Module-1

INTRODUCTION TO
BIOLOGY:
 Syllabus
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY:
The cell: the basic unit of life, Structure and functions of a
cell. The Plant Cell and animal cell, Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic cell, Stem cells and their application.
Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates,
Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids. Importance of special
biomolecules; Enzymes (Classification (with one example
each), Properties and functions), vitamins and hormones.
 The Cell: the basic unit of life
 A cell is the smallest unit of life and the basic building block of
all living things.
 Cells are responsible for all life's processes, including providing
structure, taking in nutrients, and converting nutrients into
energy.
 The human body is made up of trillions of cells.
 Cells are typically too small to see without a microscope.
 They are made up of the same major classes of organic
molecules, including: Nucleic acids, Proteins, Carbohydrates,
and Lipids.
The Cell
 The Cell
 Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all
living beings. A cell can replicate itself independently. Hence,
they are known as the building blocks of life.
 Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed
by a membrane. Also present in the cytoplasm are several
biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids and lipids.
 Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended
in the cytoplasm.
 The study of cells from its basic structure to the functions of
every cell organelle is called Cell Biology. Robert Hooke was the
first Biologist who discovered cells.
 The Cell
 All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a
single cell (unicellular), or many cells (multicellular).
 Cells provide structure to the body and convert the nutrients taken
from the food into energy.
 From organism to organism, the count of cells may vary. Humans
have more number of cells compared to that of bacteria.
 Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialised
functions to carry out life processes.
 Every organelle has a specific structure. The hereditary material of
the organisms is also present in the cells.
 Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:
 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
 The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles
surrounded by a separate membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information
necessary for reproduction and cell growth.
 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in
the cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly
responsible for the energy transactions vital for the survival of
the cell.
 Characteristics of Cells
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal
organisation of the cell by synthesising selective molecules and
processing, directing and sorting them to their appropriate
locations.
 Structure of Cell
 The cell structure comprises individual components with specific
functions essential to carry out life’s processes.
 These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleus, and cell organelles.

Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the
movement of substances in and out of the cells.
 It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell
membrane is present in all the cells.
 Structure of Cell
Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which
all other organelles, such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are
enclosed.
 It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits
the movement of selective substances in and out of the cell.
 Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular
component from damage and leakage.
 Structure of Cell
Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell
structure.
 It is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the
plasma membrane and other cellular components.
 The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from
mechanical shocks and injuries.
 Structure of Cell
Cytoplasm

 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present

inside the cell membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this
cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles,
mitochondria, ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.
 Structure of Cell
Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the
DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that
separates the DNA from the rest of the cell.
 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of
a plant’s cell structure.
 Structure of Cell
Cell Organelles

 Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain

specific functions to carry out life’s processes.
 The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions,
are as follows:
 Structure of Cell
Cell Organelles and their Functions

Nucleolus

The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular activities and cellular reproduction.

Nuclear membrane

The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and other cell organelles.

Chromosomes

Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates,
synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.
 Structure of Cell
Golgi Bodies

Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of materials
within the cell.

Ribosome

Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.

Mitochondria

The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces
ATP – the cell’s energy currency.
 Structure of Cell
Lysosomes

Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell
renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.

Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called
chlorophyll.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.
 Functions of Cell
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and
development of an organism. Important functions of cell are as
follows:
Provides Support and Structure
 All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the
structural basis of all the organisms.
 The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components
that function to provide support and structure to the organism.
 For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells.
 Xylem present in the vascular plants is made of cells that
provide structural support to the plants.
 Functions of Cell
Facilitate Growth Mitosis
 In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the
daughter cells.
 Thus, the cells multiply and facilitate the growth in an
organism.
Allows Transport of Substances
 Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various
chemical processes going on inside the cells.
 The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated
from the cells by active and passive transport.
 Functions of Cell
 Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol
diffuse across the cell membrane along the concentration
gradient. This is known as passive transport.
 The larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through
active transport where the cells require a lot of energy to
transport the substances.
 Functions of Cell
Energy Production
Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This
energy is produced by the cells through a process called
photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.
Aids in Reproduction
 A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis
and meiosis.
 Mitosis is termed as the asexual reproduction where the parent
cell divides to form daughter cells.
 Functions of Cell
Aids in Reproduction
 Thus, we can understand why cells are known as the structural
and functional unit of life.
 This is because they are responsible for providing structure to
the organisms and perform several functions necessary for
carrying out life’s processes.
 Plant Cell
“Plant cells are eukaryotic cells with a true nucleus along with
specialized structures called organelles that carry out certain
specific functions.”

