MODULE - I

TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS

An electric transmission line can be represented by a series combination of resistance,

inductance and shunt combination of conductance and capacitance. These four parameters are
uniformly distributed along the whole line. Each line element has its own value, and it is not
possible to concentrate or lumped them at discrete points on the line. For this reason the line
parameters are known as distributed parameter, but can be lumped for the purpose of analysis on
approximate basis. However, the validity of assumption for the analysis on lumped basis may fail
if the line is very long. Shunt conductance, which is normally due to leakage over line insulators,
is almost neglected in over head lines because it does not affect much the total equivalent
impedance of the line and hence the transmission capacity.
Line Inductance:
When an alternating current flows through a conductor, a changing flux is set up which linksthe
conductor. Due to these flux linkages, the conductor possesses inductance.Mathematically,
inductance is defined as the flux linkages per ampere i.e.

where = flux linkage in weber-turns

I = current in turns
Which shows that the self inductance of an electric circuit is numerically equal to the flux
linkage of the circuit per unit of current.

Flux Linkages:
As stated earlier, the inductance of a circuit is defined as the flux linkages per unit current.
Therefore, in order to find the inductance of a circuit, the determination of flux linkages is of
primary importance. We shall discuss two important cases of flux linkages. 1. Flux linkages due
to a single current carrying conductor. Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor of radius r
metres and carrying a current I amperes (rms) as shown in Fig.1(i). This current will set up
magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force will exist inside the conductor as well as outside the
conductor. Both these fluxes will contribute to the inductance of the conductor.
 (i) Flux linkages due to internal flux
The cross section of the conductor is shown in fig 1(ii).

Fig 1: Internal flux linkage in a cylindrical conductor

The magnetic field intensity at a point x metres from the centre is given by;

If (=0r) is the permeability of the conductor, then flux density at the considered point is
given by
Now, flux d through a cylindrical shell of radial thickness dx and axial length 1 m is given by

This flux links with the current Ix only. Therefore the flux linkages per unit length of the
conductor is

Total flux linkages from centre upto the conductor surface is

(ii) Flux linkages due to external flux

The external flux extends from the surface of the conductor to infinity

Fig 1.3: External flux linkage in a conductor

. The field intensity at a distance x meters (from centre) outside the conductor is given by ;
Now, flux d through a cylindrical shell of radial thickness dx and axial length 1 m is given by

The flux d links all the current in the conductor once and only once.

Total flux linkage of the conductor from surface to infinity

Inductance of Single Phase Two Wire Line

A single phase line consists of two parallel conductors which form a rectangular loop of one turn.
When an alternating current flows through such a loop, a changing magnetic flux is set up. The
changing flux links the loop and hence the loop possesses inductance. It may appear that
inductance of a single phase line is negligible because it consists of a loop of one turn and the
flux path is through air of high reluctance. But as the cross -sectional area of the loop is very
large, even for a small flux density, the total flux linking the loop is quite large and hence the line
has appreciable inductance.
 Fig 3: Single phase two wire transmission line

Consider a single phase overhead line consisting of two parallel conductors A and B
spaced d metres apart as shown in Fig. Conductors A and B carry the same amount
of current (i.e. IA = IB), but in the opposite direction because one forms the return
circuit of the other.
IA+IB=0
In order to find the inductance of conductor A (or conductor B), we shall have to
consider the flux linkages with it. There will be flux linkages with conductor A due to
its own current IA and also due to the mutual inductance effect of current I B in the
conductor B.
Flux linkages with conductor A due to its own current

Flux linkages with conductor A due to current IB

Total flux linkage with the with conductor A is

Inductance of conductor A,

The radius r is that of a fictitious conductor assumed to have no internal flux but
with the same inductance as the actual conductor of radius r. The quantity e -1/4= =
07788 so that r = r e-1/4= 07788 r
The term r (= r e-1/4) is called geometric mean radius (GMR) of the conductor. Loop
inductance = 2 LA = 2 2 107 log d/r H/m Note that r = 07788 r is applicable
to only solid round conductor.
Inductance of Three phase transmission line
Fig. shows the three conductors A, B and C of a 3-phase line carrying currents I A, IB
and IC respectively. Let d1, d2 and d3 be the spacing between the conductors as
shown. Let us further assume that the loads are balanced i.e. I A + IB + IC = 0.
Consider the flux linkages with conductor A. There will be flux linkages with
conductor A due to its own current and also due to the mutual inductance effects of
IB and IC.

