History and Citizenship S3 Adapted TG 2022

History and
Citizenship
Senior 3
Teacher’s Guide
Experimental Version
i
©2022 Rwanda Basic Education Board All rights reserved
This book is property of the Government of Rwanda.
Credit must be given to REB when the content is quoted.
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Foreword
Dear teacher,
Rwanda Basic Education Board is honoured to present

History and Citizenship teacher’s guide for Senior Three that
serves as a guide to Competence-based teaching and
learning to ensure consistency and coherence in the
learning of History and Citizenship subject. The Rwandan
educational philosophy is to ensure that learners achieve full
potential at every level of education, which will prepare
them to be well integrated in society and exploit
employment opportunities.
In line with efforts to improve the quality of education, the

government of Rwanda emphasizes the importance of
aligning teaching and learning materials with the syllabus to
facilitate their learning process. Many factors influence what
they learn, how well they learn and the competences they
acquire. Those factors include the relevance of the specific
content, the quality of teachers’ pedagogical approaches,
the assessment strategies and the instructional materials
available. We paid special attention to the activities that
facilitate the learning process in which learners can develop
ideas and make new discoveries during concrete activities
carried out individually or with peers. With the help of the
teachers, learners will gain appropriate skills and be able to
apply what they have learnt in real life situations. Hence, they
will be able to develop certain values and attitudes allowing
them to make a difference not only to their own life but also
to the nation.
This is in contrast to traditional learning theories, which view
learning mainly as a process of acquiring knowledge from
the more knowledgeable who is mostly the teacher. In
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competence-based curriculum, learning is considered as a
process of active building and developing of knowledge
and understanding, skills, values and attitudes by the learner
where concepts are mainly introduced by an activity,
situation or scenario that helps the learner to construct
knowledge, develop skills and acquire positive attitudes and
values.
In addition, such active learning engages learners in doing
things and thinking about the things they are doing and they
are encouraged to bring their own real experiences and
knowledge into the learning processes. In view of this, your
role is to:
• Plan your lessons and prepare appropriate teaching
materials.
• Organize group discussions for learners considering the
importance of social constructivism suggesting that
learning occurs more effectively when the learner works
collaboratively with more knowledgeable and
experienced people.
• Engage learners through active learning methods such as
inquiry methods, group discussions, research, investigative
activities and group and individual work activities.
• Provide supervised opportunities for learners to develop
different competences by giving tasks that enhance
critical thinking, problem solving, research, creativity and
innovation, communication and cooperation.
• Support and facilitate the learning process by valuing
learners’ contributions in the class activities.
• Guide learners towards the harmonization of their findings.
• Encourage individual, peer and group evaluation of the
work done in the classroom and use appropriate
competence-based assessment approaches and
methods.
• To facilitate you in your teaching activities, the content of
this teacher’s guide is self-explanatory so that you can
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easily use it. Even though this teacher’s guide contains the
answers for all activities given in the learner’s book, you
are requested to work through each question and
activity before judging learner’s findings.
I wish to sincerely extend my appreciation to REB staff who
organized the editing process of this teacher’s guide. Special
gratitude also goes to lecturers, teachers, illustrators and
designers who supported the exercise throughout. Any
comment or contribution would be welcome to the
improvement of this textbook for the next edition.
Dr. MBARUSHIMANA Nelson

Director General, REB
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Acknowledgement
I wish to express my appreciation to all the people who
played a major role in editing process of this History and
Citizenship teacher’s guide for Senior Three. It would not
have been successful without their active participation.
Special thanks are given to those who gave their time to

read and refine this textbook to meet the needs of
competence based curriculum. I owe gratitude to different
Universities and schools in Rwanda that allowed their staff to
work with REB to edit this book. I therefore, wish to extend
my sincere gratitude to lecturers, teachers, illustrators,
designers and all other individuals whose efforts in one way
or the other contributed to the success of this edition.
Finally, my word of gratitude goes to the Rwanda Education

Board staff particularly those from Curriculum, Teaching and
Learning Resources Department who were involved in the
whole process of editorial work.
Joan Murungi,
Head of CTLRD
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Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................iii
Acknowledgement ...........................................................................vi
General Introduction ........................................................................ 1
A Sample Lesson Plan........................................................................ 12
Suggested ways to teach the units step by step........................... 17
UNIT I: INDEPENDENT RWANDA..........................................................19

List of lessons .......................................................................................26
Lesson Development .........................................................................27
Lesson 1: Some major political changes at the dawn of the
independence of Rwanda ...............................................................27
Lesson 2:Political problems under the First Republic.......................30
Lesson 3: Economic problems under the First Republic .................32
Lesson 4: Achievements of the First Republic..................................35
Lesson 5: The coup d’état of 1973 and the creation of
Mouvement Révolutionnaire National pour le
Développement ............................................................... 36
Lesson 6: Economic evolution under the Second Republic.…..…37
Lesson 7: Social and cultural evolution under the Second Republic
............................................................................................ 39
Lesson 8: Root causes of the Liberation War of 1990 – 1994……...40
Lesson 9: Course of the Liberation War…………..…........................42
Lesson 10: Effects of the Liberation War ….......................................45
UNIT II: CONSEQUENCES OF GENOCIDE AGAINST THE TUTSI …......53

List of lessons........................................................................................60
Lesson Development .........................................................................60
Lesson 1: Consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi
……………………………………………………………….….60
Lesson 2: Challenges faced by Rwandans after the 1994
genocide against the Tutsi ............................................62
Lesson 3: Measures taken by the Government of Rwanda to
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rebuild the nation...............................................................63
Lesson 4: Political achievements under the Government of
National Unity .....................................................................65
Lesson 5: Economic achievements under the Government of
National Unity .....................................................................67
Lesson 6: Social achievements under the Government of
National Unity .....................................................................68
Lesson 7: Cultural achievement under the Government of
National Unity .....................................................................70
UNIT III:COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS AND COLONIAL

POWERS …………………………………………………………..78
List of lessons …....................................................................................84
Lesson Development ........................................................................ 85
Lesson 1: Colonial masters and their colonies and different
colonial administrative policies.........................................85
Lesson 2: Characteristics of Indirect Rule and reasons for its
adoption by the British ….................................................. 88
Lesson 3: The features of the assimilation policy and reasons
for its adoption ……......................................................... 89
Lesson 4: Similarities and differences between Indirect Rule
and Assimilation Policy…................................................. 92
Lesson 5: German Direct Rule......................................... 93
Lesson 6: Ethiopia as an African State that was not colonised
…………………………………………………………………................... 94
Lesson 7: Liberia as an African State that was not colonised....... 96
UNIT IV: COLONIAL REFORMS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES ON

AFRICAN SOCIETIES …………............................................122
List of lessons ……............................................................................. 128
Lesson Development ...................................................................... 129
Lesson 1: Colonial political reforms ............................................... 129
Lesson 2: Colonial economic reforms …..................................... 131
Lesson 3: Colonial socio-cultural reforms…................................... 133
Lesson 4: Political consequences of colonial reforms on
African societies ………................................................... 134
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Lesson 5: Economic consequences of colonial reforms on
African societies ………....................................................135
Lesson 6: Socio-cultural consequences of colonial reforms African
societies …………............................................................................. 136
UNIT V: CAUSES OF DECOLONISATION IN AFRICA: CASE STUDY,

GHANA AND KENYA ……………..................................... 144
List of lessons….................................................................................. 151
Lesson Development ……............................................................... 151
Lesson 1: Causes of decolonisation of Africa: Opposition to
exploitation, role played by elite and effects of
Second World War ………............................................... 151
Lesson 2: Causes of decolonisation of Africa: The 1941 Atlantic
charter and creation of United Nations Organisation. 153
Lesson 3: Causes of decolonisation of Africa: The anti-colonialist
attitude of the super powers (USA and USSR) and the
pan-africanist movement …......................................... 154
Lesson 4: Causes of the decolonisation of Africa: The formation of
OAU in 1963 and the independence of Ghana 1957
…………………………….................................................155
Lesson 5: Causes of the decolonisation of Africa: Formation of
political parties and the independence of Asian countries
...............................................................................................156
Lesson 6: Decolonisation in Ghana ……........................................ 158
Lesson 7: Decolonisation in Kenya ................................................ 159
UNIT VI: THE 1789 FRENCH REVOLUTION ….................................. 167

List of lessons……….......................................................................... 173
Lesson Development……................................................................ 174
Lesson 1: Causes of the French Revolution: The role played by the
French philosophers, unfair land ownership and unfair
taxation system………………………………………….…..174
Lesson 2: Causes of the French Revolution: Bankruptcy of the
state and dismissal of the financial reformers…......... 175
Lesson 3: Causes of the French Revolution: The character of King
Louis XVI and influence of Marie Antoinette.............. 176
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Lesson 4: Causes of the French Revolution: Influence of England
and effects of the American Revolution …................ 177
Lesson 5: Causes of the French Revolution: Natural calamities
and the calling for Estates General meeting …..........179
Lesson 6:Effects of the French Revolution :Positive effects…….180
Lesson 7: Effects of the French Revolution: Negative effects... 181
UNIT VII: CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR ...........191
List of lessons …………...................................................................... 198
Lesson 1: Causes of the First World War: Lack of the international
peace keeping body, lack of peaceful statesmen and
alliance system ....................................................................... 198
Lesson 2: Causes of the First World War: Economic imperialism
among European countries, arms race and growth of
nationalism …................................................................ 200
Lesson 3: Causes of the First World War: Franco-Prussian war of
1870–1871 and the aggressive character of Kaiser
William............................................................................... 201
Lesson 4: Causes of the First World War: role of the mass media
and the Sarajevo incident...............................................................202
Lesson 5: Military plans of the First World War............................... 204
Lesson 6: The course of the war ..................................................... 205
Lesson 7: Consequences of the First World War .......................... 207
Lesson 8: Aims and terms of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty... 208
Lesson 9: Achievements and failures of the Versailles Peace Treaty
...................................................................... ……………..209
Lesson 10: Effects of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty on Germany
................................................................. …………………210
UNIT VIII: BETWEEN TWO WARS ........................................................ 219

