Rosenau Journal of Sedimentary Research 2013

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Polygenetic History of Paleosols In Middle-Upper Pennsylvanian Cyclothems of

the Illinois Basin, U.S.A.: Part II. Integrating Geomorphology, Climate, and
Glacioeustasy
Article in Journal of Sedimentary Research · July 2013

DOI: 10.2110/jsr.2013.51
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Journal of Sedimentary Research, 2013, v. 83, 637–668
Research Article
DOI: 10.2110/jsr.2013.51
POLYGENETIC HISTORY OF PALEOSOLS IN MIDDLE–UPPER PENNSYLVANIAN CYCLOTHEMS OF THE

ILLINOIS BASIN, U.S.A.: PART II. INTEGRATING GEOMORPHOLOGY, CLIMATE, AND GLACIOEUSTASY
NICHOLAS A. ROSENAU,1 NEIL J. TABOR,1 SCOTT D. ELRICK,2 AND W. JOHN NELSON2

1
Roy M. Huffington Department of Earth Sciences, Southern Methodist University, 3225 Daniel Avenue, Dallas, Texas 75275-0395, U.S.A.
2
Illinois State Geological Survey, 615 East Peabody, Champaign, Illinois 61820, U.S.A.
e-mail: nrosenau@smu.edu
ABSTRACT: Distinct lateral and stratigraphic trends in paleosol morphology and clay mineralogy, in conjunction with the
stable-isotope composition of sub-millimeter-scale spherulitic siderite (sphaerosiderite) and flint-clay kaolinite in middle–upper
Pennsylvanian cyclic coal-bearing strata of the Illinois basin (IB) presented herein provide proxy records of middle–late
Pennsylvanian equatorial terrestrial environments. Collectively, these data provide a better understanding of the polygenetic
history of ancient soils preserved in cyclic strata and indicate that low-latitude Pennsylvanian IB soil profiles were influenced by
a combination of autogenic and allogenic controls.
Lateral variations in paleosol morphology from the interior of the basin to the northern margin indicate that soil development
was dominantly influenced by autogenic controls, such as differences in local paleohydrology (i.e., groundwater fluctuations)
and subsidence rates across the basin. Conversely, allogenic controls (i.e., glacioeustasy and climate) are interpreted to be
principally responsible for the preservation of features in gleyed Protosols, gleyed Vertisols, and gleyed calcic Vertisols that
occur in the interior of the IB. These paleosols are characterized by a polygenetic development history that includes (1) an
initial period of soil formation in well-drained environments with seasonal wetting and drying of the profile, followed by (2) a
subsequent period of waterlogging and development of reducing conditions.
Paleosols that lack evidence for extensive periods of waterlogging are restricted, with the exception of two examples, to the
northern margin of the basin, and they become abundant in the stratigraphic record near the middle–upper Pennsylvanian
boundary (uppermost Desmoinesian). The stratigraphic distribution of these paleosols, in conjunction with a decrease in the
relative abundance of kaolinite in the , 2 mm size fraction of IB paleosols near the Desmoinesian–Missourian (D-M)
boundary, is interpreted to reflect a shift in the overall low-latitude regional climate to drier conditions.
The stable-isotope compositions of sphaerosiderite and flint-clay kaolinite in middle–upper Pennsylvanian strata of the IB
provide an additional proxy record of past equatorial terrestrial environments and are used to constrain the magnitude of
paleoclimate change across the D-M (, Moscovian–Kasimovian) boundary. Sphaerosiderite d18OV-PDB and d13CV-PDB values
range from 23.6% to 20.5% and 212.8% to 23.2%, respectively. In particular, sphaerosiderite d18O values from the B
horizons of paleosols display an approximate 21.5% shift across the D-M boundary. This stratigraphically short isotopic shift
occurs across the D-M boundary, on the order of one cyclothem (, 400 kyr), and is followed by a subsequent shift on the order
of one cyclothem, back to more positive siderite d18O values.
The average d18OV-SMOW and dDV-SMOW values of kaolinite isolated from the , 0.2 mm size fraction of a latest
Desmoinesian flint-clay breccia are +21.0% and 246.5%. These values correspond to a latest Desmoinesian crystallization
temperature of 27 ± 2uC and a meteoric-water d18OV-SMOW value of 23.1%. Combination of sphaerosiderite d18O values and
co-occurring flint-clay kaolinite dD and d18O values suggest a possible warming of up to 6uC across the D-M boundary,
corresponding to an approximate temperature change of siderite crystallization from 27 to 33uC. This temperature increase, in
conjunction with distinct stratigraphic trends in the clay mineralogy and morphology of IB paleosols, is consistent with previous
paleoclimate interpretations, and it suggests that low-latitude Pennsylvanian paleoclimate became drier and warmer across the
D-M boundary.
INTRODUCTION asserted repetitive controls on cyclothem development are (1) global

eustasy (Wanless and Shepard 1936; Heckel 1977, 1986), (2) tectonism
Low-latitude Euramerican Upper Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) (Weller 1931; Tankard 1986; Klein and Willard 1989), (3) climate variation
through Lower Permian stratigraphic records are characterized by (White 1913, 1925; Brough 1929; Cecil 1990, Cecil et al. 1993; West et al.
lithologically repetitive successions of terrestrial, paralic, and marine 1997; Ziegler et al. 1997), (4) autocyclic deltaic switching (Ferm 1970, 1974)
sediments often called cyclothems (Wanless and Weller 1932; Wanless and or (5) a combination of (1), (2), and (3) (Cecil et al. 1985, 2003; Klein and
Shepard 1936). Since their recognition in the 1930s, the most commonly Willard 1989; Cecil 1990; Olszewski and Patzkowsky 2003).
Published Online: July 2013

Copyright E 2013, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 1527-1404/13/083-637/$03.00
638 N.A. ROSENAU ET AL. JSR
Many studies consider glacioeustatic fluctuations associated with the environments, such as phyllosilicates (Savin and Epstein 1970; Lawrence
late Paleozoic Ice Age (LPIA) as the dominant mechanism responsible for and Taylor 1971, 1972; Bird and Chivas 1988, 1989; Lawrence and
the origin of Pennsylvanian cyclothems in Europe and North America Rashkes-Meaux 1993; Elliott et al. 1997; Stern et al. 1997; Vitali et al.
(Wanless and Shepard 1936; Heckel 1986, 1994; Langenheim and Nelson 2002; Tabor et al. 2002; Tabor and Montañez 2005), paleosol calcite
1992). The persistence of Pennsylvanian–Early Permian Euramerican (Cerling 1984; Quade et al. 1989; Cerling and Quade 1993; Tabor et al.
cyclothems has been used as evidence that cyclothems are primarily the 2004, 2006), and sphaerosiderite (Ludvigson et al. 1998; White et al. 2001;
result of repeated large-scale (. 100 m), high-frequency (104 to 105 kyr) Ufnar et al. 2001, 2002, 2004; Suarez et al. 2010) may provide important
eustatic sea-level fluctuations at low latitudes related to large-scale, short- information related to weathering and environmental conditions at the
term waxing and waning of Gondwanan ice sheets (Heckel 1977, 1986, time of formation in the early burial environment, such as the d18O values
1994, 2002; West et al. 1997; Soreghan 1994; Soreghan and Giles 1999; of local meteoric water and temperature of crystallization. In this regard,
Isbell et al. 2003; Haq and Schutter 2008). Yet, studies of low-latitude pedogenic minerals from paleosols, such as kaolinite and sphaerosiderite,
carbonate and clastic successions (Feldman et al. 2005; Bishop et al. 2009, have the ability to be potentially powerful proxies of terrestrial
2010) have documented much lower-magnitude (, 20 m) sea-level paleoenvironmental conditions, provided that the original isotopic
fluctuations associated with the LPIA (Heckel 2008; Rygel et al. 2008). compositions of these minerals have not been altered subsequent to
Other workers have suggested that the role of climate change is the most pedogenesis.
important control on the lithostratigraphic content of cyclothems. The purpose of this contribution is to (1) document the complex,
Specifically, glacial–interglacial-scale (104 to 105 kyr) periods of relative polygenetic history among 97 paleosol profiles preserved in Pennsylva-
wetness and dryness, in combination with variations in sediment influx, nian cyclothems, the detailed morphology and mineralogy of which were
are chiefly responsible for producing characteristic rock types in tropical presented in a companion paper (Part I; Rosenau et al. 2013), (2) provide
and subtropical basins in spite of global base-level changes associated a record of low-latitude climate change across sea-level lowstands, as
with glacioeustasy (Ziegler et al. 1987; Cecil 1990; Cecil et al. 1992, 1993; inferred from the stable-isotope composition of siderite cements (d18O,
West et al. 1997). These studies indicate that variations in ice volume d13C) and a coeval kaolinite from a flint-clay deposit (dD, d18O), and (3)
appear to be closely linked to changes in climate, and they demonstrate a discuss the spatial and temporal changes in paleohydrology as they relate
close correspondence between low-latitude tropical climate change and to interrelated regional (i.e., groundwater fluctuations) to global (i.e.,
high-latitude glacial–interglacial episodes in Gondwanaland (Montañez et climate change and glacioeustasy) controls. These observations are
al. 2007 and references therein; Poulsen et al. 2007; Peyser and Poulsen discussed in the context of proposed glacioeustatic and climate-driven
2008; Horton et al. 2012). Climatic changes in the paleotropics have also cyclothem models in an effort to fully address the development of
been attributed to other factors, such as increased monsoonal precipitation Pennsylvanian paleosols in the IB.
on western equatorial Pangaea (Parrish 1993; Soreghan et al. 2002a, 2002b;
Tabor et al. 2002; Tabor and Montañez 2002, 2004), continental drift across METHODS
climate belts (Gibbs et al. 2002; Tabor et al. 2008), reduced moisture sources
Siderite
on Pangaea (Tabor and Montañez 2002; Ziegler et al. 2002), or the
emplacement of orographic barriers due to the uplift of the central Pangean Forty-five siderite-bearing horizons from paleosols and associated
mountains (CPMs; Rowley et al. 1985; Soreghan 2007; Tabor and Poulsen sedimentary strata were sampled and sectioned to produce polished thin
2008 and references therein). These studies highlight the need for elucidating sections for petrographic and stable isotope analyses. Siderites from
the short-term and long-term controls responsible for the development of pedogenic units representing four distinctly different paleosol morphol-
paleoequatorial cylothems and associated paleoclimate changes during the ogies (Rosenau et al. 2013) were taken from five paleosol profiles in the
LPIA, as well as the importance of delineating the relations between MAC and ELY cores (Fig. 1). Following the classification scheme of
competing, and possibly interrelated, allocyclic and autocyclic processes Mack et al. (1993), these paleosols are gleyed Protosols, gleyed Vertisols,
that led to cyclothem development. In order to better understand the global gleyed vertic Calcisols, and vertic Calcisols (see fig. 4 in Rosenau et al.
effects of the LPIA, and its influence on Pennsylvanian paleoequatorial 2013). Samples from non-pedogenic units were taken from interlaminated
environments in the IB in particular, it is important to integrate climate siltstones and sandstones underlying the five paleosol profiles.
change across and within individual terrestrial successions in Pennsylvanian Screening techniques, as outlined below, were employed to confirm the
cyclothems, while considering also the competing, and possibly interrelated, presence and morphology of all mineral phases in the samples and for
effects of local, regional, and global processes. designation of samples suitable for stable carbon and oxygen isotope
Paleosols are widely recognized throughout the sedimentary record and analysis of siderite. At least two isotopic analyses of siderite from each
are commonly used to help reconstruct the geomorphology of ancient pedogenic or sedimentary horizon were obtained from each sample.
terrains and regional paleoenvironments and paleoclimates. This reflects Siderite-bearing horizons were examined and described from petrograph-
the observation that regional climate and hydrology are important ic thin sections under plane-polarized and cross-polarized light. Carbon-
controls on physical and chemical processes that affect soil morphological ate cement textures and fabrics were described in order to help distinguish
and mineralogical development (Birkeland 1984; Folkoff and Meente- between primary pedogenic and secondary (burial) carbonate mineral
meyer 1987; Yemane et al. 1996; Wilson 1999). As such, the stratigraphic phases. In particular, samples containing well-preserved sphaerosiderite,
and spatial distribution of soil morphology and clay mineralogy is as indicated by smooth margins and radial-concentric crystalline
commonly used in paleosol studies as an indicator of paleoclimate, microstructures (Ludvigson et al. 1998), are considered to be pedogenic.
paleoecology, paleohydrology, and ancient landscape evolution (Retal- Samples containing sphaerosiderite were processed further in order to
lack 1983; Joeckel 1991, 1995; Kraus and Bown 1993; Bestland et al. isolate them from other mineral phases.
1997; Stern et al. 1997; Tabor et al. 2002) and has provided a better After petrographic analysis, nine horizons were identified that
understanding of the allocyclic and autocyclic processes responsible for contained sphaerosiderite. Two techniques were used to further isolate
sediment accumulation and paleosol development in ancient sedimentary the sphaerosiderite from these samples for isotopic analysis: (1) drilling
systems (Kraus 1987; Wright and Robinson 1988; Smith 1990; Kraus and the carbonate sample from the corresponding slab of thin sections using a
Aslan 1993; McCarthy et al. 1999; McCarthy and Plint 2003). hand-held Dremel rotary tool with a diamond-carbide bit to collect
Additionally, many studies have demonstrated that the isotopic , 100 mg of sample powder for isotopic analysis or (2) isolating
composition of minerals that form in low-temperature weathering sphaerosiderite crystals from bulk matrix associated with the horizon
JSR PENNSYLVANIAN PALEOSOLS OF THE ILLINOIS BASIN: PART II 639
FIG. 1.—Map illustrating extent of the Illinois

