Laboratory 1: Instrument Familiarization

Experiment:

This experiment is designed to demonstrate some of the limitations of the instruments

used in this lab, and the worth of some proper measurement techniques.

Oscilloscope Rise Time Measurements: Measure the rise time of the Sync output signal
from the HP 33120A Function Generator, using various, mostly improper, connections
between the instruments:

Theoretical:

Background:

All experiments in the laboratory will be performed at a test bench which has several basic
electronic instruments. They include: (1) A DC power supply. (2) A function generator. (3)
A digital multi-meter (DMM). (4) An oscilloscope (analog/DSO). On one hand, DC power
supplies and function generators are power sources. It means that they generate power.
In other words, they supply us with the power needed to perform experiments and tests.
On the other hand, digital voltmeters and oscilloscopes are measuring devices that
measure different electrical quantities such as voltage, resistance, current, etc. DC Power
Supply: The DC power supply output consists of two independent units which can be
connected in different configurations such as series, parallel, or used independently.
Some DC power supplies found in the lab have a third unit which gives a fixed 5 Volts 3
Amperes that is not adjustable. This dedication of 5-volts unit is important since it is
frequently needed in electronic experiments.

Function Generator:

A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to

generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some
of the most common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine, square,
triangular shapes (See Fig.1). These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot
(which requires an internal or external trigger source). Integrated circuits used to generate
waveforms may also be described as function generator ICs.

Digital Multi-Meter:

A DMM is a universal meter which measure voltage and current (both DC and AC) and resistance,
with high precision. Some DMMs measure capacitance, inductance, frequency, and temperature.
A multi-meter or a multi-tester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic
measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multi-
meter would include basic features such as the ability to measure voltage, current, and resistance.
Analog multi-meters use a micro-ammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the
different measurements that can be made. Digital multi-meters (DMM, DVOM) display the
measured value in numerals, and may also display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity
being measured. When a DMM is used to measure an AC quantity, it actually measures the RMS
value of it. Different waveforms have different RMS values. The commonly encountered sinusoidal
wave has an RMS value of Vp 2 where Vp is the peak voltage of the sine wave.

Oscilloscope:

An oscilloscope is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation of constantly varying
signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a function of time.
Non-electrical signals (such as sound or vibration) can be converted to voltages and displayed.
Some oscilloscopes can only display one signal at a time, while others can display up to 2, 3, and
4 channels simultaneously. In our lab the oscilloscopes have two channels that allow us to display
two signals in order to compare them. Those signals are the input and output voltages. The
oscilloscope has vertical and horizontal scale adjustors that permit us to change the time scale
(the horizontal axis) and the voltage scale (the vertical axis) in order to show the signals clearly so
that the user can read the values displayed on the screen with ease.

STEP 1:

Set the function generator for a 5.000 MHz sine wave. For this part the amplitude is
immaterial. Connect the Sync output (upper BNC jack on function generator) to the
Analog Input 1 (A1) on the oscilloscope using BNC to Banana Plug adapters and two 3
foot Banana plug wires.

STEP 2 :

Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.

STEP 3:

Repeat the same measurement, but this time connect the Sync output to the A1 scope
input using a BNC cable
Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.

STEP 4:

Repeat the same measurement, but this time with a 50  termination on the BNC cable at
the A1 input to the scope. (Use a BNC tee)

STEP 5:

Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.

STEP 6:

Remove the BNC cable and connect the 10x probe to the A1 input on the HP54622D
scope. Remove the probe hook adapter (if it is installed) and place the center pin of the
probe into the function generator Sync output BNC, making contact with the BNC center
conductor. Do not connect the probe ground to anything for this measurement!
STEP 7:

Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.
What is the signal current return path for this measurement?

STEP 8:

Repeat the last measurement, but with the probe ground wire clipped onto the shell of the
function generator Output BNC (immediately below the Sync BNC).

STEP 9:

Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.

STEP 10:

Repeat the last measurement, but with the probe ground wire clipped onto the shell of the
Sync BNC on the function generator.

STEP 11:

Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.

STEP 12:

Finally, repeat the last measurement, but use the probe-tip-to-BNC adapter, which
grounds the probe ground ring directly to the BNC shell.

STEP 14:

Measure the rise time and overshoot of the rising edge of the Sync signal on the
oscilloscope. Record any observations about the waveform.

In what ways is an oscilloscope a voltmeter?

The oscilloscope is a measuring device that allows us to see time-dependent changes in

electrical voltage. Under normal conditions, we know that a voltmeter is used to measure
electrical voltage. Only the magnitude and direction of the voltage in the circuit can be
shown by the voltmeter.

what does an oscilloscope offer which a voltmeter does not?

The voltmeter can only show us the magnitude and direction of the voltage in the circuit
numerically. On the other hand, the oscilloscope offers an easier way to understand the change
of voltage depending on time as a two-axis graph.

What is the function generator Sync output?

A Sync Output is provided on the front-panel Sync output connector on most function
generators. All of the standard output functions (except dc and noise) have an
associated Sync signal.

What is the scope rise?

Rise time is defined as the time required for a signal to move from 10% to 90% of a
rising waveform.

For each of the other measurements, why is it less accurate?

Measurements can be made within a few percent, but accurate measurements

require the use of a multimeter. Accurate measurements at full speed, on the
other hand, are possible with precision oscilloscopes.
 Laboratory 2: RMS Value of an A.C. Sinusoidal Waveform

Objective:

To investigate the RMS value of an A.C sinusoidal waveform and the power

consumed by the circuit.

Theory & Its Equation

In electronics circuits, the signal is associated with an AC (Alternating current) and DC (Direct
Current). The sinusoidal wave or sine wave represents the periodic AC signal that varies with time
and fluctuates between positive and negative cycles. While DC signal/waveform represents the
magnitude of voltage and current values easily and stable. But the magnitude of the current and
voltage values of the AC signal should be calculated by using its instantaneous values, a peak value
of the signal, peak to peak value, average value, and RMS voltage. This article describes the RMS
voltage theory and its methods.

What is the RMS Voltage?

The term RMS stands for “Root Mean Square value”. The RMS value represents the voltage value
of an AC signal equivalent to the DC voltage. The amount of power dissipated or heating effect is
the same in both AC and DC signals. The values of a sinusoidal signal vary with time because the
magnitude of the current and voltage values always change with time and it is not applicable for
DC circuits (magnitude constant).

In simple words, it can be defined as the square roots of the average values of the squares of all the
instantaneous values of an AC signal. It is denoted by Vrms or Irms

This can be obtained by squaring the input values and calculating the average value of an AC
signal. The square root of the average value obtained gives the root mean square voltage.

RMS Voltage Theory

In general AC and DC signals are represented in the form of voltage or current waveforms. We
knew that the magnitude of the DC signal is constant and it is very easy to calculate. But the AC
signal fluctuates between negative and positive half cycles and varies with time. So, it is difficult to
find the magnitude of the voltage and current values of the alternating waveform. This theory can
be explained from the alternating waveform as shown below.
 RMS Voltage Theory

The most effective method to find the magnitude of the voltage values of the sinusoidal waveform
is the calculation of RMS Voltage value. We can compare the amount of power of AC and DC
signals given to the load or circuit. This voltage refers to the DC equivalent voltage of an AC signal
because the amount of power dissipated or heating effect of both AC and DC waveforms in the
given circuit is the same.

