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Is powerlifting a viable Supplementary materials:

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method for engaging adults
For correspondence:
of all ages in resistance dvandenhoek@usc.edu.au

training? A retrospective,
longitudinal population
analysis with comparison to
population norms
Daniel J van den Hoek1, Alistair Mallard2, Joel M Garrett3, Patrick L Beaumont1, Robert J Howells1, Jemima
G Spathis4, Joshua Pearson4, Christopher Latella5,6
1
University of the Sunshine Coast, School of Health, Petrie, QLD, Australia
2
University of Queensland, School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, Queensland, Australia
3
Griffith University, School of Health Sciences and Social Work, Southport, Queensland, Australia
4
Australian Catholic University, School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Banyo, QLD, Australia
5
School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia.
6
Neurophysiology Research Laboratory, Centre for Human Performance, Edith Cowan University,
Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia.

Please cite as: van den Hoek et al. (2023). Is powerlifting a viable method for engaging adults of all ages in
resistance training? A retrospective, longitudinal, population analysis with comparison to community
norms. SportRχiv.

All authors have read and approved this version of the Authors DVH @dan_hoek and CL
manuscript. This article was last modified in Aug, 2023. @clatella1 can be reached on
Twitter.
ABSTRACT

Background: In Australia, one third of people ≥15 years participate in regular resistance training
and 90% of those do not meet current health guidelines. All age groups should be encouraged
to engage in regular resistance exercise, to maintain strength and function. Objectives: To
identify trends in powerlifting competition participation in Australia by sex and age group from
1968-2022, and to compare the strength of powerlifting competitors to population age- and sex-
based normative values. Method: The number of unique participants and total competition
entries for each year were analysed using Australian powerlifting competition data. Subdomains
of age and sex were investigated, and mean ± SD, frequency, range, and trend analyses were
reported. Participants were classified according to United Nations age classifications to identify
trends in participation by group. Comparisons to population strength norms were explored
descriptively. Results: We included 21,514 individual competitors from 1,942 powerlifting
competitions between 1968–2022. Participation rates demonstrated exponential growth (R2 =
0.86) with 51.1% of participants aged 18-35 years at commencement and 16% aged ≥ 36 years.
Strength comparison to available population norms demonstrates superior upper- (bench-press
[almost all competitors above 70th percentile) and lower-body (squat [majority rated ‘excellent’)
strength. Conclusions: Superior strength levels of powerlifters compared to population norms
are not surprising and further the evidence base for this sport as an effective way to develop
muscular strength, with low injury risk and flexible participation requirements. We advocate for
public health promotion and additional support for ‘grassroots’ powerlifting as an underutilised
tool for community health.

2
INTRODUCTION
Powerlifting is a maximum strength-based sport whereby athletes perform the squat,

bench press, and deadlift. During three-lift competitions, athletes attempt to accumulate the

highest overall total score by summing the best lift from three attempts within each lifting

discipline [1] in age, bodyweight and sex categories. Modern powerlifting originated in the 1960s

after weightlifting (e.g. clean and jerk and snatch movements), of which the latter has been an

Olympic sport for more than 50 years [1]. Currently, there are many federations and

organisations that coordinate and regulate competitions within nations and more globally [2].

Thus, competition rules differ slightly depending on federation affiliation and competition type

(e.g., raw/classic versus equipped events). Regardless, performance is based on the maximal

expression of upper- and lower-body strength. Importantly, participation in powerlifting is open

to a broad age demographic with school-aged children through to older adults (e.g., Master's IV

category; >80 years) who can partake in competitions at various levels (e.g., novice/community

level competitions through to world championship events).

