ECEG-3154 Introduction to Power Systems

Chapter 2
Introduction to Power
Systems
(ECEG-3154)
Instructor:
Abiy .E(M.sc)
Electrical & Computer Engineering
Department
Wollega University
March, 2019
College of Engineering and
Technology
 ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION LINE
PARAMETERS
A transmission line has resistance, inductance and capacitance
uniformly distributed along the whole length of the line.

Fig.1

(i) Resistance. It is the opposition of line conductors to current flow.

The resistance is distributed uniformly along the whole length of the
line as shown in Fig.1 (i). However, the performance of a transmission
line can be analysed conveniently if distributed resistance is
considered as lumped as shown in Fig.1(ii).
(ii)Inductance. An alternating current flows through a conductor, a
changing flux is set up which links the conductor. Due to these flux
linkages, the conductor possesses inductance. Mathematically,
inductance is defined as the flux linkages per ampere i.e., Inductance,

where ψ= flux linkages in weber-turns

I = current in amperes
The inductance is also uniformly distributed along the length of the
line as show in Fig. 1(i). Again for the convenience of analysis, it
can be taken to be lumped as shown in Fig.1(ii).
(iii) Capacitance. Any two conductors separated by an insulating
material constitute a capacitor.
Any two conductors of an overhead transmission line are
separated by air which acts as an insulation, therefore, capacitance
exists between any two overhead line conductors.
The capacitance between the conductors is the charge per unit
potential difference
 where q = charge on the line in coulomb
v = p.d. between the conductors in volt
The capacitance is uniformly distributed along the whole length of
the line and may be regarded as a uniform series of capacitors
connected between the conductors .
An alternating voltage is impressed on a transmission line, the
charge on the conductors at any point increases and decreases with
the increase and decrease of the instantaneous value of the voltage
between conductors at that point. The result is that a current
(known as charging current) flows between the conductors .
This charging current flows in the line even when it is open-circuited
i.e., supplying no load. It affects the voltage drop along the line as
well as the efficiency and power factor of the line.
 Resistance of a Transmission Line
The resistance of transmission line conductors is the most
important cause of power loss in a transmission line. The
resistance R of a line conductor having resistivity ρ, length l and
area of cross-section a is given by ;
The variation of resistance of metallic conductors with temperature
is practically linear over the normal range of operation. Suppose R1
and R2 are the resistances of a conductor at t1ºC and t2ºC (t2 > t1)
respectively. If α1 is the temperature coefficient at t1°C, then,

(i) In a single phase or 2-wire d.c line, the total resistance (known as
loop resistance) is equal to double the resistance of either conductor.
(ii) In case of a 3-phase transmission line, resistance per phase is the
resistance of one conductor.
 Skin Effect
A conductor is carrying steady direct current (d.c.), this current is uniformly
distributed over the whole X-section of the conductor. However, an alternating
current flowing through the conductor does not distribute uniformly, rather it has
the tendency to concentrate near the surface of the conductor as shown in Fig.
1.This is known as skin effect.

The tendency of alternating current to concentrate near the surface of a

conductor is known as skin effect. Due to skin effect, the effective area of cross-
section of the conductor through which current flows is reduced. Consequently,
the resistance of the conductor is slightly increased when carrying an alternating
current.
A solid conductor may be thought to be consisting of a large number of strands,
each carrying a small part of the current. The inductance of each strand will vary
according to its position. Thus, the strands near the centre are surrounded by a
greater magnetic flux and hence have larger inductance than that near the
surface.
 The high reactance of inner strands causes the alternating current
to flow near the surface of conductor. This crowding of current near
the conductor surface is the skin effect.
The skin effect depends upon the following factors :
(i) Nature of material
(ii) Diameter of wire - increases with the diameter of wire.
(iii) Frequency - increases with the increase in frequency.
(iv) Shape of wire - less for stranded conductor than the solid
conductor.
It may be noted that - skin effect is negligible when the supply
frequency is low (< 50 Hz) and conductor diameter is small (< 1 cm).
In a transmission line there is a no uniformity of current distribution
caused by a higher current density in the elements of adjacent
conductors nearest each other than in the elements farther apart.
The phenomenon is known as proximity effect
It is present for three-phase as well as single-phase circuits.
Flux Linkages
The inductance of a circuit is defined as the flux linkages per unit
current. Therefore, in order to find the inductance of a circuit, the
determination of flux linkages is of primary importance. two
important cases of flux linkages.
1. Flux linkages due to a single current carrying conductor.
Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor of radius r metres
and carrying a current I amperes (r.m.s.) as shown in Fig.(i).
 This current will set up magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force will exist
inside the conductor as well as outside the conductor. Both these fluxes will
contribute to the inductance of the conductor.
(i) Flux linkages due to internal flux. Refer to Fig.(ii) where the X-section of the
conductor is shown magnified for clarity. The magnetic field intensity at a point x
metres from the centre is given by;
(ii) Flux linkages due to external flux. Now let us calculate the flux
linkages of the conductor due to external flux.
The external flux extends from the surface of the conductor to infinity.
Referring to Fig. 2, the field intensity at a distance x metres (from centre)
outside the conductor is given by ;
Inductance of a Single Phase Two-wire Line
A single phase line consists of two parallel conductors which
form a rectangular loop of one turn.
An alternating current flows through such a loop, a changing
magnetic flux is set up. The changing flux links the loop and
hence the loop (or single phase line) possesses inductance.
It may appear that inductance of a single phase line is negligible
because it consists of a loop of one turn and the flux path is
through air of high reluctance.
But as the X -sectional area of the loop is very large, even for a
small flux density, the total flux linking the loop is quite large and
hence the line has appreciable inductance.
Consider a single phase overhead line consisting of two parallel
conductors A and B spaced d metres apart as shown in Fig.
Conductors A and B carry the same amount of current (i.e. IA = IB),
but in the opposite direction because one forms the return circuit of
the other.