What is a Plant Cell?

 Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that vary in several fundamental
factors from other eukaryotic organisms.
 Both plant and animal cells contain a nucleus along with
similar organelles.
 One of the distinctive aspects of a plant cell is the presence of
a cell wall outside the cell membrane.
Plant Cell
 Plant Cell Structure
Just like different organs within the body, plant cell structure
includes various components known as cell organelles that perform
different functions to sustain itself. These organelles include:

Cell Wall
 It is a rigid layer which is composed of polysaccharides cellulose,
pectin and hemicellulose. It is located outside the cell membrane.
 It also comprises glycoproteins and polymers such as lignin,
cutin, or suberin.
 The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide
structural support to the cell.
 Plant Cell Structure
 The plant cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell
against mechanical stress and providing form and structure to
the cell.
 It also filters the molecules passing in and out of it.

Cell membrane
 It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the
cell wall. It is composed of a thin layer of protein and fat.
 The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the
entry and exit of specific substances within the cell.
 Plant Cell Structure
 For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside,
while nutrients and essential minerals are transported across.
Nucleus
The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in
eukaryotic cells. The vital function of a nucleus is to store DNA or
hereditary information required for cell division, metabolism and
growth.
1. Nucleolus: It manufactures cells’ protein-producing structures
and ribosomes.
2. Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes called
nucleopore that allow proteins and nucleic acids to pass through.
 Plant Cell Structure
Plastids
 They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own
DNA. They are necessary to store starch and to carry out the
process of photosynthesis.
 It is also used in the synthesis of many molecules, which form
the building blocks of the cell.
Some of the vital types of plastids and their functions are stated
below:
Leucoplasts
They are found in the non-photosynthetic tissue of plants. They
are used for the storage of protein, lipid and starch.
 Plant Cell Structure
Chloroplasts
 It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid
membrane.
 The chloroplast is shaped like a disc and the stroma is the fluid
within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA.
 Each chloroplast contains a green colored pigment called
chlorophyll required for the process of photosynthesis.
 The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun and uses it
to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose.
 Plant Cell Structure
Chromoplasts
 They are heterogeneous, coloured plastid which is responsible for
pigment synthesis and for storage in photosynthetic eukaryotic
organisms.
 Chromoplasts have red, orange and yellow coloured pigments
which provide colour to all ripe fruits and flowers.
Central Vacuole
 It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant
cell. Tonoplast is a membrane that surrounds the central vacuole.
 The vital function of the central vacuole apart from storage is to
sustain turgor pressure against the cell wall.
 Plant Cell Structure
Golgi Apparatus
 They are found in all eukaryotic cells, which are involved in
distributing synthesised macromolecules to various parts of the
cell.
Ribosomes
 They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which
comprise RNA and protein.
 They are the sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to
as the protein factories of the cell.
 Plant Cell Structure
Mitochondria
 They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm
of all eukaryotic cells.
 They provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar
molecules, hence they are also referred to as the “Powerhouse of the
cell.”
Lysosome
 Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in
an enclosed membrane.
 They perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting
worn-out organelles, food particles and foreign bodies in the cell.
 In plants, the role of lysosomes is undertaken by the vacuoles.
Plant and Animal Cell
Difference Between Plant and Animal Cell
 Prokaryotic Cells
“Prokaryotic cells are the cells that do not have a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.”