Encouraging lifestyle behaviours that improve health, physical function, and independence is

crucial for the individual and community [3, 4]. Indeed, greater upper- and lower-body muscular

strength is associated with a lower risk of mortality in adults, irrespective of age [5]. Hence,

governing bodies worldwide recommend performing strengthening activities at least two days

per week [6, 7]. However, despite the documented benefits of regular physical activity, including,

3
but not limited to, improved quality of life [8], bone mass [9], aerobic fitness [10], cognitive

function [11], muscle strength [12], coordination and balance [13], only 32.5% of Australians

aged ≥15 years participate in strength-based exercise [14] with up to 90% of this group still not

meeting training frequency recommendations [15]. Indeed, poor muscle strength in older adults

is a significant contributor to the global healthcare financial burden [16, 17] and is becoming

increasingly recognised as a risk factor in young adult mortality [18]. In school-aged youth,

resistance training has been shown to have a positive effect on cognition and academic

outcomes, indicating the benefit of including strength based activities in the school curriculum

to support student learning [19]. More promisingly, Australian participation trends across the

lifespan show that individuals performing muscle-strengthening activities as part of sport,

recreation, or exercise is beginning to increase - almost two-fold from 2001 to 2010 [15]. Thus,

individuals must be continually encouraged to meet or exceed the minimum levels

recommended by governing bodies.

Considering this, we sought to examine the longitudinal participation trends of Australian

powerlifting – a strength-focused sport inclusive of all ability levels, with further analysis to

identify age- and sex-based participation trends. Finally, we explored the strength of powerlifting

participants within various age classifications compared to reported community-based norms,

which to our knowledge has not been previously compared. We hypothesised that powerlifting

participation has increased over time and that the strength levels of powerlifting participants

4
overall would be well above the reported norms for community dwelling people of the same age

and sex. As such, the data may support powerlifting as a growing, accessible strength-based

physical activity opportunity across the lifespan with likely population health benefits that extend

beyond competition participation.

METHODS
This study is a retrospective, longitudinal population analysis. We collated individual athlete data

from all sanctioned powerlifting competitions held in Australia from 1968 – 2022, sourced from

the publicly available records on openpowerlifting.org. Therefore, the data presented here does

not include unsanctioned or unaffiliated competitions that may have been held throughout the

analysis period. The university Human Research Ethics Committee provided ethical approval for

this investigation.

We present descriptive statistics as mean ± SD, frequency, range [lower limit – upper limit], and

trend analyses to explore Powerlifting participation trends in Australia. Independent samples t-

tests and one-way ANOVAs were used to determine statistical significance between group

means, where data were compared between groups. A p-value of < 0.05 was considered

statistically significant. All analyses were completed using SPSS statistical software (v22, IBM). To

assess trends by age groups over time, participants were classified into age categories based on

those defined by the United Nations [20]. These age classifications are presented below:

1. Children – aged 1 - 11 years

5
 2. Adolescents – 12 - 17 years

3. Young adults – 18 – 35 years

4. Middle-aged adults – 36 – 59 years

5. Older adults – 60 – 79 years

6. Very old adults – 80+ years

Normative data for strength to bodyweight ratios of the general population for the squat and

bench press were sourced from the Cooper Institute (Dallas, TX) and reported in the American

College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) guidelines for exercise testing and prescription [21]. The

ACSM does not provide normative data for the deadlift, nor could other peer-reviewed published

norms for the deadlift be found, therefore, this lift was excluded from this part of the analysis.

Comparisons of strength to bodyweight ratios were only conducted for data where athletes

competed in Raw, Wrapped, or Single-ply competition. This was done to minimise the influence

of athletes competing in equipped competitions (where the weight able to be lifted is higher due

to assistive equipment) on the data, and to provide a better comparison to general population

norms where such equipment is unlikely to be used. Not all age classifications could be

identically matched to data for community strength levels. Hence, groupings were matched as

reasonably as possible and are described in each figure.

