going to pass out or increased
thirst . Anemia is typically significant before a person becomes noticeably pale .
Children with iron deficiency anemia may have problems with growth and
development . There may be additional symptoms depending on the underlying cause
. Iron – deficiency anemia is caused by blood loss , insufficient dietary intake , or
poor absorption of iron from food . Sources of blood loss can include heavy periods ,
childbirth , uterine fibroids , stomach ulcers , colon cancer , and urinary tract bleeding
. Poor absorption of iron from food may occur as a result of an intestinal disorder such
as inflammatory bowel disease or celiac disease , or surgery such as a gastric bypass .
In the developing world , parasitic worms , malaria , and HIV / AIDS increase the risk
of iron deficiency anemia . Diagnosis is confirmed by blood tests . Iron deficiency
anemia can be prevented by eating a diet containing sufficient amounts of iron or by
iron supplementation . Foods high in iron include meat , nuts , spinach , and foods
made with iron fortified flour . Treatment may include dietary changes and dealing
with underlying causes , for example medical treatment for parasites or surgery for
ulcers . Iron supplements and vitamin C may be recommended . Severe cases may be
treated with blood transfusions or iron injections . Iron is a mineral that produces red
blood cells and helps carry oxygen around the body . When your iron levels are low ,

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it can lead to iron your organs and tissues . deficiency anemia , which decreases the
flow of oxygen to Iron deficiency anemia is one of the most common percent of
people globally . nutritional disorders in the world , affecting as many as 25 Taking
daily iron supplements can be an important part of managing iron deficiency anemia ,
although your doctor may also recommend boosting your iron intake by eating more
iron – rich foods .

Bone Health and Calcium

Supplementation Actually sport participation and physical activity is also associated
with bone health . Athletes have a greater bone mineral density compared with non –
active and physically active females . The increase in bone mass should reduce the
risk of fragility fractures in later life . Vitamin D , calcium , and hormones play vital
roles in ensuring optimal bone health . When there is an imbalance between exercise
and nutrition , as seen in the female athlete triad , bone health is compromised and can
lead to bone stress injuries and early osteoporosis . Bone density is impacted by the
amount of calcium in the bones . If athletes have poor bone density , they are more
likely to suffer from fractures and diseases like osteoporosis . They may also
experience decreased mobility and pain . To prevent osteoporosis and bone stress
injuries , adequate calcium and vitamin D intake and a healthy balance between
exercise and nutrition are necessary . The components of the Triad are associated with
lower BMD and stress injuries . Calcium is important for bone health throughout your
life . Although diet is the best way to get calcium , calcium supplements may be an
option if your diet falls short . Before you consider calcium supplements , be sure you
understand how much calcium you need , the pros and cons of calcium supplements ,
and which type of supplement to choose .

The benefits of calcium

The body of women athletes needs calcium to build and maintain strong bones . Your
heart , muscles and nerves also need calcium to function properly . Some studies
suggest that calcium , along with vitamin D , may have benefits beyond bone health :
perhaps protecting against cancer , diabetes and high blood pressure . But evidence
about such health benefits is not definitive . Calcium supplements aren’t for everyone
. For instance , if you have a health condition that causes excess calcium in your
bloodstream ( hypercalcemia ) , you should avoid calcium supplements . It’s not
definitive , but there may be a link between high – dose calcium supplements and
heart disease .
The evidence is mixed and more research is needed before doctors know the effect
calcium supplements may have on heart attack risk . A similar controversy surrounds
calcium and prostate cancer . Some studies have shown that high calcium intake From
dairy products and supplements may increase risk , whereas another more recent
study showed no increased risk of prostate cancer associated with total calcium ,
dietary calcium or supplemental calcium intakes . A number of different kinds of
calcium compounds are used in calcium supplements . Each compound contains
varying amounts of the mineral calcium – referred to as elemental calcium . Common
calcium supplements may be labeled as : Calcium carbonate (40 % elemental
calcium) Calcium citrate ( 21 % elemental calcium ) Calcium gluconate ( 9 %
elemental calcium ) Calcium lactate ( 13 % elemental calcium ) The two main forms
of calcium supplements are carbonate and citrate . Calcium carbonate is cheapest and
therefore often a good first choice . Other forms of calcium in supplements include

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gluconate and lactate . In addition , some calcium supplements are combined with
vitamins and other minerals .