Flux linkages with conductor A due to its own current

Flux linkages with conductor A due to current IB

Flux linkages with conductor A due to current I C

The total flux linkage with the conductor A is

As IA+IIB+IC=0

(i) Symmetrical Spacing:

If the three conductors A, B and C are placed symmetrically at the corners of an
equilateral triangle of side d, then, d1 = d2 = d3 = d. Under such conditions, the
flux linkages with conductor A become

(ii)Unsymmetrical spacing
When 3-phase line conductors are not equidistant from each other, the conductor
spacing is said to be unsymmetrical. Under such conditions, the flux linkages and
inductance of each phase are not the same. A different inductance in each phase
results in unequal voltage drops in the three phases even if the currents in the
conductors are balanced. Therefore, the voltage at the receiving end will not be the
same for all phases. In order that voltage drops are equal in all conductors, we
generally interchange the positions of the conductors at regular intervals along the
line so that each conductor occupies the original position of every other conductor
over an equal distance. Such an exchange of positions is known as transposition.
Fig. shows the transposed line. The phase conductors are designated as A, B and C
and the positions occupied are numbered 1, 2 and 3. The effect of transposition is
that each conductor has the same average inductance.

Fig: Transposition of three phase conductor

Fig. shows a 3-phase transposed line having unsymmetrical spacing. Let us assume that each of
the three sections is 1 m in length. Let us further assume balanced conditions i.e., IA + IB+IC = 0
The inductance per phase can be

GMD and GMR

Geometric Mean Radius (GMR): There are magnetic flux lines not only outside of the
conductor, but also inside. GMR is a hypothetical radius that replaces the actual conductor with a
hollow conductor of radius equal to GMR such that the self inductance of the inductor remains
the same. If each phase consists of several conductors, the GMR is given by
(For a solid conductor, GMR = r.e-1/4 , where r is the radius of the conductor.)
Geometric Mean Distance (GMD): replaces the actual arrangement of conductors by a
hypothetical mean distance such that the mutual inductance of the arrangement remains the same

Capacitance of a Transmission Line

Capacitance is the ability or capacity to store electric charges in conductors. It exists
between any two insulated conductors and hence, electric energy is related to the capacitance of
the conductors.
The capacitance together with conductance forms the shunt admittance of a transmission
line. When an alternating voltage is applied to the line, the line capacitance draws a leading
sinusoidal current called the charging current which is drawn even when the line is open
circuited at the far end. The line capacitance being proportional to its length, the charging current
is negligible for lines less than 100 km long. For longer lines, the capacitance becomes
increasingly important and has to be accounted for.
Electric potential
The electric potential at a point due to a charge is the work done in bringing a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point. The concept of electric potential is extremely important for the
determination of capacitance in a circuit since the latter is defined as the charge per unit
potential. We shall now discuss in detail the electric potential due to some important conductor
arrangements

Fig Potential of single conductor

Potential at a charged single conductor

Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor A of radius r metres. Let the conductor
operate at such a potential (VA) that charge QA coulombs per metre exists on the
conductor. It is desired to find the expression for VA. The electric intensity E at a
distance x from the centre of the conductor in air is given by

As x approaches infinity, the value of E approaches zero. Therefore, the potential difference
between conductor A and infinity distant neutral plane is given by:

Capacitance of Single Phase Two Wire Line

Consider a single phase overhead transmission line consisting of two parallel
conductors A and B spaced d metres apart in air. Suppose that radius of each
conductor is r metres. Let their respective charge be + Q and Q coulombs per
metre length.
 Fig : Single phase two wire transmission line
The total p.d. between conductor A and neutral infinite plane is

Similarly, p.d. between conductor B and neutral infinite plane is

Both these potentials are w.r.t. the same neutral plane. Since the unlike charges
attract each other, the potential difference between the conductors is

Capacitance to neutral: Above equation gives the capacitance between the

conductors of a two wire line. Often it is desired to know the capacitance between
one of the conductors and a neutral point between them. Since potential of the mid-
point between the conductors is zero, the potential difference between each
conductor and the ground or neutral is half the potential difference between the
conductors. Thus the capacitance to ground or capacitance to neutral for the two
wire line is twice the line-to-line capacitance.
Capacitance of a 3-Phase Overhead Line
In a 3-phase transmission line, the capacitance of each conductor is considered
instead of capacitance from conductor to conductor. Here, again two cases arise
viz., symmetrical (i) Symmetrical Spacing. Fig. 1.8 shows the three conductors A,
B and C of the 3-phase
overhead transmission line having charges QA, QB and QC per metre length
respectively. Let the conductors be equidistant (d metres) from each other as shown
in the figure below.

Referring to Fig. overall potential difference between conductor A and infinite

neutral plane is given by
The expressions for capacitance are the same for conductors B and C.
(ii) Unsymmetrical spacing. Fig. shows a 3-phase transposed line having
unsymmetrical spacing. Let us assume balanced conditions i.e. Q A+ QB+ QC = 0.