6
RESULTS
We collated data from 21,524 individuals (males n = 14,720; females n = 6,804) with 62,730

competition entries across 1,942 events between 1968 - 2022. Bodyweight and age data were

missing for n = 322 individuals and n = 13,321 competition entries, respectively. In the total

sample, mean age ± SD [range] and bodyweight at first participation were 28.40 ± 10.26 [8-87.5]

years (n = 15,231) and 82.59 ± 20.79 [20.0 – 215.6] kg (n = 21,367) respectively. Demographic

variables for all included cases are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Demographic information for the included sample at first recorded competition

participation (n=21,524). 'Missing' refers to the number of entries with unavailable data for

each metric.

Total Sam-
Male Female
ple
n = 14,720 n = 6,804
n = 21,524
28.84 ± 27.99 ± 30.33 ±
M ± SD
Age (years) at 10.26 10.12 10.34
first participa- Min-Max 8 - 87 8 - 87 9 – 78
tion Missing (n) 6,293 5,015 1,278

88.43 ± 88.43 ± 70.01 ±

M ± SD
Bodyweight 19.91 19.91 16.67
(kg) at first par- 20.0 - 20.0 - 38.60 -
Min-Max
ticipation 215.60 215.60 167.70
Missing (n) 157 122 35

First partici- M ± SD 2013 ± 9 2010 ± 11 2014 ± 9

pated competi- Min-Max 1968 - 2022 1968 - 2022 1977 - 2022
tion year Missing (n) 0 0 0

n = 6,670 n = 9,418 n = 5,429

7
 Children
n (%) 21 (0.1%) 9 (0.1%) 12 (0.2%)
(1- 11 years)
Adolescents
n (%) 912 (4.2%) 670 (4.6%) 242 (4.5%)
(12 – 17 years)
Young adults
10,971 7,117 3,854
(18 – 35 n (%)
United Nations (51.0%) (48.4%) (71.0%)
years)
age classifica-
Middle-aged
tion 2,695 1,470 1,225
adults (36 – 59 n (%)
(12.5%) (10.0%) (22.6%)
years)
Older adults
n (%) 246 (1.1%) 150 (1.0%) 96 (1.8%)
(60 – 79 years)
Very old adults
n (%) 2 (<0.0%) 2 (<0.0%) 0 (0.0%)
(80+ years)

Number of Min-Max 1 - 163 1 – 163 1 - 60

Participation
competitions
frequency mean ± SD 2.92 ± 4.33 2.93 ± 4.62 2.89 ± 3.63
per participant

24,507 15,627 8,880

Raw/Classic n (%)
(58.1%) (56.0%) (62.2%)
12,503 8,107 4,396
Wraps n (%)
Equipment (29.6%) (29.0%) (30.8%)
5,185 4,182 1,003
Other n (%)
(12.3%) (15.0%) (7.0%)
Missing n (%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)
SD: Standard Deviation.

Participation trends

Participation rates increased over time for males and females, with a substantial increase

between 2011 to 2019 and a sharp decline in 2020. The number of unique participants per

calendar year for the total sample, males, and females, is presented in Figure 1A. Overall

participation trends in the total sample were best explained by an exponential growth pattern

(formula: 𝑦 = 44.004𝑒 0.0892𝑥 , R2 = 0.8629), whilst male and female growth patterns were best

described by third-order polynomials (R2 = 0.8977 and 0.9167 for males and females,

8
respectively). The total number of competition entries per year (including multiple participations

by the same participant in the same calendar year) followed a similar trend to those seen for the

number of unique participants.

Figure 1: A. Number of unique participants in Australian powerlifting competitions by year

(1968 -2022). Exponential growth over the period occurred overall, and third-order polynomial

growth occurred for males and females, respectively. B. Percentage of competitors within each

United Nations age classification in Australian powerlifting competitions by year (1968 - 2022)

where age data were available.