basin in Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky, as
defined by the distribution of Pennsylvanian
rocks in outcrop and subcrop. Circles illustrate
paleosol-bearing stratigraphic sections in cores
and outcrops. Encircled numbers illustrate loca-
tions of paleosol-bearing stratigraphic sections
discussed in detail in Rosenau et al. (2013). Cinc.
Arch 5 Cincinnati Arch.
from which the thin section was made. The second technique is described of calcite, and rule out the presence of other carbonate species (e.g.,
in more detail in the following section. ankerite and dolomite) that may confound accurate stable carbon and
Isolation of Sphaerosiderite from Bulk Paleosol Matrix.—Due to oxygen isotopic analysis of siderite.
sampling constraints and the very fine size (# 1 mm) of the pedogenic
sphaerosiderites, a method was devised to separate the sphaerosiderites
Flint-Clay Kaolinite
from the bulk paleosol matrix by ultrasonic agitation in deionized water.
After disaggregation, the solution was passed through a stacked series of A kaolinite-dominated flint clay composed of breccia clasts in a
250 mm, 125 mm, 88 mm, and 44 mm sieves in order to isolate the different claystone breccia in the MAC core (Fig. 1), occurring at 79.8–82.1 m, was
size fractions. Heavy-liquid separation using lithium metatungstate analyzed in order to determine its stable oxygen and hydrogen isotope
solution (r 5 2.9 g/cc) was then employed to concentrate the relatively composition. Bulk matrix from the flint-clay clasts was disaggregated by
dense sphaerosiderite from less dense siliciclastics in the bulk matrix. The ultrasonic agitation in deionized water and the , 125 mm, , 2 mm, and
dense fraction from the 44–88 mm size fraction was then ground in a , 0.2 mm equivalent spherical diameter (e.s.d.) size fractions were
corundum mortar and pestle and , 200 mg of sample was treated with isolated from the matrix by centrifugation. The mineralogy of the
10% acetic acid solution for a minimum of 5 hours at room temperature , 125 mm size fraction was determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) of
(, 23uC) in order to remove admixed calcite and ensure complete random powder mounts. Step-scan analyses were performed over a range
isolation of sphaerosiderite. In-house experiments on various synthetic of 2 to 70 u2h, a step size of 0.05 u2h, and 1 second count time per step.
mixtures of calcium carbonate (Carrara Marble) and siderite (Ward9s Each aliquot of the , 2 mm and , 0.2 mm size fractions was prepared on
Siderite) suggest that this concentration of acetic acid and reaction time is filter membranes and transferred to glass slides as oriented aggregates. A
sufficient to remove admixed calcium carbonate without affecting the set of chemical and heat treatments were performed on different aliquots
stability of the siderite (Fig. 2). Sphaerosiderite samples were then rinsed of the size fractions, including (1) K+ saturation at room temperature, (2)
five times with deionized water to remove excess acetic acid and raise the Mg2+ saturation at room temperature, (3) Mg2+ saturation and glycerol
pH to that of deionized water (, 5.5) and then dried overnight in an oven solvation at room temperature, and (4) K+ saturation and heating at
set at 50uC. Mineralogical identification of the 44–88 mm size fraction was 500uC for at least 2 hours. Step-scan analyses of each treatment were
determined from powder mounts using a Rigaku Ultima III X-ray performed over a range of 2 to 30 u2h, a step size of 0.04 u2h, and 1 second
diffractometer with Cu-Ka radiation over a range of 20 to 60u 2h with a count time per step. Mineralogical identification from XRD spectra
step size of 0.04 u2h and a 1 second count time to confirm the presence of follows the procedures outlined in Moore and Reynolds (1997). The
siderite, determine its proportion in the sample, ensure complete removal , 0.2 mm size fraction was used for isotopic analysis because it is
anhydrous phosphoric acid for 5 days at 50uC in evacuated glass reaction

vessels in order to generate CO2. CO2, H2O, and noncondensible gases
(e.g., NOx) were separated cryogenically using a system of high-vacuum
glass extraction lines at Southern Methodist University (SMU). CO2
yields were measured manometrically and collected cryogenically for
stable-isotope analysis.
One aliquot of the , 0.2 mm fraction from the flint clay was heated at
100–150uC overnight in nickel-rod bombs connected to gas extraction lines
in order to remove sorbed water and was then reacted with BrF5 at 560uC
overnight to produce O2 gas following the methods of Clayton and Mayeda
(1963). The O2 gas was then quantitatively converted to CO2 using heated
graphite rods in high-vacuum glass extraction lines and cryogenically
collected to determine CO2 yield via a mercury manometer.
The second aliquot of the , 0.2 mm fraction from the flint clay was
analyzed for stable hydrogen isotope composition following the methods of
Savin and Epstein (1970). Samples were initially outgassed at , 125uC for
45–75 minutes to remove sorbed and interlayer water. Next, the sample was
dehydroxylated at , 825uC under closed-system conditions in 0.16 bar of
O2. The low- and high-temperature water fractions were then quantita-
tively converted to H2 gas by passage over depleted uranium metal at
, 760uC as two separate fractions. H2 gas yield was measured on a
mercury manometer with an uncertainty of 6 1 mmole. Replicate analysis
of individual aliquots of the flint clay over the course of the study yield an
analytical precision of 6 2% for dD. Weight percent of 100uC H2O and
825uC H2O were calculated for the flint-clay kaolinite. The value of the
100uC H2O represents the wt % of sorbed H2O recovered from the initial
100uC outgassing step, while the value of the 825uC H2O was calculated by
dividing the mass of the 825uC H2O by the mass of the sample, after
subtracting the mass of H2O that had been removed during the 100uC step.
The 825uC H2O value is interpreted to represent crystalline structural H2O
in the sample.
All stable-isotope measurements were made at SMU on a Finnigan
MAT 252 isotope-ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS) operating in dual-inlet
mode. Measured results are reported in the conventional delta notation
(d) in parts per thousand (%)

18 13 Rsample
d O or d C or dD~ {1 |1000 ð1Þ
Rstandard
where R 5 18O/16O, 13C/12C, and 2H/1H for oxygen, carbon, and

hydrogen, respectively.
FIG. 2.—X-ray diffraction patterns of synthetic mixtures of siderite (Ward’s
Siderite) and marble (Carrara Marble) prior to A) ‘‘untreated’’ and after B) ‘‘acid
Isotope values for siderite are reported relative to the Vienna PeeDee
treated’’ treatment with a 10% solution of acetic acid, illustrating the effectiveness belemnite (V-PDB) standard (Craig 1961). Replicate analyses (n 5 5) of
of this method to remove admixed calcium carbonate from sample mixtures a Ward’s Siderite in-house standard indicate analytical precision of
without affecting the original stability of siderite. Sid, siderite; Marb, marble. 6 0.3% and 6 0.1% for d18O and d13C, respectively. Reproducibility of
individual sample measurements is better than 6 0.2% for both d18O and
d13C. All siderite isotopic data were corrected to account for the
commonly regarded to be dominated by pedogenic clays in paleosol
temperature-dependent oxygen isotope fractionation between 100%
profiles (Stern et al. 1997; Tabor et al. 2002; Vitali et al. 2002; Tabor and
anhydrous phosphoric acid and siderite using the experimentally
Montañez 2005). The , 0.2 mm size fraction was subsequently treated in
determined fractionation factor of Carothers and others (1988).
a set of selective dissolution procedures to remove non-phyllosilicate
Repeated oxygen isotope analyses of the quartz standard NBS-28 and
material: (1) 10% acetic acid solution for at least 24 hr at room
an in-house quartz standard, P-236(9), yield an analytical uncertainty of
temperature (, 23uC) to remove calcite (Savin and Epstein 1970;
Lawrence and Taylor 1971) (2) 30% H2O2 solution at room temperature 6 0.2%. Reproducibility of oxygen isotope analysis of individual
(, 23uC) for 25 to 30 days to remove organic matter. After the H2O2 aliquots of the flint clay was 6 0.3% (1s). Weight % (wt %) oxygen
treatment, the sample was dried overnight at 40uC and split into two for the flint-clay kaolinite was calculated by measuring the micromoles of
aliquots for stable-isotope analysis. CO2 produced after quantitative conversion of structural O2 to CO2 by
the reaction C + O2 R CO2, multiplying the micromoles of CO2 by the
mass of 1mmole of O2 (0.032 mg), then dividing by the mass of the sample.
Stable-Isotope Analysis
Both oxygen and hydrogen isotopic compositions of the , 0.2 mm
A modification of the McCrea (1950) method was used to extract CO2 fraction of the flint clay are reported in the conventional delta notation
from the siderite samples, whereby siderite-enriched powders that had (d) in parts per thousand (%), relative to Vienna Standard Mean Ocean
been isolated from the 44–88 mm size fraction were reacted in 100% Water (V-SMOW; Gonfiantini 1984).
RESULTS
Stratigraphic Sections and Illinois Basin Pedotypes

Field observations, including morphological development, thickness,
and relationships to adjacent strata, in conjunction with clay mineralogy
and micromorphology, have resulted in the organization of middle–upper
Pennsylvanian paleosols in Illinois basin cyclothems into seven paleosol
types, or pedotypes (see fig. 4 in Rosenau et al. 2013). Paleosols in the
Tradewater–Mattoon formations (Fig. 3) of the IB were analyzed from
five drill cores housed at the Illinois State Geological Survey and 13
outcrop sites in southern Illinois and Indiana (Fig. 1). The measured
paleosol-bearing stratigraphic sections are presented in Figures 4–10. The
morphology, mineralogy, and spatial and stratigraphic distribution of the
pedotypes are discussed in detail in a companion paper to this
contribution (Part I; Rosenau et al. 2013). A summary of the pedogenic
features and environmental interpretations of each pedotype is presented
in Table 1.
Depositional Framework of Illinois Basin Cyclothems