In order to find the inductance of conductor A (or

conductor B), we shall have to consider the flux
linkages with it. There will be flux linkages with
conductor A due to its own current IA and also due to
the mutual inductance effect of current IB in the
conductor B. Flux linkages with conductor A due to its
own current
 Inductance of a 3-Phase Overhead Line
Fig. shows the three conductors A, B and C of a 3-phase line
carrying currents I , I and I respectively. Let d , d and d be
A B C 1 2 3

the spacings between the conductors as shown. Let us

further assume that the loads are balanced i.e. IA + IB + IC = 0.
Consider the flux linkages with conductor A. There will be
flux linkages with conductor A due to its own current and
also due to the mutual inductance effects of I and I .
B C
(i) Symmetrical spacing. If the three conductors A, B and C are placed
symmetrically at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side d, then,
d1 = d2 = d3 = d. Under such conditions, the flux linkages with conductor
A become :
(ii) Unsymmetrical spacing. When 3-phase line conductors are not equidistant from
each, other, the conductor spacing is said to be unsymmetrical. Under such
conditions, the flux linkages and inductance of each phase are not the same.
 A different inductance in each phase results in unequal voltage drops in the three
phases even if the currents in the conductors are balanced. Therefore, the voltage
at the receiving end will not be the same for all phases.
 In order that voltage drops are equal in all conductors, we generally interchange
the positions of the conductors at regular intervals along the line so that each
conductor occupies the original position of every other conductor over an equal
distance. Such an exchange of positions is known as transposition. Fig.3. shows
the transposed line. The phase conductors are designated as A, B and C and the
positions occupied are numbered 1, 2 and 3.
 The effect of transposition is that each conductor has the same average
inductance.

Fig. 3
Fig. 3. shows a 3-phase transposed line having unsymmetrical
spacing. Let us assume that each of the three sections is 1 m in
length. Let us further assume balanced conditions i.e., IA + IB +IC = 0.
Let the line currents be :
 Compare the formula of inductance of an unsymmetrically
spaced transposed line with that of symmetrically spaced line,
we find that inductance of each line conductor in the two
cases will be equal if
The distance d is known as equivalent equilateral
spacing for unsymmetrically transposed line.
Concept of Self-GMD and Mutual-GMD
 The use of self geometrical mean distance (abbreviated as self-GMD) and
mutual geometrical mean distance (mutual-GMD) simplifies the inductance
calculations, particularly relating to multi conductor arrangements. The
symbols used for these are respectively Ds and Dm. We shall briefly discuss
these terms.
(i) Self-GMD (Ds). In order to have concept of self-GMD (also sometimes called
Geometrical mean radius ; GMR), consider the expression for inductance per
conductor per metre already derived
The term 2 × 10−7 × (1/4) is the inductance due to flux within the
solid conductor. eliminate this term by the introduction of a
concept called self-GMD or GMR.
Replace the original solid conductor by an equivalent hollow
cylinder with extremely thin walls, the current is confined to the
conductor surface and internal conductor flux linkage would be
almost zero. Consequently, inductance due to internal flux would
be zero and the term 2 × 10−7 × (1/4) shall be eliminated.
The radius of this equivalent hollow cylinder must be sufficiently
smaller than the physical radius of the conductor to allow room for
enough additional flux to compensate for the absence of internal
flux linkage.
 It can be proved mathematically that for a solid round conductor of radius r, the
self-GMD or GMR = 0·7788r. Using self-GMD, the eq. (i) becomes:
Inductance/conductor/m = 2 × 10−7loge d/Ds where Ds = GMR or self-GMD = 0·7788
r, self-GMD of a conductor depends upon the size and shape of the conductor and
is independent of the spacing between the conductors.