What is a Prokaryotic Cell?

 Prokaryotic cells are single-celled microorganisms known to be
the earliest on earth.
 Prokaryotes include Bacteria and Archaea.
 The photosynthetic prokaryotes include cyanobacteria that
perform photosynthesis.
 A prokaryotic cell consists of a single membrane and therefore,
all the reactions occur within the cytoplasm.
 Examples of Prokaryotic Cells
1. Bacteria
2. Archaea
3. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
4. Escherichia coli
5. Streptococcus
6. Nostoc
7. Anabaena
Prokaryotic Cell Diagram
Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cell
1.They lack a nuclear membrane.
2.Mitochondria, Golgi bodies, chloroplast, and lysosomes are
absent.
3.The genetic material is present on a single chromosome.
4.The cell wall is made up of carbohydrates and amino acids.
5.The plasma membrane acts as the mitochondrial membrane
carrying respiratory enzymes.
6.They divide asexually by binary fission. The sexual mode of
reproduction involves conjugation.
 Prokaryotic Cell Structure
A prokaryotic cell does not have a nuclear membrane. However, the
genetic material is present in a region in the cytoplasm known as the
nucleoid. They may be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral.
1. Capsule– It is an outer protective covering found in the bacterial
cells, in addition to the cell wall.
 It helps in moisture retention, protects the cell when engulfed, and
helps in the attachment of cells to nutrients and surfaces.
1. Cell Wall– It is the outermost layer of the cell which gives shape
to the cell.
2. Cytoplasm– The cytoplasm is mainly composed of enzymes,
salts, cell organelles and is a gel-like component.
 Prokaryotic Cell Structure
4. Cell Membrane– This layer surrounds the cytoplasm and
regulates the entry and exit of substances in the cells.
5. Pili– These are hair-like outgrowths that attach to the surface
of other bacterial cells.
6. Flagella– These are long structures in the form of a whip, that
help in the locomotion of a cell.
7. Ribosomes– These are involved in protein synthesis.
8. Plasmids– Plasmids are non-chromosomal DNA structures.
These are not involved in reproduction.
9. Nucleoid Region– It is the region in the cytoplasm where the
genetic material is present.
 Eukaryotic Cells
“Eukaryotic cells are the cells that contain a membrane bound
nucleus and organelles.”

What is a Eukaryotic Cell?

 Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus enclosed within the nuclear
membrane and form large and complex organisms.
 Examples: Protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals all have
eukaryotic cells.
 They can maintain different environments in a single cell that
allows them to carry out various metabolic reactions. This
helps them grow many times larger than the prokaryotic cells.
 Examples of Eukaryotic Cells
The examples of eukaryotic cells are mentioned below:
1. Plant Cells
2. Fungal Cells
3. Animal Cells
4. Protozoa
Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
The features of eukaryotic cells are as follows:
1.Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed within the nuclear
membrane.
2.The cell has mitochondria.
3.Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs in a eukaryotic cell.
4.A cell wall is the outermost layer of the eukaryotic cells.
5.The cells divide by a process called mitosis.
6.The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal structure.
7.The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA, which carries all the
genetic information.
Eukaryotic Cell Diagram
 Structure Of Eukaryotic Cell
Nucleus
 The nucleoplasm enclosed within the nucleus contains DNA
and proteins.
 The nuclear envelop consists of two layers- the outer
membrane and the inner membrane.
 Both the membranes are permeable to ions, molecules, and
RNA material.
 Ribosome production also takes place inside the nucleus.
Ribosomes
 These are the main site for protein synthesis and are composed
of proteins and ribonucleic acids.
 Structure Of Eukaryotic Cell
Golgi Apparatus
 It is made up of flat disc-shaped structures called cisternae.
 It is absent in red blood cells of humans and sieve cells of
plants.
 They are arranged parallel and concentrically near the nucleus.
 It is an important site for the formation of glycoproteins and
glycolipids.
 Structure Of Eukaryotic Cell
Mitochondria
 These are also known as “powerhouse of cells” because they
produce energy.
 It consists of an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The
inner membrane is divided into folds called cristae.
 They help in the regulation of cell metabolism.