List of lessons….................................................................................. 226
Lesson 1: Origin and the objectives of the League of Nations....226
Lesson 2: Organs of the League of Nations…................................228
Lesson 3: Achievements and weaknesses of the League of
Nations ............................................................................... 229
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Lesson 4: Causes of the Great world economic depression...... 231
Lesson 5: Measures to overcome the world economic depression
.............................................................................................................233
Lesson 6: Effects of the world economic depression .................. 234
Lesson 7: Rise of Fascism and Mussolini in Italy and factors for
the rise of Mussolini and fascism in Italy ........................ 236
Lesson 8: Mussolini’s internal policy and his methods to
consolidate himself in power in Italy and his failures……............ 237
Lesson 9: Factors for the rise of Adolf Hitler to power in Germany
and rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in Germany........... 238
Lesson 10: Consolidation of Adolf Hitler in power and factors for
the downfall of Adolf Hitler and Nazism….................................... 240
UNIT IX: CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR……249
List of lessons..................................................................................... 255
Lesson Development....................................................................... 256
Lesson 2: Responsibility for the outbreak of Second World War. 258
Lesson 3: Course of the Second World War: War on the eastern
front and war on the western front ………................................... 260
Lesson 4: Course of the World War II: The Axis offensive:
1939–1942 ..........................................................................261
Lesson 5: Course of the Second World War: The Allied successes
1942–1945 ……….............................................................................. 262
Lesson 6: Reasons for the defeat of Axis powers in the Second
World War………................................................................................263
Lesson 7: Consequences of the Second World War……….……. 265
UNIT X: NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS

INSTRUMENTS AND THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS 272
List of lessons….................................................................................. 279
Lesson 1: National Human Rights instruments……....................... 279
Lesson 2: International Human Rights instruments….................... 283
UNIT XI: DEMOCRATISATION PROCESS........................................... 287

List of lessons .................................................................................... 293
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Lesson 1: The process of democratisation and indicators of
democratization……………………………………………………… . 294
Lesson 2: Comparison of the democratisation in Rwanda and the
sub-region …..................................................................... 295
UNIT XII: UNDERSTANDING RWANDANS IN REFERENCE TO REGIONAL

GROUPINGS........................................................................ 302
List of lessons..................................................................................... 309
Lesson 1: Understand oneself in reference to Rwanda and East
Africa ................................................................................................ 309
Lesson 2: The importance of regional integration in East Africa 311
UNIT XIII: NATIONAL LAWS IN CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION…… 316

List of lessons…….............................................................................. 323
Lesson Development……................................................................ 323
Lesson 1: Definition of conflict transformation and sources of
Rwandan codes and laws ............................................................. 323
Lesson 2: Legal mechanism and organs in conflict transformation
............................................................................................................ 324
UNIT XIV: FACTORS FOR NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE..................... 330

List of lessons….................................................................................. 336
Lesson Development …………........................................................ 337
Lesson 1: Political factors for national independence ............... 337
Lesson 2: Economic and socio-cultural factors for national
independence ................................................................ 338
Lesson 3: Promoting and sustaining self-reliance ........ 340
UNIT XV: CONCEPT OF DISABILITY AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION.. 355

List of lessons .....................................................................................362
Lesson Development……………………………………………………362
Lesson 1: Different categories of children with special needs.... 362
Lesson 2: Ways to help learners with special and the impact of
inclusive education........................................................ 364
UNIT XVI: TOLERANCE AND RESPECT ............................................ 370
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List of Lessons ………………………………………............................. 376
Lesson Development …................................................................... 377
Lesson 1: The effects of bias, prejudice, intolerance and stigma
on individual and families ……....................................................... 377
References ...................................................................................... 383
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i
General Introduction
Introduction to the new Curriculum

This Teacher’s Guide of S3 encompasses different parts or
sections. The first section is about the general introduction to
the Teacher’s Guide. In this part, methodological notes are
provided and it includes the general guidelines on principles
of competence-based approach to learning and
assessment. The second section is made up of the content
map while third section is about the sample of a lesson plan.
The content map comprises of the following elements:
number of periods in each unit, key unit competence,
number of lessons, equipment and learning and teaching
materials required, activities and techniques, generic
competences practiced, cross cutting issues to be
addressed and assessment strategies of the key unit
competence.
The fourth section contains the development of all the units
and the structure of each unit which include the following:
unit title, key unit competence, prerequisite of the unit,
cross-cutting issues to be addressed, generic competences
to be developed, vocabulary or key words, guidance on
the problem statement, attention to special educational
needs, list of lessons, and the lesson development. At the
end of the units, there is summary of the unit, additional
information, end unit assessment, remedial activities and
extended activities. The last and the fifth section is made up
of references.
General Guidelines on Principles of Competence-Based
Approach to Learning and Assessment
Active techniques to be used in developing competences
1. Group work
In teaching and learning history, group work refers to a
multiplicity of techniques in which two or more learners are
assigned a task that involves collabouration and
communication. In the classroom, learners usually work in
groups of 2 to 6.
Group work is used to motivate learners, encourage active

learning, and develop key critical thinking, communication,
and decision-making skills.
For example, in Senior Three, while teaching the failures and
reasons for the fall of the First Republic from Unit One
entitled Independent Rwanda, group work is one of the
appropriate techniques that can be used. Through group
work, learners discuss and exchange ideas. Therefore, they
make a common understanding about the reasons for the
decline of the First Republic by 1973.
How to apply this technique in teaching history?
• To be successful by using group work in teaching

history, as a teacher you are advised to do the
following:
• Plan the exercise carefully to make sure that all learners
contribute.
• Decide what you want them to produce.
• Arrange how the groups will give feedback.
• Decide how many will work together.
• Decide who will be working together.
15
• Give learners roles/jobs within the group.
• Arrange a stop signal.
• Teach learners what noise level is appropriate.
• Give a time target.
• Monitor the groups.
• Assess the work done by the group.
2. Discussion
Discussion, as applied in learning history, is a technique that
promotes interaction between learners themselves on one
side and between learners and you the teacher on the
other side. This technique engages learners in higher
thinking skills, cognition, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. It helps to check what has been learned,
explore knowledge or opinion and give chance to learners
to express themselves and evaluate ideas.
Most of time, this technique is used after class presentation
in order to share the ideas with the whole class, evaluate
and make synthesis.
For the success of this technique, guide learners in the
following ways:
• Plan to answer a series of questions asked by their
classmates.
• Everyone must follow the rules of procedure like respect
of one’s opinion and keeping silent while someone is
exposing his or her idea.
• You should assume a background position, not a
leadership role.
• Make a follow up of interesting ideas to help learners
understand the key points.
• Focus on the objectives.
• Write down the main ideas on the chalkboard or paper

in order to come up with general synthesis.
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3. Debate
A debate is a formal argument or discussion of a question
with two or more opposition speakers and often ending with
a vote.
A debate helps learners develop the skills of public
speaking, research, free expression, time management,
critical thinking and summarising the material for delivery.
Academically, debate helps to acquire new vocabularies
through research and from other debaters.
To apply this technique in teaching and learning history, a
teacher should make sure that you have chosen a motion,
and both opposers and proposers should be selected.
Consequently, a chairperson, a timekeeper and secretary
must be also selected.
The chairperson’s roles are to direct the discussion and
ensure that order prevails, secretary records points
discussed and therefore should be quick when speakers are
expressing points. The timekeeper guides speakers on
amount of time to use and therefore should have a signal
and a watch.
Example of motion in Learner’s Book of Senior Three: “Was
colonisation beneficial for Africans or not?”
4. Roles play
Role-playing is another history teaching technique in which
one learner can explore the thoughts and feelings of
another historical person by responding and behaving as
that person would in a simulated situation. One of the
reasons role-play can work so well is because of the power
of placing oneself in another’s shoes. It can involve pairs,
groups, or the whole class.
This technique provides opportunities for learning in both the
affective domain, where emotions and values are involved,
17
as well as in the cognitive domain where experiences are
analysed.
There are seven main steps you need to observe when
preparing to use a role-play:
1. Select or develop the role-playing scenario: Teacher’s
preparation
2. Tell learners what they will be doing and why.
3. Select participants and explain their roles.
4. Explain what you expect from the audience.
5. Give learners time to prepare.
6. Commence the role-play.
7. Discuss, evaluate and debrief.
For example, in teaching Unit 3 about European Domination
and Exploitation of Africa in the 19th Century, one group of
learners can play as colonialists who have to enforce the
colonial exploitation policies like forced labour while
another group are the Africans who should implement these
policies.
5. Field visits
In field visits, learners go outside the classroom to observe a
historical site, museum, memorial sites, and monuments or to
hear information from resource persons. To use this
technique in history, there are two main stages to be
followed: Before the visit, the teacher and learners:
• agree on aims and objectives

• gather relevant information prior to visit
• brainstorm on key questions and share
responsibilities
• discuss materials needed and other logistical
issues;
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• discuss and agree on accepted behaviours
during the visit.
After the visit:
• De-brief and discuss what was learnt and observed
• Evaluate all aspects of visit
• Receive and analyse reports, presentations prepared
by learners.
For example, while learners learn about Unit 2, the
consequences of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, they
can visit the Kigali Genocide Memorial Centre at Gisozi.
6. Case study
Case study as a learning technique is a story either based
on real events, or from a construction of events which could
reasonably take place. It involves issues or conflicts which
need to be resolved.
The information contained in a case study can be complex
or simple. Present a problem situation and indicates how to
proceed.
For example, while teaching history in Senior Three about
the Second World War, in its sub-topic form of the causes of
the Second World War, you can use an extract of text
showing the tension between Europeans countries before
the outbreak of the Second World War.
Learners read or listen to it, discuss about it and give the
appropriate answers to the related questions.
7. Learning corner/ centre

Place questions in different corners of the classroom. Groups
of 3–6 learners move from corner to corner as per signal
given you. They discuss and write an answer to each
question taking into account answers already written by
previous groups.
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The use of different coloured markers for each group helps
to see what each group wrote for each question. Ideas for
each question are discussed in plenary to come up with
some conclusions at the end.
8. Brainstorming
This is the term given to any discussion during which learners’
express ideas freely. It is a way of listening to as many
solutions as possible in a short period of time.
It is an important method for learning / teaching creative
thinking in history. It allows learners to work together to
create ideas. It also has a place in decision making and
helps to increase the range of facts taken into account in
reaching a decision. It is best used with groups of between 5
– 20 learners.
To use this technique, some guidelines should be taken into
consideration:
• There must be an active participation by all members;
no discussions, criticisms, compliments or other
comments during the brainstorming stage.
• Start by reviewing the rules, sets a time limit; states and
explains the question.
• Encourage every learner to speak without fear and
new ideas can be used to generate new points of
view.
• Record all ideas as they are provided on the
chalkboard or paper. Do not allow criticisms, judgment
or laughing at poor answers.
• After brainstorming, guide learners to recognise the
ideas; this can be used to generate more ideas.
• Finally, guide learners to draw a conclusion.
20
• It can be used to all topics in history and sometimes it
can be combined with other techniques like discussion
and group work.
9. Research work
Research work is a process of steps used to collect and
analyse information to increase our understanding of a
topic or issue. It consists of three steps: pose a question,
collect data to answer the question and present an answer
to the question.
In History, a learner or group of learners is given a research
topic and they have to gather information by reading
textbooks, journals, and newspapers, using audio-visual
sources or asking experienced people. Thereafter, learners
analyse and discuss the gathered information and then
present the results to the class.
General Guidelines on Assessment in History Subject