Since the cyclothem concept was developed in the 1930s, several
depositional models have been proposed. Although Illinois is the
birthplace of the cyclothem concept (see Langenheim and Nelson 1992
for a historical review), relatively few new ideas concerning the
development of Illinois basin cyclothems have been proposed in recent
decades. Accordingly, herein we propose a model for cyclothem
development that differs from those previously presented (e.g., Weller
1930; Wanless and Sheppard 1936; Weller 1956; Klein and Willard 1989;
Heckel 1994) but closely follows that of Cecil et al. (2003) and is similar to
the model presented in Horton et al. (2012). This model is largely the
result of field investigations and stratigraphic relationships recognized in
the IB over the past decade by the authors and represents an attempt to
characterize the depositional environment of each stratigraphic unit of IB
cyclothems and place the stratigraphic units into a sequence stratigraphic
framework (Fig. 11). We emphasize that the model presented here is a
general depositional model based on complete major IB cyclothems in
which all of the stratigraphic units are present, such as those containing
the Colchester, Houchin Creek, and Springfield coals (Fig. 3). Incomplete
cyclothems, characterized by one or more missing stratigraphic units due
to erosion or nondeposition, are common in the IB, resulting in complex
stratigraphic relationships (Figs. 3–10). In this regard, incomplete
cyclothems, such as those containing the Survant and Seelyville coals
(Fig. 3), surely depart from the general model in some aspects. In the
following discussion, the lowstand systems tract, transgressive systems
tract, highstand systems tract, and regressive systems tract, are denoted
by LST, TST, HST, and RST, respectively.
Coal (LST).—All of the significant coal deposits in the IB originated as

peat that formed in place from the remains of plants that grew in coastal
swamps. The formation and preservation of peat requires continuous
r
FIG. 3.—Generalized stratigraphic column of the Pennsylvanian subsystem in
Illinois. Selected members are displayed for points of reference. The larger, detailed
stratigraphic column shows units that are discussed in this contribution (i.e., upper
Tradewater –lower Mattoon formations). The smaller, less-detailed stratigraphic
column shows all of the Pennsylvanian formations present in the Illinois basin.
Global stage-boundary date and North American series dates are based on North
American cyclothem calibration of Heckel (2008) in conjunction with radiometric
(U-Pb) dates of zircons from the Donets Basin of Eastern Europe (Davydov et al.
2010). Figure modified from Willman et al. (1975) and Nelson et al. (2011).
TABLE 1.— Summary of diagnostic features, stratigaphic and lateral distribution, and environmental interpretation of paleosol types in the Illinois basin.a 642
Dominant
Number Classification Diagnostic , 2 mm clay Dominant Environmental Stratigraphic
Pedotype of Occurrences (Mack et al. 1993) Features mineralogyb Pedogenic Processes Interpretation Interbasinal Variability Distribution
A 68 Histosol Abundant I, K, Ch Accumulation of Poorly-drained; humid, Coal thickness varies from , 1 cm to Tradewater Fm.,
degraded plant plant matter everwet 230 cm across the basin. Carbondale Fm.,
matter Shelburn Fm.,
Patoka Fm., Bond
Fm., Mattoon Fm.
B 31 Protosol Weakly developed I, K,Ch Intermittent, rapid Indeterminate Extent of redoximorphic features varies Tradewater Fm.,
horizonation, inputs of sediment; depending on paleolandscape position in Carbondale Fm.,
abundant fossil rate of sedimentation the basin. Paleosols from the northern Shelburn Fm.,
plant matter, greater than rate of margin display high-chroma (red) hues and Patoka Fm., Bond
mottling pedogenesis abundant fine to coarse yellow, red, and Fm., Mattoon Fm.
bluish-gray mottles, while those of the
interior of the basin are dominantly drab
(gley) color, with rare, fine to medium,
high-chroma mottles as well as abundant
sphaerosiderite and pyrite.
C 31 gleyed Vertisol Slickensides, I/S, K,I, Ch Shrink-swell (1) During active pedogenesis, Extent of redoximorphic features varies Tradewater Fm.,
wedge-shaped moderate to well drained depending on paleolandscape position in Carbondale Fm.,
aggregates, with seasonal variations in the basin. Paleosols from the northern Shelburn Fm.,
extensive soil moisture, followed by margin display high-chroma (red) hues and Patoka Fm., Bond
mottling (2) post-pedogenic abundant fine to coarse yellow, red, and Fm., Mattoon Fm.
alteration under water- bluish-gray mottles, while those of the
saturated, anoxic interior of the basin are dominantly drab
conditions (gley) color, with rare, fine to medium,
high-chroma mottles as well as abundant
sphaerosiderite and pyrite.
D 13 gleyed calcic Vertisol Slickensides, I/S, I, K Shrink-swell; (1) During active pedogensis, - Tradewater Fm.,
wedge-shaped pedogenic calcite well drained with seasonal Carbondale Fm.,
N.A. ROSENAU ET AL.
aggregates, crystallization variations in soil moisture, Shelburn Fm.,

extensive followed by (2) post- Patoka Fm., Bond
mottling pedogenic alteration under Fm., Mattoon Fm.
water-saturated, anoxic
conditions
E 11 gleyed vertic Calcisol Slickensides, I/S, I, K Pedogenic calcite (1) During active pedogensis, Extent of redoximorphic features varies Tradewater Fm.,
wedge-shaped crystallization; well drained with seasonal depending on paleolandscape position in Carbondale Fm.,
aggregates, shrink-swell variations in soil moisture, the basin. Paleosols from the northern Shelburn Fm.,
pedogenic followed by (2) post- margin display high-chroma (red) hues and Patoka Fm., Bond
calcite, extensive pedogenic alteration under abundant fine to coarse yellow, red, and Fm., Mattoon Fm.
mottling water-saturated, anoxic bluish-gray mottles, while those of the
conditions interior of the basin are dominantly drab
(gley) color, with rare fine to medium, high
chroma mottles and abundant
sphaerosiderite and pyrite. Some Type E
paleosols exhibit carbonate filled slicken
planes. Matrix does not always display
wedge-shaped aggregate structure.
F 3 gleyed Calcisol Pedogenic calcite, I, K Pedogenic calcite (1) During active pedogensis, - Patoka Fm., Bond Fm.
extensive crystallization well drained with seasonal
mottling variation in soil moisture,
followed by (2) post-
pedogenic alteration under
water-saturated, anoxic
JSR
conditions
Degree of carbonate development varies. upper Shelburn-Patoka

submergence in water to inhibit decay until the deposit is buried under
sediment (Staub and Esterle 1994; Staub and Gastaldo 2003; Lahteenoja
Stratigraphic
Distribution
and Roucoux 2010). With uncommon exceptions, coal layers overlie
paleosols (underclay) and are abruptly overlain by strata that were
deposited under marine or tidally influenced (tidal rhythmites, sensu
Some paleosols belonging to this pedotype fms.

Kvale et al. 1994), marginally marine conditions (Figs. 3–10; Fig. 11,
Unit 3). Some coals are separated from underlying paleosols by thin
laminated mudstones (e.g., Fig. 6, LSC Core at , 73 m and Fig. 7, site
display indurated stage III carbonate
2).
Past models commonly envisioned peat forming during the early stages
Interbasinal Variability
of marine transgression (Heckel 1994; Tandon and Gibling 1994; Falcon-

Lang 2004) with a presumption of either climate invariance (always wet)
or seasonally dry low stands. These models propose that sea-level rise was
necessary to create the standing water needed to preserve peat; however,
Clay mineralogy of the , 2mm size fraction of paleosol matrix organized in relative abundance; K 5 kaolinite; I 5 illite; I/S 5 illite-smectite; Ch 5 chlorite.
the transgressive peat model requires that sea level rose just enough to
create a swamp with plants growing in shallow standing water. This level
development.
would have needed to prevail for several thousand years to form peat
thick enough to become commercial coal. If sea level rose too high, the
plants would drown and no peat would form, whereas if sea level were too
low, accumulated peat would be lost due to oxidation. The range of
optimal sea level could not fluctuate by more than a meter or two during
several thousand years. To maintain these optimal conditions across a
Well-drained; subhumid to
large area of the IB long enough to form even one extensive peat deposit
Environmental
Interpretation
would be remarkable. As an alternative, and following Cecil et al. (2003),

semiarid climate
we propose that most, if not all, of the peat deposits developed when the
paleo–water table was at a maximum during the lowstand systems tract
(LST; glacial intervals), in response to increased tropical rainfall brought
about by the development of high-pressure zones over Gondwanan ice
TABLE 1.— Continued.
sheets, attendant suppression of the seasonal excursion of the Intertrop-

ical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and the development of a stable, low-
Pedogenic Processes
pressure cell at equatorial and sub-equatorial latitudes (Fig. 11; Miller

pedogenic calcite
and West 1993; Miller et al. 1996; Cecil et al. 2003).

Dominant
precipitation
Shrink-swell;
Gray Shale (LST to TST).—Omitted from many previous depositional

models of cyclothems is the gray, partly nonmarine shale that lies between
some IB coal seams and overlying fully marine strata, found in
association with peat-contemporaneous channel valley-fill sequences
(Fig. 11, Unit 4). The Dykersburg Shale above the Springfield Coal
mineralogyb
, 2 mm clay
Dominant
I/S, K, I
and the Energy Shale above the Herrin Coal (Fig. 3, Fig. 7, MAC core at
, 102 m) are good examples. Both gray shales overlie thick, low-sulfur
Detailed descriptions of pedotypes can be found in Rosenau et al. (2013).
coals that formed along paleochannels (Hopkins 1968; Allgaier and

Hopkins 1975). Lowlands along these channels became optimal sites for
accumulation of thick peat deposits. Fine sediment carried into the
wedge-shaped
calcite, minor
swamp during flooding of rivers produced thin claystone layers in the

Diagnostic
Features
aggregates,
Slickensides,
pedogenic
peat close to channel margins. Transgression drowned the forest and

mottling
ended peat accumulation, and fine sediment rapidly buried the peat.
Superbly preserved plant fossils, including tree stumps in growth position,
attest to rapid burial (DiMichele and Nelson 1989; DiMichele et al. 1996;
DiMichele et al. 2007) and sparse invertebrate fossils signify fresh to
of Occurrences (Mack et al. 1993)
calcic Vertisol
Classification
brackish water (Fig. 11). Rhythmic laminations in these gray shales

record tidal cycles (tidal rhythmites) that are interpreted to represent
sedimentation rates of meters per decade (Kvale et al. 1994; Archer et al.
1995; Archer 1998). Peat compacted as it was buried, making space for
more sediment, resulting in deposition of gray shale units, such as the
Dykersburg and Energy shales, exceeding 30 m in thickness in places.
Given these lines of evidence we interpret the gray, partly nonmarine
Number
shale to represent deposition spanning the lowstand to transgressive

7
systems tracts (LST to TST; Fig. 11).
Fissile Black Shale (TST).—Black, highly fissile, phosphatic shale is a

Pedotype
characteristic unit in cyclothems of the IB and Midcontinent basin

G
(Fig. 11, Unit 5). In most cases black shale directly overlies coal or gray
b
a
shale, as described above (Figs. 3, 6, Mecca Quarry Shale in MAC and