That means the power delivered to the load of a DC is equivalent to the RMS voltages of a sine
wave (AC signal). This gives the effective voltage value and it is denoted by Veff or Ieff. If the
supply voltage is 220V-240V, then the RMS voltage values of an AC are also 220V-240V, which
is equivalent to the power of DC voltage.

If the RMS voltages of AC and DC signal are the same, then the amount of power dissipated in the
circuit is also the same. This is also known as an effective voltage which is equivalent to the DC
voltage in providing power to the circuit.

Materials:

Feedback training kit

Multimeter (V.O.M)

D.C. miliameter 0-1000mA

A.C miliameter 0-250mA

2- channel oscilloscope

Initial Settings:
 Connect the power supply unit to be main supply line. DO Not switch in yet.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1.1

2. Set the potentiometer to its mid position.

3. Switch on the power supply unit and set the source voltage to 10 VDC, as shown

on the voltmeter.

4. Transfer the voltmeter across the potentiometer (mid position and one leg)

5. Get an appropriate time base on the oscilloscope to have a good trace of the

waveform and draw the trace or waveform you see on another sheet of paper.

6. Now vary the settings of the potentiometer decreasing and then increasing its

value. Notice the waveform on the oscilloscope and its reading or the voltmeter

reading.

7. Now change the source voltage to 10 VAC peak-to-peak at 60 Hz as shown on the

oscilloscope and then draw the trace or waveform you see on another sheet of

paper

8. Switch off the power supply unit (both D.C and A.C source) connect the circuit as

shown in figure 1.2

9. Set the potentiometer to its mid position and initially set the slide to the left.

10. Switch on the power supply unit and set the D.C source voltage to 5v as shown on

the voltmeter. The lamp should be on, but dim. Notice the intensity of the lamp.

11. Switch the slide to the right and adjust the potentiometer until the intensity of the

lamp is roughly the same as before.

12. To ensure that intensity of the lamp is same for both positions switch the slide

switch left and right adjusting the potentiometer at the same time, until the intensity

of the lamp is identical for both switch position.

 13. On the table 1.1 record the readings of the D.C and A.C voltage and current as

shown on the voltmeter, ammeter and oscilloscope.

14. Switch off the power supply unit.

Table 1.1

Measured Value Calculated RMS(*

√ 2)
DC Voltage (V) AC Voltage p-p AC voltage peak AC voltage peak
(V) (V)
5V 14.14V 7.07V 7.07V
 Measured Value Calculated Value
RMS(* √ 2)*2 RMS(* √ 2)
DC current (mA) AC current (mA) AC current p-p AC current peak
(mA) (mA)
32.47mA 27.43mA 77.58mA 38.79mA

Table 1.2

Angle Yn Yn2 ∑ Yn
2
= 40.52

√
10° 0.52 0.27 Yn2 = 2.12
∑ n
30 ° 1.50 2.25
50° 2.30 5.29
70 ° 2.82 7.95
90 ° 3.00 9.00
110 ° 2.82 7.95
130 ° 2.30 5.29
150 ° 1.50 2.25
170 ° 0.52 0.27

Conclusion:

For this experiment, the group is able to distinguish the difference between a pure
resistive circuit, pure capacitive circuit and pure inductive circuit as well as
identify the relationship between AC voltage and current when forming the sinusoidal
waveform. With this concept, it is observed that there is a slight increase of voltage and
current as well as their effective values due to the decrease of resistance. The sinusoidal
waveform of a voltage and current depends on where it will pass through whether it’s a
resistor, a capacitor or an inductor. In a pure resistivity circuit (pure R), the voltage and
current reach their peak at the same time which shows that neither of the two is leading
and lagging or both are in a time phase with one another
 Laboratory 3: Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive Circuits with a Sinusoidal

Excitation

Objective:

To investigate the characteristic of a resistive circuits with a sinusoidal excitation.

To investigate with character of an inductive circuits with an equivalent impedance

with a sinusoidal excitation.

To investigate the characteristics of a capacitive circuit and its equivalent

impedance with a sinusoidal excitation.

THEORY:

An RLC circuit is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a capacitor

(C), connected in series or in parallel. The name of the circuit is derived from the letters that are

used to denote the constituent components of this circuit, where the sequence of the components

may vary from RLC. An important property of this circuit is its ability to resonate at a specific

frequency, the resonance frequency, f0. Frequencies are measured in units of hertz. In this article,

however, angular frequency, ω0, is used which is more mathematically convenient. This is

measured in radians per second. They are related to each other by a simple proportion,

Resonance occurs because energy is stored in two different ways: in an electric field as the

capacitor is charged and in a magnetic field as current flows through the inductor. Energy can be

transferred from one to the other within the circuit and this can be oscillatory. A mechanical

analogy is a weight suspended on a spring which will oscillate up and down when released. This is

no passing metaphor; a weight on a spring is described by exactly the same second order

differential equation as an RLC circuit and for all the properties of the one system there will be

found an analogous property of the other. The mechanical property answering to the resistor in the

circuit is friction in the spring–weight system. Friction will slowly bring any oscillation to a halt if

there is no external force driving it. Likewise, the resistance in an RLC circuit will "damp" the

oscillation, diminishing it with time if there is no driving AC power source in the circuit. The
resonance frequency is defined as the frequency at which the impedance of the circuit is at a

minimum. Equivalently, it can be defined as the frequency at which the impedance is purely real

(that is, purely resistive). This occurs because the impedances of the inductor and capacitor at

resonance are equal but of opposite sign and cancel out. Circuits where L and C are in parallel

rather than series actually have a maximum impedance rather than a minimum impedance. For

this reason they are often described as antiresonators, it is still usual, however, to name the

frequency at which this occurs as the resonance frequency.

Materials:

Feedback training kit

Function generator

Multimeter (VOM)

2 – channel oscilloscope

Procedure:

A Resistive circuit

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2.1

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 10 Vac peak-to-peak at 250 Hz as shown

in the oscilloscope

3. Set an appropriate time base on the oscilloscope to have a good trace of the

waveform and draw the trace or waveform you see on another sheet of paper.

What is the phase difference or phase shift of the two traves or waveform?

There is no phase difference between the two traces.

_____________________________________________________

What did you observe about the time in which the two waveforms started and then

reached their first peak value and so on?

 The two waveforms reached their first peak at the same time with no phase

difference.

_______________________________________________________

4. Switch off the power supply.

B Inductive circuit

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2.2

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 10 Vac peak-to-peak at 250 Hz as shown

in the oscilloscope

3. Set an appropriate time base on the oscilloscope to have a good trace of the

waveform and draw the trace or waveform you see on another sheet of paper.

Based on the trave or waveform you draw, what is the phase difference or phase

shoft of the two traces or waveform?

The phase degree difference is 45 digress

_________________________________________________________

Which of the two monitor reaches its positive peak value first?

The inductor waveform reaches the positive peak value first followed by the resistor

waveform

_________________________________________________________

4. Switch off the power supply

C Capacitive circuit

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2.3

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 10 Vac peak-to-peak at 250 Hz as shown

in the oscilloscope
3. Set an appropriate time base on the oscilloscope to have a good trace of the

waveform and draw the trace or waveform you see on another sheet of paper.

Based on the trave or waveform you draw, what is the phase difference or phase

shoft of the two traces or waveform?

The phase degree difference is 50 digress

__________________________________________________________

Which waveform monitor is leading?