Capacitance from conductor to neutral is

Effect of earth on transmission line capacitance

Earth affects the capacitance of an overhead line, as its presence alters the
electric field of the line. The earth level is an equipotential surface; therefore, the
flux lines are forced to cut the surface of the earth orthogonally. The effect of earth
on capacitance can be taken in to account by the method of images.
Method of Images
Consider a circuit consisting of a single overhead conductor with a charge +q
c/m of height h meter above ground and imagine a fictitious conductor of charge q
c/m placed with a depth h meter below the ground surface as shown in the figure
below.

This configuration, without the presence of the earth surface will produce the same
field distribution which is produced by single charge and the earth surface. Thus, for
the purpose of calculation of capacitance, the earth may be replaced by an image
charged conductor below the surface of earth by a distance same as the distance of
the actual conductor above the earth. Such a conductor has a charge equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign to that of the original conductor and is known as
image conductor.
Transmission Line Resistance
Though the contribution of line resistance to series line impedance can be
neglected in most cases, it is the main source of line power loss. Hence while
considering transmission line economy, the presence pf line resistance must be
considered. The resistance used for tha analysis of transmission line performance is
the effective(or ac) resistance.
The effective ac resistance is given by

Ohmic or DC resistance is given by

where is the resistivity at 20 C

l is the length of the conductor
A is the cross sectional area of the conductor
Skin Effect
 The distribution of current throughout cross section of a conductor is uniform
only when DC is passing through it. When Alternating Current(AC) is passing
through a conductor, the current is non uniformly distributed over the cross section
in a manner that the current density is higher at the surface of the conductor
compared to the current density at its centre. This effect is more as frequency of
supply and size of the conductor is increased. This phenomenon is called Skin
effect. It causes a larger power loss for a given rms AC than the power loss when
the same value of DC is flowing through the conductor. Hence, the effective
conductor resistance is more for AC than for DC.
Why Skin Effect Occurs in Transmission Lines?
Consider the cross sectional view of the conductor during the flow of
alternating current given in the diagram below

Fig. Current distribution in a conductor

Let us initially consider the solid conductor to be split up into a number of annular
filaments spaced infinitely small distance apart, such that each filament carries an
infinitely small fraction of the total current. Let I be the total current. Let us consider
the conductor to be split up into n filament carrying current i such that I = ni .
Now during the flow of an alternating current, the current carrying filaments
lying on the core has a flux linkage with the entire conductor cross section including
the filaments of the surface as well as those in the core. Whereas the flux set up by
the outer filaments is restricted only to the surface itself and is unable to link with
the inner filaments. Thus the flux linkage of the conductor increases as we move
closer towards the core and at the same rate increases the inductor as it has a
direct proportionality relationship with flux linkage. This results in a larger inductive
reactance being induced into the core as compared to the outer sections of the
conductor. The high value of reactance in the inner section results in the current
being distributed in an un-uniform manner and forcing the bulk of the current to
flow through the outer surface or skin giving rise to the phenomena called skin
effect in transmission lines.
Factors Affecting Skin Effect in Transmission Lines
The skin effect in an ac system depends on a number of factors like:-
1) Shape of conductor.
2) Type of material.
3) Diameter of the conductors.
4) Operational frequency
Proximity Effect:
Proximity effect in transmission lines indicates the effect in one conductor for other
neighbouring conductors. When the alternating current is flowing through a
conductor, alternating magnetic flux is generated surrounding the conductor. This
magnetic flux associates with the neighbouring wires and generates a circulating
current (it can be termed as eddy current also). This circulating current increases
the resistance of the conductor and push away the flowing current through the
conductor, which causes the crowding effect.
When the gaps between two wires are greater the proximity effect is less and
it rises when the gap reduces. The flux due to central conductor links with right side
conductor. In a two wire system more lines of flux link elements farther apart than
the elements nearest to each other as shown above. Therefore, the inductance of
the elements farther apart is more as compared to the elements near to each other
and hence the current density is less in the elements farther apart than the current
density in the element near to each other. As a result the effective resistance of the
conductor is increased due to non uniform distribution of current. This phenomenon
is actually referred as proximity effect. This effect is pronounced in the case of
cables where the distance between the conductors is small whereas proximity effect
in transmission lines in the case of overhead system, with usual spacing is
negligibly small.