FIG. 4.—Measured paleosol-bearing sections

of the lower part of the middle Pennsylvanian
Tradewater Formation. Measurements depicted
on core graphic logs are in meters (bold text) and
feet (italicized text) as measured from the top of
the core. Black and white bar scale is in
increments of 10 feet. Wavy lines to the left of
measured sections define tops of paleosols.
Capital letters refer to paleosols of a given
pedotype. Encircled capital letters refer to
pedotype discussed in Rosenau et al. (2013).
Encircled numbers and acronyms above mea-
sured sections represent site identification
(Fig. 1). Correlations of sections follow Willman
et al. (1975) and Nelson et al. (2011).
LSC cores). A thin, basal limestone is locally present at the base of the Fossil community successions in Oklahoma support the claim that
black shale, commonly reduced to a layer of pyritized, fragmentary black shales were deposited in deep water, at or near highstand
brachiopod and bivalve shells. The contact with the underlying coal or, (Boardman et al. 1984). However, Bisnett and Heckel (1996) acknowl-
where present, the gray shale, is commonly sharp and erosional (Bauer edged that both near-shore and deep-water varieties of black shale exist,
and DeMaris 1982). Lacking fossils of benthic organisms, the black, and that in some cases (e.g., Anna Shale; Figs. 3, 6, , 70 m in the LSC
fissile shale is interpreted to have accumulated under anoxic conditions core) the unit progressed from shallow to deep water. We interpret the
(Heckel 1977). Zangerl and Richardson (1963) favored deposition of the black shale as being deposited during the transgressive systems tract
black shale in shallow water with a floating algal mat, whereas Heckel (TST; Fig. 11). Regional correlations show that black shales typically
(1977, 2002) envisioned black shale forming at water depths of . 100 m. pinch out near basin margins in the IB, and onto tectonic highs,
FIG. 5.—Measured paleosol-bearing sections of the upper part of the middle Pennsylvanian Tradewater Formation. Measurements depicted on core graphic logs are in
meters (bold text) and feet (italicized text) as measured from the top of the core. Black and white bar scale is in increments of 10 feet. Capital letters refer to paleosols of a
given pedotype. Encircled capital letters refer to pedotype discussed in Rosenau et al. (2013). Encircled numbers and acronyms above measured sections represent site
identification (Fig. 1). Positions of sphaerosiderite samples are denoted by red stars. Correlations of sections follow Willman et al. (1975) and Nelson et al. (2011).
Tentative correlations of stratigraphic units are denoted with a question mark (?).
whereas the overlying limestone persists farther paleo-landward (Nelson Limestone at , 346 m in the ELY core; Fig. 11, Unit 6). Most examples
et al. 2010). are fossiliferous lime mudstones, wackestones, and packstones containing
a diverse open-marine fauna including brachiopods, bryozoans, echino-
Marine Limestone (TST to HST).—Marine limestone overlies black derms, bivalves, gastropods, foraminifera, and phylloid algae. These filter
shale in complete, ‘‘idealized’’ IB cyclothems (Figs. 3, 6, St. David feeders favor water of close to normal salinity without a large amount of
suspended sediment. Normal circulation of oxygenated water had to be (Heckel 1994; Feldman et al. 2005). This creates the dilemma previously
restored at a time when the depositional sites were beyond the reach of raised with respect to the timing of peat formation. Alternatively, we
significant terrigenous sedimentation. The greater geographic extent of interpret that soil formation and valley incisions occurred during the
marine limestones as compared to black phosphatic shales in the IB is regressive to early lowstand systems tracts (RST to LST; Fig. 11; Plint et
evidence that the limestone units represent late transgressive to highstand al. 2001).
deposits (Nelson et al. 2010) and therefore were deposited during the late
transgressive systems tract to highstand systems tract (TST to HST; Flint-Clay Breccia
Fig. 11).
Flint clay is a fine-grained, massive rock that breaks with conchoidal
fracture and contains an abundance of well-crystallized kaolinite (Keller
Deltaic Clastics (HST to RST).—In the IB, marine limestones generally
1968, 1975, 1981; Smith and O’Brien 1965). It has been described from
give way to an upward-coarsening succession of clastic rocks (Fig. 11,
lower through upper Pennsylvanian strata in the Illinois and Appalachian
Unit 7). This commonly begins with dark gray, siderite-bearing shale that
basins (Foose 1944; Waage 1950; Smith and O’Brien 1965; Williams 1960;
may contain a limited brackish-water to normal marine fauna. Dark gray
Williams et al. 1968) and is interpreted to form by chemical leaching and
shales grade upward to lighter gray silty shales, siltstones, and fine-
alteration of fine-grained sediments in low-lying acid swamps (Patterson
grained sandstones (Figs. 3, 5, , 338 m to , 345 m in the ELY core,
and Hosterman 1960; Keller 1968, 1975, 1981; Smith and O’Brien 1965).
Fig. 11). These rocks are commonly interlaminated and display a variety An uppermost Desmoinesian (upper Shelburn Formation) example was
of trace fossils along with tidal rhythmites. As reported by Devera (1989) encountered in the MAC core, where it occurs as clasts in a breccia
in slightly older rocks, diverse trace fossils that occur in these (Figs. 7, 12A, B). A detailed description of the deposit is presented here.
rhythmically laminated sediments display marine affinities. In most The flint clay occurs in a 230-cm-thick pebble–cobble, alternating mud-
cases, it appears the deltas filled nearly all of the available accommoda- and matrix-supported breccia, the top of which is located five meters
tion space. In a few cases, marine limestone occurs at, or near, the top of a above the Danville Coal (Figs. 7, FCB at , 79.8–82.1 m; Fig. 12A–C).
deltaic package. These ‘‘delta-top limestone’’ units are irregular in The deposit truncates an underlying Type C paleosol (gleyed Vertisol).
distribution, mostly limited to areas of a few square kilometers or tens of The lower 43 cm of the unit contains successive layers that include the
kilometers. The Carlinville (Patoka Formation) and Bunje (Bond following: (1) 3–4 cm angular clasts of massive, fine-grained flint clay, (2)
Formation) Limestone members are examples (Fig. 3). We interpret the 4–8 cm wavy laminated siltstone and sandstone clasts, (3) 4–9 cm-long
deltaic clastic deposits as products of rapidly prograding deltas that were massive intermixed sphaerosiderite (75–100 mm in diameter) and
deposited during the late highstand to early regressive systems tracts rhombohedral crystalline dolomite (, 225 mm long 3 , 90 mm wide;
(HST to RST; Fig. 11). Fig. 12D, E), (4) thin organic-rich shale clasts up to 3–4 cm long and 0.5–
1 cm wide, (5) rare clasts of coal # 1 cm in diameter, and (6) 7-cm-
Soil Formation and Valley Incision (RST to LST).—Because highstand long 3 4-cm-wide variegated, red and green clay clasts crosscut by
deltas filled nearly all the available space in the IB, the sea bottom became sphaerosiderite-cemented channels and fractures (Fig. 12A–C, F). The
exposed during the early stages of the regression that marked the advent middle 130 cm (43–173 cm) is a mud-supported breccia with cobble-sized
of the next glacial episode. This set in motion the processes of subaerial flint-clay clasts with fractures filled by sphaerosiderite (75–100 mm in
weathering (soil formation) upon interfluves during fluvial incision diameter; Fig. 12A–C, F), , 1-cm-long black shale clasts in a pale yellow
(Fig. 11, Unit 2). Deltaic distributary channels and incised-valley-fill (2.5Y 8/2) clay-rich matrix, common laminated greenish-gray (G1
sequences are a prominent part of the rock record in the IB (Figs. 3, 11). 5/10GY) siltstone clasts, and abundant sphaerosiderite (75–100 mm in
Some of the smaller channels in the deltaic packages undoubtedly diameter) evenly dispersed throughout.
represent deltaic distributary channels. These sequences (1) feature The upper 57 cm is dominantly a mixture of siltstone and mudstone
sandstone filling, (2) are of moderate width (tens to a few hundreds of with (1) abundant pebble-size flint-clay clasts that are fractured and filled
meters) and areal extent, (3) exhibit moderate depths of incision (5 to with sphaerosiderite (75–100 mm in diameter) and rhombohedral dolomite
15 meters, and never below the base of the deltaic package), and (4) lack (, 225 mm long 3 , 90 mm wide; Fig. 12D, E), (2) abundant siderite-
soil formation on the upper surface (Fig. 11). Channels that result from cemented vertical fractures up to 0.5 cm wide and 8 cm long (Fig. 12A–
valley incision as sea level dropped are generally much larger (kilometers C), (3) common medium to coarse micritic carbonate clasts that are
wide). They cut through underlying coal units and commonly cut through crosscut by sphaerosiderite (75–100 mm in diameter) and rhombohedral
two or more underlying cyclothems (e.g., Crown Mine Sandstone, Fig. 3). dolomite (, 225 mm long 3 , 90 mm wide; Fig. 12D, E), and (4)
Some channels have been mapped across the entire IB (e.g., Hopkins abundant disorthic siderite, crystalline dolomite, sparry calcite, and
1958; Andresen 1961; Potter 1962, 1963). As mapped, these channels vary sphaerosiderite clasts (Fig. 12F). The upper boundary of this unit is an
from nearly linear to strongly sinuous or meandering. Fill is largely erosional surface that is scoured by the overlying micaceous, greenish-
sandstone in the lower part, with planar cross bedding, signifying fluvial gray siderite-rich siltstone. The , 125 mm size fraction of the flint-clay
channel processes. The upper part of the valley-fill sequence may be finer clasts from the lower 43 cm of the breccia are composed of a mineral
grained and show tidal influence (Fig. 11). Some previous authors assemblage dominated by kaolinite and quartz (Fig. 13A). The , 2 mm
attributed the soil formation and valley cutting to lowstand (maximum fraction is a mixture of kaolinite and quartz, whereas the , 0.2 mm size
glaciation), with limestone and delta progradation during regression fraction is pure kaolinite (Fig. 13B, C).
r
FIG. 6.—Measured paleosol-bearing sections of the middle Pennsylvanian Carbondale Formation. Measurements depicted on core graphic logs are in meters (bold
text) and feet (italicized text) as measured from the top of the core. Black and white bar scale is in increments of 10 feet. Wavy lines to the left of measured sections define
tops of paleosols. Capital letters refer to paleosols of a given pedotype. Encircled capital letters refer to pedotype discussed in Rosenau et al. (2013). Encircled numbers
and acronyms above measured sections represent site identification (Fig. 1). Positions of micritic siderite samples are denoted by black stars. Correlations of sections
follow Willman et al. (1975) and Nelson et al. (2011).
Siderite Phases DISCUSSION
Siderite-bearing horizons display two different textures: (1) micritic Sphaerosiderite and Kaolinite Stable Isotopes as
nodules of various size and morphology and (2) sub-millimeter-scale Paleoenvironmental Proxies
spherules composed of radial-fibrous crystals (sphaerosiderite; Ludvigson As discussed, two distinct types of siderite are recognized in this study:
et al. 1998). A complete description of the occurrence and micromor- (1) micritic cements associated with calcite and dolomite cements that
phology of the different types of siderites can be found in Rosenau et al. occur in interlaminated siltstones and sandstones and (2) sphaerosiderite.
(2013). Here, we summarize the major characteristics of the different The occurrence and morphology of the micritic siderite cements indicate
types of siderites that were analyzed for this study. The micritic form of that it most likely formed as a diagenetic alteration product in an early
siderite most commonly occurs in thinly interlaminated calcareous burial environment (Mozley 1989; Mozley and Carothers 1992).
siltstones and sandstones underlying paleosols, where it occurs with Pedogenic sphaerosiderite is a common mineral found in poorly drained,
micritic to coarsely crystalline calcite cements. Micritic siderite often reducing soils (Ludvigson et al. 1998; Ufnar et al. 2002, 2004; White et al.
defines bifurcating tubular networks that disrupt sedimentary bedding, 2001), and its occurrence has been documented in modern soils (Brewer
and more rarely occurs as thin coatings on calcium carbonate nodules in 1964; Postma 1981, 1982; Driese et al. 2010) as well as paleosols (Leckie et
paleosol horizons. Sphaerosiderite is more commonly associated with al. 1989; Mozley and Carothers 1992; Ludvigson et al. 1998).
well-developed gleyed B horizons of paleosol profiles and more rarely is Sphaerosiderites typically exhibit a narrow intraprofile range of d18O
found in interlaminated calcareous siltstones and sandstones. Sphaer- values and have been interpreted in other studies to reflect the average
osiderites occur as radial crystals organized into discrete spherules up to d18O value of the local ground waters from which they crystallized under
0.5 mm in diameter and as intergrown aggregates, or clusters, of a relatively narrow range of temperatures (Ludvigson et al. 1998; White et
spherules. Sphaerosiderites are concentrically zoned, and display alter- al. 2001; Ufnar et al. 2002, 2004). Pedogenic sphaerosiderite d13C values
nating zones of siderite and calcite. They typically display small cores typically display a large intraprofile range of up to 30% that appears to
darkened by ferric oxides and larger anhedral crystals of siderite on be related to the large kinetic isotope fractionation between CO2 and CH4
exteriors. The cores of many sphaerosiderite crystals contain inclusions of generated by methane-reducing bacteria in water-saturated, anoxic soil
opaque material that is likely framboidal pyrite and/or pyritized organic profiles (Faure et al. 1995; Ludvigson et al. 1998). This process can
matter. produce d13C values of CO2 up to +7% (Whiticar et al. 1986). These
values may be produced under closed-system, one-component CO2
Isotope Geochemistry mixing, as well as additional contributions of CO2 from oxidation of
methanogenic CH4 (Irwin et al. 1977; Ludvigson et al. 1998; Sheldon and
Siderite Oxygen and Carbon Isotopes.—Sphaerosiderite d18OV-PDB Tabor 2009). As such, d13C values of siderites likely reflect local
values range from 23.6% to 20.5% while micritic siderite cement environmental conditions and are not useful as a proxy for regional
d18OV-PDB values range from 24.7% to 20.6% (Fig. 14A, Tables 2, 3). paleoclimate reconstruction. Rather, the discussion herein focuses on the
Sphaerosiderite d18O values display intraprofile variation where B- intraprofile and interprofile variation of sphaerosiderite d18O values and
horizon sphaerosiderites are consistently +0.5% to +1% more negative massive siderite d18O values in conjunction with the d18O and dD values
than sphaerosiderites in the underlying C or R horizons. Sphaerosiderite of a coeval uppermost Desmoinesian (Shelburn Formation) flint-clay
and massive siderite cement d13CV-PDB values range from 212.8% to kaolinite as a proxy for middle–upper Pennsylvanian paleoenvironmental
23.2% and 217.9% to +2.2%, respectively (Fig. 14B, Tables 2, 3). conditions.
Flint-Clay Kaolinite Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes.—The average Interprofile and Intraprofile Variations of Siderite d18O Values.—In
18
d OV-SMOW and dDV-SMOW values of kaolinite from the , 0.2 mm size general, d18O values of micritic siderite cement from interlaminated
fraction from the flint-clay breccia are +21.0% and 246.5%, respectively siltstones and sandstones stratigraphically underlying paleosol profiles
(Table 4). The wt % of the 100uC H2O (sorbed H2O) ranges from 2.2% to show no distinct stratigraphic distribution and display a wide range of
3.9%, while the 825uC H2O (structural H2O) ranges from 13.3% to 15.0%. d18O values that do not define any obvious temporal trends (Fig. 14A,
The wt % H2O in stoichiometric kaolinite [Al2Si2O5(OH)4 ] is 13.96%. As Table 3). These micritic siderite cements are interpreted to represent
such, the calculated wt % H2O of 15.0% from one of the analyses of the diagenetic alteration products that formed soon after burial of the
flint-clay kaolinite may indicate incomplete removal of sorbed H2O from sediments, prior to compaction and lithification. A number of possible
the sample or another mineral present that is characterized by a higher wt mechanisms during diagenesis could explain the variability observed in
% H2O, but in such a low concentration it is not detected by XRD micritic siderite d18O values, including recrystallization, water–mineral
analysis, such as gibbsite (Tabor and Yapp 2005). The wt % of O2 in the interactions, mixing of meteoric and marine waters, or precipitation at
kaolinite samples ranges from 49 to 54%, which is slightly lower than the very high temperatures (Mozley and Carothers 1992; Mozley and Burns
wt % O2 in stoichiometric kaolinite (55.8%). 1993). Regardless of the precise mechanism(s) responsible for their
r
FIG. 7.—Measured paleosol-bearing sections of the middle–upper Pennsylvanian Shelburn Formation. Measurements depicted on core graphic logs are in meters (bold
text) and feet (italicized text) as measured from the top of the core. Black and white bar scale is in increments of 10 feet. Wavy lines to the left of measured sections define
tops of paleosols. Capital letters refer to paleosols of a given pedotype. Encircled capital letters refer to pedotype discussed in Rosenau et al. (2013). Encircled numbers
and acronyms above measured sections represent site identification (Fig. 1). Positions of sphaerosiderite and micritic siderite samples are denoted by red and black stars,
respectively. Correlations of sections follow Willman et al. (1975) and Nelson et al. (2011).
FIG. 8.—Measured paleosol-bearing sections