9
In the total sample, athletes participated in 2.92 ± 4.33 powerlifting competitions over an average

of 1.82 ± 1.69 years [range: 1 – 30 years]. For males, the mean number of competition

participations was 2.93 ± 4.62 events over a mean duration of 1.85 ± 1.79 years [range: 1 – 30

years]. For females, the mean number of competition participations was 2.89 ± 3.63 events over

a mean duration of 1.78 ± 1.46 years [range: 1 – 26 years]. In the total sample, 52.2% of

participants competed only once, 63.9% of all participants competed only in a single calendar

year (Table S1), and 96.2% of all participants competed in ≤5 calendar years (Table S2). When

exploring the number and period of participation by sex, 53.6% of males and 49.1% of females

competed only once. For males, 95.8% participated in 1 – 5 calendar years. For females, 97.0%

participated in 1 – 5 calendar years. Table 2 shows trends for competition entries based on age

classification at first participation.

Table 1. The mean number of powerlifting competitions participated in; stratified according to

United Nations age classification at first recorded competition participation.

Range of
Number of times
United Nations Age number of Number of calendar
n participated
Classification competition years participated
Mean ± SD
participations
Total sample
Children 21 1.57 ± 1.25 1–5 1.24 ± 0.54
Adolescents 912 3.14 ± 3.81 # 1 – 42 1.83 ± 1.49 #
Young adults 10,971 3.03 ± 3.71 * 1 – 100 1.92 ± 1.61*
Middle-aged adults 2,695 3.61 ± 5.79 #* 1 – 163 2.05 ± 1.94 # *
Older adults 246 3.63 ± 4.27 1 – 32 2.00 ± 1.72
Very old adults 2 3.00 ± 1.41 2-4 1.50 ± 0.71
Missing 6,670 2.39 ± 4.60 1 – 103 1.58 ± 1.74

10
 Males
Children 9 1.67 ± 1.41 1–5 1.33 ± 0.71
Adolescents 670 3.17 ± 4.05 1 – 42 1.85 ± 1.57
Young adults 7117 3.12 ± 3.99 # 1 – 100 1.99 ± 1.73
Middle-aged adults 1470 3.68 ± 6.87 # 1 – 163 2.09 ± 2.17
Older adults 150 3.41 ± 4.36 1 – 32 1.91 ± 1.72
Very old adults 2 3.00 ± 1.41 2–4 1.50 ± 0.71
Missing 5299 2.29 ± 4.38 1 – 63 1.59 ± 1.65

Females
Children 12 1.50 ± 1.17 1–5 1.17 ± 0.39
Adolescents 242 3.03 ± 3.06 1 – 19 1.76 ± 1.26
Young adults 3854 2.87 ± 3.11 #* 1 – 51 1.79 ± 1.33 #
Middle-aged adults 1225 3.53 ± 4.14 # 1 – 34 2.00 ± 1.63 #
Older adults 96 3.97 ± 4.12 * 1 – 17 2.14 ± 1.73
Missing 1371 2.29 ± 4.38 1 - 63 1.54 ± 1.65
# Significantly different to classifications within the same group sharing this symbol
* Significantly different to classifications within the same group sharing this symbol

In the total sample, across all years, age data was missing for an average of 55.5 ± 30.4% [2.4 –

93.7%] of competition entries per year. Since 2012, the number of competition entries missing

participant age data has decreased to 10.4 ± 10.4%. Across the period 1968 – 2022, most

participants were young adults (61.1 ± 17.3%) in each calendar year. The first record of a

competitor from the "very old aged" category occurred in 2007. In the same year, entries within

the very old age category accounted for less than 0.5% of all competition entries. A detailed

presentation of the percentage of competitors with available age data within each age

classification in each calendar year is presented in Figure 1B.

The number of competitions hosted in each calendar year increased over the analysis period

(1968 – 2022) with a trend similar to the number of unique participants. The number of

11
competitions hosted in each calendar year is presented in Figure S1. Peak competition density

occurred in 2019 (171 competitions). Since 2012, there has been an average of 117 ± 37.49 [55

– 171] powerlifting competitions each year.