Lysosomes
 They are known as “suicidal bags” because they possess
hydrolytic enzymes to digest protein, lipids, carbohydrates, and
nucleic acids.
 Stem Cells
“Stem cells are special human cells that can develop into many
different types of cells, from muscle cells to brain cells.”

What are Stem Cells?

 Stem cells also have the ability to repair damaged cells. These
cells have strong healing power. They can evolve into any type
of cell.
 Research on stem cells is going on, and it is believed that stem
cell therapies can cure ailments like paralysis and Alzheimer’s
as well.
 Stem Cells
Types of cells
Stem cells are of the following different types:
• Embryonic Stem Cells
• Adult Stem Cells
• Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
• Mesenchymal stem cells
 Applications of Stem Cells
Following are the important applications of stem cells:

Tissue Regeneration
 This is the most important application of stem cells. The stem
cells can be used to grow a specific type of tissue or organ.
 This can be helpful in kidney and liver transplants.
 The doctors have already used the stem cells from beneath the
epidermis to develop skin tissue that can repair severe burns or
other injuries by tissue grafting.
 Applications of Stem Cells
Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease
 A team of researchers have developed blood vessels in mice using
human stem cells.
 Within two weeks of implantation, the blood vessels formed their
network and were as efficient as the natural vessels.
Treatment of Brain Diseases
 Stem cells can also treat diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and
Alzheimer’s.
 These can help to replenish the damaged brain cells. Researchers
have tried to differentiate embryonic stem cells into these types of
cells and make it possible to treat diseases.
 Applications of Stem Cells
Blood Disease Treatment
 The adult hematopoietic stem cells are used to treat cancers,
sickle cell anaemia, and other immunodeficiency diseases.
 These stem cells can be used to produce
red blood cells and white blood cells in the body.
 Biomolecules
 Biomolecules are molecules produced by living organisms and
are essential for life processes like reproduction, growth, and
sustenance.
 These molecules are produced by living organisms.
 They are divided into four main categories:
1.Carbohydrates
2.Lipids
3.Nucleic acids
4.Proteins
 Characteristics of Biomolecules
1) Most of them are organic compounds.
2) They have specific shapes and dimensions.
3) Functional group determines their chemical properties.
4) Many of them are asymmetric.
5) Macromolecules are large molecules and are constructed
from small building block molecules.
6) Building block molecules have simple structure.
7) Biomolecules first gorse by chemical evolution.
 Carbohydrates:
 Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds that play a
crucial role in biology and are an important source of energy
for living organisms.
 When broken down, they become glucose (blood sugar),
which is the main source of energy for the body. Glucose can
be used immediately or stored for later use.
 They are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen
(O) atoms and are classified based on their molecular
structure and function.
 General formula is (CH2O)n. Glucose- C6H12O6
 Types of Carbohydrates
1.Monosaccharides
2.Disaccharides
3.Polysaccharides
 Monosaccharide
 These are the simplest form of carbohydrates and include
glucose and fructose.
 They are easily soluble in water and serve as the primary
source of energy for the body
 Disaccharides
 These are formed by the condensation of two
monosaccharides and include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
 They are commonly found in sugar and are broken down into
monosaccharides during digestion.
 Polysaccharides
 These are long chains of monosaccharides linked together.
 They serve as storage molecules for energy, such as glycogen
in animals and starch in plants, and also provide structure and
support, such as cellulose in plant cell walls.
Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates have a wide range of applications in various
industries, including:
Food and Beverage: Carbohydrates are widely used as
sweeteners, thickeners, and stabilizers in food and beverage
products.
 They are also used as energy sources in sports drinks.
Pharmaceuticals: Carbohydrates are used as excipients in
pharmaceutical formulations to improve the stability, solubility,
and bioavailability of drugs.
 They are also used as a source of energy in medical nutrition
products.
Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates
Cosmetics: Carbohydrates are used in cosmetic products, such as
moisturizers, shampoos, and conditioners, to provide hydration
and improve skin and hair health.
Biotechnology: Carbohydrates are widely used in the production
of biodegradable plastics, biofuels, and other renewable energy
sources.
Research: Carbohydrates are widely used as research tools in the
fields of immunology, virology, and cellular biology.
 Nucleic Acids
What are Nucleic Acids?
Nucleic acids are long-chain polymeric molecules, the monomer (the
repeating unit) is known as the nucleotides and hence sometimes
nucleic acids are referred to as polynucleotides.

