EEE 4211 Transmission Lines and Waveguides Lecture Notes

CHAPTER TWO
TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS AND PERFORMANCE
2.1. Physical Description of Transmission Line Propagation
 To give an insight on the manner in which waves propagate on transmission lines, the
following demonstration may be helpful.
 Consider a lossless line, as shown in Fig.2.1. By lossless, we mean that all power that is
launched into the line at the input end eventually arrives at the output end.

Fig.2.1 A lossless line

 A battery having voltage V0 is connected to the input by closing switch S1 at time t = 0.
When the switch is closed, the effect is to launch voltage, V+ = V0. This voltage does not
instantaneously appear everywhere on the line, but rather begins to travel from the battery
toward the load resistor, R, at a certain velocity.
 The wavefront, represented by the vertical dashed line in Fig.2.1, represents the
instantaneous boundary between the section of the line that has been charged to V0 and the
remaining section that is yet to be charged. It also represents the boundary between the
section of the line that carries the charging current, I+, and the remaining section that
carries no current. Both current and voltage are discontinuous across the wavefront.
 As the line charges, the wavefront moves from left to right at velocity 𝑣. On reaching the
far end, all or a fraction of the wave voltage and current will be reflected, depending on
what the line is attached to. For example, if the resistor at the far end is left disconnected
(switch S2 is open), then all of the wavefront voltage will be reflected. If the resistor is
connected, then some fraction of the incident voltage will get reflected.
 Of interest at the moment are the factors that determine the wave velocity. The key to
understanding and quantifying this is to note that the conducting transmission line will
possess capacitance and inductance that are expressed on a per-unit-length basis.
 Knowing these line characteristics, we can construct a model for the transmission line

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using lumped capacitors and inductors, as shown in Fig. 2.2 (Lumped-element model of a
transmission line. All inductance values are equal, as are all capacitance values).

Fig.2.2. Lumped-element model of a transmission line

 The ladder network thus formed is referred to as a pulse-forming network, for reasons that
will soon become clear.
 Consider now what happens when connecting a voltage source to the network. Referring
to Fig.2.2, on closing the switch at the battery location, current begins to increase in L1,
allowing C1 to charge. As C1 approaches full charge, current in L2 begins to increase,
allowing C2 to charge next. This progressive charging process continues down the network,
until all three capacitors are fully charged. In the network, a “wavefront” location can be
identified as the point between two adjacent capacitors that exhibit the highest difference
between their charge levels.
 As the charging process continues, the wavefront moves from left to right. Its speed
depends on how fast each inductor can reach its full-current state and, simultaneously, by
how fast each capacitor is able to charge to full voltage. The wave is faster if the values of
Li and Ci are lower.
 We therefore expect the wave velocity to be inversely proportional to a function involving
the product of inductance and capacitance. In the lossless transmission line, it turns out (as
will be shown) that the wave velocity is given by:
1
𝑣= (2.1)
√𝐿𝐶
where L and C are specified per unit length.
 Similar behavior is seen in the line and network when either is initially charged. In this
case, the battery remains connected, and a resistor can be connected (by a switch) across
the output end (see Fig.2.2).
 In the case of the ladder network, the capacitor nearest the shunted end (C3) will discharge
through the resistor first, followed by the next-nearest capacitor, and so on. This results in
a voltage pulse across the resistor, and so we see why this ladder configuration is called a
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pulse-forming network. Essentially identical behavior is seen in a charged transmission line

when connecting a resistor between conductors at the output end.
 Finally, we surmise that the existence of voltage and current across and within the
transmission line conductors implies the existence of electric and magnetic fields in the
space around the conductors.
 Consequently, we have two possible approaches to the analysis of transmission lines:
1) We can solve Maxwell’s Equations subject to the line configuration to obtain the fields,
and with these find general expressions for the wave power, velocity, and other parameters
of interest.
2) Or we can (for now) avoid the fields and solve for the voltage and current using Circuit
Theory basing on an appropriate circuit model. It is the latter approach that we will utilize
in this unit.
2.2. Transmission Line Primary Constants

 An important feature of a transmission line is that it should guide (electromagnetic) energy

from a source at the sending end to a load at the receiving end without loss by radiation.