Strength comparisons to community norms

Bench press strength comparisons between powerlifters and available general population

norms are shown in Figure 2A-D (females), and 3A-D (males). For females, bench press strength

exceeded the 90th percentile across all years for young adults (18-35 years) and middle-aged

adults (36-59 years) when compared to similar age groups. For older adults (60-79 years) bench

press strength exceeded the 90th percentile in 11/15 years where data was available. No specific

general population norms were available for the very old category, with only those aged 60+

available [21]. For adolescents (12-17 years), bench press strength exceeded the 70th percentile

in most years for the closest comparison group. For males, bench press strength exceeded the

90th percentile across all years for middle aged adults (36-59 years), and in most instances for

young adults (18-35 years) and older adults (60-79 years). For adolescents (12-17 years), less

clear differences were observed to the closest comparison group.

12
Figure 2: A) Relative bench press strength for adolescent females (12-17 years) compared to

norms for females aged 20-29 years. B) Relative bench press strength for young adult females

(19 - 35 years) compared to norms for females aged 20-29 years. C) Relative bench press

strength for middle-aged adult females (36-59 years) compared to norms for females aged 30-

39 years. D) Relative bench press strength for older adult females (60-79 years) compared to

norms for females aged 60+ years.

13
Figure 3: A) Relative bench press strength for adolescent males (12-17 years) compared to

norms for males aged 20-29 years. B) Relative bench press strength for young adult males (19 -

35 years) compared to norms for males aged 20-29 years. C) Relative bench press strength for

middle-aged adult males (36-59 years) compared to norms for males aged 30-39 years. D)

Relative bench press strength for older adult males (60-79 years) compared to norms for

males aged 60+ years.

Squat strength comparisons between powerlifters and available general population norms are

shown in Figure 4A-D (females), and 5A-D (males). For females, squat strength exceeded the

14
excellent category in all years for middle-aged adults (36-59 years), and most years for young

adults (18-35 years). Squat strength exceeded the excellent category in 9/15 years for older

adults (60-79 years). As with bench press comparisons, less clear differences were observed for

adolescents (12-17 years) compared to the closest comparison group. For males, squat strength

exceeded the excellent category in all but one year for young adults (18-35 years), and in all

years for middle-aged adults (36-59 years). Squat strength exceeded the average category in all

but 3 years for older adults. Again, squat strength comparisons for adolescent males were less

clear when compared to the closest comparison group.

15
Figure 4: A) Relative squat strength for adolescent females (12-17 years) compared to norms

for females aged 20-29 years. B) Relative squat strength for young adult females (19 - 35 years)

compared to closest matching group of community norms comprising females aged 20-29

years. C) Relative squat strength for middle-aged adult females (36-59 years) compared to

norms for females aged 30-39 years. D) Relative squat strength for older adult females (60-79

years) compared to norms for females aged 60+ years.

Figure 5: A) Relative squat strength for adolescent males (12-17 years) compared to norms for

males aged 20-29 years. B) Relative squat strength for young adult males (19 - 35 years)

compared to norms for males aged 20-29 years. C) Relative squat strength for middle-aged

16
adult males (36-59 years) compared to norms for males aged 30-39 years. D) Relative squat

strength for older adult males (60-79 years) compared to norms for males aged 60+ years.

DISCUSSION

We explored Australian powerlifting participation trends, and compared strength levels to

available general population strength norms to better understand the growth of this sport and

the potential contribution powerlifting could make towards improving population health. Our

data demonstrates the substantial, exponential growth of participation in powerlifting events in

Australia between 1968 to 2022 and similar non-linear growth between sexes. Further, for the

first time to our knowledge, we also demonstrate the superior upper- and lower-body strength

of powerlifters across all age categories. Although not surprising given the focus of the sport, it

advocates for powerlifting as an already established and viable community tool to encourage

physical health and capacity. We contend that public health, national and regional sporting

organisations, and related entities should seek to emphasise, support, and endorse community

participation in powerlifting and other strength-related sports in the future.