The resistor waveform

__________________________________________________________

What relationship can you established between the voltage and current waveform

for a capacitive circuit?

The current waveform leads the voltage waveform

__________________________________________________________

4. Switch off the power supply.

Table 2.1 Resistive Circuit

Frequency (Hz) Voltage ( Vrms) Current (mArms) Impedance

50 4V 40mA 100Ω
100 4V 40mA 100Ω
200 4V 40mA 100Ω
400 4V 40mA 100Ω
800 4V 40mA 100Ω
1600 4V 40mA 100Ω

Table 2.2 Inductive Circuit

Frequency (Hz) Voltage ( Vrms) Current (mArms) Impedance

50 4V 127.32mA 31.42 Ω
100 4V 63.66mA 62.85 Ω
200 4V 31.83mA 125.66 Ω
400 4V 15.92mA 251.32 Ω
800 4V 7.9mA 502.65 Ω
1600 4V 3.8mA 1005.31 Ω

Table 2.3
 Frequency (Hz) Voltage ( Vrms) Current (mArms) Impedance
50 4V 2.76mA 1449.86 Ω
100 4V 5.53mA 723.43 Ω
200 4V 11.06mA 361.7 Ω
400 4V 22.12mA 180.85 Ω
800 4V 44.23ma 90.43 Ω
1600 4V 88.47mA 45.21 Ω

Conclusion:

A parallel RLC circuit behaves very differently than a series RLC circuit. This is due to the

phenomenon of resonance, which is the reciprocal exchange of energy within the L/C

circuit. Mutual discharges/charges between an interconnected inductor and a capacitor

cause this phenomenon. The impedance of such a circuit theoretically tends to infinity at a

specific pulsation 0, known as the resonance pulsation (or resonance frequency for f0).

This impedance peaks in real circuits due to internal resistive behaviors. In the previous

section, we saw how to make a band-stop filter by connecting it in series with an output

load. However, connecting them in parallel results in the opposite filter: a band-pass filter.
 Laboratory 4: Impedance of a Series RLC Circuit

Objective:

To investigate the impedance of a series RLC circuit and compare it with the impedance

of its constituent components.

Theory:

The behavior of a series circuit comprising all three kinds of circuits elements (resistor,

inductor and capacitor) will depend upon the relative magnitudes of the reactances X L and X C .

Remembering that inductive reactance and capacitive reactance act opposite each other, it

should be clear that the combination behaves (1) like a R-L circuit or as an inductive circuit

when X L is greater than X C , (2) like a R-C circuit or as a capacitive circuit when X C is greater

than X L and (3) like a pure resistance R circuit or as a resistive circuit when X L equals X C . This

latter condition has a special significance and is said to produce resonance in the circuit.

Materials:

Feedback Trainer Kit

Function generator

Multimeter (V.O.M.)

AC Miliameter 0 – 250mA
Initial Settings:

Connect the power supply unit to the main supply line. DO NOT switch on yet.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1.

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 100Hz, with constant output amplitude of 4Vrms

as measured on the voltmeter.

3. On the table 1, following the results table, record the readings of total current, voltage

across the resistor, inductor and capacitor respectively.

What did you observe about the magnitude of the current flowing to the resistor,

inductor and capacitor? What is the parameter in the system?

The magnitude is same for all values since the elements are in series, the individual

current is equal to the total current flowing in the circuit. The parameter in this system is

voltage.

4. On another sheet of paper, draw to scale a phasor diagram showing V T , V R, V L and V c

set the current as reference.

What is the phase relationship between V L and V c ? How do you combine the resultant

value of V L and V c ?

V L and V c are out-of-phase and in opposition to each other. We can add the + V L and -

V c together since it is in complex.

From your phasor diagram, what is the phase relationship between the resultant of V L

and V c to V R?
 Comparing the three parameters, the V c lags V R and V L leads V R.

5. On the table 2, following the results table, calculate the required parameters.

6. Switch off the power supply.

Optional Activity:

Determination of internal resistance and inductance of a practical inductor (coil):

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2.

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 60Hz, with constant output amplitude of 4Vrms

as measured on the voltmeter.

3. On table 2a and table 2b, following the results table, record the readings of total current,

voltage across the resistor and then the voltage across the coil. And then calculate the

required parameters.

4. On another sheet of paper, solve the internal resistance (r) and inductance (L) of a coil

using an analytical solution.

5. Switch off the power supply unit.

Wiring Diagram:
 Figure 1

Preferred settings for figure 1:

Sine Wave Function Generator = 4Vrms

Resistor (R1) = 100Ω

Inductor (L1) = 100mH

Capacitor (C1) = 2.2µF

Figure 2

Preferred settings for figure 2:

Sine Wave Function Generator = 4Vrms

Resistor (R1) = 100Ω

Practical Inductor (coil) = 100 - 200mH

Table 1

Frequency Total Voltage ( Total Current ( Resistor Inductor Capacitor

V T) I T) Voltage (V R) Voltage (V L) Voltage (V C )
Hz
V RMS mA RMS V RMS V RMS V RMS

100 4V 5.99mA 598.69mV 376.17mV 4.33V

200 4V 15.60mA 1.56V 1.96V 5.64V

300 4V 35.39mA 3.54V 6.67V 8.54V

400 4V 32.70mA 3.27V 8.22V 5.91V

500 4V 20.33mA 2.03V 6.39V 2.94V

Table 2

Formula Frequency Hz

100 200 300 400 500

Ohm’s Law VR 99.94 100 100.03 100 99.85

(Measured Values) R=
IR

VL 62.79 125.64 188.47 251.38 314.31

X L=
IL

VC 722.87 361.54 241.31 180.73 144.61

XC=
IC

VT 667.78 256.41 113.03 122.32 196.75

¿ Z∨¿
IT

Equation R=R 100 100 100 100 100

Impedance
X L =2 πfL 62.83 125.66 128.50 251.33 314.16

1 723.43 361.72 241.14 180.86 144.69

XC=
2 πfC 1

Pythagorean X =X L− X C -660.6 -236.06 -52.64 70.47 170.47

Theorem

(Impedance ¿ Z∨¿ √ R 2+ X 2 668.13 256.37 113.01 122.34 197.64

 Triangle) −1 X -81.39° -67.04° -27.76° 35.17° 59.60°
θ Z =tan
R

Complex Number Z=R+ j ( X L −X C ) 100- 100- 100- 100+j7 100+j1

j236.06 j236.06 j52.64 0.41 70.47
(rectangular form)

Z=|Z|∠ θ Z 668.13 256.37 113 122∠3 197.64

∠- ∠- .01 ∠- 5.17° ∠59.6
(polar form) 81.39° 67.04° 27.76° 0°

Table 2a

Measured Values

Frequency Total Voltage (V T Total Current ( I T ) Resistor Voltage ( Coil’s Voltage (V coil
) V R) )
Hz mA RMS
V RMS V RMS V RMS

60 4V 34.82mA 3.48V 1.97V

Table 2b

Calculated Values

Total Current ( Total Impedance Coil’s Impedance ( Coil’s Internal Coil’s Inductance
I T) ( ZT ) Z coil) Resistance (r) (L)

mA RMS Ω Ω Ω mH

34.82mA 114.88 Ω 56.58 Ω 0Ω 150mH

Discussion:

Conclusion:

For the series RLC circuit used in this experiment, the resistor, the inductor and the
capacitor are connected in series in such a way that the individual currents passing through
each element is equal to the total current flowing through the circuit.
In the form of complex numbers, the real part is the resistance, while the imaginary part
is the reactance, which is the inductive and capacitive reactance.
 The reactance of inductor and capacitor depends on the frequency and are oppositely
related to each other, one lags and leads the current. When frequency increase, inductive
reactance increases and capacitive reactance decreases.
The three vector voltages are not in phase with each other. In calculating the
impedance, we can draw and represented the elements by an impedance triangle as we apply
the pythagorean theorem.
In finding for the internal resistance of the practical inductor, we compute for this using
KVL. Since the connection is in series, the same current flows in each component, we can
easily know the internal resistance.
 Laboratory 5: Impedance and Admittance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

Objective:

To investigate the impedance and admittance of parallel connected components when

driven by a sinusoidal alternating current.