of the upper Pennsylvanian Patoka Formation.
Measurements depicted on core graphic logs are
in meters (bold text) and feet (italicized text) as
measured from the top of the core. Black and
white bar scale is in increments of 10 feet. Wavy
lines to the left of measured sections define tops
of paleosols. Capital letters refer to paleosols of a
given pedotype. Encircled capital letters refer to
pedotype discussed in Rosenau et al. (2013).
Positions of sphaerosiderite and micritic siderite
samples are denoted by red and black stars,
respectively. Encircled numbers and acronyms
above measured sections represent site identifi-
cation (Fig. 1). Correlations of sections follow
Willman et al. (1975) and Nelson et al. (2011).
formation, we interpret them to be diagenetic products that are not useful

for paleoenvironmental reconstruction of Earth-surface conditions.
However, sphaerosiderites display a narrower stratigraphic range of
d18O values and exhibit distinct interprofile and intraprofile trends
(Fig. 14A, Table 2). The relatively constant d18O values of sphaerosider-
ites from individual horizons suggest little variation in the oxygen isotope
composition of groundwater, as well as temperature, during crystalliza-
tion (Ufnar et al. 2002, 2004). Specifically, in individual paleosol profiles,
B-horizon sphaerosiderites display consistently lower (0.5% to 1%) d18O
values than corresponding C or R horizon d18O values (Fig. 14A). The
more negative B-horizon sphaerosiderite d18O values may indicate
crystallization in the presence of waters derived mainly from a meteoric
origin, while C or R horizon sphaerosiderite d18O values may reflect
crystallization in the presence of mixed meteoric-marine (brackish)
waters. This interpretation reflects that B-horizon sphaerosiderites are
considered to be the best representative for a proxy of endember
meteoric-water oxygen isotope composition at the time of siderite
precipitation (Ludvigson et al. 1998; Ufnar et al. 2001).
In addition to intraprofile trends, sphaerosiderites display significant
stratigraphic trends. In particular, the d18O values of B-horizon
sphaerosiderites display a 21.5% shift across the Desmoinesian–
Missourian (D-M) boundary (Fig. 14A). This stratigraphically short
isotopic shift occurs on the order of one cyclothem (, 400 ky; Heckel
2008) and is followed by a subsequent shift on the order of one cyclothem,
back to more positive siderite d18O values (Fig. 14A). Since the d18O
value of sphaerosiderite is related to both the temperature of siderite
crystallization and the d18O value of the water from which it precipitated,
this shift may be related to (1) an increase in temperature, (2) more
negative d18O values of meteoric water in the IB paleosols profiles, or (3)
a combination of (1) and (2).
Paleotemperature and Soil Water d18O Values.—Constraints on the

relative influence of siderite crystallization temperature and meteoric-
water d18O values are provided by independent analysis of uppermost
Desmoinesian flint-clay kaolinite dD and d18O values associated with
sphaerosiderite. Assuming that these coexisting minerals formed in
chemical equilibrium with each other, inferences can be made regarding
the evolution of the oxygen isotope composition of meteoric water and/or
temperature changes across the D-M boundary based upon the preserved
isotopic values of the flint-clay kaolinite and sphaerosiderite. Numerous
studies have shown that the d18O and dD values of pedogenic
phyllosilicates and oxyhydroxides are related to the isotopic composition
of soil water, which may be similar to the isotopic composition of
meteoric precipitation (Savin and Epstein 1970; Lawrence and Taylor
1971, 1972; Cerling and Quade 1993; Yapp 1993, 2001a, 2001b; 2002;
Hsieh 1997; Vitali et al. 2000, 2001). Assuming equilibrium with waters
that lie on the meteoric-water line and using kaolinite-water equilibrium
fractionation equations (Sheppard and Gilg 1996) in conjunction with the
equation for the Meteoric Water Line (Craig 1961; dD 5 d18O + 10),
the following equation relates the d18O and dD values of kaolinite to
temperature of crystallization:
12
3:04|106
T(K) ~ ð2Þ
d18 Ok {0:125|dDk z7:04
where d18Ok and dDk are the measured kaolinite d18O and dD values,
FIG. 9.—Measured paleosol-bearing sections of the upper Pennsylvanian Bond respectively.
Formation. Measurements depicted on core graphic logs are in meters (bold text) and Using this equation, the flint-clay kaolinite d18O and dD values suggest
feet (italicized text) as measured from the top of the core. Black and white bar scale is a crystallization temperature of 27 6 2uC (Table 4). The uncertainty of
in increments of 10 feet. Wavy lines to the left of measured sections define tops of
paleosols. Capital letters refer to paleosols of a given pedotype. Encircled capital
6 2uC associated with the crystallization temperature estimate is a
letters refer to pedotype discussed in Rosenau et al. (2013). Encircled numbers and consequence of the uncertainty in the measured flint-clay kaolinite dD
acronyms above measured sections represent site identification (Fig. 1). Correlations and d18O values. At 27uC, the value of the oxygen isotope equilibrium
of sections follow Willman et al. (1975) and Nelson et al. (2011). fraction factor between kaolinite and water (18ak–w) is 1.0242 (Sheppard
FIG. 10.—Measured paleosol-bearing sections of the upper Pennsylvanian Mattoon Formation. Measurements depicted on core graphic logs are in meters (bold text)
and feet (italicized text) as measured from the top of the core. Black and white bar scale is in increments of 10 feet. Wavy lines to the left of measured sections define tops
of paleosols. Capital letters refer to paleosols of a given pedotype. Encircled capital letters refer to pedotype discussed in Rosenau et al. (2013). Encircled numbers and
acronyms above measured sections represent site identification (Fig. 1). Positions of micritic siderite samples are denoted by black stars, respectively. Correlations of
sections follow Willman et al. (1975) and Nelson et al. (2011).
and Gilg 1996), resulting in a calculated meteoric water d18O value of above and below the D-M boundary, using the experimentally
23.1%. This temperature estimate is assumed to be a reasonable determined temperature-dependent fractionation factor for siderite
approximation of mean annual surface temperatures at the time of (Fig. 15; Carothers et al. 1988). Using the independently derived
kaolinite crystallization because of the large thermal-mass of soil paleotemperature estimate from the flint-clay kaolinite and assuming
compared to the atmosphere and because temperature in the low-latitude that coexisting sphaerosiderites crystallized near chemical equilibrium
tropics because temperatures in the low-latitude tropics often do not vary permits an additional estimate of late middle Pennsylvanian meteoric
by more than 1–2uC through an annual cycle (Barron and Moore 1994; water d18O values. When a crystallization temperature estimate of
Barron and Fawcett 1995; Buol et al. 1997). Soil–water d18OV-SMOW 27 6 2uC is plotted in conjunction with measured d18O values from
values were calculated over a range of temperatures (0–40uC) from the coeval sphaerosiderite, an estimated range of middle–late Pennsylvanian
average sphaerosiderite d18O values associated with the flint-clay meteoric-water d18O values from 22.7% to 23.6%, with an average
kaolinite and from stratigraphically bounding paleosols immediately value of 23.1%, is calculated equivalent to the meteoric-water d18O value
FIG. 11.—Depositional model and sequence