MODULE - II
 ANALYSIS OF TRANSMISSION LINES
Performance of transmission lines means the calculation of efficiency and regulation.
This involves the calculation of sending end and receiving end voltages and currents, power
flow, power factor, power loss and limits for power flow under steady and transient conditions.
Efficiency of transmission line: is defined as the ratio of power delivered at the receiving end to
the power send out at the sending end.

Voltage regulation of a transmission line: is defined as the change in receiving end voltage
when full load is thrown off, the sending end voltage remaining the same.

Every transmission line will have three basic electrical parameters. The conductors of the
line will have electrical resistance, inductance, and capacitance. As the transmission line is a set
of conductors being run from one place to another supported by transmission towers, the
parameters are distributed uniformly along the line. The electrical power is transmitted over a
transmission line with a speed of light that is 3X108 m/sec. Frequency of the power is 50 Hz.
The wave length of the voltage and current of the power can be determined by the equation given
below,
f. = v where f is power frequency, & is wave length and v is the speed of light.

Hence the wave length of the transmitting power is quite long compared to the generally used
line length of transmission line. For this reason, the transmission line, with length less than 160
km, the parameters are assumed to be lumped and not distributed. Such lines are known as
electrically short transmission line. This electrically short transmission lines are again
categorized as short transmission line (length up to 80 km) and medium transmission line (length
between 80 and 160 km). The capacitive parameter of short transmission line is ignored whereas
in case of medium length line the, capacitance is assumed to be lumped at the middle of the line
or half of the capacitance may be considered to be lumped at each ends of the transmission line.
Lines with length more than 160 km, the parameters are considered to be distributed over the
line. This is called long transmission line.
Classification of Transmission Lines
Transmission lines are classified in to three types based on the length of the line and the
operating voltage.
1) Short transmission line the line length is up to 80 km and the operating voltage is < 20 kV.
2) Medium transmission line the line length is between 80 km to 200 km and the operating
voltage is > 20 kV and < 100kV
3) Long transmission line the line length is more than 200 km and the operating voltage is >
100 kV
Generalized Circuit Constants (ABCD Parameters) of Transmission Lines
Transmission lines can be treated as two port networks with the sending end voltage (Vs)
and current (Is) as inputs and receiving end voltage (Vr) and current (Ir) as outputs. Such a
circuit is passive, linear and bilateral.

Fig. Two port representation of transmission lines

The ABCD parameters or the transmission line parameters provide the link between the supply
and receiving end voltages and currents, considering the circuit elements to be linear in nature.
Thus the relation between the sending and receiving end specifications are given using ABCD
parameters by the equations below

V s =AV r + B I r
Is = C V r + D I r
Where A, B, C and D are called the generalized transmission networks constants. They are also
known as transmission line constants or auxiliary network constants.
In matrix form,
 [ ]
Vs
Is
= [ A
C
B
D ] [ ]
Vr
Ir

The matrix [ A
C
B
D ] is called the transfer matrix.

ABCD Parameters (When Receiving End is Open Circuited)

The receiving end is open circuited meaning receiving end current I r = 0
Now
V s = A V r and
Is = C V r
Hence,
Vs
A= / I r = 0 and
Vr
Is
C= /Ir=0
Vr
The parameter A is dimensionless and the parameter C is known as open circuit conductance and
its unit is mho.
ABCD Parameters (When Receiving End is Short Circuited)
Receiving end is short circuited meaning receiving end voltage Vr = 0
Now
V s = B I r and
Is = D I r
Hence,
Vs
B= / V r = 0 and
Ir
Is
D= /Vr=0
Ir
B is the short circuit resistance and its unit is ohm.
For symmetrical line, A = D
For passive networks, AD-BC= 1
Short Transmission Line
The transmission lines which have length less than 80 km are generally referred as short
transmission lines.
For short length, the shunt capacitance of the line is neglected and other parameters like
electrical resistance and inductor of these short lines are lumped, hence the equivalent circuit is
represented as given below. Vector diagram for this equivalent circuit is drawn by taking
receiving end current Ir as reference. The sending end and receiving end voltages make angle
with that reference receiving end current, of s and r, respectively.

As the shunt capacitance of the line is neglected, hence sending end current and receiving end
current is same, i.e.
Is = Ir.
Now
Vs = Vr + Ir.R.cosr + Ir X.sinr
That means,
Vs Vr + Ir.cosr+ Ir.X.sinr as it is assumed that s r
As there is no capacitance, during no load condition the current through the line is considered as
zero, hence at no load condition, receiving end voltage is the same as sending end voltage.
As per definition of voltage regulation of power transmission line,
ABCD constants for short transmission lines

Is Z Ir

Vs Vr

For the network shown in figure,

Vs = Vr + Ir Z and
I s = Ir
Hence,
A =1, B = Z, C = 0 and D = 1