Assessment is regarded as those formal and informal
procedures that teachers and learners employ in gathering
information on learning and making judgment about what
learners know and can do. As opposed to the
misconception most people have always had that
assessment comes after teaching, assessment is an integral
part of teaching and learning.
Competence-based assessment is an assessment process in
which a learner is confronted with a complex situation
relevant to his/her everyday life and asked to look for a
solution by applying what has been learnt (knowledge, skills,
competences and attitudes). Evidence of learning is then
collected and used as the basis on which judgments are
made concerning learners progress against fixed
performance criteria.
21
Before any assessment is carried out, teachers should be
clear about why they should assess, what should be
assessed, when it should be assessed and how to do the
assessment. This will depend on whether assessment is
formative or summative.
Types of assessment
Formative assessment is daily monitoring of learning to
provide ongoing feedback that teachers can use to
improve their teaching and learners use it to improve their
acquisition of competences.
In the competence-based curriculum, formative assessment
measures a learner’s ability with respect to a criterion or
standard. Therefore, it is used to determine what learners
can do, rather than how much they know, or how they
compare with peer groups. It is also used to see how well
learners have mastered knowledge, skills, competences
and attitudes as specified in the instructional objectives.
Summative assessment is used to evaluate learner learning,
skill acquisition, and academic achievement at the
conclusion of a defined instructional period, such as the
end of a project, unit, course, term, school year and cycle.
Summative assessment is chiefly concerned with judgment
of work in terms of units of work completed, and attempts to
determine if goals of the unit, course or Programme have
been attained. So, it comes at the end of the unit, course or
programme. Summative assessment is also used for
selection, guidance on future courses, certification,
promotion, curriculum control, and accountability.
22
Guidelines to be followed in answering essay questions in
History
Introduction
When planning to give an assignment question to learners,
provide them with the following instructions:
• What the question
means.
• What it is asking you to
do.
Read the question several times and consider any implicit
assumptions behind the question. Define the key words (use
a dictionary if necessary) and look for any words that focus
or restrict the area you need to examine in your answer.
Underline the key words or phrases in your question. Use the
context around each key word to help you understand
what is required, for example, ‘discuss briefly’ as compared
to ‘discuss in the context of…’ Also bear in mind that some
words may have slightly different meanings depending on
the discipline in which they are used. If in doubt, check with
a subject specific dictionary or your tutor.
The following list provides an explanation of some common
question words
Verb What is asked to do
Account for Give reasons for; explain (note: give an
account of; describe).
Analyse Break the information into constituent
parts; examine the relationship between
the parts; question the information.
Argue Put the case for or against a view or idea
giving evidence for your claims/reasons for
or against; attempt to influence the reader
to accept your view
23
Balance Look at two or more viewpoints or pieces
of information; give each equal attention;
look at good and bad points; take into
account many aspects and give an
appropriate weighting to those aspects.
Be critical Identify what is good and bad about the
information and why; probe, question,
identify inaccuracies or shortcomings in
the information; estimate the value of the
material.
Clarify Identify the components of an
issue/topic/problem/; make the meaning
plain; remove misunderstandings.
Compare Look for similarities and differences
between; perhaps conclude which is
preferable; implies evaluation.
Conclude/draw The end point of your critical thinking;
conclusions what the results of an investigation
indicate; arrive at a judgement by
reasoning.
Contrast Bring out the differences.
Criticise Give your judgement on theories or
opinions or facts and back this by
discussing evidence or reasoning involved.
Define Give the precise meaning. Examine the

different possible or often used definitions.
Demonstrate Show clearly by giving proof or evidence.
Describe Give a detailed, full account of the topic.
Determine Find out something; calculate.
24
Develop an Decide what you think (based on an
opinion/ a view argument or evidence).
Discuss Investigate or examine by argument;
debate; give reason for and against;
examine the implications of the topic.
Elucidate Explain and make clear.
Evaluate/weigh Appraise the worth of something in the light
up of its truth or usefulness; assess and explain
Examine Look at carefully; consider.
Explain Make plain and clear; give reasons for
Give evidence Provide evidence from your own work or
that of others which could be checked by
a third party to prove/ justify what you say.
Identify Point out and describe.
Identify trends Identify patterns/changes/ movements in
certain directions (e.g. over time or across
topics/ subjects).
Illustrate Explain, clarify, make clear by the use of
concrete examples.
Interpret Expound the meaning; make clear and
explicit, giving your own judgement.
Justify Show adequate grounds for decisions, a
particular view or conclusions and answer
main objections likely to be made to them.
Outline Give a short description of the main points;
give the main features or general
principles; emphasise the structure, leaving
out minor details.
Prove Show that something is true or certain;
provide strong evidence (and examples)
for.
Review Make a survey examining the subject
carefully; similar to summarise and
evaluate.
25
State Present in a brief, clear form.
Summarise Give a concise account of the chief points
of a matter, removing unnecessary detail.
Synthesise Bring elements together to make a
complex whole, draw together or
integrate issues (e.g. theories or models
can be created by synthesising a number
of elements).
Trace Follow the development of topic from its
origin.
List of equipment needed for the subject

In order to attain to all goals, it is important to have at least
the basic materials like the following:
• Paper and pens
• A wall map of the traditional Rwanda,
• A wall map of Africa
• School or Public library access
• Relevant pictures and photographs
• Globe
• Atlas
• Learner’s book
• Chalkboard illustrations
• Dictionaries
• Rwandan constitution
• Charter of United Nations Organisation
• Document on Universal declaration of Human
rights
• Audio sources like radio recordings
• Films and videos (audio –visual source)
• Historical sites
• Memorial sites
• Braille
• Museum
26
• Tale, tactile maps, stories and testimonial
• Testimonies of Genocide survivors and
perpetrators,
• Films of genocide (seven days in Kigali), Poems,
Songs
• Supplementary booklets on Egyptian civilisation,
(The supplementary materials will support
textbooks by providing a brief history of each of
the above civilisation)
• Posters of traditional tools e.g. Arrows spears, Shield,
Sword, ramming rod and Axe
• Relevant newspapers and magazine cuttings
• School surroundings and its neighbourhood
Guidance on what to do if these materials are not available

Some materials are so important required like Atlas,
Learner’s Book, etc. while others could be replaced
according to their availability to different areas in the
country.
For example, if you cannot easily find a film, you can use a
recording from radio, using testimonies.
If there is no a wall map or Atlas, you can draw such map
on chalkboard. Where it is not possible to find pictures or
portraits, you can describe the persons so that learners can
get an idea about those persons.
If you cannot find the posters of tradition tools, you can
draw them and then learners observe them and do the
asked activity.
It would be better for schools near the historical sites,
memorial sites and museum to visit them than to use other
illustrations because it enables learners meet with some
specialists and have more information which can widen
their knowledge and competences.
27
A Sample Lesson Plan
A lesson plan is the teacher’s road map of what learners

need to learn and how it will be done effectively during the
class time. Before you plan your lesson, you will need to first
identify the learning objectives of that topic to be achieved
in that lesson.
Then, you design appropriate teaching and learning
activities for the teacher and learners respectively. This is
how you can be sure to obtain feedback on student
learning.
The lesson plan helps the teacher conduct his or her lesson
in an orderly way and it allows learners to know what they
are going to be learning and how it fits into the syllabus.
Learners also feel that the lessons are handled in a logical
order. Having a good lesson plan will also increase
confidence in the teacher. In addition, a detailed plan
clearly demonstrates that the teacher has taken time, as
well as, put in the thought and effort into making the lesson.
TABLE
28
UNIT 1: INDEPENDENT RWANDA
1.1 Key Unit competence

To be able to explain the political, economic and socio-
cultural changes in the First and the Second Republic and the
causes, consequences of the Liberation war in Rwanda
(1990-1994).
1.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitude and values)

To facilitate the teaching and learning of this unit the
following elements should have been learned before:
• The civilisation of pre-colonial Rwanda in its part
related to political and military organisation; economic
organisation; socio-political and economic
dependence (ubuhake, ubukonde, uburetwa) of the
Rwandan traditional society in S1.
• Rwanda’s contact with the outside world and its
colonisation by Germany and Belgium occupation,
German administration, and the coming of
missionaries in senior two
• Rwanda under Belgian colonisation (1916–1962):
Belgian military occupation (1916–1926), Belgian
29
Mandate and Belgian Trusteeship with different reforms
initiated in senior two
• Steps of the decolonization of Rwanda comprising
economic and political transformations and formation
of political parties in senior two
1.3. Introductory activity and guidance
A) Introductory activity (unity level)
Do research using the internet and library to answer the

following:
Describe the political situation of Rwanda at the time of its
independence
b) Guidance on introductory activity
At the beginning of this unit, the given introductory activity

generates students to be interested or fascinated to know/
understand what happens or what will happen in this unit
and help them to be passionate to know by the end of the
unit what they thought was not possible at the beginning.
As they are engaged in the lesson, they themselves discover
answers to the questions they were asking at the beginning.
This will help them identify some issues and open them to
what they did not know and be curious to know about
independent Rwanda.
One of suggested issue here is “Reflect on how bad
leadership can lead a country or a whole region to an
apocalypse similar to what Rwanda experienced in 1994.”
This problem statement can be given as homework or in
class discussion.
30
1.4. List of lessons
# Lesson title Learning objectives Number
of periods
1 Major changes Explain fundamental 4
that took place in changes that took
the First and place in First and
Second Republics Second Republics in
Rwanda.
2 Root causes, Discuss the causes and 2

course, effects of consequences of
the liberation war Rwandan Liberation War
in Rwanda (1990- of 1990-1994.
1994)
3 End unit assessment 1
Guidance on different lessons
1.4.1. Lesson 1: Major changes that took place in the First and
Second Republics
a) Learning objective
Explain fundamental changes that took place in First
and Second Republics in Rwanda.
b) Teaching resources
To conduct well this lesson, the teacher uses History learner’
book, internet, videos, testimonies, Extracts from political
speeches, a projector, a laptop, etc. for the learners with
special needs, the following teaching aids can be used: jaws
software, tactile maps and braille materials for students who
31
are visually impaired. Sign language should be used when
teaching students with hearing impairment.
c) Learning activities
Guidance to learning activity 1.1
To teach this lesson, you should be required to use learner
centred method. Here, the interactive learning can be achieved
while the learners have been given an opportunity to give their
opinions as much as possible.
As teacher guide/organise learners into groups and then
asks them to do activity 1 in their textbook.
Learners get into groups and discuss, try to find out answers to the
questions asked. Each group should appoint one person to act
as a class secretary to note down points agreed on and another
person as leader who represent them during plenary discussion.
Thereafter, the group leaders present their answers to the whole
class.
From the answers given by learners, give a synthesis by
summarising the content that is in Learner’s Book.
Suggested answers for activities