DNA and RNA are responsible for the inheritance and transmission
of specific characteristics from one generation to the other. There are
prominently two types of nucleic acids known to us.

1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

2. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
 Chemically, DNA is composed of a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid
and some cyclic bases containing nitrogen.
 The cyclic bases that have nitrogen in them are adenine (A), guanine
(G), cytosine(C) and thymine (T).
 These bases and their arrangement in the molecules of DNA play an
important role in the storage of information from one generation to
the next one.
 DNA has a double-strand helical structure in which the strands are
complementary to each other.
• messenger RNA (m-RNA)
• ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)
• transfer RNA (t-RNA)
 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
 The RNA molecule is also composed of phosphoric acid, a
pentose sugar and some cyclic bases containing nitrogen.
 The heterocyclic bases present in RNA are adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine(C) and uracil (U).
 In RNA the fourth base is different from that of DNA.
 The RNA generally consists of a single strand which
sometimes folds back; that results in a double helix structure.
RNA and DNA Structure
 The Properties of Nucleic Acids
1.Structure: Nucleic acids are long chains of nucleotides, which
are made up of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a
phosphate group.
 The nucleotides are linked together by phosphodiester bonds.
2.Size: Nucleic acids are the largest and most complex organic
molecules.
3.Location: Nucleic acids are found in the nuclei of cells.
4.Function: Nucleic acids play an important role in transmitting
hereditary characteristics and in the biosynthesis of proteins.
 The Properties of Nucleic Acids
5.Secondary structures: Nucleic acids can exhibit a variety of
secondary structures, including the Watson-Crick model, which
depicts DNA as a double helix with two anti-parallel strands.
6.Nitrogenous bases: These organic molecules contain carbon and
nitrogen, and have an amino group that can bind an extra
hydrogen, making them more basic.
7.Phosphate groups: These basic elements of nucleic acids have
monovalent hydroxyl groups and a divalent oxygen atom joined to
a pentavalent phosphorus atom.
 The Functions of Nucleic Acids
1.Stores Information
 These acids are responsible for both carrying and transmitting
information in the human body.
 Both copying and reading the information stored in DNA relies
on base pairing between two nucleic acids.
2. Protects Information
 Apart from storing these molecules, it also protects the
transmitted information.
 It protects the information from being lost by storing in a safer
place.
 The Functions of Nucleic Acids
3. Determination of inherited characteristics
These acids are responsible for DNA in a human being and
eventually determines their inherited characteristics from one
generation to another.
 Proteins
What are Proteins?
Proteins are known as the building blocks of life because they are
the most abundant molecules present in the body and form about
60% of the dry weight of cells.
Proteins Structure
 A protein’s structure is primarily made up of long chains of amino
acids.
 The arrangement and placement of amino acids give proteins certain
characteristics. All amino acid molecules contain an amino (-NH2) and
a carboxyl (-COOH) functional group. Hence, the name “Amino-
Acid”.
Proteins Structure
 Protein Structure
The structure of the protein is classified at 4 levels:-
 Protein Structure
• Primary – The primary structure of a protein is the linear
polypeptide chain formed by the amino acids in a particular
sequence.
 Changing the position of even a single amino acid will result in
a different chain and hence a different protein.
• Secondary – The secondary structure of a protein is formed by
hydrogen bonding in the polypeptide chain.
 These bonds cause the chain to fold and coil in two different
conformations known as the α-helix or β-pleated sheets.
 Protein Structure
Tertiary – The tertiary structure is the final 3-dimensional shape
acquired by the polypeptide chains under the attractive and
repulsive forces of the different R-groups of each amino acid.
 This is a coiled structure that is very necessary for protein
functions.
Quaternary – This structure is exhibited only by those proteins
which have multiple polypeptide chains combined to form a large
complex.
 The individual chains are then called subunits.
 Properties of Proteins
Proteins have many properties, including physical, functional, and
chemical properties:
1. Physical properties: Color, taste, shape, size, solubility, and
optical activity.
2. Functional properties: Wettability, swelling, thickening,
viscosity, water holding capacity.
3. Chemical properties: Hydrolysis, reactions involving COOH,
and NH2 groups
 Functions of Proteins
The body uses proteins for a variety of purposes, and their
structure determines how they work. Several notable functions
include:
1.Digestion – The digestive enzymes, which are primarily
proteinaceous in origin, carry out digestion.
2.Movement – Muscles include a protein called myosin, which
helps muscles contract, allowing for movement.
3.Structure and Support – The structural protein known as
keratin is what gives humans and other animals hair, nails, and
horns.
 Functions of Proteins
4.Cellular communication – Through receptors on their surface,
cells can communicate with other cells and the outside world.
These receptors are made of proteins.
5.Act as a messenger – These proteins serve as chemical
messengers that facilitate communication among cells, tissues,
and organs.
 Lipids
“Lipids are organic compounds that contain hydrogen, carbon,
and oxygen atoms, which form the framework for the structure
and function of living cells.”