 One form of construction often used consists of two similar conductors mounted close

together at a constant separation. This forms the two sides of a balanced circuit and any

radiation from one of them is neutralized by that from the other.

 Let an 𝑎. 𝑐. generator be connected to the input terminals of a pair of parallel conductors

of infinite length.

 A sinusoidal wave will move along the line and a finite current will flow into the line. The

variation of voltage with distance along the line will resemble the variation of applied

voltage with time. The moving wave, sinusoidal in this case, is called a voltage travelling

wave.

 The propagation of such an electromagnetic wave constitutes a flow of energy.

 After sufficient time the magnitude of the wave may be measured at any point along the

line. The line does not therefore appear to the generator as an open circuit but presents a

definite load 𝑍 .

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 If the sending-end voltage is 𝑉 and the sending-end current is 𝐼 then

𝑉
𝑍 = (2.2)
𝐼
Thus all of the energy is absorbed by the line and the line behaves to the generator as would

do a single ‘lumped’ impedance of value 𝑍 connected directly across the generator

terminals.

 It is customary and convenient to describe a transmission line in terms of its line parameters,

which are its resistance per unit length R, inductance per unit length L, conductance per

unit length G, and capacitance per unit length C. Each of the lines shown in Figure 2.1 has

specific formulas for finding R, L, G, and C. For coaxial, two-wire, and planar lines, the

formulas for calculating the values of R, L, G, and C are provided in Table 2.1. The

dimensions of the lines are as shown in Figure 2.3.

Table 2.1: Distributed Line Parameters at High Frequencies

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Figure 2.3 Common transmission lines: (a) coaxial line, (b) two-wire line, (c) planar line.

Fig.2.4. Distributed parameters of a two-conductor transmission line

It should be noted that

1. The line parameters R, L, G, and C are not discrete or lumped but distributed as shown

in Figure 2.4. By this we mean that the parameters are uniformly distributed along the

entire length of the line.

2. For each line, the conductors are characterized by 𝜎 , 𝜇 , 𝜀 = 𝜀 and the

homogeneous dielectric separating the conductors is characterized by 𝜎, 𝜇 and 𝜀.

3. 𝐺 ≠ 1/𝑅; R is the ac resistance per unit length of the conductors comprising the line

and G is the conductance per unit length due to the dielectric medium separating the

conductors.

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4. The value of L shown in Table 2.1 is the external inductance per unit length; that is, 𝐿 =

𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡 . The effects of internal inductance 𝐿 (= 𝑅/𝜔) are negligible at high

frequencies at which most communication systems operate.

5. For each line,

𝐺 𝜎
𝐿𝐶 = 𝜇𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = ( 2.3)
𝐶 𝜀
 A more detailed description of the four parameters associated with transmission lines, is

presented as next.

(1) Resistance R is given by

𝜌𝑙
𝑅= (2.4)
𝐴
where 𝜌 is the resistivity of the conductor material, 𝐴 is the cross sectional area of each

conductor and 𝑙 is the length of the conductor (for a two-wire system, l represents twice the

length of the line). Resistance is stated in ohms per metre length of a line and represents the

imperfection of the conductor. A resistance stated in ohms per loop metre is a little more

specific since it takes into consideration the fact that there are two conductors in a particular

length of line.