(ii) Mutual-GMD. The mutual-GMD is the geometrical mean of the distances form

one conductor to the other and, therefore, must be between the largest and smallest
such distance.
(a) The mutual-GMD between two conductors (assuming that spacing between
conductors is large compared to the diameter of each conductor) is equal to the
distance between their centres i.e. Dm = spacing between conductors = d
(c) The principle of geometrical mean distances can be most profitably
employed to 3-Φ double circuit lines. Consider the conductor arrangement
of the double circuit shown in Fig. Suppose the radius of each conductor is
r.
 Bundle Conductors
At voltages above 230 kV (extra high voltage) and with circuits with
only one conductor per phase, the corona effect becomes more
excessive. Associated with this phenomenon is a power loss as well
as interference with communication links.
Corona is the direct result of high-voltage gradient at the
conductor surface. The gradient can be reduced considerably by
using more than one conductor per phase. The conductors are in
close proximity compared with the spacing between phases. A line
such as this is called a bundle-conductor line.
The bundle consists of two or more conductors (sub conductors)
arranged on the perimeter of a circle called the bundle circle
Another important advantage of bundling is the attendant
reduction in line reactances, both series and shunt.
The analysis of bundle-conductor lines is a specific case of the
general multiconductor configuration problem.

Fig. Bundle Conductor.

 Electric Potential
The electric potential at a point due to a charge is the work done
in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
The concept of electric potential is extremely important for the
determination of capacitance in a circuit since the latter is defined
as the charge per unit potential. Discuss in detail the electric
potential due to some important conductor arrangements.
Capacitance of a Single Phase Two-wire Line
Consider a single phase overhead transmission line consisting of
two parallel conductors A and B spaced d metres apart in air.
Suppose that radius of each conductor is r metres. Let their
respective charge be + Q and -Q coulombs per metre length. The
total p.d. between conductor A and neutral “infinite”plane is
Capacitance to neutral. Equation (i) gives the capacitance between
the conductors of a two wire line [See Fig. 4.I]. To know the
capacitance between one of the conductors and a neutral point
between them.
 Potential of the mid-point between the conductors is zero, the
potential difference between each conductor and the ground or
neutral is half the potential difference between the conductors.
 The capacitance to ground or capacitance to neutral for the two
wire line is twice the line-to-line capacitance (capacitance between
conductors as shown in Fig 4. II).
 Capacitance of a 3-Phase Overhead Line
 In a 3-phase transmission line, the capacitance of each conductor
is considered instead of capacitance from conductor to conductor.
two cases arise viz., symmetrical spacing and unsymmetrical
spacing.
(i) Symmetrical Spacing. Fig. shows the three conductors A, B and C
of the 3-phase overhead transmission line having charges QA, QB
and QC per metre length respectively.
 Let the conductors be equidistant (d metres) from each other. We
shall find the capacitance from line conductor to neutral in this
symmetrically spaced line. Referring to Fig., overall potential
difference between conductor A and infinite neutral plane is given
by
(ii) Unsymmetrical spacing. Fig. shows a 3-phase transposed line
having unsymmetrical spacing. Let us assume balanced conditions i.e.
QA + QB + QC = 0.

Considering all the three sections of the transposed line for phase A,
 Including the Effect of Earth
The effect of the presence of ground should be accounted for if the
conductors are not high enough above ground. This can be done
using the theory of image charges.
These are imaginary charges of the same magnitude as the physical
charges but of opposite sign and are situated below the ground at a
distance equal to that between the physical charge and ground.
The potential at ground due to the charge and its image is zero,
which is consistent with the usual assumption that ground is a plane
of zero potential
Capacitance of a Single-Phase Line Considering the Effect of Ground
Consider a single-phase line with conductors A and B as before. To
account for ground effects, we introduce the image conductors A′ and
B′.
 Fig. Single-Phase Line and Its Image.

The voltage of phase A is

The voltage of phase B is

The voltage difference is thus

 The capacitance between the two conductors is thus

The capacitance to neutral is obtained

using
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