articipa

17
 tion

trends:

Powerlifting event participation has grown substantially in Australia since its introduction in

1968. From 2011 onwards, there was a marked increase in event participation by both sexes

(unique competitors per year = 29.4% increase). This participation peaked in 2019 before a

sharp 1-year decline in 2020 (-32.4%), with the latter likely related to the global pandemic

(COVID-19) and the subsequent restrictions that were placed on recreational activity, exercise

and sporting competitions within Australia [22]. These effects are reflected by the total number

of competitions hosted in 2020 being limited to 55, with 3,630 total entries, compared to 171

competitions with 6,188 entries in 2019. Indeed, there was a return to similar numbers of unique

participants in 2022 (n=3928) compared to 2019 (n=3940). Indeed, 2022 resulted in record total

participation (154 competitions and 6,803 competition entries), noting that the average number

of competitions participants entered each year also trended upwards (2019: 1.57 competitions

per entrant, 2022: 1.73 competitions per entrant).

The average participation span and the number of competitions related to the athlete's United

Nations age classification at their first competition entry (refer to Table 2). Athletes who

commenced competition between 36 – 59 years partake in more competitions (3.61 ± 5.79

events) than those who begin as a young adult (18 – 35 years; 3.03 ± 3.71 events) or adolescent

(12 – 17 years; 3.14 ± 3.81 events). For males, middle-aged adults participate in more events

(3.68 ± 6.87) than their young adult counterparts (3.12 ± 3.99), but there is no difference in the

18
number of calendar years they participate. For females, older adults (60 – 79 years) participate

in more events (3.97 ± 4.12) than their young adult counterparts (2.87 ± 3.11) over an equivalent

period (~two calendar years). Middle-aged adults participate in more events (3.53 ± 4.14) and

for a longer period (2.00 ± 1.63 years) than their young adult counterparts (2.87 ± 3.11 events

and 1.79 ± 1.33 years, respectively). These trends suggest that those who commence

participation at middle to older age are more likely to compete for longer periods and in more

competitions. The reasons for commencement or cessation of the involvement across age

classifications may be related to life events and their impact on leisure time physical activity

(LTPA) [23]. For example, the commencement of work is associated with a decrease in LTPA for

both sexes. Meanwhile, reduced income and changing work conditions are associated with

decreased LTPA in young women but increased LTPA in middle-aged women. In addition,

retirement is associated with increased LTPA and less chance of a decline in LTPA [23]. Whilst

these examples are not exhaustive, they demonstrate that LTPA participation is likely affected

by life stages/events and aids in understanding Australian powerlifting participation patterns

observed here. Of course, one limitation is that the data set analysed has a most recent cut-off

(i.e., 2022). Hence, this might not accurately reflect whether younger adults have stopped

competing or will continue to compete in upcoming years. Additionally, given the time span of

the data collected it is also likely that some athletes progressed into different age categories

over this period (e.g., began competing at 17 years of age [adolescent], and after no longer than

12 months would progress to young adult [18-35 years]).

19
Nonetheless, the analysis shows that powerlifting participation occurred across all age

classifications. Given the inherent benefits of participation in regular strengthening activities

across the lifespan, it is vital for powerlifting federations, health professionals and governing

bodies to identify and understand the opportunity at hand properly. Indeed, although there are

unique performance requirements for strength sports such as powerlifting [24], and training,

personal and competition equipment requirements for registered competitions [25], plus the

appropriate periodisation of training and competition preparation [26], local-level competitions

are held by many registered community powerlifting gyms across the county that provide

accessibility and opportunity for many people to get involved. Support for the growing uptake of

powerlifting comes from data in some of Australia's most popular sports (Australian Rules

Football, tennis, hockey, cricket, basketball, lawn bowls, and tennis), where athletes aged 35 years

and over represent only 16.2% of all participants [27]. In contrast, in the same calendar year