(ii) Inductance L is due to the magnetic field surrounding the conductors of a transmission

line when a current flows through them. It can be shown that the inductance of an isolated twin

line is given by:

𝜇 𝜇 1 𝐷
𝐿= + 𝑙𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦⁄𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 (2.5)
𝜋 4 𝐴
where D is the distance between centres of the conductor and a is the radius of each conductor.
In most practical lines 𝜇 = 1 . An inductance stated in henrys per loop metre takes into
consideration the fact that there are two conductors in a particular length of line.
(iii) Capacitance C exists as a result of the electric field between conductors of a
transmission line. The capacitance of an isolated twin line (the capacitance between the two
conductors) can be shown to be given by

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𝜋𝜀 𝜀
𝐶= 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠⁄𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 (2.6)
𝐷
ln ( )
𝑎
In most practical lines, 𝜀 = 1,
(iv) Conductance G is due to the insulation of the line allowing some current to leak from
one conductor to the other. Conductance is measured in 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 length of
line and represents the imperfection of the insulation. Another name for conductance is
leakance.
Each of the four transmission line constants, R, L, C and G, known as the primary constants,
are uniformly distributed along the line.
2.3. Transmission Line Equations
 A transmission line can be viewed as consisting of a network of a very large number of
sections cascaded in various configurations notably T-, L- or Π − equivalent models, each
represented using a very short length (𝛿𝑙) or ∆𝑙 of the transmission line.
 This is an approximation of the uniformly distributed line; the larger the number of lumped
parameter sections, the nearer it approaches the true distributed nature of the line.
 As mentioned in section 2.2, a two-conductor transmission line supports a TEM wave; that
is, the electric and magnetic fields on the line are transverse to the direction of wave
propagation.
 An important property of TEM waves is that the fields E and H are uniquely related to
voltage V and current I, respectively:
𝑉 = − ∮ 𝐄. 𝑑𝐥, 𝐼 = − ∮ 𝐇. 𝑑𝐥 (2.7)
 In view of this, we will use circuit quantities V and I in solving the transmission line
problem instead of solving field quantities E and H (i.e., solving Maxwell's equations and
boundary conditions). The circuit model is therefore simplified and more convenient.
 Consider a simple uniform two-wire transmission line with its conductors parallel to the z-
axis as shown in Fig.2.5.
 NB: Uniform transmission line - conductors and insulating medium maintain the same
cross-sectional geometry along the entire transmission line.

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Fig.2.5 Uniform two-wire transmission line

 Let us examine an incremental portion of length ∆𝑧 of the two-conductor transmission
line shown in Fig. 2.5. We intend to find an equivalent circuit for this line and derive the
line equations.
 From Figure 2.4, we expect the equivalent circuit of a portion of the line to be as in Figure
2.6 which is in terms of the line parameters R, L, G, and C, and may represent any of the
two-conductor lines of Figure 2.3, where

 R = series resistance per unit length (Ω/𝑚) of the transmission line conductors.
 L = series inductance per unit length ( 𝐻/𝑚 ) of the transmission line conductors
(internal plus external inductance).
 G = shunt conductance per unit length (𝑆/𝑚) of the media between the transmission
line conductors (insulator leakage current).
 C = shunt capacitance per unit length (𝐹/𝑚) of the transmission line conductors.

 In other words, the equivalent circuit of a short segment ∆𝑧 of the two-wire transmission
line may be represented by simple lumped-element equivalent circuit. The model is called
the L-type equivalent circuit. (There are other possible types).
 In the model of Figure 2.6, we assume that the wave propagates along the +𝑧-direction,
from the generator to the load.

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Fig.2.6. Two-conductor transmission line model of differential length ∆𝑧

 By applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) to the outer loop of the circuit of Fig.2.6, we
obtain:
𝜕𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡)
𝑉(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅∆𝑧𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝐿∆𝑧 + 𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑡
or
𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡) − 𝑉(𝑧, 𝑡) 𝜕𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡)
− = 𝑅𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝐿 (2.8)
∆𝑧 𝜕𝑡

 Taking the limit of equation (2.8) as ∆𝑧 → 0 leads to

𝜕𝑉(𝑧, 𝑡) 𝜕𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡)
− = 𝑅𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝐿 (2.9)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
 Similarly, applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) to the main node of the circuit of
Fig.2.6, gives:
𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐼(𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡) + ∆𝑧𝐼
𝜕𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡)
= 𝐼(𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝐺∆𝑧𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝐶∆𝑧
𝜕𝑡
or
𝐼(𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡) − 𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡) 𝜕𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡)
− = 𝐺𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝐶 (2.10)
∆𝑧 𝜕𝑡