What are Lipids?

 These organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, which are
soluble only in nonpolar solvents and insoluble in water
because water is a polar molecule.
 In the human body, these molecules can be synthesized in the
liver and are found in oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, fried
foods and also in some red meats.
Lipids
 Functions of Lipids
Functions of Lipids:
The six functions of lipids are as follows:
1.Storing and providing energy
2.Chemical messengers
3.Cholesterol formation
4.Regulating body temperature
5.Formation of Prostaglandin and its role in inflammation
6.Membrane lipid layer formation
 Properties of Lipids
 Lipids may be either liquids or non-crystalline solids at room
temperature.
 Pure fats and oils are colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
 They are energy-rich organic molecules
 Insoluble in water
 Soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, chloroform, acetone,
benzene, etc.
 No ionic charges
 Solid triglycerols (Fats) have high proportions of saturated fatty
acids.
 Liquid triglycerols (Oils) have high proportions of unsaturated
fatty acids.
 Enzymes
“Enzymes can be defined as biological polymers that catalyze
biochemical reactions.”

 The initial stage of metabolic process depends upon the

enzymes, which react with a molecule and is called the
substrate.
 Enzymes convert the substrates into other distinct molecules,
which are known as products.

YOUTUBE LINK- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A1xWfd0fcjo

 Classification of Enzymes

 Earlier, enzymes were assigned names based on the one who discovered
them. With further research, classification became more comprehensive.
 The six kinds of enzymes are hydrolases, oxidoreductases, lyases,
transferases, ligases and isomerases.
Properties of enzymes
 Examples of Enzymes
Beverages
 Alcoholic beverages generated by fermentation vary a lot based on
many factors.
 Based on the type of the plant’s product, which is to be used and the
type of enzyme applied, the fermented product varies.
 For example, grapes, honey, hops, wheat, cassava roots, and potatoes
depending upon the materials available. Beer, wines and other drinks
are produced from plant fermentation.
Food Products
 Bread can be considered as the finest example of fermentation in our
everyday life.
Examples of Enzymes
Fermentation Process
 Examples of Enzymes
 Then one can observe that the bread gets puffed up as a result of
fermentation of the sugar by the enzyme action in yeast, which leads
to the formation of carbon dioxide gas.
 This process gives the texture to the bread, which would be missing
in the absence of the fermentation process.