Answers for introductory activity
At the time of Independent, Rwanda faced many problems

in all domains: political, economic and social. For our
question, let us show some political issues faced by Rwanda
at the time and just after independence. The first political
challenges faced at the time of Independence was the
Refugee issue who had fled the country from 1959. At
independence, Grégoire Kayibanda forced his way into
political prominence and he was more than willing to access
power and sow divisions to maintain his rule. Just after
independence, Rwanda was characterized by poor
governance and the exclusion and divisions policies, which
compromised the development of Rwanda and led to the
1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.
32
The attitude adopted by the First Republic towards properties
of the Rwandan refugees, the returnees could not be given
their properties back. These properties had been illegally
seized by burgomasters and their relatives or friends. The
same problem persevered during the First and the Second
Republics. Moreover, President Kayibanda forbade the
refugees, and those who wanted to return, from claiming
their properties. In 1975, President Habyarimana issued a law
according to which the properties abandoned by refugees
belonged henceforth to the Government of Rwanda.
President Kayibanda built his regime basing on the ideology
of his political party PARMEHUTU. The effects against the Tutsi
from 1959: Several thousands of Tutsi were killed, many Tutsi
fled the country and became refugees in neighboring
countries, the Tutsi’s houses were burned down and Tutsi
became homeless and displaced. In general, the Social
tensions were revived and continued during the First Republic
Answers for learning activity 1.1
Major changes that took place in the first and second
republics
The first republic started immediately after on independence

on 1st July 1962. It ended on 5th July1973. It was headed by
KAYIBANDA Gregoire with his party called PARMEHUTU.
The first republic was characterized by dictatorship and civil

strife that replaced colonial rule. Many of them were
massacred while others ran to exile in the neighboring African
countries like Uganda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of
Congo and Tanzania.
The major changes that took place in the first republic were
as follows:
 A constitution was organized and developed for the
first time in the existence of Rwanda.
33
 A government that was headed by the president was
formed. It was the birth of a republic.
 A parliament was also established.
 There was creation of infrastructure like schools, roads
and hospitals.
 There was development of the first five year plan
 Some political institutions were created like the
national assembly and the Supreme Court.
 Class discrimination, torture and hatred against the
Tutsi continued. This eventually led to many of them
fleeing from their country to neighboring states of
Congo, Burundi, Tanzania and Uganda.
 It was characterized by killings against innocent Tutsi
who remained in the country.
 There was underdevelopment and absolute poverty
with the economy remaining stagnant. There was also
a high rate of unemployment and goods were scarce.
 There was creation of one party state under
MDR/PARMEHUTU which designed a racist ideology
that was later consolidated in the second republic.
th
The second republic started on the 5 July 1973 under
Juvenal HABYARIMANA who came to power through a
coup d’état. The government claimed that it had come
to save a country that was about to perish. It was later
realized that it had done nothing much to accomplish its
mission.
Some of the features that took place during the second

republic include the following:
• Arbitrary arrests and killings
• Violation of human rights
• Creation of Akazu
34
• Corruption
• Poor governance
• Increased ethnicity
The major changes that took place in the second republic

include:
 Infrastructural development continued in some areas

roads were constructed, some hospitals though these
were not evenly distributed in all parts of the country.
 Harassment of opposition leaders and critics against
the government. Some were murdered while others
imprisoned, for example, in western region in Kibirira
and Bigogwe, most of them were Tutsi.
 There were human rights abuses where many people
were imprisoned and kept into prisons without going to
courts of laws for trial.
 There existed armed robbery, political violence against
civilians. This was due to poor security to the masses.
 In the second republic, there was introduction of
regionalism. With this Habyarimana got concentrated
in members of the Akazu (little house or a clan) from
North West hence neglecting other regions.
 In 1978 a sham constitution was developed which kept
him in office. This was by holding elections in which he
was the sole candidate.
In conclusion the first and second republic fed the people of

Rwanda with nothing apart from untold suffering, torture,
economic stagnancy and death. Rwanda saw a period in
which innocent civilians were subjected to untold torture,
forced exile to neighboring countries and tarnishing
Rwanda’s history by planning the occurrence of genocide
against the Tutsi by 1994.
35
Answers to the application activity 1.1
1. Identify and explain problems faced by the First Republic

just after independence
Political issues: Refer to the answers given to the

introductory activity
Economic issues:
• After attaining its independence, Rwanda lacked the
following infrastructure: administrative offices, airport,
radio station, permanent roads, university or other
institutions of higher learning.
• To address the economic crisis, the government resorted
to assistance from Western countries and international
organisations such as International Monetary Fund
(IMF). The Western donor countries which assisted
Rwanda were mainly Belgium and United States of
America (USA). Belgium and IMF just granted Rwanda a
little more in terms of loans and the USA donated food
and some money to buy equipment. Besides, the
government of Rwanda reduced expenses of all
ministries adopted the “First Five Year Economic
Development Plan of 1966–1971”.
• The strategy adopted by the Government of
Kayibanda to solve the problem of the food security
and land shortage was the establishment of farms in the
former prefectures of Gitarama, Kibungo, and Rural
Kigali as well as the sensitisation in the prefectures of
Ruhengeri, Byumba, Gikongoro, and especially Butare
to encourage people to settle there.
Social issues
The conditions of the displaced Tutsi and those who
remained in their former regions became worse with the
Inyenzi attacks. After every “Inyenzi” attack, Tutsi would be
36
killed and survivors sought asylum outside the country. In
general, in all country the social conditions remained
precarious.
2. Assess the achievements made by the first Republic.
(While realised, these achievements was not sufficient nor
efficient to stop the fall of regime.
- political mismanagement of resources
- Five Year Development Plan (1966–1971) it was
proposed to tarmac all the road axes linking the
country to her neighbors but not attained that target
- Some marshlands were reclaimed in order to improve
agricultural production improved seeds and plants
and distributed them in some parts of the country
- At independence, Rwanda had few secondary
schools
including Ecole Officielle d’Astrida ,ETO Kicukiro,
Collège Saint André, Collège du Christ Roi and
Seminaries at Kabgayi, Nyundo, Rwesero
- Some socio-medical centres were opened to provide
sanitary or health education, training on how to avoid
and prevent diseases, and skills in maternal health
care.
- A centre for handicapped children was built at
Gatagara (Nyanza District) and a psychiatry centre
for the mentally handicapped at Ndera (Gasabo
District). This centre, also known as Caraes-Ndera, was
run by the Gand Brothers of Charity. (For more details
refer in learner’s book)
3. Examine the factors which helped President Habyarimana
Juvénal to consolidate his power
- The coup d’état leaders dissolved the National

Assembly, suspended the 1962 constitution and
37
abolished all political parties existing at the time, such
as the organs of MDR-PARMEHUTU.
- Political power was from that time monopolised by a
small group of people from Bushiru in the ex-
commune of Karago in the current District of Nyabihu.
- Finally, power was in the hands of President
Habyarimana, his immediate family, and his in-laws.
This was known as “Akazu” or “one single household”
(For more details, refer in learner’s book)
4. Explain the achievements of the Second Republic (For
more details of answers (refer in learner’s book)
5. Analyse the appointment or distribution of positions in
public administration during the Second Republic.
Thereafter, answer the following questions:
• Which part of the country was favoured?
The North was favored, during the Second Republic

the policy tended to discriminate against the Tutsi
and the Hutu from the South while at the same time
reserving the best and numerous positions in all fields
to the Hutu from the North.
• Do you think this policy was good?

No, because it was a discriminatory and exclusive of all
Rwandans, no genuine democracy, all Rwandans were not
secured ect.
• Discuss and criticize the rule of Habyarimana.
The governance of Habyarimana was characterized and
was in fact applied in all sectors of National life and it
constituted a serious violation of Human Rights. It went a
long way into preparing for the culmination into genocide in
1994.
What do you propose should be done to avoid
discrimination?
38
Promote good governance, devise and implement policies
for the social welfare for all Rwandans etc.
1.4.2. Lesson 2: Root causes, course, effects of the liberation
war in Rwanda (1990-1994)
Discuss the causes and consequences of Rwandan
Liberation War of 1990-1994.
student’s books and the photographs of the commanders
of the Rwanda Patriotic Army like that of General Fred Gisa
Rwigema. In schools with enough resources and means, a
teacher can use a documentary film, map of Rwanda
showing the main battlefields of the Liberation War, the use
of a movie showing some of the consequences of the
Liberation war, projector, tactile maps and brailed
materials. Sign language should be used when teaching
learners with hearing impairment, etc.
Organise students into groups and then ask them to do
activities mentioned in their textbook (For more details, refer
to learner’s book)
To make a synthesis of the lesson, summarise the content
that is in the student’s Book basing on the answers
developed by the learners.
1.2.1. Root Causes of the 1990 - 1994 liberation struggle