 As ∆𝑧 → 0 equation (2.10) becomes:

𝜕𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡) 𝜕𝑉(𝑧, 𝑡)
− = 𝐺𝑉(𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝐶 (2.11)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
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If we assume harmonic time dependence* so that

𝑉(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉 (𝑧)𝑒 (2.12𝑎)
𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 [𝐼 (𝑧)𝑒 ] (2.12𝑏)
where 𝑉 (𝑧) and 𝐼 (𝑧) are the frequency domain (phasor forms) of 𝑉(𝑧, 𝑡) and 𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡) ,
respectively, equations (2.9) and (2.11) can be written as:
𝑑𝑉
− = (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝐼 (2.13)
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝐼
− = (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)𝑉 (2.14)
𝑑𝑧
 The differential equations in (2.13) and (2.14), describe the evolution of current and voltage
in any transmission line. Historically, they have been referred to as the telegraphist’s
equations. Their solution leads to the wave equation for the transmission line, which we
now undertake.
 It can be seen that in the two relations in (2.13) and (2.14), 𝑉 and 𝐼 are coupled; hence
we can call them Coupled Differential Equations.
 To separate them, we take the second derivative of 𝑉 in equation (2.13) and employ
equation (2.14) so that we obtain:
𝑑 𝑉
= (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)𝑉
𝑑𝑧
or
𝑑 𝑉
−𝛾 𝑉 =0 (2.15)
𝑑𝑧
where 𝛾 is the complex propagation constant defined in equation (2.16)
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶) (2.16)
 By taking the second derivative of 𝐼 in equation (2.14) and employing equation (2.13),
we get:
𝑑 𝐼
−𝛾 𝐼 =0 (2.17)
𝑑𝑧
 We notice that eqns. (2.15) and (2.17) are respectively the wave equations for voltage and
current similar in form to the wave equations for plane waves.
 We also call them the transmission line equations/general wave equations for the
transmission line.
 Thus 𝛾 in equation (2.16) is the (complex) propagation constant (in per meter), whose real
part, 𝛼 is the attenuation constant (in nepers per meter or 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟) and its

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imaginary part, 𝛽 is the phase constant (in radians per meter).

 The general equations for 𝛼 and 𝛽 in terms of the per-unit-length transmission line
parameters are
1 /
𝛼= 𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔 𝐿𝐶 + [(𝑅 + 𝜔 𝐿 )(𝐺 + 𝜔 𝐶 )] (2.18𝑎)
√2
1 /
𝛽= −𝑅𝐺 − 𝜔 𝐿𝐶 + [(𝑅 + 𝜔 𝐿 )(𝐺 + 𝜔 𝐶 )] (2.18𝑏)
√2
 NB:
It is not always that we use distributed models for transmission line analysis. Which model to
use, distributed parameter or lumped parameter (t- representation) depends on the type of
transmission line. And to understand the reason, one thing we must understand is that No signal
can travel with infinite velocity. That is to say that if a voltage or current changes at some
location, its effect cannot be felt instantaneously at some other location. There is a finite delay
between the 'cause' and the effect. This is called the ' Transit Time' effect (see Fig.2.7).

Fig.2.7.Transit Time Effect

Let the signal travel with velocity v along the line. Then the Transit time
t = l/v
l= length of the line.
Ideally the transit time effect should be included in analysis of all electrical circuits. However,
if the time period of the signal T (=1/f) is much larger than the transit time, we may ignore the
effect of transmit time. That is, the transit time effect can be neglected if
T >> t or, 1/f >> l/v or, λ >> l since wavelength, λ = v/f
Transit time effect becomes important when the length of the line becomes comparable to the
wavelength. As the frequency increases, the wavelength reduces, and the transit time effect
becomes more and more important.
Due to transit time effect the whole line inductance or capacitance cannot be assumed to be
located at a particular point in space. The inductance and capacitance are distributed throughout