(2011), 36 years and over, athletes represented 40.8% of all powerlifting participants (see Figure

1B). In the period 2011 – 2022, athletes aged 36 - 59 years represented an average of 24.75 ±

4.3% in any calendar year. Additionally, older adults (aged 60-79 years) represented and average

of 3.2 ± 0.67% of participants per year (with age data available) during this time. These data

suggest that middle-aged and older adults participate in powerlifting more than invasion and

bat and ball sports in Australia compared to their younger counterparts. In part, the decision to

participate in powerlifting may be due to the lower injury rates (1.0 – 4.4 injuries per 1000 hours

20
[28]) when compared to sports like soccer (15 injuries per 1000 hours [29]) and CrossFit (9.5

injuries per 1000 hours [30]). Whilst the ‘competitive’ powerlifting lifespan appears limited, it is

plausible that these middle-aged and older adults continue powerlifting-style training without

continuing in competition and/or that considerable time may be spent training before deciding

to take the next step in competing. Hence, efforts should be made to engage middle-aged and

older adults in strength-based training such as powerlifting, support the growing popularity of

community level participation and identify regions across the nation where accessibility and

opportunity is limited (e.g., location or otherwise) [19].

Along with the benefit to older adults, research in school-aged youths have shown that

resistance training can improve cognitive function, academic performance, and on-task

behaviours [19]. Resistance training may result in changes in coping and self− regulation skills

which can lead to improvements in executive function. In the school setting, on− task behaviour

is seen as synonymous with self− regulation. Robinson et al. report, improved mathematics and

languages were shown to have the strongest relationships to muscular fitness. Educational

settings can, therefore, provide an avenue to target school− aged youth where sedentary

behaviours are prevalent. For example, the promotion of, and education around resistance

training regardless of whether activities are embedded directy into curricular or extra-curricular

activites, or emphasised in other ways appear warranted. Indeed, these efforts may result in

21
physical health benefits, lifetime adoption of resistance training and have a positive effect on

learning.

Strength comparisons to community norms and proposed benefits

Importantly, upper- and lower-body strength of powerlifters exceeded available community

norms when matched for the most similar age group(s). Although this may seem unsurprising

given the focus of the sport, it provides important supportive information, which to our

knowledge has not yet been extrapolated. Indeed, greater muscular strength is associated lower

risk of mortality across the adult lifespan [5], and poor strength is becoming recognised as a risk

factor in young adult mortality [18]. To further emphasise the importance of muscular strength

development during adolescence and young adulthood Karelis (2012) reports that high strength

levels (knee extension and handgrip) were associated with a 20% lower mortality risk, 35%

reduction in cardiovascular disease and 20-30% reduction in suicide, and it seems likely that

these effects would extend to bench press and squat strength metrics. Further evidence

suggests team sport participation reduces psychological stress in senior high school girls

(Guddal et al. 2019). That being said, although powerlifting is rightly classified as an individual

performance sport, the club training environment and competition support can offer a sense of

community, facilitate regular social interaction and support emotional wellbeing (Latella & Haff

2020).

22
As previously highlighted, poor muscle strength in older adults is a major contributor to

healthcare financial burden [16, 17]. Muscular strength combats weakness and frailty, preserves

bone density, independence and reduces the risk of many chronic lifestyle diseases (for further

details see: Seguin & Nelson 2003; Fragala et al.2019). Specifically, greater muscular strength

observed in powerlifters compared to the general older adult community may act as a ‘strength

reserve’ to combat age related decline into late adulthood. Our prior work (Latella et al. 2022),

demonstrates that even Master’s category male and female powerlifters can continue to

improve strength, or show attenuated age-related reductions compared to known rates of

decline (e.g., only 0.35% strength loss per year in oldest male category). Further, we support the

idea that this strength reserve maintains physiological resilience, reduces vulnerability to

potentially catastrophic health events, and keeps older adults above clinically relevant muscle

weakness threshold (Fragala et al.2019). Although clinically relevant muscle weakness is often

based on handgrip values (e.g., normal strength, intermediate and weak scores [Alley et al.