stratigraphic framework of a complete, idealized
Illinois basin cyclothem. HST, highstand systems
tract; RST, regressive stand systems tract; LST,
lowstand systems tract; TST, transgressive
systems tract.
calculated from coeval flint-clay kaolinite d18O and dD values (Fig. 15; Protosols) paleosols with relatively weak morphological development and
Table 4). The range of meteoric-water d18O values calculated from the horizonation in the lower–middle Pennsylvanian strata followed by the
d18O values of paired flint-clay kaolinite and sphaerosiderite correspond diversity of paleosol types (Types C-G) with well-developed morphologies
to kaolinite crystallization temperatures ranging from 30uC to 24uC, and horizonation in the middle–upper Pennsylvanian is an indication of
respectively, and an average of 27uC. an overall increase in landscape stability and decreased sediment
accumulation rates during intervals of pedogenesis (Figs 4–10, 16, 18;
Autogenic Processes: The Role of Geomorphology on the Lateral and Kraus and Aslan 1993; McCarthy et al. 1997; Kraus and Aslan 1999;
Stratigraphic Distribution of Illinois Basin Paleosols McCarthy et al. 1999; Demko et al. 2004; Tabor et al. 2004). These
intervals of greater landscape stability occurred during eustatic low-
Lateral Trends.—Types C, D, and E paleosols (gleyed Vertisols, gleyed stands, which is concomitant with the onset and duration of high-order
calcic Vertisols, and gleyed vertic Calcisols, respectively) exhibit distinct transgressive–regressive cycles and the deposition of classical Pennsylva-
lateral variations in morphology from the northern margin to the interior nian cyclothemic strata. The lower Pennsylvanian stratigraphy of the IB
of the IB (Figs. 4–10, 16). Specifically, the observation of high-chroma is principally composed of fluvial sandstones, and minor amounts of
hues of paleosol matrix from the basin margin (LSC core) in conjunction marine and terrestrial siltstones and shales, and marine limestones
with gleyed, siderite- and pyrite-rich, age-equivalent deposits from (Hopkins and Simon 1975; Siever 1957), as well as many upward-fining
sequences. Lower Pennsylvanian clastic input into the IB appears to have
paleosols in the basin interior (MAC, ELY, SAL, FWL cores and field
been depositionally influenced by the pre-existing Mississippian–Penn-
sites) indicate that soil development was strongly influenced by
sylvanian topographic unconformity as evidenced by the geographic
differences in soil hydrology that are similar to a modern soil catena,
distribution of large sandstone bodies in lower Pennsylvanian strata. The
whereby the paleosols represent soil development upon similar parent
preservation of these large sandstone bodies in conjunction with thin and
material under similar climate regimes, and the different morphological
poorly developed coal seams and common compound Type B paleosols
and mineralogical characteristics between laterally continuous, age-
indicate that those paleolandscapes were subject to relatively high rates of
equivalent profiles are due to variations in relief and drainage (Figs. 16,
sediment accumulation that disrupted soil formation and led to isolated
17; Jenny 1980; Birkeland 1984; Besly and Fielding 1989; Miller and
swamplands of peat accumulation. Nevertheless, the presence of gleyed
Birkeland 1992; Wright and Marriott 1993; McCarthy et al. 1997;
matrix colors and coal indicate that they were likely forming under
McCarthy and Plint 2003; Tabor et al. 2006). As such, autogenic poorly-drained conditions in a humid, ever-wet environment (Cecil et al.
processes that resulted in paleocatenary relationships may best explain 1985, 2003; Ziegler et al. 1987; Lézine and Chateauneuf 1991). As such,
basin-scale trends in Types C, D, and E paleosols (Figs. 16, 17). we interpret the stratigraphic distribution of paleosol types of the lower
Lateral variations in paleosol morphology and redox-sensitive mineral Pennsylvanian in the IB to result principally from changes in landscape
assemblages of age-equivalent Types C, D, and E paleosols from stability and sediment accumulation rates.
different parts of the IB record are interpreted to result from A shift in the stratigraphic distribution of paleosol types occurs in the
dominantly local (basin-scale) processes such as differences in topog- middle Pennsylvanian Carbondale Formation. At this level, and above,
raphy and from relative rates of subsidence between these two portions Types C (gleyed Vertisols), D (gleyed calcic Vertisols), E (gleyed vertic
of the basin. These features led to overall better-drained conditions Calcisols), F (gleyed Calcisols), and G (vertic Calcisols) paleosols become
throughout the developmental history of the paleosols in the northern an important stratigraphic component of the IB (Figs. 4–10, 16, 18). This
part of the IB (LSC core) and a shallower water table and more change in paleosol distribution is significant because it indicates an overall
frequent marine flooding in the interior of the basin (Fig. 17). increase in landscape stability and soil drainage and a decrease in sediment
Furthermore, the restricted occurrence of Type G (calcic Vertisols) accumulation rates during some parts of cyclothem development.
paleosols along the northern margin (Figs. 7–9) and the observation
that age-equivalent profiles from the basin interior preserve evidence for Allogenic Processes: The Role of Glacioeustasy and Associated Climate
multi-stage (oxygenated and reduced) polygenesis (Rosenau et al. 2013) Change on Paleosol Development
is interpreted to be the result of basin-scale topographic differences
across the basin. Specifically, it suggests that lower landscapes in the Tectonic Models.—Tectonic models have been put forth to explain the
basin interior were more prone to gley processes as a result of ground- formation of Pennsylvanian cyclothems in the IB (Klein and Willard
water, brackish-water, and sea-water inundation (Fig. 17). Importantly, 1989) and other North American basins (Quinlan and Beaumont 1984;
the patterns of calcite, siderite, and pyrite cementation as well as illite– Tankard 1986; Klein and Cloetingh 1989). Tectonic highlands likely
smectite ordering among these paleosol profiles (Rosenau et al. 2013) influenced local climate patterns, and tectonic subsidence may have
support this landscape model. resulted in minor relative sea-level changes and provided accommodation
space for cyclic sedimentation in the IB and surrounding basins (Weller
Stratigraphic Trends.—The stratigraphic distribution of paleosols 1931; Klein and Kupperman 1992). However, the numerous, widespread,
similarly defines a trend that can be related to basin-scale autogenic and repetitious marine and nonmarine cycles across Euramerica, the
processes. The occurrence of only Type A (Histosols) and B (gleyed short interval between many of these cycles, and the well-established
r
FIG. 12.—Photographs and photomicrographs of the flint-clay breccia layer (FCB; Fig. 3, FCB at 79.8–82.1 m. A) Photograph of MAC core at , 82.1 m showing
siderite (s) and flint-clay (fc) in the FCB. B) Photograph (close up) of MAC core at , 82.4 m showing siderite (s) and flint-clay (fc) in FCB. C) Photograph of cross-
section of core from the FCB interval showing flint-clay (fc) matrix and sphaerosiderite (s). D) Photomicrograph (cross-polarized light) showing euhederal dolomite (d)
crystals with some ferric oxide staining in flint-clay matrix (fc). E) Photomicrograph (plane-polarized light) showing euhderal dolomite (d) crystals with ferric-oxide-
stained cores in flint-clay matrix (fc). Note that dolomite disrupts internal bedding of flint-clay. F) Photomicrograph (cross-polarized light) illustrating association of
siderite (s), micrite (m), and sparry calcite (sp) in the FCB. Note that sparry calcite and siderite crosscut micrite, indicating that they formed later.
climate change. Accordingly, the role of glacioeustasy and associated

climate change are discussed below.
Climate Models.—Several conceptual models have considered the

waxing and waning of Gondwanan ice sheets to have been mechanisti-
cally linked to climate change across the Pennsylvanian Euramerican
tropics (Perlmutter and Matthews 1989; Cecil 1990; Miller and West
1993; Tandon and Gibling 1994; Cecil et al. 2003, and references therein;
Horton et al. 2012). However, there is debate as to how paleotropical
climate changed in response to Gondwanan glacial–deglacial episodes.
One model suggests that Gondwanan ice sheets affected paleotropical
climate by modulating the extent of large-scale circulation patterns
(Perlmutter and Matthews 1989). This model proposes that highstands
(interglacial intervals) produced diminished polar-high pressure cells,
resulting in poleward expansion of the Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ), and a broad, warmer and more humid paleotropical region.
Conversely, during lowstands (glacial intervals) the polar high-pressure
cells expanded, causing the ITCZ to shrink and encompass a thin belt
around the equator, resulting in an overall drier and cooler paleotropical
realm (Perlmutter and Matthews 1989). Another model suggests that
precipitation at low latitudes responded primarily to changes in equator-
to-pole surface-temperature gradient (Peyser and Poulsen 2008). In this
model, large glacial events correspond to larger hemispheric temperature
gradients, which result in more vigorous Hadley cell circulation, and
increased precipitation rates at low latitudes. During interglacials,
decreased surface temperature gradients resulted in weaker Hadley cell
convection that shifted toward the South Pole and pronounced
seasonality of rainfall at paleotropical latitudes. A third model considers
glacial intervals to correspond to high-pressure zones at high latitudes,
which suppressed movement of the ITCZ and resulted in a stable, warm
and humid tropical climate (Cecil 1990; Miller and West 1993; Cecil et al.
2003; Horton et al. 2012). During interglacials, the polar high-pressure
cells were minimal and resulted in seasonal movement of the ITCZ
between the mid-latitudes and overall drier climate in the tropics. This
model has been proposed to explain the stratigraphic stacking patterns
and distributions of paleosol morphologies observed in the lower
(Atokan; Driese and Ober 2005) and middle (Desmoinesian; Aitken
and Flint 1996; Cecil et al. 2003) Pennsylvanian of North America.
Paleosol Types B, C, D, and E which occur in the interior of the IB
preserve polygenetic profiles (Rosenau et al. 2013) that are interpreted to
be the result of dominantly allogenic processes. As discussed in Rosenau
et al. (2013), pedogenic features in Types C, D, and E paleosols from the
basin interior indicate initial formation in well-drained environments
under seasonal precipitation and a subsequent period of waterlogging and
development of reducing conditions throughout the soil profile. These
features are indicative of a multistage pedogenic history, as a result of
formation under contrasting chemical environments. Based on these
observations we have developed the following model for the genesis of
individual polygenetic paleosol profiles in the interior of the IB (Fig. 19).
This model considers the preservation of complex soil morphologies and
FIG. 13.—X-ray diffraction spectra of various size fractions taken from the clay mineralogies to be the result of variable paleohydrology driven by
uppermost Desmoinesian (Shelburn Formation) flint-clay breccia (FCB). A) changes in Gondwanan ice volume and attendant changes in the amount
Powder X-ray diffraction spectra of the , 125 mm size fraction from the FCB. B) and frequency of precipitation due to the confinement (Cecil et al. 1993;
X-ray diffraction spectra of an oriented aggregate mount of the , 2 mm size Cecil et al. 2003; Elrick and Nelson 2010) or intensification (Poulsen et al.
fraction. For Part B, K (500uC) 5 K+-saturated sample analyzed after heating at
500uC for 2 hours; K (r.t.) 5 K+-saturated sample analyzed at room temperature; 2007) of the ITCZ over, or around, the IB. This interpretation reflects our
Mg 5 Mg2+-saturated sample; Mg-Gly 5 Mg2+-saturated, glycerol-solvated consideration that Types C, D, and E paleosols were initially forming on
sample. K, kaolinite; Q, quartz. C) Mg2+-saturated X-ray diffraction pattern of well-drained parts of the landscape under oxidizing conditions, during
oriented aggregate mount of the , 0.2 mm size fraction. late regression, under high seasonality of precipitation (7–8 wet months/
year; Cecil et al. 2003). As glaciation increased, precipitation increased
record of Gondwanan glaciation (Heckel 1986, 1994; Cecil et al. 1985, and climate became less seasonal (humid, ever-wet) in the tropics,
2003) provide compelling evidence that the influence of tectonism on concomitant with lowstand. The groundwater table rose, resulting in
base-level change and paleosol development in the IB were likely meteoric waterlogging of the lower coastal-plain landscapes of the IB.
secondary to the effects of glacioeustatic fluctuations and associated Groundwater rise resulted in anoxia and reducing conditions, leading to
FIG. 14.—Stratigraphic distribution of the oxygen and carbon isotope composition of sphaerosiderite and micritic siderite cements. Filled circles represent samples
from morphologically well-developed pedogenic B horizons in paleosol profiles. Open circles represent samples from C or R horizons of paleosol profiles. Open triangles
represent samples taken from the flint-clay breccia (FCB) layer in the MAC core (Fig. 7). Rectangular boxes encompass sets of samples from a single paleosol profile. A)
Stratigraphic distribution of siderite d18OV-PDB values. B) Stratigraphic distribution of siderite d13CV-PDB values. Note consistently more negative d18O values of B-
horizon sphaerosiderites with respect to underlying C-horizon sphaerosiderites. Generalized stratigraphic column modified from Willman et al. (1975) and Nelson et
al. (2011).
redox reactions that promoted precipitation of pyrite, siderite, and gley amount and frequency of low-latitude precipitation in conjunction with
matrix colors (Fig. 19B). Depending on the availability of sediment and glacio-eustatic changes in sea level. In particular, following the model of
local topography, a laminated organic-rich, kaolinitic layer was Cecil et al. (2003) it appears that IB soils began actively forming under
deposited. Continued groundwater rise due to increased precipitation seasonal precipitation during early glacial intervals (late regression).
eventually led to peat-swamp development on top of the paleosol and in- Subsequently during glacial maximum (lowstand), when precipitation
situ accumulations of plant organic matter (Fig. 19B). During glacial increased and climate became less seasonal, soils became water-saturated
termination, sea level and base level rose. Types B, C, D, and E paleosols and anoxic, leading to precipitation of reduced-iron minerals (Fig. 19).
were flooded by brackish, and eventually marine, water and ultimately Morphological and mineralogical evidence from IB paleosols suggests
buried by marine strata. Consequently, we consider most individual that changes in low-latitude precipitation and variations in sea level were
paleosol profiles in the IB to document a complex paleohydrologic record closely linked. Based on the evidence presented herein, we propose that
that led to changes in the degree of hydromophy, driven by changes in the while ultimately both sea-level rise and increases in the amount and
TABLE 2.— d18OV-PDB and d13CV-PDB values of sphaerosiderite associated with paleosols and flint-clay breccia.
North American Paleosol d18OV-PDB d18OV-SMOW d13CV-PDB