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the length of the line. These are therefore called the 'Distributed Parameters' of the line. In
the presence of transit time effect, all the line parameters, the inductance, the capacitance, the
resistance, and the conductance are of distributed nature.
So for long transmission lines analysis we use distributed parameter model whereas for medium
lines lumped models serves the purpose well. It is because they are continuous properties. For
example in a potentiometer, the resistance changes with length but the net resistance of the
wire is fixed. Similar is the case with a transmission line. However, during calculations and
analysis, these factors are approximated as lumped so as to make the task easier. The lumped
parameters can be analyzed using KVL & KCL.

Study Exercise:
1. Consider a T-type model of a two-conductor transmission line consisting of a line
section of length 𝛥𝑧 containing resistance𝑅𝛥𝑧, inductance𝐿𝛥𝑧, conductance𝐺𝛥𝑧, and
capacitance𝐶𝛥𝑧, as indicated in Figure 2.8. Use it to derive the general wave equations
for the transmission line. State any assumptions made and comment on the outcome.

Fig.2.8. Differential section/slice of a transmission line

2. Consider a typical TEM mode lossy transmission line. By cutting a thin slice
(differential section) of the line, obtain its T − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒, 𝐿 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 and Π−
𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 equivalent circuit models. Also, derive the Telegrapher’s equations for each
model and obtain the time domain solution to the voltage wave equation due to
sinusoidal excitation. What conclusions can you draw concerning the directions of
travel of the waves? How will the results change for an ideal transmission line?
3. A transmission line is commonly described by its distributed parameters R, L, C. Why?

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2.4. Wave Velocities and Dispersion

 In earlier studies (Electromagnetics), we have encountered two types of velocities related
to the propagation of electromagnetic waves:

1. The speed of light in a medium ( )

õ

2. The phase velocity (𝑣 = )

 The speed of light in a medium is the velocity at which a plane wave would propagate in
that medium, while the phase velocity is the speed at which a constant phase point travels.
For a TEM plane wave, these two velocities are identical, but for other types of guided
wave propagation the phase velocity may be greater or less than the speed of light.
 The velocity of propagation of free space is the same as that of light, i.e. approximately
300×106 m/s. The velocity of electrical energy along a line is always less than the velocity
in free space.
 If the phase velocity and attenuation of a line or guide are constants that do not change with
frequency, then the phase of a signal that contains more than one frequency component will
not be distorted. If the phase velocity is different for different frequencies, then the
individual frequency components will not maintain their original phase relationships as
they propagate down the transmission line or waveguide, and signal distortion will occur.
 Such an effect is called dispersion since different phase velocities allow the “faster” waves
to lead in phase relative to the “slower” waves, and the original phase relationships will
gradually be dispersed as the signal propagates down the line.
 In such a case, there is no single phase velocity that can be attributed to the signal as a
whole. However, if the bandwidth of the signal is relatively small or if the dispersion is not
too severe, a group velocity can be defined in a meaningful way. This velocity can be used
to describe the speed at which the signal propagates.
 Hence, Dispersion refers to the spreading of a signal due to the differences in speed between
different frequency components. It is often detrimental to digital communication since
digital pulses contain multiple frequency components.
 Since the phase velocity is independent of frequency, ideal TEM lines are non-dispersive.
 Refer back to the line shown in Fig.2.2. Since this model can be considered similar to a
ladder network of low-pass T-section filters, it can be shown that the phase delay, 𝛽, is
given by:
𝛽 = 𝜔 √𝐿𝐶 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
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 The wavelength λ on a line is the distance between a given point and the next point along
the line at which the voltage is the same phase, the initial point leading the latter point by
2π radian.
 The wavelength λ of radiation in free space is given by λ=c/f where c is the velocity of light.
Since the velocity along a line is always less than c, the wavelength corresponding to any
particular frequency is always shorter on the line than it would be in free space.
 Given the transmission line propagation constant, the wavelength 𝜆 and the velocity of
propagation (wave velocity) 𝑢 are, respectively, found using the same equations as for
unbounded waves:
2𝜋
𝜆= (2.19𝑎)
𝛽