1. Refusal of return of refugees: Very many refugees in
Diaspora were longing to return to their motherland
(Rwanda). The Habyarimana regime had completely
refused the return of the Tutsi refugees. As a result, they
39
(refugees) organised a war as a way for them to
liberate their country.
2. Increased patriotism: The descendants of the 1959
refugees came together and formed a group called
Rwandese Alliance for National Unity (RANU). Its
objective was to mobilise all Rwandans in the diaspora
into the movement. It later became the Rwanda
Patriotic Front (RPF - Inkotanyi) from which rose the RPA
(Rwanda Patriotic Army). The RPA started the liberation
war and eventually won it.
3. Mismanagement of government resources: The natural

and human resources were not well managed. The
issue of population increase was given little attention,
only remembered when the refugees demanded to
return.This increased the spirit of nationalism among
the Tutsis in the diaspora.
4. Increased pressure for democratisation: In July 1991,
the extreme demand for democracy reached its
climax. The ruling party MRND started a multi–party
politics, created limited presidential terms and
separated the judicial, executive and legislative arms
of government. This gave rise to many political parties
5. The desire to end dictatorship: The second republic of
Rwanda was dictatorial to the extent that people were
denied fundamental freedoms such as the freedom of
speech and freedom of press. Participation in national
politics by the masses was abolished.
6. Desire to end assassinations: The second republic was
a military government characterised by assassination
of people based on ethnic groupings. Therefore, there
was need to end such killings.
40
7. The desire to end corruption: The second republic of
Rwanda was dominated by corrupt officials. Above all,
corruption was based on tribes.
8. Need to establish fairness in security forces: There was
no fairness in the army. Promotion to high ranks was
done based on tribal line. The police were merged with
the army. This meant that these institutions were in the
hands of one man.
9. Need for unity: The previous governments, that is, the
first and second republics had exercised extreme
discrimination that largely depended on ethnicity. This
led to disunity among Rwandans. It was against this
background that the liberation war was considered a
necessity.
The course of the 1990-1994 liberation war is summarised
below:
 From as early as 1959, many Tutsi were forced to flee to
neighboring countries such as Uganda, Tanzania,
Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi. Those
who were capable fled to the United States of America
and Europe, these Rwandans saw and experienced a
lot of hardship.
 Rwandans in exile had lost hope of ever returning to
their homeland by peaceful means. As a result, a
group of young Rwandans, descendants of the 1959
refugees, decided to unite under a group that they
called the Rwandese Alliance for National Unity
(RANU).
 RANU’s objective was to mobilize all other Rwandans in
the Diaspora into a movement geared towards
resolving their problems by themselves.
 In 1987, this group developed into the Rwanda Patriotic

Front (RPF-Inkotanyi) with its military wing, the Rwanda
41
Patriotic Army (RPA). The RPA later grew into such a
strong force that not only defeated the oppressive
regime within nearly four years, but also stopped the
on-going Genocide in 1994 within a period of only
three months.
The RPF – Inkotanyi under the leadership of the late Major
General Fred Gisa Rwigema attacked Rwanda from the
eastern part of the country on October 1, 1990. This was
intended to make them realize their long time dream of
going back home after decades in exile. This marked the
beginning of a nearly four-year war that not only saw the
Rwandese Patriotic Front (RPF) finally take over control of the
country, but also greatly changing the political and social
atmosphere in the countries of the Great Lakes region as it is
seen today.

The 1990 - 1994 liberation war was a success and it indeed
managed to fully achieve its cause. The effects of the 1990 -
1994 liberation war include:
 Creation of new Rwanda - Rwanda was known to be a
country of evils such as massive killings, insecurity and
division. Things have now changed completely as
Rwanda now has a new image after the 1990 - 1994
liberation war.
 Good governance - The liberation war of 1990 - 1994
brought good governance in Rwanda as seen through
freedom of speech, interaction of leaders and citizens
and participation in public debates.
 Many Rwandans
 Unity - The liberation war of 1990 - 1994 brought about
unity among the Rwandans through multiple campaigns
of reconciliation and change of the national identity
cards to identify citizens as Rwandans.
42
 Restored security
 Stopping the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi
 Economic growth - Rwanda managed to attain steady
and fast economic growth after the liberation war. This has
been achieved through privatization, increased
investment and regional economic integrations.
1. Describe the life of a refugee and try to find out his
feelings. Losing dignity and the poor conditions of living
such as lack of employment and good education in host
countries, made refugees think of a strategy to return
home.
2. Groups started to form around the themes of return and
self-help.
• Show how the First and Second Republic imposed
difficult conditions for individual repatriation of the
Rwandan refugees. (see learner’s book)
• Discuss how the long exile of the Rwandan refugees
contributed to the outbreak of the Liberation War
(1990-1994)? (see learner’s book)
3. To what extent did the “ethnic” and regional divisions
contributed to the outbreak of the Liberation War?
Both the First and the Second Republics institutionalised
division and exclusion policies and ideology identity
(Hutu, Tutsi, Twa) in identity cards and the quota system (
regional equilibrium) administration, schools, the army,
etc. During the First Republic, power was in the hands of
a few people from some communes of Gitarama and
again a few people from some parts of the former
Ruhengeri and Gisenyi prefectures during the Second
Republic.
Both Republics were characterised by ideology identity. The

two regimes reinforced the conflict between Nduga people
43
in the central and southern part of the country and Rukiga
people in the northern and western part of the country by
monopolizing and excluding many parts of the country.
During these regimes, hatred against Tutsi worsened. Every
political crisis was blamed on Tutsi who were treated as
scapegoats. This case was raised severally time when Inyenzi
attacked Rwanda in 1963 and later before the 1973
Habyarimana’s coup d’Etat
Application activity 1.3.
1. Narrative only of Arusha Peace Agreement may achieves
up to. For expect an awareness of the differences between
Habyarimana Regime and Rwandese Patriotic Front on the
Integration of the Armed Forces of the Two Parties, attitudes
and perceptions with regard to social relations, culture,
science, technology and diplomacy. For expect
comparative analysis. Better students may note the
changes in perception brought about by the end of
Habyarimana regime and the confidence as a victor in the
Liberation War.
2. Uganda’s involvement in the Liberation War cause

Rwandan refugees issue in the country
3. Yes or not, the Arusha Peace Agreement was viable

depending on honesty, integrity and faithful between two
Parties. Then, there is not clear position
Application activity 1.4
1. Free answer and narrative only of the necessity of
Liberation War.
2. Free answer and narrative only of the necessity of
Liberation War. While destructive, Liberation War was
benefit to the Rwandan population. Psychologically,
materially, etc.
Two negative effects of the Liberation war are death
and the destruction of properties.
44
The Liberation War has helped Rwandans to strengthen their
National unity.
3. Narrative of shared reactions depending on their defending
interests
1.5 Additional content/text for student and teacher

1.5.1. Additional information for the teacher
Independence (1962)
On 25 September 1961, a referendum was held to establish
whether Rwanda should become a Republic or remain a
kingdom. Citizens voted overwhelmingly for a republic. After
parliamentary elections held on the same day, the First
Republic was declared, with Kayibanda as prime minister.
Mbonyumutwa was named the first president of the
transitional government.
Between 1961 and 1962, refugees staged attacks on
Rwanda from neighbouring countries. Rwandan troops
responded, and thousands of people were killed in the
clashes. On 1 July 1962, Belgium, granted independence to
the two countries (Rwanda and Burundi). Rwanda was
established as a Republic governed by MDR-PARMEHUTU,
which had gained full control of national politics. In 1963,
the refugees’ invasion from Burundi unleashed another anti-
Tutsi backlash by the Rwandan government and an
estimated 14,000 Tutsi were killed. The economic union
between Rwanda and Burundi was dissolved and tensions
between the two countries worsened.
Kayibanda became Rwanda’s first elected president,
leading a government chosen from the National Assembly.
Peaceful negotiation of international problems, social and
economic elevation of the masses, and integrated
development of Rwanda were the ideals of the Kayibanda
regime. He established formal relations with 43 countries,
45
including the United States, in the first ten years. Despite the
progress made, inefficiency and corruption developed in
government ministries in the mid-1960s.
The Kayibanda administration established quotas to try to
increase the number of Hutu in schools and the civil service.
This effort discriminated the Tutsi who were allowed only
nine percent of secondary school and university vacancies.
The quotas also extended to the civil service. With high
unemployment levels, competition for position increased
social tensions. The Kayibanda government also continued
the Belgian colonial government’s policy of “ethnic” identity
cards, and also discouraged mixed marriages.
Following more violence in 1964, the government
suppressed political opposition. It banned UNAR and RADER
and executed the Tutsi leaders. The term inyenzi
(cockroaches) was used to describe Tutsi rebels for what
was perceived as infiltrating the country. As a result,
hundreds of thousands of Tutsi moved to neighbouring
countries as refugees.
The Catholic Church was closely involved with PARMEHUTU,
and they shared local resources and networks. Through the
church, the government maintained links with supporters in
Belgium and Germany. The Catholic newspaper
Kinyanyamateka supported the government.
Second Republic
On July 5th, 1973, the Defence Minister Maj. Gen. Juvénal
Habyarimana overthrew Kayibanda. He suspended the
constitution, dissolved the National Assembly and imposed
a strict ban on all political activity.
In 1975, President Habyarimana formed the Mouvement
Révolutionnaire National pour le Développement (MRND)
[the National Revolutionary Movement for Development]
46
whose goals were to promote peace, unity, and national
development. The movement was organized from the
grassroots to the national level and included elected and
appointed officials.
Under MRND, a new constitution which made Rwanda a
one-party state under the MRND, was approved in a
referendum in December 1978. These were shortly followed
by presidential elections a few weeks later. Habyarimana,
as president of the MRND, was the only candidate on the
ballot. He was re-elected in 1983 and again in 1988, each
time as sole candidate. However, in a minor concession to
democracy, voters were given a choice of two MRND
candidates in elections to the National Assembly.
Responding to public pressure for political reform, President
Habyarimana announced in July 1990 his intention to
transform Rwanda’s one-party state into a multi-party
democracy.
1.6. End unit assessment