Theory:

When resistance, inductance and capacitance are connect in parallel, the characteristic

of the equivalent circuit will depend on the relative magnitudes of the inductive reactance X L

and the capacitive reactance X C . Take note that X L is directly proportional and X C is inversely

proportional to the frequency. For a parallel connection of R, L, and C, the circuit will be

capacitive when X L is greater than X C . This latter case gives rise to parallel or anti-resonant

condition of the circuit.

Materials:

Feedback Trainer Kit

Function Generator

Multimeter (V.O.M.)

A.C. Miliameter 0 – 250mA

Initial Settings:

Connect the power supply unit to the main supply line. DO NOT switch on yet.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown un figure 1.

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 300 Hz, with constant output amplitude of 4

V RMS as measured on the voltmeter.

3. On table 1, following the results table, record the readings of total current, current

flowing in the resistor, inductor and capacitor respectively. This can be done by

replacing each link with an ammeter one at a time.

What did you observe about the magnitude of the voltage across the resistor, inductor

and capacitor? What is the parameter in the system?

The magnitude of the voltage is all the same since it is in parallel. The parameter in this

system is the current flowing in each component.

4. On another sheet of paper, draw to scale a phasor diagram showing showing I T , I R , I L

and I c set the voltage as reference.

What is the phase relationship between I L and I c? How do you combine the resultant

value of I L and I c?

I L and I c are opposite with each other. We can subtract I c from I L to get the resultant

value of the complex.

5. In table 2, following the result table, calculate the required parameters.

6. Switch off the power supply unit.

Wiring Diagram:

Figure 1

Preferred settings for figure 1:

Sine Wave Function Generator = 4Vrms

Resistor (R1) = 100Ω

Inductor (L1) = 100mH

Capacitor (C1) = 2.2µF

Table 1

Frequency Total Voltage ( Total Current ( Resistor Inductor Capacitor

V T) I T) Current ( I R ) Current ( I L) Current ( I C)
Hz
V RMS mA RMS mA RMS mA RMS mA RMS

300 4V 40.27 40 21.32 16.59

400 4V 40.28 40 15.92 22.12

500 4V 42.69 40 12.73 27.65

600 4V 45.93 40 10.61 33.18

700 4V 49.77 40 0.09 39.7

Table 2

Formula Frequency Hz

300 400 500 600 700

Ohm’s Law IR 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

(Measured G=
VR
Values)
IL −3
5.30 3.98 3.18 2.65 2.27
β L= ×10
VL

IC −3
4.15 5.53 6.90 8.30 9.68
β C= ×10
VC

VT 99.33 99.30 93.69 87.09 80.37

¿ Z∨¿
IT

1 10.07 10.07 10.67 11.48 12.44

|Y |=
IT −3
¿ Z∨¿= × 10 ¿
VT

Equation 1 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Impedance
G=
R
(for purely resistive
branch only)

1 −3 5.31 3.98 3.18 2.65 2.27

β L= ×10
2 πfL
−3 4.14 5.53 6.91 8.29 9.68
β C =2 πfC × 10

Pythagorean −3 1.17 -1.55 -3.73 -5.64 -7.41

β=β L−β C ×10
Theorem

(Impedance ¿ Y ∨¿ √ G2 + β 2 × 10−3 10.07 10.12 10.67 11.48 12.45

Triangle)
−1 β 6.67° -8.81° -20.46° -29.42° -36.54°
θY =tan
G

Complex Number 1 1 1 1 0.01+1. 0.01-16 0.01- 0.01- 0.01-

Y= = + + 7 −3 3.73 5.64 7.4
Z R jX L − jX C ×10 j
−3 −3 −3 −3
×10 j ×10 j ×10 j ×10 j
(rectangular form)

Y =¿Y ∨∠θY 0.01∠ 0.01∠- 0.01∠ 0.01∠- 0.01∠-

6.67° 8.81° 20.46° 29.42° 36.54°
(polar form)
 1 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Z= ∠6.67
Y ∠8.81 ∠20.4 ∠29.4 ∠36.5
° ° 6° 2° 4°
(polar form)

Discussion:

Conclusion:

After this experiment, we are able to investigate the impedance and admittance
connected components when driven by a sinusoidal alternating current.
In parallel RLC circuit, the applied voltage is constant.

The inductive reactance ( X L) is directly proportional to frequency.

The capacitive reactance ( X C ) is inversely proportional to the frequency.

As long as the frequency remains constant, the reactances will not charge at all.
As the frequency increases, the total current increases.
For the current flowing in the inductor, as the frequency increases, it decreases.
For the current flowing in the capacitor, as the frequency increases, it also increases.
In AC parallel RLC circuit, admittance (Y) has two components, conductive (G) and
susceptance (B) and from this we cam construct an impedance triangle.
The admittance is a measure of how easily a circuit will allow a current to flow.
The admittance is the ratio of phasor current to phasor voltage with the angle of
admittance being the negative to that of impedance.
 Laboratory 6: Series Resonance

Objectives:

To know the resonant frequency of a series RLC circuit.

To demonstrate the characteristic of the resonant frequency of a series RLC circuit.

To verify the bandwidth and cut-off frequencies of the series RLC circuit.

Theory:

A resonant circuit consists of R, L, and C elements and whose frequency response

characteristic changes with changes in frequency. In this tutorial we will look at the frequency response

of a series resonance circuit and see how to calculate its resonant and cut-off frequencies.

Thus far we have analysed the behaviour of a series RLC circuit whose source voltage

is a fixed frequency steady state sinusoidal supply. We have also seen in our tutorial about

series RLC circuits that two or more sinusoidal signals can be combined using phasors

providing that they have the same frequency supply.

But what would happen to the characteristics of the circuit if a supply voltage of fixed

amplitude but of different frequencies was applied to the circuit. Also what would the circuits

“frequency response” behaviour be upon the two reactive components due to this varying

frequency.

In a series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency point were the inductive reactance of

the inductor becomes equal in value to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. In other

words, XL = XC. The point at which this occurs is called the Resonant Frequency point, ( ƒr ) of
the circuit, and as we are analysing a series RLC circuit this resonance frequency produces

a Series Resonance.

Materials:

Feedback Trainer Kit

Function Generator

Multimeter (V.O.M.)

A.C. Miliameter 0 – 250mA

Initial Settings:

Connect the power supply unit to the main supply line. DO NOT switch on yet.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1.

2. Set the sine wave function generator initially to a minimum frequency (say 10Hz), with

constant output amplitude of 4 Vrms as measured on the voltmeter.

3. Notice the ammeter reading, as you vary the source frequency from minimum value

(say 10Hz) to a maximum value (say 2000Hz). Find the frequency at which the ammeter

reading registered its maximum value.