𝜔
𝑢= = 𝑓𝜆 2.19𝑏)
𝛽
Example 2.1
A transmission line has an inductance of 4 𝑚𝐻/𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 km and a capacitance of 0.004μF/km.
Determine, for a frequency of operation of 1 kHz,
(a) the phase delay,
(b) the wavelength on the line, and
(c) the velocity of propagation (in metres per second) of the signal.
Solution
a) Phase delay,
𝛽 = 𝜔 (𝐿𝐶) = (2𝜋1000 (4 × 10 )(0.004𝑋10 ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒌𝒎
b) Wavelength,
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜆= = = 𝟐𝟓𝟏𝒌𝒎
𝛽 0.025
c) velocity of propagation,
(1000)(251)𝑘𝑚
𝑢 = 𝑓𝜆 = = 𝟐𝟓𝟏𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
𝑠

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2.5. Solution of Transmission Line Equations

 The solutions of the linear homogeneous differential equations (2.15) and (2.17) i.e. the
general voltage and current wave equations are
𝑉 (𝑧) = 𝑉 𝑒 +𝑉 𝑒
⟶ +𝑧 −𝑧 ← (2.20𝑎)
and
𝐼 (𝑧) = 𝐼 𝑒 +𝐼 𝑒
⟶ +𝑧 −𝑧 ← (2.20𝑏)
where 𝑉 , 𝑉 , 𝐼 and 𝐼 are wave amplitudes; the + and -signs, respectively, denote
wave travelling along +z- and –z-directions, as is also indicated by the arrows.
 Thus, we obtain the instantaneous expressions for voltage and current as a function of
position along the transmission line as follows in equations 2.21𝑎 and 2.21𝑏
respectively.
𝑉(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉 (𝑧)𝑒
=𝑉 𝑒 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) + 𝑉 𝑒 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧) (2.21𝑎)

𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 𝐼 (𝑧)𝑒
=𝐼 𝑒 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) + 𝐼 𝑒 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧) (2.21𝑏)
 Alternatively, we may consider the coefficients in the solutions for the transmission line
voltage and current as complex constants (phasors) which may then be defined as

𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑒 , 𝑉 = |𝑉 |𝑒 (2.21a)
𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝐼 = 𝐼 𝑒 , 𝐼 = |𝐼 |𝑒 (2.21b)
 This is usually the case with sinusoidal excitation, of phase angle 𝜙. In this case, the time
domain solution to the voltage and current wave equations (instantaneous voltage and
current as a function of position along the transmission line) are as given in eqns (2.22a and
b)

𝑉(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉 (𝑧)𝑒
= 𝑅𝑒 𝑉 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 + |𝑉 |𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
= 𝑉 𝑒 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜙 ) + |𝑉 |𝑒 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜙 ) (2.22𝑎)

𝐼(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 𝐼 (𝑧)𝑒
= 𝑅𝑒 𝐼 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 + |𝐼 |𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
= 𝐼 𝑒 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜙 ) + |𝐼 |𝑒 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧 + 𝜙 ) (2.22𝑏)

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2.6. Characteristic Impedance

 The region through which a plane wave (unguided wave) travels is characterized by the

intrinsic impedance (𝜂) of the medium defined by the ratio of the electric field to the

magnetic field. The guiding structure over which the transmission line wave (guided wave)

travels is characterized by the characteristic impedance (𝑍 ) of the transmission line

defined by the ratio of voltage to current.

 The characteristic impedance or surge impedance (usually written Z0) of a uniform

transmission line is the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage and current of a single wave

propagating along the line; that is, a wave travelling in one direction in the absence of

reflections in the other direction.

 Characteristic impedance is determined by the geometry and materials of the transmission

line and, for a uniform line, is not dependent on its length. The SI unit of characteristic

impedance is the ohm.