Answers for end unit assessment
1.Rwanda was a monarchy.
2.After independence, Rwanda became a Republic.
3.Kayibanda used the following ways to eliminate
opposition:
 The MDR-PARMEHUTU eliminated or assimilated other
opposition political parties
 Intimidation and arbitrary arrests
 Physical violence, for example the killing of RADER and
UNAR leaders
 Attracting APROSOMA leaders
4.The four reasons for the fall of the First Republic are:
 Problem of refugees: Kayibanda regime refused to
solve the problem of refugees scattered worldwide.
47
 Ethnicism and regionalism: Kayibanda used violence
against Tutsi PARMEHUTU members from Gitarama
monopolized the party and the government power,
excluding the northern region.
 Economic problems: Food insecurity caused by
shortage of land became common. Moreover, there
was lack of infrastructure and financial means to
support decent standards of living, and the poor
functioning of the monetary and customs union
between Rwanda and Burundi. There was a serious
economic crisis due to deficits in balance of
payments and inflation. For example, in 1964, inflation
rose to 300 percent.
 Social problems: There was lack of unity among
Rwandans. A part of the population that was
excluded from education and public service.
5.The principal causes of the Liberation War were:
 The long exile: Since 1959, Tutsi were persecuted and
condemned to exile during the First and the Second
Republics which refused to allow them to return to
their mother-land.
 Exclusion and regional divisions: The Tutsi were
discriminated and regarded as second class citizens.
Besides, regionalism was an obstacle to open political
democratic space.
 Intimidation and killing of opposition politicians:
Kayibanda and Habyarimana regimes eliminated
opposition by killing opposition politicians and
banning other parties.
 Increasing dictatorship in Rwanda: During the First and
the Second Republics only one political party was
allowed: MDR – PARMEHUTU for the First Republic and
MRND during the Second Republic. Power was
concentrated in hands of small groups and no single
48
decision could be made without the approval of the
president and his political party.
 Military option: The refugees rejected their long exile
and the indifference of the Rwandan Government.
The military option, was the only possible way to return
home.
6. The major effects of the liberation war on Rwandan
Society Negative effects:
 Major General Fred Gisa Rwigema was killed. It was a
great loss for RPF.
 Many soldiers were killed on both sides and others
wounded.
 Many people were displaced and their properties
destroyed.
 The genocide survivors suffered for a long time from
“trauma”.
 Abagogwe people were massacred from 1991 to
1993 by the Habyarimana regime in retaliation to the
RPA attack. Similar killings were carried out in Kibirira,
Bugesera, Kibuye, Mutara and Murambi.
 The liberation war led to the signing of the Arusha
Peace Agreement in August 1993 whose purpose was
to obtain lasting peace.
 National unity, justice, and the end of segregation.
 Corruption and favouritism, and embezzlement are
being fought.
 The main reasons that forced Rwandans to flee the
country were eliminated and Rwandan refugees are
encouraged to return home.
1.7. Additional activities

Remedial activities
1. Give two the effects of the Liberation War.
2. When did the liberation war start?
49
Expected answer
1. Two the effects of the liberation war are:
• The first effect was is the death of Major General Fred
Gisa Rwigema the chairman of RPF and the supreme
commander of RPA. This death was a great loss for RPF.
• Many soldiers were killed on both sides and others were
wounded. There was also displacement of many people
from their homes.
• People were psychologically affected, properties
were destroyed and so on…
2. The Liberation War started on October 1st, 1990.
Consolidation activities
1. What are the roots of the Liberation War?
Expected answers
1. The root causes of the Liberation War were the
following:
 The desire to return home of Rwandan refugees who
had been in exile since 1959 due to violence, and
massacres of the UNAR members, mainly Tutsi,
committed by PARMEHUTU with the help of Belgian
colonialists. Refusal by the government to allow the
return of refugees.
 Both the first and the Second Republics
institutionalised “ideology policy” labels (Hutu, Tutsi,
Twa) in identity cards and the quota system (“ethnic”
and regional equilibrium) in administration, in schools,
in the army, etc.
 During the First Republic, power was in the hands of a
few people from some communes of Gitarama, and
again a few people from some parts of the former
Ruhengeri and Gisenyi prefectures during the Second
Republic.
50
 Intimidation and killing of opposition politicians: The
regime of Habyarimana did not accept or tolerate
any opposition. Any person who tried to oppose him
suffered from long prison terms; assassinations were
quite frequent as well. For instance, the former editor
of Kinyamateka Newspaper, Father Sylvio
Sindambiwe, and Felicula Nyiramutarambirwa, former
member of the MRND Central Committee was
murdered.
 Increasing dictatorship in Rwanda: During the Second
Republic, only one political party was allowed. This
was MRND as it was stipulated by the 1978
constitution. All the powers were concentrated in the
hands of a small group of the President’s family and
his in-laws. The group was also known as Akazu. No
decision could be made without prior approval and
or blessing of the President and his MRND.
 Participation of Rwandans in other liberation
movements: Rwandan’s like Fred Gisa Rwigema who
by 1979 had already been involved in liberation
struggles in Africa, especially in Mozambique, saw
that the option of war would work for Rwanda.
Extended activities
1. Describe three first steps of the Liberation War.
Analyse two effects of the liberation war
Expected answer
1. Description of the first two phases of the Liberation War:
 On October 1st1990, the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF)
and its armed wing (RPA) launched the war of liberation
which lasted almost four years. The reasons for starting
the liberation war were: to restore national unity among
Rwandans, establish true democracy and put an end
to the question of refugees and dictatorship which
51
characterised the First and the Second Republics of
Rwanda between 1962 and 1994.
 The first attack was in Umutara and was not successful
because of Fred Gisa Rwigema’s death, RPA was
pushed from Umutara and it changed tactics by
practicing guerrilla warfare in the northern region of
Rwanda commonly called the volcano region.
 On January 23rd, 1991, they captured Ruhengeri town
and liberated the political prisoners who had been
jailed in Ruhengeri prison. Among them were Theoneste
Lizinde, Biseruka, and Brother Jean Damascène
Ndayambaje.
2. Two effects of the Liberation War:
 The liberation war led to the signing of the Arusha
Peace Agreement on August 4th, 1993. The purpose
was to achieve lasting peace. Both parties, the RPF-
Inkotanyi and the Rwanda Government accepted to
share power. Hutu extremists who thought were
excluded from the process and threatened by the
results were not satisfied and started to organize a
genocide against the Tutsi and massacres of Hutu,
which happened in 1994.
 Because of the war and pressure on the Habyarimana
regime the economy collapsed. Coffee which was the
main resource of overseas currencies was not
produced. Thus, the country witnessed a hard
economic situation. Besides, foreign aid stopped and
the Rwandan franc lost its value. The main economic
activities collapsed. People became poor and
discontented. Because of the war, the Northern
corridor was closed and this led to the stoppage of
commercial exchange with Uganda. In addition, the
war increased the military expenditure of the
government.
52
UNIT 2: CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1994 GENOCIDE AGAINST THE
TUTSI

To be able to examine the consequences of genocide
against the Tutsi and how society has been re-built

As prerequisites to facilitate the teaching and learning of
this unit the following elements should have been learned
before:
• Definition and of genocide (1948 Convention and
other legal instruments)
• Definition and features of other mass crimes
• Differentiation of genocide from other mass crimes
• Causes of 1994 genocide against the Tutsi
• Planning and execution of the 1994 genocide against
the Tutsi
• Role played by RPF/RPA to stop genocide against the
Tutsi
Discuss the responsibility of all actors involved in the

preparation and execution of the 1994 genocide against
the Tutsi. Then after examine the effects of the 1994
genocide against the Tutsi. Finally, expose your ideas to the
rest of the class.
Give an activity that requires students to be fascinated to

know what happens or will happen in this unit and help
them to be passionate to know by the end of the unit what
they thought was not possible at the beginning. As they get
engaged in the lesson, they themselves discover answers to
53
the questions they were asking at the beginning. This will
help them to identify some issues and open them to what
they did not know and be curious to know about living
together in Rwanda.
One of suggested problem statement here is the following:

“Find out to what extent the 1994 genocide affected
Rwanda and the neighbouring countries.” This problem
statement can be given as homework or in class discussion
# Lesson title Learning objectives Number of

periods
Explain the
1 Consequences of consequences of 1
genocide against the
genocide against the
Tutsi Tutsi.
Measure taken by the Describe how Rwandan
2 governments to re- society has been re- 1
build Rwandan society built after genocide
against the Tutsi.
Achievements of the Evaluate the
3 government of achievements of the 2
Rwanda after the 1994 government of Rwanda
genocide against the after the 1994 genocide
Tutsi against the Tutsi.
Challenges
4 encountered in re- Analyse the challenges 1
building Rwanda faced during the
process of rebuilding
Rwanda
5 End Unit assessment 1
54
2.4.1. Lesson 1: Consequences of genocide against the Tutsi
Explain the consequences of genocide against the Tutsi.
Student ’s books, and in schools well equipped with
resources, use a film. Testimonies can also be used where
it is possible. Tactile maps and brailed materials. Sign
language should be used when teaching students with
hearing impairment, etc.
Organise students into groups and then invite them to do
activities 2. 1 in the student’s book.
Synthesis
that is in the student’s Book basing on the answers
developed by the students.

1. Actors involved in preparation and execution of the
1994 genocide against the TUTSI are:
Government of Rwanda under Habyarimana: As the
main organizer
Militias: These were paramilitary groups of people
formed and trained for civil defense of the country by
1990. Groups like Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi,
Forces of Garde présidentielle (Republican forces):
They actively participated in the killings all over the
country as from 19th April 1994.
Civil servants and the military: These include
55
prefecture and commune civil servants and
commune police.
Local actors: These included businessmen, MRND local
representatives and local opinion leaders (such as
teachers and entrepreneurs).
Citizens: They played the role of being observers,
executors and accomplices to the killing of innocent
relatives, brothers, sisters, colleagues and friends.
2.These are the consequences of the 1994 genocide
against the Tutsi:
 Because of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi,
more than two million Rwandans fled the country to
neighbouring countries where they lived in refugee
camps. Other Rwandans were displaced
throughout the country.
 Because of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, the
country became an epicentre of genocide
ideology in the Great Lakes region. The
perpetrators of genocide who fled the country and
went to live in the refugee’s camps in DRC,
exported the ideology of genocide and continued
to kill innocent people.

1. These are the consequences of the 1994 genocide
against the Tutsi:
• Because of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi,
neighboring countries where they lived in refugee
camps. Other Rwandans were displaced throughout
the country.
the country became an epicentre of genocide
ideology in the Great Lakes region. The perpetrators of
56
genocide who fled the country and went to live in the
refugees camps in DRC, exported the ideology of
genocide and continued to kill innocent people.