Series Formation Core Sample ID Metersa Paleosol Type Horizon (%) (%) (%)
Missourian Patoka MAC Mac1-19A 46.5 gleyed Vertisol B horizon 21.6 +29.3 25.2
Missourian Patoka MAC Mac1-19B 46.5 gleyed Vertisol B horizon 21.0 +29.8 25.0
Missourian Patoka MAC Mac1-17A 47.7 gleyed Vertisol C horizon 21.1 +29.7 29.8
Missourian Patoka MAC Mac1-17B 47.7 gleyed Vertisol C horizon 21.1 +29.7 29.9
Missourian Patoka MAC Mac1-17C 47.7 gleyed Vertisol C horizon 20.9 +29.9 29.9
Missourian Shelburn MAC Mac1-22A 68.7 gleyed vertic Calcisol B horizon 22.9 +27.9 25.5
Missourian Shelburn MAC Mac1-22B 68.7 gleyed vertic Calcisol B horizon 23.0 +27.8 25.7
Missourian Shelburn MAC Mac1-22C 68.7 gleyed vertic Calcisol B horizon 23.4 +27.4 25.5
Missourian Shelburn MAC Mac1-21A 69.1 gleyed vertic Calcisol C horizon 22.9 +27.9 25.7
Missourian Shelburn MAC Mac1-21B 69.1 gleyed vertic Calcisol C horizon 22.9 +27.8 25.6
Missourian Shelburn MAC Mac1-21C 69.1 gleyed vertic Calcisol C horizon 22.9 +27.8 25.6
Desmoinesian Shelburn MAC Mac1-27A 77.7 vertic Calcisol B horizon 21.7 +29.2 23.4
Desmoinesian Shelburn MAC Mac1-27B 77.7 vertic Calcisol B horizon 21.7 +29.1 23.4
Desmoinesian Shelburn MAC Mac1-27C 77.7 vertic Calcisol B horizon 21.5 +29.3 23.2
Desmoinesian Shelburn MAC Mac1-25A 79.1 gleyed vertic Calcisol C horizon 21.2 +29.6 27.9
Desmoinesian Shelburn MAC Mac1-25B 79.1 gleyed vertic Calcisol C horizon 21.1 +29.7 28.0
Desmoinesian Shelburn MAC Mac1-25C 79.1 gleyed vertic Calcisol C horizon 20.8 +30.1 27.5
Desmoinesian Shelburn MAC Mac1-34A 82.3 Flint clay breccia - 22.3 +28.5 29.7
Desmoinesian Shelburn MAC Mac1-34B 82.3 Flint clay breccia - 22.3 +28.5 29.8
Desmoinesian Shelburn MAC Mac1-34C 82.3 Flint clay breccia - 22.2 +28.6 29.8
Desmoinesian Shelburn MAC Mac1-42A 91.2 gleyed Protosol C horizon 20.6 +30.2 26.6
Desmoinesian Shelburn MAC Mac1-42B 91.2 gleyed Protosol C horizon 20.5 +30.3 26.5
Desmoinesian Tradewater MAC Mac1-70A 140.9 gleyed Protosol C horizon 23.6 +27.2 211.1
Desmoinesian Tradewater MAC Mac1-70B 140.9 gleyed Protosol C horizon 23.6 +27.1 212.1
Desmoinesian Tradewater MAC Mac1-70C 140.9 gleyed Protosol C horizon 23.3 +27.5 211.5
Desmoinesian Tradewater MAC Mac1-70D 140.9 gleyed Protosol C horizon 23.4 +27.4 211.2
Desmoinesian Tradewater MAC Mac1-70E 140.9 gleyed Protosol C horizon 23.2 +27.6 212.8
a
Meter levels refer to the stratigraphic distance as measured from the top of the core (0 m 5 core top).
frequency of precipitation were responsible for the final preservation of American basins during the later middle and late Pennsylvanian
redox-sensitive paleosol features, the initial rise in the paleo–water table (DiMichele et al. 2010) a similar climate-driven model may be applicable
and peat-swamp development, was due to an increase in the amount and to other paleosol-bearing basins of west central (Appalachian foreland
frequency of precipitation over the low-gradient North American basin) and west equatorial (Midcontinent basin) Pangaea.
landscape as a result of confinement and intensification of the ITCZ
near the equator (Cecil et al. 2003; Poulsen et al. 2007; Elrick and Nelson Middle–late Pennsylvanian (Desmoinesian–Missourian) Climatic and
2010). In other words, relative rises in sea level did not force concomitant Glacioeustatic Changes: Effects on the Stratigraphic Distribution of
rises in the water table, but instead, rises in the water table preceded, and
Paleosol Types
outpaced, sea-level rise in the IB, reaching a maximum just before, and
during peat accumulation, in response to increases in the amount and The middle–late Pennsylvanian (, Desmoinesian–Missourian, D–M)
intensity of precipitation (Fig. 19). This is consistent with interpretations boundary is a significant interval in the Pennsylvanian marked by abrupt
regarding the formation of thick, widespread, laterally traceable coal beds evolutionary change in large numbers of marine and terrestrial species.
in middle and upper Pennsylvanian strata among North American basins Studies of marine taxa (i.e., fusulinids, brachiopods, ammonoids, and
(Cecil et al. 2003; Greb et al. 2003; Elrick and Nelson 2010). Furthermore, conodonts; Heckel and Weibel 1991; Rosscoe 2008), terrestrial plants
due to the extremely flat topography and connectedness of the North (DiMichele and Phillips 1996), and tetrapods (Berman et al. 2010; Sahney
TABLE 3.— d18OV-PDB and d13CV-PDB values of micritic siderite associated with interlaminated siltstones and sandstones.
North American Paleosol

Series Formation Core Sample ID Metersa Horizon d18OV-PDB (%) d18OV-SMOW (%) d13CV-PDB (%)
Missourian Mattoon ELY ELY1-21 115.4 R 20.6 +30.3 28.4
Missourian Mattoon ELY ELY1-34 148.2 R 21.1 +29.8 22.8
Missourian Patoka ELY ELY1-62 216.5 R 21.9 +28.9 29.1
Missourian Patoka ELY ELY1-64 228.2 R 22.3 +28.5 24.5
Desmoinesian Shelburn ELY ELY1-87B 316.5 R 20.9 +29.9 217.9
Desmoinesian Shelburn ELY ELY1-85A 316.8 R 23.7 +27.1 21.0
Desmoinesian Shelburn ELY ELY1-80 317.3 R 24.4 +26.4 21.0
Desmoinesian Shelburn ELY ELY1-77 318.2 R 24.7 +26.0 21.1
Desmoinesian Carbondale ELY ELY1-90 328.3 C 22.9 +27.8 212.7
Desmoinesian Carbondale ELY ELY1-103 363.8 C 24.0 +26.8 25.5
a
Meter levels refer to the stratigraphic distance as measured from the top of the core (0 m 5 core top).
TABLE 4.— dDV-SMOW and d18OV-SMOW values of the latest Desmoinesian flint-clay.
Mol fraction Oxygen

Sample dDV-SMOW (%) wt% 100uC H2O wt% 850uC H2O d18OV-SMOW (%) (XO) TuC a Meteoric water d18Ob
MAC1-35 245.2 3.9 15 +21.1 54% 27 6 2 23.1
MAC1-35 247.8 2.2 13.8 +20.6 51%
MAC1-35 - 2.6 13.3 +21.2 49%
a
Temperature estimate calculated from the average d18O and dD values of replicate analyses of individual aliquots of the flint-clay.
b
Calculated average d18O value of meteoric water in equilibrium with the flint-clay.
et al. 2010), demonstrate elevated levels of species extinction near this

boundary. In the terrestrial realm, a significant change in the diversity of
terrestrial tropical wetland vegetation occurs across the middle–late
Pennsylvanian transition (Phillips et al. 1974; Pfefferkorn and Thomson
1982; Phillips and Peppers 1984; Phillips et al. 1985; Kosanke and Cecil
1996; Peppers 1964, 1996, 1997; Cleal and Thomas 2005). This floral
change occurred through a series of steps. Initially, in the late Moscovian
(late Desmoinesian) there was a rise in the frequency of opportunistic
ferns (Pfefferkorn and Thomson 1982), followed by a major, abrupt
regional disappearance of arborescent lycopsids and a shift in the
dominance-diversity pattern of pteridosperms and tree ferns in North
American basins in the early Kasimovian (Missourian; Phillips and
Peppers 1984; DiMichele and Phillips 1996). In the latest Kasimovian
(Missourian), rainforests appear to have vanished (DiMichele et al. 2006,
2009). Concurrently, there was a phase of rapid diversification of
amphibians and reptiles that is interpreted to reflect habitat fragmenta-
tion (Sahney et al. 2010).
The extinction and diversification documented across the D–M
boundary has been attributed to an especially intense glacial phase of
ice-building in Gondwanaland (Heckel 1991; Frakes et al. 1992; Falcon-
Lang et al. 2011), sea-level lowstand, and aridification of tropical
latitudes that caused tropical wetlands to diminish in footprint and
diversity (Phillips 1979; Blake et al. 1999; Falcon-Lang and DiMichele
2010; Sahney et al. 2010). This is supported by independent geological
evidence recorded in cyclothemic strata in the Midcontinent and
Appalachian basins of North America. For example, the sea-level-
lowstand deposits of middle Pennsylvanian (late Desmoinesian) cy-
clothems in the Appalachian basin are composed of highly weathered
siltstones, sandstones, and mudstones and include Fe-oxide nodules and
Vertisols lacking carbonate that are indicative of well-drained conditions
and seasonal precipitation (Cecil et al. 1985; Cecil et al. 2003; DiMichele
et al. 2009). In contrast, upper Pennsylvanian (Missourian) Euramerican
cyclothems preserve sandstones that are less weathered, the quality of
coals is diminished, and abundant high-chroma siltstones and mudstones
appear in the stratigraphic record, along with vertic paleosols commonly
containing calcium carbonate that collectively is indicative of strong
seasonality and a prevalence of months during which evaporation
exceeded precipitation (Cecil et al. 2003; DiMichele et al. 2009).
Additionally, lowermost Missourian paleosols and deeply incised fluvial
valleys in lowstand deposits of the Lost Branch cyclothem in the
Midcontinent basin suggest that sea level dropped to one of its lowest
FIG. 15.—Estimated values of soil-water d18OV-SMOW from paleosol sphaer- levels in the Pennsylvanian (Heckel 1991, 2008), coincident with the most
osiderite over a range of temperatures (0–40uC) as calculated from the average abrupt period of vegetational changes (DiMichele et al. 2009).
d18OSid values of sphaerosiderite associated with the flint-clay breccia (FCB; solid
line) and from stratigraphically bounding paleosols which span the upper However, it is important to note that the magnitude and cause of
Desmoinesian (dotted line) and lower Missourian (dashed line) boundary. glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuations in the late Desmoinesian–early
Horizontal gray lines with arrows represent the analytical uncertainty (6 2uC) Virgilian is not known precisely. Evidence comes from near-field records
associated with the kaolinite paleotemperature estimate from the FCB. Vertical of glaciation in Upper Pennsylvanian strata of eastern Australia which do
gray lines with arrows encompass the corresponding range of uncertainty in not exhibit evidence of large-scale, high-amplitude sea-level changes that
estimated d18O values of soil–water. Solid black vertical line with arrow represents
typify other Pennsylvanian glacial intervals (Fielding et al. 2008a, 2008b,
the estimated soil–water d18O value corresponding to a kaolinite crystallization
temperature of 27uC. Soil–water d18O values are calculated using the experimen- 2008c), and instead suggest relatively modest sea-level fluctuations.
tally determined oxygen isotope equation between siderite and water (Carothers et Additionally, analysis of Missourian–Virgilian far-field (Midcontinent
al. 1988). basin) records of incised valleys are interpreted to represent multiple
FIG. 16.—Schematic stratigraphic sections of MAC, LSC, and ELY cores highlighting the stratigraphic positions and lateral distribution of different paleosol types
(filled rectangles). Lateral changes in paleosol types among age-equivalent deposits are interpreted to represent morphological changes associated with a paleocatena
(Rosenau et al. 2013). Different colors represent different paleosol types, as in Figure 4. Note different scale for ELY core. Correlations of sections follow Willman et al.
(1975) and Nelson et al. (2011).
periods of modest-amplitude incision events, indicating eustatic base-level 2008c) as well as far-field records in western North America (Bishop et al.
changes ranging from . 60 m to , 30 m (Rygel et al. 2008; Fischbein et 2010) and high-latitude western Gondwanaland (Gulbranson et al. 2010)
al. 2009). suggests that aridification across the D–M boundary was due not to an
Accordingly, an alternative position on D–M eustatic change that is intense glacial phase, but instead to greenhouse warming and attendant
based on near-field Gondwanan records (Fielding et al. 2008a, 2008b, waning of high-latitude Gondwanan ice sheets. This interpretation is
FIG. 17.—Schematic landscape diagrams of