4. In table 1, following the results table, record the readings of total current, voltage across

the resistor, inductor and capacitor respectively. Calculate the required parameters.

5. In table 2, following the results table, calculate the required parameters.

In this circuit diagram, what do you call this frequency in which the circuit experienced

its maximum current?

Resonant frequency is the frequency in which the circuit experienced its maximum

current.

At this frequency, how can you relate the magnitude of total impedance to the current of

the circuit?

At resonant frequency, the magnitude of total impedance is the resistance since the two

reactance will cancel each other.

At this frequency, based on table 1, what did you observe about the magnitude of

voltage across the inductor and the magnitude of voltage across the capacitor?

At resonant frequency, the voltage across the inductor and the capacitor is equal.

At this frequency, based on table 1, what did you observe about the magnitude of the

total voltage and the magnitude of voltage across the resistor?

At resonant frequency, the total voltage is equal to the voltage across the resistor.

Based on table 2 or table 3, what did you observe about the magnitude of total

impedance?

Based on the results, total impedance is equal to the value of resistance used in the

circuit.

Based on table 2 or table 3, what did you observe about the magnitude of inductive

reactance and the magnitude of capacitive reactance?

Based on the results, the inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance.
 Based on table 2 and table 3, is the calculated value of the magnitude of total

impedance equal for both methods? If not, cite possible reason.

The calculated value of the magnitude of total impedance is approximately equal for

both methods.

6. Based on the given value of R, L and C, compute the resonant frequency using the

formula:

1
f o=
2 π √ LC

7. Input the computed resonant frequency on table 3.

Does your calculated value agree with the frequency found previously for maximum

current of the circuit registered in the ammeter? If not, cite possible reason.

Yes, the calculated value agreed with the frequency found for maximum current of the

circuit.

8. Based on the given values of R, L and C, compute the cut-off frequencies using the

formula:

f 1=
2
RL [√ 1+
4L
CR 2
−1
] ;
f 2=
2
RL [√ 1+
4L
CR 2
+1
]
2π 2π

Note: this formula is intended only for the given circuit diagram of figure 1

9. Input the computed cut-off frequencies in table 1, following the results table, record the

readings of total current, voltage across the resistor, inductor and capacitor respectively.

10. In table 1, with a suitable interval of frequency in between f1 and the frequency at which

the ammeter reading registered its maximum value and then to f2, following the results
 table, record the readings of total current, voltage across the resistor, inductor and

capacitor respectively. Calculate the required parameters.

Based on table 1, what is the relationship of total current during cut-off frequencies to

that of the total current at resonant frequency?

The total current at cut-off frequencies is half of the total current at resonant frequency.

Based on table 1, maximum power occurs at what frequency?

Maximum power occurs at resonant frequency.

Based on table 1, what is the relationship of power absorbed by the resistor during cut-

off frequencies to that of the power absorbed by the resistor at resonant frequency?

From this, the cut-off frequencies are also known as

Halt power points. The power at cut-off frequencies is half of the power at resonant

frequency.

11. On another sheet of paper, at the same axes, draw the curves of V R, V L and V c against

frequency. Also draw the curves of I T against frequency.

12. Repeat the whole procedure for the next trial.

Based on the curves you draw (from the two trials), what is the relationship can you

identify between the bandwidth and quality factor?

The bandwidth is inversely proportional to the quality factor.

Based on the curves you draw (from the two trials), what is the relationship can you

identify on the effect of resistance used in the bandwidth?

The resistance is directly proportional to the bandwidth.

13. Switch off the power supply unit.

Wiring Diagram:

Figure 1

Preferred settings for figure 1:

Sine Wave Function Generator = 4 Vrms

Resistor (R1) = 1 kΩ (at the first trial)

Resistor (R1) = 10 Ω (at the second trial)

Inductor (L1) = 100 mH

Capacitor (C1) = 2.2 uF

Table 1

TRIAL 1: Resistance = 1000Ω

Frequency Hz Total Total Resistor Inductor Capacitor Resistor

Voltage Current Voltage Voltage Voltage Power

Vrms mArms Vrms Vrms Vrms P=

Ir^2(R)

f1 = 10 4 0.5818 548.18m 0.0034 3.9700 0.0003

25 4 1.31 1.31 0.0206 3.8000 0.0017

50 4 2.31 2.31 0.0725 3.3400 0.0053

 75 4 2.95 2.95 0.1389 2.8400 0.0087

100 4 3.34 3.34 0.2097 2.4100 0.0112

150 4 3.73 3.73 0.3515 1.8000 0.0139

200 4 3.89 3.89 0.4892 1.4100 0.0151

250 4 3.97 3.97 0.6229 1.1500 0.0152

300 4 3.99 3.99 0.7529 0.9632 0.0159

Frequency at which the ammeter 4 4 4 0.8796 0.8267 0.0160

reading registered its maximum value =
350

400 4 3.99 3.99 1.0000 0.7216 0.0115

600 4 3.87 3.87 1.4600 0.4672 0.0150

800 4 3.70 3.70 1.8600 0.3344 0.0137

1000 4 3.50 3.50 2.2000 0.2529 0.0123

1200 4 3.29 3.29 2.4800 0.1981 0.0108

1400 4 2.08 2.08 2.7100 0.1592 0.0095

1600 4 2.89 2.89 2.9000 0.1305 0.0084

1800 4 2.70 2.70 2.0600 0.1086 0.0073

f2 = 2000 4 2.54 2.54 3.1900 0.0917 0.0065

Table 2

TRIAL 1: Resistance = 10Ω

Frequency Hz Total Total Resistor Inductor Capacitor Resistor

Voltage Current Voltage Voltage Voltage Power

Vrms mArms Vrms Vrms Vrms P=

Ir^2(R)

f1 = 330 4 257.63 2.58 53.42 56.48 66.37

331 4 274.68 2.75 57.13 60.03 75.45

 332 4 292.92 2.93 61.1 63.83 85.80

333 4 312.09 3.12 65.3 67.8 97.40

334 4 331.73 3.32 69.62 71.85 110.04

335 4 351.03 3.51 73.89 75.82 123.22

336 4 368.90 3.69 77.88 79.43 136.09

337 4 383.92 3.84 82.29 82.41 147.39

338 4 394.59 3.95 83.8 84.46 155.70

Frequency at which the ammeter 4 399.68 4 85.13 85.29 159.074

reading registered its maximum value =
339

340 4 398.55 3.99 8514. 848. 158.84

341 4 391.41 3.91 83.86 83.04 153.20

342 4 379.22 3.79 81.49 80.22 143.80

343 4 363.39 3.63 78.32 76.64 132.05

344 4 345.47 3.45 74.65 72.63 119.29

345 4 326.38 3.26 70.77 68.4631 106.58

346 4 307.35 2.08 66.87 64.32 95.61

347 4 209.14 2.89 63.09 60.57 83.72

f2 = 348 4 272. 2.72 59.5 56. 74.06

Table 2:

Based on Measured Values at Resonant Frequency

Parameter Formula Resistance

Trial 1 Trial 2

Resistance VR 1000 10.01

R=
IR

Inductive Reactance VL 219.89 212.99

X L=
IL
 Capacitive Reactance VC 206.68 213.40
XC=
IC

Total Impedance VT 1000 10

¿ Z∨¿
IT

Quality Factor VL 0.21 21.3

Q=
VT

VC 0.21 21.3
Q=
VT

Table 2:

Calculated Values (based on the given values of R, L and C) at Resonant Frequency

Parameter Formula Resistance

Trial 1 Trial 2

Resistance R=R 1000 10.012

Inductive Reactance X L =2 πfL 219.8 212.89

Capacitive Reactance 1 206.80 213.51

XC=
2 πfc

Total Impedance ¿ Z∨¿ √ R 2+ X 2 1000.08 10.02

Resonant Frequency 1 339.49 339.39

f 0=
2 π √ LC

f 0= √ f 1 f 2 339.49 339.49

[√ ]
Cut-off Frequencies (f1, f2) 69.36 331.62
2 4L
1+ −1
RL CR 2
f 1=
2π

[√ ]
1661.72 347.55
2 4L
1+ +1
RL CR 2
f 2=
2π
Bandwidth BW = f 2−f 1 1592.36 15.92

R 1592.36 15.92
BW =
2 πL
 Quality Factor f0 0.21 21.32
Q=
BW

2 πf 0 L 0.21 21.32
Q=
R

1 0.21 21.32
Q=
2 πf 0 CR

√
1 L 0.21 21.32
Q=
R C

Discussion:

Conclusion:

After the conducting the experiment, we were able to meet and understand the
objectives.
The frequency in which the circuit experienced maximum current is the resonant
frequency.
The total voltage is equal to the voltage across the resistor.
The voltage across the inductor is almost equal to the voltage across the capacitor.
The total impedance is almost equal to the resistor.
The total current at cut-off frequencies, f1 and f2, gives half value of the total current at
resonant frequency.
The maximum power occurs at resonant frequency.
The bandwidth and quality factor are inversely proportional to each other.
The resistance is directly proportional to the bandwidth.
The inductive reactance is proportional to frequency.
The concept of resonance applies in several areas of science and engineering.
It is the cause of oscillations of stored energy from one form to another.
It is the phenomenon that allows frequency discrimination in communication networks.
 Laboratory 7: Parallel Resonance

Objectives:

To know the resonant frequency of a parallel RLC circuit.

To demonstrate the characteristics of the resonant frequency of a parallel RLC circuit.

To verify the bandwidth and cut-off frequencies of the parallel RLC circuit.

Theory:

Parallel Resonance means when the circuit current is in phase with the applied voltage

of an AC circuit containing an inductor and a capacitor connected together in parallel.

Materials:

Feedback Trainer Kit

Function Generator

Multimeter (V.O.M.)

A.C. Miliameter 0 – 250 mA

Initial Settings:

Connect the power supply unit to the main supply line. DO NOT switch on yet.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit shown in figure 1.

 2. Set the sine wave function generator initially to a minimum frequency (say 10Hz), with

constant output amplitude of 4 Vrms as measured on the voltmeter.

3. Notice the ammeter reading, as you vary the source frequency from the minimum value

(say 10Hz) to a maximum value (say 2000Hz). Find the frequency at which the ammeter

reading registered its minimum value.

4. In table 1, following the results table, record the readings of total current and voltage

across capacitor respectively. calculate the required parameters.

5. Based on the given value of L and C, compute the resonant frequency and the dynamic

impedance using the formula:

√ ()
L
2
1 1 r ; |Z 0|= C
f 0= −
2π LC L r

6. Input the computed value on table 1.

7. Repeat the whole procedure for the next trial.

Based on the table 1 (from the two trials) and the relationship you establish between the

resistance and bandwidth, what must be done to the inductor resistance to achieve high

quality factor?

The longer the inductor resistance the higher quality factor.

8. Switch off the power supply unit.

Wiring Diagram:
Table 1:

Parallel LC Circuit with Increased Inductor Resistance

Measured Values Calculated Values

Frequency Total Total Capacitor Total Resonant Dynamic

Voltage Current Voltage Impedance Frequency Impedance
(Frequency
at which Vrms mArms Vrms Z=V/I Hz
the
ammeter
reading
registered
its
minimum
value

Trial 1: 340 4 0.879 4 4550.626 338.946 4545.455

R2 = 10Ω

Trial 2: 340 4 7.97 4 -501.8821 299.679 454.5455

R2 = 100Ω
Discussion:

Conclusion:

The circuit impedance is purely resistive because there is no frequency term present in
it. If the value of inductance, capacitance and resistance is in Henry, Farads and Ohm then the
value of circuit impedance Zr will be in Ohms.
The value of Zr will be very high because the ratio L/C is very large at parallel
resonance.
The value of circuit current, Ir = V/Zr is very small because the value of Zr is very high.
The current flowing through the capacitor and the coil is much greater than the line
current because the impedance of each branch is quite lower than that of circuit impedance Zr.
Since the parallel resonant circuit can draw a very small current and power from the
mains, therefore, it is also called as Rejector Circuit.
 Laboratory 8: Power in AC circuits

Objective:

To investigate the power dissipated by the resistive component and the power

associated with reactive components as well as the power associated with the equivalent

impedance of an AC circuits.

To investigate the power factor on non-linear loads and adjust its factor near unity.

Theory:

Alternating Current and Voltages change their magnitude and direction with time. This

changes the way calculations for power and other quantities are done in circuits. Furthermore,

with the introduction of capacitors and inductances, many other effects come into play which

alters the power calculation in these circuits from the usual ways of calculating power with DC

sources. It becomes essential to know these workings and concepts so that one can apply

them in situations in real life where circuits are complex and power calculation is required

Materials:

Feedback trainer kit

Function generator

Multimeter (VOM)

A.C milliammeter 0-100mA

Wattmeter

Initial settings:

Connect the power supply unit to the main supply line. DO Not switch on yet.

Procedure:
i. Power measurement

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 8.1

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 250 Hz, with constant output amplitude of

4 Vrms as measured on the voltmeter

3. Record the result, record the readings of total current , the voltage across the

resistor , the voltage across the inductor and the total power absorbed by the

circuit.

4. Transfer the potential leads of the wattmeter across the resistor (nodes B and C )

and record the reading of the power absorbed by the resistor.

5. Transfer the potential leads of the wattmeter across the inductor (nodes A and

B ) and record the reading of the power absorbed by the inductor.

6. From the given values and measured values in table 8.1 calculate the required

parameters in table 8.2

7. Switch off the power supply unit.

ii. Power factor correction

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 8.1

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 250 Hz, with constant output amplitude of

4 Vrms as measured on the voltmeter

3. Record the result, record the readings of total current , the voltage across the

resistor , the voltage across the inductor and the total power absorbed by the

circuit.

4. Notice the two sinusoidal waveform seen on the oscilloscope, especially their

phase difference

5. Notice also the wattmeter reading.

6. Now connect the capacitor parallel with the inductor.

 7. From the given values and measured values of table 8.3 calculate the required

parameter

8. Switch off the power supply unit.

iii. Maximum power transfer to a load impedance

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 8.3

2. Let Zth be the internal impedance or thevenin’s impedance of the given power.

And ZL is load impedance to be varied so that it will absorb maximum power.

3. Set the sine wave function generator to 259 Hz with constant outpur amplitude of

4 Vrms as measured on the voltmeter.

4. Record the result, record the readings of total current , the voltage across the

resistor , the voltage across the inductor and the total power absorbed by the

circuit.