 By applying the transmission line model based on the telegrapher's equations, we proceed

to derive the general expression for the characteristic impedance of a transmission line.
 If the voltage and current wave equations defined by eqn 2.20a and b (repeated below)

𝑉 (𝑧) = 𝑉 𝑒 +𝑉 𝑒 (2.20𝑎)
𝐼 (𝑧) = 𝐼 𝑒 +𝐼 𝑒 (2.20𝑏)
are inserted into the phasor transmission line equations given by eqn (2.13) and (2.14),
(repeated while re-written in a different form as below)
𝑑𝑉
= −(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝐼 (2.13)
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝐼
= −(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)𝑉 (2.14)
𝑑𝑧
the following equations are obtained.

−𝛾𝑉 𝑒 + 𝛾𝑉 𝑒 = −(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)[𝐼 𝑒 +𝐼 𝑒 ] (2.23𝑎)

−𝛾𝐼 𝑒 + 𝛾𝐼 𝑒 = −(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)[𝑉 𝑒 +𝑉 𝑒 ] (2.23𝑏)
Equating coefficients of terms 𝑒 and 𝑒 gives

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EEE 4211 Transmission Lines and Waveguides Lecture Notes

𝛾𝑉 = (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝐼 , 𝛾𝐼 = (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)𝑉 (2.24a)

and
−𝛾𝑉 = (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝐼 , −𝛾𝐼 = (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)𝑉 (2.24b)

 The ratio of voltage to current for the forward and reverse traveling waves (treated
separately) defines the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. Thus

𝑉 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿) 𝛾 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)
= = = =𝑍 (2.25𝑎)
𝐼 𝛾 (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶) (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)

𝑉 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿) −𝛾 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)
= = =− =𝑍 (2.25𝑎)
𝐼 −𝛾 (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶) (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)

𝑵𝑩: It is common to define the characteristic impedance of a transmission line simply as

the ratio of positively travelling voltage wave to current wave at any point on the line.

 The transmission line characteristic impedance is, in general, complex and can be defined
by

𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 (2.26)

where 𝑅 −resistive component of 𝑍

𝑋 −reactive component of 𝑍

 The voltage and current wave equations can be written in terms of the voltage coefficients
and the characteristic impedance (rather than the voltage and current coefficients) using the
relationships.

Example 2.2
a) A lossless transmission line is 80cm long and operates at a frequency of 600𝑀𝐻𝑧. The line
parameters are 𝐿 = 0.25𝜇𝐻/𝑚 and 𝐶 = 100𝑝𝐹/𝑚. Find:
i) the characteristic impedance of the line
ii) the phase constant
iii) the velocity on the line
iv) the input impedance for 𝑍 = 100Ω.

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Solution
i) Since the line is lossless, both 𝑅 and 𝐺 are zero. The characteristic
impedance is:

𝐿 0.25𝑥10
𝑍 = = = 50Ω
𝐶 100𝑥10

ii) Since 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶) = 𝑗𝜔√𝐿𝐶, We see that

𝛽 = 𝜔 √ 𝐿𝐶 = 2𝜋(600𝑥10 ) (0.25𝑥10 )(100𝑥10 ) = 18.85 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚

iii) 𝑣 = = =2𝑥10 𝑚/𝑠

.

iv) 𝑍 =𝑍

100𝑐𝑜𝑠(18.85𝑥0.8) + 𝑗50 sin (18.85𝑥0.8)

= 50
50𝑐𝑜𝑠(18.85𝑥0.8) + 𝑗100 sin(18.85𝑥0.8)

= 60.3∠35.5 = 49.1 + 𝑗35.0Ω

Exercise
At an operating radian frequency of 500𝑀𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠, typical circuit values for a certain
transmission line are: 𝑅 = 0.2Ω/𝑚, 𝐿 = 0.25μH/𝑚 , 𝐺 = 10μS/𝑚, and 𝐶 = 100𝑝𝐹/𝑚.
Find: a) 𝛼; b) 𝛽; c) 𝜆; d) 𝑣 ; e) 𝑍

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