EATING DISORDERS
Eating disorders are serious conditions related to persistent eating behaviors that
negatively impact your health , your emotions and your ability to function in
important areas of life . The most common eating disorders are anorexia nervosa ,
bulimia nervosa and binge – eating disorder . Most eating disorders involve focusing
too much on your weight , body shape and food , leading to dangerous eating
behaviors . These behaviors can significantly impact your body’s ability to get
appropriate nutrition . Eating disorders can harm the heart , digestive system , bones ,
and teeth and mouth , and lead to other diseases . Eating disorders often develop in the
teen and young adult years , although they can develop at other ages . With treatment ,
you can return to healthier eating habits and sometimes reverse serious complications
caused by the eating disorder . Symptoms vary , depending on the type of eating
disorder . Anorexia nervosa , bulimia nervosa and binge – eating disorder are the most
common eating disorders . Other eating disorders include rumination disorder and
avoidant / restrictive food intake disorder.

Weight Control
Weight management has been thought of as only weight attaining and maintaining
optimum weight for a healthy loss by many . Weight management covers all aspects
of lifestyle . Health professionals now realize that prevention of weight gain as well as
weight loss and improving health status are important goals . These goals must be
individualized for success . At the outset of treatment , the patient and health care
provider should discuss and agree upon goals . The goals must take into account the
food habits , exercise behaviors , psychological outlook and support systems of the
individual . Realistic expectations , short- and long – term , may be promoted by a
discussion of a healthy weight versus an ideal body weight .

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WEIGHT CONTROL , CALORIE CONCEPT OF

WEIGHT CONTROL
In the preceding chapter we have seen that human body weight is an important
indicator of human health . We have also learnt about obesity and overwightissues .
Here we will discuaa the basic principles of weight control . Regarding to an athlete ,
weight management is an increasingly integral part , as consuming the right kind of
food can lead them in success or failure . The special nutritional needs of athletes are
depending on the sport . The most important priority for them is to establish a well -
chosen nutrition program based on the type of the sport ; the training load and the
competitions needs . Health professionals and sport nutritionists need to understand
dynamic energy balance and be prepared with effective and evidence – based dietary
approaches to help athletes and active individuals achieve their body – weight goals .
Developing a weight management plan is essential for everyone .

FAT REDUCTION AND ROLE OF FAT LOSS SUPPLEMENTS

Fat accumulation in body increases the risk of obesity and overweight . For
maintaining ideal weight fat reduction is most crucial step . At the very outset , it is to
be noted that the physiological process of fat loss occurs when fats are liberated from
adipocytes into circulation to supply the needed energy . Nutrition supplements that
increase fat metabolism , impair fat absorption , increase weight loss , and increase fat

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oxidation during exercise are known as fat burners . A good fat burner must burn the
stored fats , break down the fat cells , and increase the metabolic rate .
Eating thermogenic foods helps burn fats . Fat flush diet comes to repair the damage
that resulted from ingested and environmental toxins stored in adipocytes
.Traditionally , most athletes who want to lose weight fall into two categories ; those
who are overweight or obese based on body – fat levels , and those who are already
lean , but desire additional body fat loss . Some of these athletes fall into weight –
sensitive ( e.g. , endurance athletes , ski jumping ) , weight – class ( e.g. , wrestling ,
judo ) , or aesthetically judged ( e.g. , gymnastics , figure skating ) sports . It is known
that excess body fat decreasing athletic performance as well as could increase the risk
of chronic diseases for athletes .

ROLE OF DIET IN WEIGHT CONTROL

Body weight must be maintained as per BMI for leading a healthy life . Keeping a
healthy weight is crucial . If you are underweight or overweight , or have obesity ,
you may have a higher risk of certain health problems . About two thirds of adults in
the U.S. are overweight or have obesity . Achieving a healthy weight can help you
control your cholesterol , blood pressure and blood sugar . It might also help you
prevent weight – related diseases , such as heart disease , diabetes , arthritis and some
cancers . Eating too much or not being physically active enough will make you
overweight . To maintain your weight , the calories you eat must equal the energy you
burn . To lose weight , you must use more calories than you eat . A weight – control
strategy might include :
• Choosing low – fat , low – calorie foods
• Eating smaller portions
• Drinking water instead of sugary drinks
• Being physically active Obviously eating extra calories within a well – balanced
diet can help to add weight .

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