5. Calculate the required parameters.

6. Switch off the power supply

Final Date

Table 8.1

Power Measurement
Parameter Given value Parameter Given value
Frequency (Hz) 250 Total voltage (Vr) 4
(Vrms)
Resistance (R) 100 Resistor voltage 2.1481
(Vr)
(Vrms)
Inductance (L) 100 Inductor Voltage 3.3743
(VL)
(Vrms)
Reactance (X) 157.08 Total current 21.4812
IXI = 2πfL(Ω) Total power 0.0231
Impedance (Z) 186.21 Resistor power 0.0461
IZI = √ R2 +¿ X 2 ¿ (Ω) Inductor power 0.0725

Table 8.2

Power measurement
Parameter Calculated values
Impedance angle 57.5184
Power factor 0.5370
0.5370
Reactive power 0.8435
0.8435
Real power 0.0461
0.0461
0.0461
Reactive power 0.0725
0.0725
0.0725
Apparent power 0.0859
0.0859
0.0859
0.0859
Table 8.3

Power factor correction

Parameter Given values
Frequency 250
Resistance 100
Inductance 100
Capacitance 100
Inductive reactance 157.0796
Capacitive reactance 6366.1980
Total reactance 153.2972
impedance 183.0301
Total voltage 4
Resistor voltage 2.11
Indector voltage 3.40
Total current 21.10
Total power 22.26

Table 8.4

Power factor correction

Parameter Calculated values
Impedance angle 56.88 °
Power factor 0.5464
0.5464
Reactive power 0.8375
0.8375
Real power 0.0461
0.0461
0.0461
Reactive power 0.0707
0.0682
0.0682
Apparent power 0.0844
0.0844
0.0844
0.0844
Table 8.5

Maximum power transfer to a load impedance

Parameter Inductance
60 120 180 240 300 360
Total 4 4 4 4 4 4
voltage
Total 13.60 16.53 18.17 16.89 14.01 11.33
current
Total power 0.0111 0.0163 0.0198 0.0171 0,0118 0,0077
Resistance 100 100 100 100 100 100
R1
Resistance 120 120 120 120 120 120
R2
Total 220 220 220 220 220 220
resistance
Capacitance 22 22 22 22 22 22
Capacitive 289.373 289.373 289.373 289.373 289.373 289.373
reactance
Inductive 94.248 188.496 282.743 376.991 471.239 565.487
reactance
Total 195.125 100.88 66.29 88 182 276.114
reactance
Impedance 42° 25° 2° 22° 40° 51.45°
angle
Power 0.7481 0.9090 0.9995 0.9290 0.771 0.6232
factor
Real power 0.0407 0.0601 0.0926 0.0628 0.0432 0.0453

Interpretation:

Conclusion:

The current flowing to the resistor and the inductor is equal since it is in series and is
expected that the same current will flow through each component.
The voltage across the whole impedance of the circuit is equal to the total input voltage
set in function generator.
An ideal inductor does not have any resistance or capacitance inside it thus it will not
dissipate energy and will not absorb power.
The circuit operates at 0.5 power factor. The resistor cirve is leading the inductor curve
by 57 degrees.
 Laboratory 9: Three-phase Circuits

OBJECTIVE

 To study the relationship between voltage and current in three-phase circuits.

 To learn how to make delta and wye connections.

 To calculate the power in three-phase circuits.

There are two types of system available in electric circuit, single phase and three phase
system. In single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e the current will flow through
only one wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit. So in
single phase minimum amount of power can be transported. Here the generating station and
load station will also be single phase. This is an old system using from previous time.
In 1882, new invention has been done on polyphase system, that more than one phase can be
used for generating, transmitting and for load system. Three phase circuit is the polyphase
system where three phases are send together from the generator to the load.
Each phase are having a phase difference of 120o, i.e 120o angle electrically. So from the total
of 360o, three phases are equally divided into 120o each. The power in three phase system is
continuous as all the three phases are involved in generating the total power. The sinusoidal
waves for 3 phase system is shown below-
The three phases can be used as single phase each. So if the load is single phase, then one
phase can be taken from the three phase circuit and the neutral can be used as ground to
complete the circuit.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix A of this manual, to obtain the list of
equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

CAUTION!

High voltages are present in this Experiment! Do not make or

modify any banana jack connections with the power on unless
otherwise specified!

G 1. a. Using your Power Supply and AC Voltmeter connect the circuit shown
in Figure 45-1

Figure 45-1.
 b. Turn on the power supply and adjust the line-to-neutral voltage (as
indicated by the power supply voltmeter) to exactly 120 V ac.

c. Measure and record each line-to-line voltage.

E 207.661
4 to 5 = V ac
E 208.218
5 to 6 = V ac
E 207.658
4 to 6 = V ac
d. Return the voltage to zero and turn off the power supply.

e. Calculate the average value of the line-to-line voltage.

207.846

120
E = V ac
line-to-line

G 2. a. Reconnect your three voltmeters in order to measure the voltage from

each line-to-neutral.

b. Turn on the power supply and adjust the line-to-neutral voltage (as
indicated by the power supply voltmeter) to exactly 120 V ac.

E = 120.109
4 to N V ac
E = 120.109
5 to N V ac
E = 120.106
V ac
6 to N

d. Return the voltage to zero and turn off the power supply.

e. Calculate the average value of the line-to-neutral voltage.

1.732

120
E = V ac
line-to-neutral

G 3. a. Calculate the ratio of the average line-to-line voltage to the average

line-to-neutral voltage.
1;7

E /E =
line-to-line line-to-neutral 1.73205
 b. Is this ratio approximately equal to the
yes

G 4. a. Repeat procedures 1 and 2 but this time measure the voltages from
the fixed output terminals of your power supply.

E 207.661 E 119.785
1 to 2 1 to N

= =
V ac V ac
E 208.218 E 120.109
2 to 3 2 to N

= =
V ac V ac
E 207.658 E 120.107
1 to 3 3 to N

= =
V ac V ac
b. Are the fixed line-to-line and the line-to-neutral voltages reasonably
equal?

G Yes G No

c. Is the voltage between any two terminals a single-phase voltage or a

three-phase voltage?
Single phase

G 5. a. Using your Resistive Load, AC Ammeter and AC Voltmeter connect the

WYE circuit shown in Figure 45-2. Use a separate resistance section
for each of the loads R1, R2 and R3. Do not connect the neutral of the
resistance module to the neutral of the power supply.

b. Set each resistance section to 400 ȍ.

c. Turn on the power supply and adjust for 208 V ac.

d. Measure and record the voltages across, and the currents through,
the three load resistances R1, R2 and R3.

=
120.088 I 0.3
E1 = V ac 1 = A ac
=
E2 =120.088 V ac I2 = 0.3 A ac
=
E3 =120.088 V ac I3 = 0.3 A ac
e. Return the voltage to zero and turn off the power supply.

f. Are the currents and voltages reasonably well balanced?

G Yes G No

g. Calculate the average value of load voltage.

Eload = V ac
 h. What is the average value of the line-to-line voltage (from procedure
1 (e)):

E = V ac
line-to-line 120.088
i. Calculate the ratio of the average line-to-line voltage to the average
load voltage.

E /E =
line-to-line load 120.088
j. Is this ratio approximately equal to

NO

k. Calculate the power dissipated by each load resistance.

P1 = 36 W

P2 = 36 W

P3 =36 W

l. Calculate the total three-phase power PT.

PT= 180 W

G 6. a. Connect the DELTA circuit shown in Figure 45-3.