2. Free answer but emphasizing on the development of
legal frameworks and institutions
3. These are the consequences of the 1994 genocide
against the Tutsi:
neighboring countries where they lived in refugee
camps. Other Rwandans were displaced throughout
the country.
the country became an epicentre of genocide
ideology in the Great Lakes region. The perpetrators of
genocide who fled the country and went to live in the
refugees camps in DRC, exported the ideology of
genocide and continued to kill innocent people.
4. Firstly, those who have been found guilty have been
punished. Secondly, today some of the perpetrators also
show symptoms of trauma.
2.4.2. Lesson 2: Measure taken by the governments to

re-build Rwandan society
Describe how Rwandan society has been re-built after

genocide against the Tutsi.
57
Student ’s books, and in schools with enough resources, use
the internet. Tactile maps and brailed materials. Sign
language should be used when teaching students with
activity 2.3 in the learner’s book.
Synthesis
that is in the student ’s Book basing on the answers
1. Measures taken by the government of Rwanda to
rebuild the country are:
• Promoting National Unity and Reconciliation,
• Repatriating and resettling refugees,
• Devising and implementing policies for social welfare,
• Pursuing a foreign policy based on equality, peaceful
coexistence and mutual benefit between Rwanda
and other countries.
1. After its military victory, on 19th July, 1994 the RPF-

Inkotanyi formed a coalition government called “Broad-
Based Government of National Unity”. Its legal framework
was based on the constitution of 10th July 1994, the
Arusha Peace Accord, the RPF Inkotanyi declaration of
17th July 1994 and the joint Agreement between RPF,
MDR, PDC, PSD, PDI, PSR, PL and UDPR regarding the
58
implementation of national institutions signed on
November 24th, 1994.
2. Measures taken by the government of Rwanda to
rebuild the country are:
• Promoting National Unity and Reconciliation,
• Repatriating and resettling refugees,
• Devising and implementing policies for social welfare,
and other countries.
2.4.3. Lesson 3: achievements of the government of

national unity
c) Learning objective
Evaluate the achievements of the government of Rwanda

after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi
d) Teaching resources
Learner’s books and in schools with enough resources, using
internet.
Tactile maps and brailed materials. Sign language should

be used when teaching learners with hearing impairment
etc.
. Organise students into groups and then invite them to do
the activity 2.4 in the student’s book.
Synthesis
that is in the Learner’s Book basing on the answers
59
 Resettlement of returnees
 Repair of social and economic infrastructure
 Good governance
 Fighting corruption
 Regional and international integration
 Security
 Democracy
 Justice was rebuilt or improved
 Creation of a national police
 Education - The government has promoted education
through the twelve-year basic education programme
and scholarships to best performing students.
 Formation of the National Commission for Human
Rights
 Gender promotion - The government has promoted
gender balance especially by enhancing the position
of women in the country

1. The two political achievements are:
 Security
 Democracy
2. Some achievements inspired by Rwandan tradition

are:
Government of Rwanda put on
 Gacaca court
 Girirnka munyarwanda
 Abunzi
 Imihigo
3.Various ways to prevent genocide are:
60
 Prevent armed conflict
 Protect civilians in armed conflict, including UN
Peacekeepers
 End impunity through judicial action in national
and international courts
 Gather information and set up early warning
system
 Take swift decisive action, including military
action.
2.4.4. Lesson 4: Challenges encountered in re-

building Rwanda
Analyse the challenges faced during the process of

rebuilding Rwanda
Student ’s books, and in schools with facilities use recorded
testimonies and a recorder. Tactile maps and brailed
students with hearing impairment, etc.
Organize students into groups and then invite them to do
the activity 2.2 in the student’s book.
Synthesis
To make a synthesis of the lesson, summarize the content
that is in the students ’s Book basing on the answers
61
Rebuilding the country cannot demand to have the same

guidelines but it requires the understanding and involvement
of the citizen. Presidents wanted to stress on the challenges
faced by the country where the Rwandan citizen will solve
these challenges and none outside Rwanda will solve them.
1. The two challenges faced by Rwandans after the 1994
genocide against the Tutsi are insecurity, and suspicion
and mistrust among the population.
2. After the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, justice was a
very crucial issue which the government of Rwanda had
to address because of the following reasons:
 More than 140, 000 genocide suspects had been
arrested, yet there was insufficient prison, to host
them. Their upkeep became a huge challenge in
terms of feeding, and provision of medical and other
services.
 The number of trained lawyers to handle the large
number of perpetrators of genocide against the Tutsi
was inadequate and this was also true for other crimes
that were being committed in the country.
 The laws were also outdated, obscure and
inadequate. The justice sector also witnessed unskilled
personnel. For example, according to records of the
Supreme Court, out of 702 judges in 2003, only 74
possessed a bachelor’s degree in law.
2.5. Additional content/text for student and teacher

2.5.1. Additional content/text for student
End unit assessment
62
Effects of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi

In the 1994 genocide against Tutsi, some children survived;
but most of them lost their parents, families and relatives. As
a result, a large number of orphans and children became
heads of families. These child heads of families could not
afford their basic needs and those of their siblings such as
food, clothing, medical care and education.
These child household heads did not have survival skills and
therefore lived in abject poverty.
Some had experienced scenes of murder and thus they
were traumatised.
Widows
Many women lost their husbands in the 1994 genocide
against the Tutsi. Most of these women had no means of
economic survival.
Raping of women
In the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, the Interahamwe
militias raped women and young girls. Some of these
Interahamwe were HIV positive, and hence infected some
of the girls and women.
In addition, there were unwanted pregnancies as a result of
rape.
Destruction of infrastructure
During the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, a lot of public
and private infrastructure including schools, hospitals, roads,
homes, business centres and other buildings were
destroyed. Homes of Tutsi were also destroyed.
63
Poverty
After the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, many people
suffered from poverty and could not afford basic needs.

1. The consequence of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi
are:
• A human disaster in the history of the country where
more than one million people were killed in just 100
days.
• Destruction of infrastructure and equipment.
• Physical mutilation of people’s bodies.
• A high level of psychological trauma was
experienced due to sexual abuse and torture.
• The number of widows, orphans, and disabled
persons increased.
• The tarnishing of Rwanda image.
• The national economy collapsed.
• Rwanda became the epicenter of genocide
ideology in the Great Lakes Region.
2. Five challenges faced by Rwandans after the 1994
genocide against the Tutsi are the following:
• There was suspicion and mistrust among the
population because Rwanda’s social fabric had been
fractured due to the divisive politics that preceded the
genocide.
• The security situation was fluid because the former
government’s forces and Interahamwe militia were
carrying out genocide in various part of the country. In
addition infiltrators continued to cross and destabilise
the county with the support of their sympathisers,
notably the DRC (former Zaire) under president
Mobutu Sese Seko.
64
• The country faced the problem of resettling refugees
and internally displaced people, especially genocide
survivors whose homes had been destroyed.
• The government of National Unity inherited an
economy that had been completely destroyed by
genocide, economic stagnation, high levels of
poverty, low productivity in all sectors especially in
agriculture, lack of a dynamic private sector, unskilled
labour force, etc.
• During the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, most
education infrastructure was destroyed and the
human capital was decimated.
3. Five achievement of the government of Rwanda are:
• Safeguarding national security: Military strategies were
devised to establish security in the whole country. This
included fighting against insecurity on the western
border, military operations in Congo, etc. This was
successful to a large extent.
• Promotion of unity and reconciliation: To achieve the
goal of national unity and reconciliation the
Government of National Unity introduced several
structures and programmes to correct errors that led to
war and genocide such as the National Commission of
Human Rights, the National Unity and Reconciliation
Commission, the Gacaca Jurisdictions, CNLG
(Commission National de Lutte contre le Genocide),
National Itorero Commission, etc.
• Ingando or solidarity camps: This is a type of civic
education that helps Rwandans to acquire
democratic values and patriotism.
• Democratisation: Leaders are elected in transparency,
there are no privileged persons and all political
65
positions in the country must be shared, which leads to
consensual democracy and power-sharing.
• Fight against corruption and injustice: To re-enforce
good governance in Rwanda, anti-corruption and
public accountability institutions were established by
the government. They include the office of
Ombudsman, office of the Auditor General for State
Finances, Rwanda Revenue Authority and Rwanda
Governance Board.

Remedial activities
1. Mention the measures taken by the Rwandan
Government to rebuild the country after the 1994
genocide against the Tutsi.
2. Give four consequences of the 1994 genocide against
the Tutsi.
Expected answer
1. Measures taken by the Rwandan Government to re-
build the country after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi
are:
• Promoting National Unity and Reconciliation
• Establishing genuine democracy
• Providing security for all Rwandans
• Building an integrated and self-sustaining economy
• Eradicating corruption of all forms
• Repatriating and resettling Rwandan refugees
• Devising and implementing policies for social welfare
and other countries,
• Fighting against genocide and eradicating the
genocidal ideology
66
2. The consequences of the 1994 genocide against the
Tutsi are the following:
 More than one million Tutsi men, women and
children were killed in 100 days.
 The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi led to high
levels of psychological trauma
 It led to excessive degradation of human dignity
 In addition the 1994 genocide against Tutsi
caused devastation of the environment
 There was also an increase in the HIV/AIDS
prevalence in the post-genocide period
 There was an increase in the number of widows,
orphans, and the disabled people
 At the end of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi,
more than one hundred thousand people
suspected of having participated in committing
genocide were apprehended and imprisoned.
1. Assess two achievements of the Government of
National Unity.
Expected answers
1. Two achievements of the Government of National
Unity are:
Safeguarding national security: After the 1994
genocide against the Tutsi, security in Rwanda was
extremely unstable because of unhealed wounds from
the war. Much of the population was displaced,
creating a volatile situation in the country. Military
strategies were devised to find solutions and eradicate
the military groups and thousands of excombatants
who continued to torment and kill citizens.
67
The problem of insecurity, especially on the western
border of the country, was caused by the incursions
of Ex-FAR (Forces Armées Rwandaises) and
Interahamwe militias. To put an end to these
destabilisation activities, the Government decided to
the repatriate refugees from DRC and launch military
operations aimed at weakening the enemy forces.
Implementing Decentralisation: The local community
have the right to participate in the process of decision
making, in the executive, as well as in the monitoring
and evaluation of local development projects. With
decentralisation the government decides to delegate
power to the local authorities and community leaders.
Decentralisation aims to promote participation in
decision making from the grassroots and to support
planning and implementation of local development
activities.
Extended activities
1. Discuss three challenges faced by the government
during the rebuilding Rwanda after the 1994 genocide
against the Tutsi.
Expected answer
2. Challenges faced by the Rwandan Government
during the process of rebuilding Rwanda after the 1994
genocide against the Tutsi are as follows:
Suspicion and mistrust among the population: Since
Rwanda’s social cohesion was fractured due to the
divisive politics that preceded the genocide, suspicion
and mistrust characterised the population. Thus, the
new government inherited a deeply scarred nation
where trust in communities had been replaced by fear
68
and betrayal. This posed a serious challenge to the
functioning of institutions because the RPF’s vision was
not shared by all stakeholders. In spite of all this, the RPF
believed that Rwanda was not dead but that it could
be reborn and rebuilt. To reach that goal, the RPF
advocated strongly for unity and reconciliation
despite the enormous challenges.
Resettlement of refugees and genocide survivors: The