Drug Action
 Enzyme action can be inhibited or promoted by the use of drugs
which tend to work around the active sites of enzymes.
 A small proportion of yeast and sugar is mixed with the batter for
making bread.
 Structure of Enzymes
1. Primary Structure : Amino acids are joined together in a linear chain
by amide (peptide) bonds to form enzymes.
 Polypeptide or protein refers to the amino acid chain that results.
 The DNA sequence of the relevant gene specifies the exact order of
amino acids in the protein.

2. Secondary Structure : Each amino acid’s hydrogen in the amino

group (NH2) and oxygen in the carboxyl group (COOH) can form a
hydrogen bond, allowing amino acids in the same chain to interact.
 As a result, the protein chain can fold in two directions, yielding two
secondary structures: the ⍺-helix and the ꞵ -sheet
 Structure of Enzymes
3. Tertiary Structure : The protein can fold up further and obtain a three-
dimensional structure as a result of the secondary structure folding up
the 2D linear chain.
 Functions of Enzymes
1.Enzymes help in signal transduction. The most common enzyme used in the
process includes protein kinase that catalyzes the phosphorylation of
proteins.
2.They break down large molecules into smaller substances that can be easily
absorbed by the body.
3.They help in generating energy in the body. ATP synthase is the enzyme
involved in the synthesis of energy.
4.Enzymes are responsible for the movement of ions across the plasma
membrane.
5.Enzymes perform a number of biochemical reactions, including oxidation,
reduction, hydrolysis, etc. to eliminate the non-nutritive substances from the
body.
6.They function to reorganize the internal structure of the cell to regulate
 Vitamins
 Vitamins are organic substances that are essential for the
normal growth, development, and function of cells in all living
organisms.
 The vitamins are natural and essential nutrients, required in
small quantities and play a major role in growth and
development, repair and healing wounds, maintaining healthy
bones and tissues, for the proper functioning of an immune
system, and other biological functions.
 Types of Vitamins
Based on the solubility, Vitamins have been classified into two
different groups:
1) Fat-Soluble Vitamins.
2) Water-Soluble Vitamins.

1) Fat-soluble vitamin
Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the fat cells and as the name
suggests, these vitamins require fat in order to be absorbed.
Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble vitamins.
 Functions of specific vitamins:
 Vitamin B12: Helps form red blood cells and maintain the
central and peripheral nervous systems
 Vitamin C: Promotes healthy teeth and gums, helps the body
absorb iron, and maintains healthy tissue
 Vitamin D: Decreases bone loss and may decrease fracture
rate
 Vitamin K: Necessary for blood clotting
 Types of Vitamins
2) Water-soluble vitamin
Water-soluble vitamins are not stored in our body as its excess
gets excrete through the urine. Therefore, these vitamins need to
be replenished constantly. Vitamin B and C are water-soluble
vitamins.
 Hormones
“Hormones are chemicals synthesized and produced by the
specialized glands to control and regulate the activity of certain
cells and organs. These specialized glands are known as
endocrine glands.”
They help control how cells and organs work, and affect many
processes, including:
 Growth and development, Metabolism, Sexual function,
Reproduction, Mood, Blood sugar, Blood pressure, Fertility,
Sex drive, and Sleep.
 Types of Hormones
1) Peptide Hormones
2) Steroid Hormones

1) Peptide Hormones
 Peptide hormones are composed of amino acids and are soluble
in water.
 Peptide hormones are unable to pass through the cell membrane
as it contains a phospholipid bilayer that stops any fat-insoluble
molecules from diffusing into the cell.
 Insulin is an important peptide hormone produced by the
pancreas.
 Types of Hormones
2) Steroid Hormones
 Unlike peptide hormones, steroid hormones are fat-soluble and
are able to pass through a cell membrane.
 Sex hormones such as testosterone, estrogen and progesterone
are examples of steroid hormones.