the Illinois basin during the Desmoinesian
through the Missourian, illustrating how differ-
ences in paleolandscape position resulted in
variable development of age-equivalent paleosols
from the LSC, MAC, and ELY cores. These
basin-scale features are attributed to paleoca-
tenary relationships (i.e., differences in relief and
drainage), illustrating the importance of auto-
genic controls on the development of age-
equivalent paleosols in the basin.
generally consistent with climate models, which suggest that low-latitude first occurrence of a Type F paleosol is below the Chapel Coal (Figs. 8,
aridification was caused by weaker Hadley cell convection and southward 16). Type F paleosols lack shrink–swell features, and they exhibit a clay
drift of the ITCZ during periods of minimum glacial ice (Poulsen et al. mineralogy that noticeably lacks any relict 2:1 expandable phyllosilicate
2007). Regardless of the precise mechanism(s) for low-latitude climate component; this may be the result of a shift towards overall drier
change there is a growing consensus that tropical paleoclimate underwent conditions. These features are in stark contrast to those that commonly
a transition to drier, warmer, and more seasonal conditions (Cecil et al. characterize other well-developed paleosols in the IB. The occurrence of
2003; Pfefferkorn et al. 2008) across the middle–late Pennsylvanian Type F paleosols is restricted to only three examples in the lower
boundary perhaps on the timescale of one cyclothem (, 104 to 105 years; Missourian (Patoka and Bond Formations) and is found in only one core
Heckel 2008). (ELY core) from the basin interior (Figs. 1, 8, 16). Furthermore, age-
Similarly, the stratigraphic distribution of Types F and G paleosols in equivalent soils from the LSC and MAC core display shrink–swell
the IB exhibit characteristic features that indicate a significant shift in the features and calcium carbonate accumulation, indicating that they
magnitude and duration of seasonality (Figs. 16–18). Paleosols indicative formed under some degree of seasonal precipitation (Figs 16, 18; Yaalon
of formation under seasonal precipitation are found before, and after, the and Kalmar 1978; Wilding and Tessier 1988; Buol et al. 1997).
D–M transition and show no distinct changes in morphology or The first occurrence of Type G paleosols occurs in lower Missourian
distribution across the boundary, suggesting continued seasonal rainfall strata (Shelburn Formation) below the Danville Coal (Figs. 16, 18).
patterns in the late Pennsylvanian. However, Types F and G paleosols Examples of this paleosol type come from the basin-margin LSC core and
appear in the IB in uppermost lower Missourian strata (Figs. 16, 18). The one occurrence in the MAC core (Figs. 7–9, 18). As discussed previously,
FIG. 18.—Diagrams illustrating the distribution of paleosol types through time (middle to late Pennsylvanian) and across the Illinois basin (basin margin to interior).
Different colors represent different paleosol types, as in Figure 4. Encircled numbers and acronyms above measured sections represent site identification (Fig. 1).
these paleosols are generally thicker and are characterized by relict- on contemporaneous paleo-floral assemblages (Phillips 1979; Blake et al.
chroma red hues, well-developed shrink–swell features, significant 1999; Pfefferkorn et al. 2008; Falcon-Lang and DiMichele 2010; Sahney
accumulations of calcium carbonate, and lack of evidence for long et al. 2010) and geological evidence (Cecil et al. 1985; Cecil 1990; Cecil et
intervals of waterlogging like age-equivalent paleosols from the basin al. 2003; Olszewski and Patzkowsky 2003; Feldman et al. 2005; Bishop et
interior. Furthermore, the , 2 mm clay-mineral assemblage of IB al. 2010; Gulbranson et al. 2010). As such, the influence of low-latitude
paleosols exhibits distinct stratigraphic trends in the relative abundance regional climate, ultimately driven by high-latitude ice-sheet dynamics
of kaolinite, I/S, and illite in paleosols from the MAC and LSC cores. and changes in the position and size of the ITCZ, provides a reasonable
Specifically, there is a significant decrease in the relative abundance of explanation for the observed changes in the stratigraphic distribution of
kaolinite in the , 2 mm fraction in paleosols from the MAC and LSC paleosol types across the D–M boundary.
cores near the D-M boundary (Rosenau et al. 2013).
The morphology and relative clay-mineral abundances among paleo- Siderite and Kaolinite as Paleoenvironmental Proxies across the
sols (Rosenau et al. 2013) in the IB define a stratigraphic trend that is
Desmoinesian-Missourian Boundary
interpreted to reflect a period of overall decreased hydromorphy,
increased free-drainage and landscape stability, and a shift in the overall Considering that sphaerosiderite d18O values were obtained from
regional climate to drier conditions in the Upper Pennsylvanian successive cyclothems across the D-M boundary it is possible to discuss,
(Missourian), which are consistent with climate interpretations based at the timescale of individual cyclothems, the mechanisms that were
FIG. 19.—Model illustrating the development of lithostratigraphic components of an idealized Pennsylvanian cyclothem in the Illinois basin with emphasis on factors
affecting the development of polygenetic paleosols from the interior of the basin. A) Diagram depicting the development of major stratigraphic components of an
idealized Pennsylvanian cyclothem from the interior of the Illinois basin with respect to glacial–interglacial changes in sea level (solid black line) and water-table position
(gray dashed line) in conjunction with sequence stratigraphic interpretations. Abbreviations for systems tracts: HST, highstand systems tract; RST, regressive systems
tract; LST, lowstand systems tract; TST, transgressive systems tract. The rise in the water table is interpreted to occur during the late stage of the RST, prior to the rise in
sea level associated with the TST. The rise in the water-table is interpreted to begin during the end, or soon after, the cessation of pedogenesis, reaching a maximum
during peat formation. B) Proposed three-stage (I, II, III) model for the development of polygenetic paleosol profiles in the interior of the Illinois basin (ELY, MAC,
FWL, and SAL cores, and field sites) within the context of glacial–interglacial sea-level changes and water-table position as depicted in Part A.
potentially responsible for the observed shift in sphaerosiderite d18O terms of either changing d18O meteoric-water values or temperature
values across the D-M boundary. As discussed previously, trends defined (Fig. 15). If the , 1.5% negative shift in sphaerosiderite d18O values is to
by the D-M sphaerosiderite d18O values in conjunction with a latest be explained solely by a temperature change, this would suggest a
Desmoinesian kaolinite paleotemperature estimate can be explained in temperature change of approximately + 6uC across the D-M boundary,
occurring over the time scale of one cyclothem, suggesting temperatures sphaerosiderite d18O values occurring on the order of one cyclothem
in the soil ecosystems of the IB that were 33 6 2u C in the early spanning the Desmoinesian–Missourian boundary followed by a return
Missourian (Figs. 14, 15). Similarly, the shift back to more positive values to more positive siderite d18O values, also on the order of one cyclothem,
in the early Missourian suggests a cooling of 6uC, also occurring over the is interpreted to represent a relatively short-lived temperature increase of
time scale of one cyclothem (Figs. 14, 15). Alternatively, if temperature is , 6uC across the Desmoinesian–Missourian boundary. Collectively,
assumed to have remained relatively constant across the D-M interval, these proxy records reveal significant paleoenvironmental changes across
the shift in sphaerosiderite d18O values necessitates a mechanism that the middle–late Pennsylvanian (Desmoinesian–Missourian) in the tropics
could cause soil-water d18O values to become depleted by 1.5% over the of North America which include (1) an increase in free-drainage and
timescale of a single cyclothem. Such a mechanism could be a transient landscape stability, (2) a shift in the overall regional climate to drier
period of increased precipitation, leading to 18O-depleted air masses and conditions, and (3) a transient period of elevated low-latitude tempera-
the negative sphaerosiderite d18O values associated with the D-M tures in the early late Pennsylvanian.
boundary strata. Given these possible scenarios, a short-lived tempera-
ture increase of # 6uC across the D-M boundary is the preferred ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
explanation for the siderite d18O values reported here. This interpretation
is consistent with previous studies that have postulated the D-M The authors would like to thank Phil Ames of Peabody Energy, Barry
Sargeant of Knight Hawk Coal, Vigo Coal Operating Company, and Triad
boundary interval represents an overall warming of Earth’s climate and Mining, Inc. for providing access to their mines and permitting collection of
drier conditions in the paleotropics (Frakes et al. 1992; Cleal and Thomas samples, as well as the Illinois State Geological Survey for providing access to
2005; Pfefferkorn et al. 2008). A similar process may be responsible for cores, core descriptions, and core samples. We thank Drs. Paul McCarthy,
the observed sphaerosiderite d18O values in the early Missourian. Celina Suarez, Fred Longstaffe, and Julia Kahmann-Robinson for helpful
Specifically, the return to more positive sphaerosiderite d18O values in reviews that considerably improved the quality of the manuscript. N.
the early Missourian could be indicative of soil waters that have Rosenau was supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate
Research fellowship, a Roy M. Huffington fellowship provided by the Roy
undergone evaporative enrichment (Cerling 1984; Cerling and Quade M. Huffington Department of Earth Sciences (SMU), as well as grants from
1993; Rozanski et al. 1993; Tabor et al. 2002) due to increased aridity in the Geological Society of America and The Clay Minerals Society. N. Tabor
the low-latitude tropics of Pangaea. Unfortunately, well-preserved was supported by NSF-EAR 0545654 and NSF-EAR 0844147.
pedogenic sphaerosiderites are absent in the studied stratigraphic sections
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Polygenetic History of Paleosols In Middle-Upper Pennsylvanian Cyclothems of

Article in Journal of Sedimentary Research · July 2013

Nicholas Rosenau Neil Tabor

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POLYGENETIC HISTORY OF PALEOSOLS IN MIDDLE–UPPER PENNSYLVANIAN CYCLOTHEMS OF THE

NICHOLAS A. ROSENAU,1 NEIL J. TABOR,1 SCOTT D. ELRICK,2 AND W. JOHN NELSON2

INTRODUCTION asserted repetitive controls on cyclothem development are (1) global

Published Online: July 2013

FIG. 1.—Map illustrating extent of the Illinois

anhydrous phosphoric acid for 5 days at 50uC in evacuated glass reaction

where R 5 18O/16O, 13C/12C, and 2H/1H for oxygen, carbon, and

Stratigraphic Sections and Illinois Basin Pedotypes

Depositional Framework of Illinois Basin Cyclothems

Coal (LST).—All of the significant coal deposits in the IB originated as

aggregates, crystallization variations in soil moisture, Shelburn Fm.,

Degree of carbonate development varies. upper Shelburn-Patoka

Some paleosols belonging to this pedotype fms.

of marine transgression (Heckel 1994; Tandon and Gibling 1994; Falcon-

would be remarkable. As an alternative, and following Cecil et al. (2003),

sheets, attendant suppression of the seasonal excursion of the Intertrop-

pressure cell at equatorial and sub-equatorial latitudes (Fig. 11; Miller

and West 1993; Miller et al. 1996; Cecil et al. 2003).

Gray Shale (LST to TST).—Omitted from many previous depositional

coals that formed along paleochannels (Hopkins 1968; Allgaier and

swamp during flooding of rivers produced thin claystone layers in the

peat close to channel margins. Transgression drowned the forest and

brackish water (Fig. 11). Rhythmic laminations in these gray shales

shale to represent deposition spanning the lowstand to transgressive

systems tracts (LST to TST; Fig. 11).

Fissile Black Shale (TST).—Black, highly fissile, phosphatic shale is a

characteristic unit in cyclothems of the IB and Midcontinent basin

shale, as described above (Figs. 3, 6, Mecca Quarry Shale in MAC and

FIG. 4.—Measured paleosol-bearing sections

Siderite Phases DISCUSSION

FIG. 8.—Measured paleosol-bearing sections

formation, we interpret them to be diagenetic products that are not useful

Paleotemperature and Soil Water d18O Values.—Constraints on the

FIG. 11.—Depositional model and sequence

climate change. Accordingly, the role of glacioeustasy and associated

Climate Models.—Several conceptual models have considered the

North American Paleosol d18OV-PDB d18OV-SMOW d13CV-PDB

North American Paleosol

Mol fraction Oxygen

et al. 2010), demonstrate elevated levels of species extinction near this

FIG. 17.—Schematic landscape diagrams of

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