2014]), it is possible that similar meaningful norms identifying at risk individuals could be

developed from squat and bench press community data [21] with additional prospective work

that includes health data. Lastly, and similar to adolescents, strength sport participation has

benefits beyond physical health. For example, Huebner et al. (2022) recently showed that older

adults participating the sport of weightlifting reported mental health benefits, reduced stress

and improved community connections, further emphasising the important role of muscular

strength and strength sport participation in older adults.

23
Collectively, we demonstrate a continued and growing uptake in powerlifting events by both

sexes across all age groups (except 'very old age' females). With poor population-level

participation rates in strengthening activities, powerlifting offers an opportunity for many

individuals, including the general population, to become involved in goal-orientated strength

training, regardless of being for competitive or personal health benefits. Further, strength

training may offer mental, besides just physical health benefits [31], which is important in a

society where the prevalence of clinically significant depression nears 1 in 10 people with

estimates of major depressive disorder at ~1.2% [32]. Therefore, we advocate that powerlifting

should be supported by health professionals, sporting organisations, and governing health

bodies to increase resistance training uptake, adherence, and overall levels in the Australian

population. Increased promotion, awareness, and endorsement of powerlifting (both

organisations and opportunities for participation) should be a focus and requires a collaborative

effort between those involved in leadership of the sport and health organisations across the

nation.

Limitations

Whilst this investigation has several strengths, it must be acknowledged that the retrospective

nature of the records, and subsequent analyses and results are subject to some limitations.

Because the recording of athlete age at competition entry was not provided for all entries, the

24
trends in participation by athlete age group must be interpreted with caution. However, given

the number of years and sample size, we do not think this has significantly affected the identified

trends. Instead, this is likely to have provided a more conservative estimate if anything. Second,

this investigation only explores data from Australian competition entries and does not account

for international competitions where Australians may have participated or more global

powerlifting trends. Lastly, as discussed above, athlete information about reasons for beginning

or ceasing competitive powerlifting was unavailable.

Conclusion

Powerlifting in Australia has undergone exponential growth in participation since its inception in

1968. Whilst there is substantial growth in participation rates, the number of competitions

undertaken by individuals remains limited. It is unclear why this issue exists, but it is plausible

that individuals cease competitive participation due to competitive training requirements, major

life events, or a desire to continue training without competition demands. Because demographic

data reports that Australians continue to perform less than the recommended amount of

strength training, and our analyses shows superior upper- and lower-body strength of

powerlifters across all ages, we suggest that powerlifting is a viable recreational sport to be used

to increase participation in strength training across the lifespan. Further prospective

investigations are required to understand how powerlifting participation (training and/or

25
competition) impacts physical and mental health outcomes between recreational and more

advanced participants.

Practical implications

• Participation in strength sports or activities such as powerlifting should be encouraged

across the lifespan to attenuate age-related health decline(s) and to mitigate the known

effects of low muscle strength on mortality risk.

• Health professionals and governing bodies should encourage long-term participation in

strengthening exercise, whether for competitive or health-related reasons and work with

strength sports organisations to improve public health messaging and opportunity

awareness.

• Powerlifting federations should develop targeted interventions and strategies to improve

community engagement and participant retention continually.

Contributions
Contributed to conception and design: DVH, CL
Contributed to acquisition of data: DVH, CL
Contributed to analysis and interpretation of data: DVH, CL, JS, PB, JMG, JP
Drafted and/or revised the article: All authors
Approved the submitted version for publication: All authors

Acknowledgements

Nil

26
Funding information

No funding was received by any author in relation to these investigations.

Data and Supplementary Material Accessibility

Supplementary Figures and Tables have been uploaded with this manuscript.

27
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