 Figure 45-3.

b. Set each resistance section to 400 ȍ.

c. Turn on the power supply and adjust for 120 V ac line-to-line.

d. Measure and record the voltages across, and the currents through,
the three load resistances R1, R2 and R3.

E1 =120.999 V ac I1 = 0.303 A ac

E2 =120.999 V ac I2 =0.303 A ac

E3 =120.999 V ac I3 =0.303 A ac

e. Return the voltage to zero and turn off the power supply.

f. Are the currents and voltages reasonably well balanced?

G Yes G No

g. Calculate the average value of load current.

0.303
Iload = A ac

h. Disconnect the three current meters and insert them in series with
power supply terminals 4, 5 and 6. Replace the removed current
meters with connection leads as shown in Figure 45-4.

Figure 45-4
i. Turn on he power supply and adjust for 120 V ac.
j. Measure and record the three line currents.

0.51950
I 4
4 = A ac
0.51972
I 6
5 = A ac

0.51961
I6 =7 A ac

k. Return the voltage to zero and turn off the power supply.

l. Calculate the average value of line current.

0.519616

Iline = 0.519616A ac

m. Calculate the ratio of the average line current to the average

load current.

I /I =
line load 1.715
n. Is this ratio approximately equal to

G Yes G No

o. Calculate the power dissipated by each load resistance.

62.340
P1 =48 W

62.367
P2 =12 W
62.354
P3 =04 W
 Laboratory 10: Maximum power transfer and superposition

Objective:
To apply Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems in finding the current flowing in a particular
resistor (variable load) in a particular network.
To verify the theorems by comparing the simulated values to those obtained by
measurement.

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is not so much a means of analysis as it is an aid to
system design. Simply stated, the maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a load
resistance when that load resistance is equal to the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the network
supplying the power. If the load resistance is lower or higher than the Thevenin/Norton resistance
of the source network, its dissipated power will be less than the maximum.
This is essentially what is aimed for in radio transmitter design, where the antenna or
transmission line “impedance” is matched to final power amplifier “impedance” for maximum radio
frequency power output. Impedance, the overall opposition to AC and DC current, is very similar
to resistance and must be equal between source and load for the greatest amount of power to be
transferred to the load. A load impedance that is too high will result in low power output. A load
impedance that is too low will not only result in low power output but possibly overheating of the
amplifier due to the power dissipated in its internal (Thevenin or Norton) impedance.
The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem does not: Maximum power transfer does not coincide
with maximum efficiency. Application of The Maximum Power Transfer theorem to AC power
distribution will not result in maximum or even high efficiency. The goal of high efficiency is more
important for AC power distribution, which dictates a relatively low generator impedance
compared to the load impedance.
Similar to AC power distribution, high fidelity audio amplifiers are designed for a relatively low
output impedance and a relatively high speaker load impedance. As a ratio, “output impedance”:
“load impedance” is known as damping factor, typically in the range of 100 to 1000.
Maximum power transfer does not coincide with the goal of the lowest noise. For example, the
low-level radio frequency amplifier between the antenna and a radio receiver is often designed
for the lowest possible noise. This often requires a mismatch of the amplifier input impedance to
the antenna as compared with that dictated by the maximum power transfer theorem.

Materials:
DC supply (VS = 15V)
Digital multimeters
Resistors R1=1.8kΩ; R2=3.6kΩ; R3=820Ω; R4=R5=100Ω; RL=180Ω
Procedure:

Thevenin’s Theorem

1. The supply voltage and resistance of each resistor is measured.

These values are recorded in Table 3-1. RL is selected as the resistor
where it is proposed to determine the current value.
2. The circuit in Figure 3-1 is constructed. The supply does not turn on.
3. Resistor RL is removed from the network.
4. The supply is turn on. The voltage between the points A and D of
the network is measured. This is the Thevenin’s voltage. The value is
recorded in Table 3-2.
5. The power supply is switched off. The power supply V1 is replaced
with a short circuit.
6. The resistance between terminals A and D is measured. This is
the Thevenin’s resistance. The value is recorded in Table 3-2.
7. The resistor RL is placed back in the circuit with an ammeter is
connected between terminals C and D.
8. 1aThe short circuit connection is removed and the power supply is
placed back in the circuit.
9. The supply is turn on. The current value flowing in the resistor RL is
read and recorded

Norton’s Theorem

1. The circuit is constructed as shown in Figure 3-1. The supply does

not turn on.
2. Resistor RL is removed from the network. RL is selected as the
resistor where it is proposed to determine the current value.
3. The supply is turn on. The current shown by the ammeter between
terminals A and D is read. This is Norton’s current, IN. The value is
recorded in Table 3-3.
4. The power supply is switched off. The supply is replaced with a
short circuit.
5. The resistance between terminals A and D is measured. This is
Norton’s resistance. The value is recorded in Table 3-3.
6. The resistor RL is placed back in the circuit with an ammeter is
connected between terminals C and D.
7. The power supply is placed back in the circuit and the short
circuit connection is removed.
8. The current value flowing in the resistor RL is read and recorded.
Table of Results

Measured
values
V1 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 RL
15V 1.809kΩ 3.557kΩ 0.802kΩ 99.4Ω 99.3Ω 178.9Ω
Table 3-1

Measured values Theoretical values

Thevenin’s r Thevenin’s v Current in Thevenin’s r Thevenin’s v Current in
esistance oltage RL esistance oltage RL
612Ω 4.322V 6.0mA 616.91Ω 5.058V 6.13mA
Table 3-2

Measured values Theoretical values

Norton’s res Norton’s cur Current in Norton’s res Norton’s cur Current in
istance rent RL istance rent RL
612Ω 7.8mA 6.0mA 616.91Ω 7.91mA 6.13mA
Table 3-3

Calculations

Thevenin’s resistance

By using wye-delta transformation:

= 2.63Ω
= 94.73Ω
= 94.73Ω

RTH = [(Rb + R3) || (Rc + R1)] + Ra

RTH = [(94.73 + 820) || (94.73 + 1.8k)] + 2.63

= 616.91Ω
Percentage Error

% of Relative Error of RTH = 0.8%

Thevenin’s voltage

Loop 1:

1.8k(I1) – 3.6k(I2) + 3.6k(I1) +820(I1) – 15 = 0

6220I1 – 3600I2 = 15
Loop 2:

100(I2) + 3.6k(I2) – 3.6k(I1) + 100(I2) = 0

3800I2 =
3600I1 I1 =
1.056I2

I1 =
5.341mA I2
= 5.058mA

VTH = I2(R4) + I1(R3)

= 5.058m(100) + 5.341m(820)
= 4.885V

Percentage Error

% of Relative Error of VTH = 11.5%

Norton’s Resistance
RN = RTH = 616.91Ω
Norton’s Current

= 7.91mA

Percentage Error

% of Relative Error of IN = 1.4%

 Current in RL

IL = 5.058/(616.91 + 180)
= 6.13mA

Percentage Error

% of Relative Error of IL = 2.12%

Conclusion:

To summarize, the maximum power transfer theorem states that a two-terminal linear
network delivers maximum power to a load when the terminal voltage is half its open-
circuit value. The maximum power theorem, also known as the maximum power transfer
theorem, is a critical tool for successful system design. Simply put, this theorem states
that the maximum power that can be transferred from source to load is 50%, which
occurs when source and load impedances are perfectly matched.