RPF strived to restore Rwanda as a country for all
Rwandans and provided a homeland to which
millions of Rwandan refugees could return. Tens of
thousands of internally displaced people, especially
genocide survivors whose homes had been
destroyed, were resettled and provided with basic
housing facilities. About three million refugees who
had been taken hostage by fleeing genocide forces
to the DRC and Tanzania were brought back home.
This humanitarian exercise was largely successful
despite the failure of the international community to
address their plight in refugee camps. About two
million older refugees (from 1959 and subsequent
years) were also resettled across the country.
Economic challenges: The Rwandan economy and
political situation before 1994 was marked by
economic stagnation and high levels of poverty,
mainly attributed to lack of vision, poor economic
planning, mismanagement, embezzlement, and
corruption by the leadership of the time. They
emphasised state control of the economy by a clique
who benefited from the system.
As a result, post–genocide Rwanda faced economic
challenges including an unstable macroeconomic
environment. For example, in 1994, the economy
69
shrank by 50 per cent and inflation rose to 64 per
cent. Between 1985 and 1994, the GDP growth rate
was a mere 2.2 per cent against a population growth
rate of 3.2 per cent.
70
UNIT 3: COLONIAL REFORMS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES ON
AFRICAN SOCIETIES.

To be able to evaluate political, economic and socio-
cultural colonial reforms and their consequences on African
societies.

As prerequisites to the teaching and learning of this unit, the
following elements should have been learned before:
 Colonial systems of administration.
 Consequences of European colonization
 Colonial masters and their colonies.
 Different colonial administrative methods.
 African states that were not colonized.
Use internet or the library, to carry out research on the

reforms introduced by the European colonialists and their
consequences on African Societies. Thereafter, prepare a
document to submit to the teacher and present the results
of your research to the class
c) Guidance on introductory activity
Start with an activity that requires students to be fascinated

to know what happens or will happen in this unit and help
help them identify some issues and open them to what they
71
didn’t know and be curious to know about colonial reforms
and their consequences on African societies.

“Identify the changes brought by colonial European powers
and their effects on African continent.” This problem
statement can be given as homework or in class discussion.

of periods
1 Political, economic Describe political, 2

and socio-cultural economic and socio-
colonial reforms cultural colonial
reforms.
2 Consequences of Explain 1
colonial reforms on consequences of
African societies colonial reforms on
African societies.
3.4.1. Lesson 1: Political, economic and socio-cultural

colonial reforms
Describe political, economic and socio-cultural colonial

reforms.
72
students’ books. In schools with enough resources, deliver
the lesson by using a projector, a computer and its
accessories. Tactile maps and brailed materials. Sign
language should be used when teaching learners with
activity 4.1 that is in the students’ book.
Synthesis
that is in the Student’s Book basing on the answers
colonialism introduced a dual economic structure within the
African economy. It also brought about disarticulation of
African economy, education, trade, market, transport and
currency institution. Colonialism made African colonies
dependent by introducing a mono- cultural economy for the
territories
Colonialism made African colonies dependent by
introducing a mono- cultural economy for the territories. It
also dehumanized African labour force and traders. It forced
Africans to work in colonial plantations at very low wages and
displaced them from their lands.
Colonial agents in Africa had effects on Africa’s political,
economic, religious and social formations. These effects were
both negative and positive. Some of them have been
analyzed below:
73
Promotion of agriculture: Various colonial agents introduced
plantation farming, where crops such as coffee, cotton and
tea.
Land alienation: European colonial agents and their
associated companies’ grabbed land belonging to natives
where churches, schools, hospitals and administration
centres were set up and pushed them in reserve camps
Introduction of forced labour: As a result of inadequate
labourers, European agents resorted to forcing Africans to
provide free labour commonly known as ishiku in Rwanda..
Unfair taxation: In order to raise strong tax revenue,

Europeans introduced a variety of taxes, including gun tax
and hut tax to meet administration costs and revenue.
Introduction of industries: Many of these relied on raw

materials from cash crops and minerals and built in areas
where white settlers lived. These were to exploit Africans.
Introduction of legitimate trade: Slave trade made Africans to
lose their able-bodied men to slave traders. With colonization,
slave trade was replaced with trade in goods and services.
Infrastructural development: The companies and missionaries

embarked on the construction of roads and railway lines in
areas that had minerals and plantation farms to enable the
whites to trade.
Massive exploitation of minerals: The explorers located and
settled in places with raw minerals and fertile soils. This
encouraged the coming of many white settlers to exploit
these resources.
Creation of import and export economy: Import and export
was a type of trade started and promoted by colonial
agents. Africans previously practiced subsistence farming for
74
home consumption. This was replaced by cash crops such as
coffee, sugarcane and tea which they could not eat.
Promotion of education: The missionaries in Africa introduced

formal education which replaced informal education that
was used in pre-colonial societies in Africa. However, this
education was meant to train Africans who would assist
colonialists
Spread of Christianity: Africa was believed to be a ‘pagan’

continent, prompting the evangelicals in Europe to come
and spread the gospel and to baptize the converts in the
name of God.
Improved health standards in Africa: Various European
agents in collaboration built health centres, including
dispensaries and hospitals in different places. For example,
they build Kigali hospital in Rwanda and Mulago and Mengo
hospitals in Uganda

1. The following are some of the political changes put in
place by the colonial governments in their African
colonies:
● New laws were made to weaken the power of African

leaders.
● Local armies were suspended and colonial police and
army were introduced,
● European political and judicial systems were applied in
the colonies.
● New political institutions were Created similar to those of
Europe in colonies. These included the parliamentary and
governmental system.
75
● The European electoral system was also introduced and
political African political African parties were created in
order to implement these reforms.
2. Land alienation refers to the confiscation of land
belonging to Africans by European colonisers. In
practice, Africans were chased from their land and
forced to settle in reserves, leaving their fertile plots of
land to Europeans. In settler colonies like Kenya, South
Africa, Rhodesia, Algeria, Angola and Mozambique
Africans were affected by this policy.
3. In Rwanda, forced cash crop growing was applied,
especially in coffee growing. Coffee was a colonial crop
because it was meant for export and the colonial power
promoted it seriously. It was in this context that in 1931,
the cultivation of coffee was made compulsory and
systematic. Each peasant farmer had to plant least 54
trees of coffee, sub-chiefs 250 and chiefs 1000 trees.
4. The education system was promoted (formal education)
with the introduction of the modern education. There
was construction of schools and teaching of reading,
writing, arithmetic etc.
5. Modern medical systems were introduced to replace the
traditional ones. Hospitals, health Centres, and
dispensaries were built and campaigns of vaccination
against diseases like polio, measles, pneumonia, etc.
were launched.
3.4.2. Lesson 2: Consequences of the colonial reforms on

African societies
Explain consequences of colonial reforms on African

societies.
76
Student ’s books. In schools with enough resources, use a
projector, a computer and its accessories. Tactile maps and
brailed materials. Sign language should be used when
teaching students with hearing impairment etc.
activity 4.2 that is in the students’ book.
Synthesis
To make a synthesis of the lesson, summarize the content that
is in the Student’s Book basing on the answers developed by
the students
 Colonization led to creation of bigger African states as
a result of combining small African societies by the
colonialists. This resulted into unity of Africans.
 Colonial reforms led to abolition of slavery and slave
trade among African societies.
 There was introduction of Western Education in the
colonies which brought new scientific knowledge and
languages
 There was establishment of communication networks
and infrastructural facilities such as roads and railways
in African colonies.
 The colonial reforms led to the development of
agriculture through introduction of new crops like
coffee, cotton, cocoa, rubber and sugar cane.
 Colonial reforms led to the spread of Christianity in
Africa..
 There was emergence of towns and urban centers
during the colonial period.
77
 Colonial reforms led to rise of African nationalism
where Africans wanted to rule themselves instead of
being ruled by Europeans.
 Colonial reforms opened up parts of African continent

to the outside world.
 Colonization led to loss of independence for many
African communities
 Colonial reforms opened up the relationships
between the Africans societies and the outside world.
However these relations were based on exploitation of
Africa.
 The reforms led to rebellions that resulted from
resistance by some Africans. Examples of such
rebellions were the Maji Maji in Tanzania. Many
Africans lost their lives in these wars.
 Colonial reforms led to creation of artificial boundaries
in Africa which caused conflict between African
modern states.
 The colonial reforms divided many communities which
were initially co-exiting, causing inter-ethnic conflicts.
This also created hatred and disunity among Africans.
 It led to loss of good African culture as Africans took
up the Western culture,. Examples include cultural
dances, hospitality and traditional foods.
 Colonization made African countries to remain
underdeveloped and dependent on the colonial
masters.

See the answers of learning activity 4.2
78
3.5.1 Additional information for the teacher
The effects of World War II in Africa

Africans resisted colonial rule from the onset, trying to hold
on to their land, but were not strong enough to defend
themselves against European conquest. As a result, most of
Africa had been colonised by 1900. Only Ethiopia and
Liberia remained free. After the First and Second World
Wars, colonial control of the continent began to fall apart.
This was the result of a new political climate, the rise of
nationalism and the launching of independence
campaigns in various colonies as well as the new domestic
priorities in the post-war period for colonial rulers.
The climate before World War II
By the early 1900s European countries had succeeded in
establishing their control in Africa. In some cases, like the
Igbo people of Nigeria, colonial rule was established in 1910
shortly before the First World War in 1914.
Colonial rule in Africa is studied in two periods, divided by
the First and Second World Wars. Africa’s involvement in
these two wars helped to fuel the struggle for
independence from colonial rule. This was partly because
participation of Africans in these wars exposed them to
ideas of self-determination and independent rule.
The First World War changed things in Europe and Africa. It
destroyed the European economy. To rebuild their
economies, the Europeans turned to Africa’s mineral and
agricultural wealth. Europe’s growing interest in Africa’s
minerals led to her expansion into the interior. The great
depression that followed the First World War worsened the
already failing economies of Europe. The exploitation of
mineral wealth from Africa required the reorganisation of
colonial rule, which meant that the autonomy that chiefs
79
and kings in Africa had maintained over the years would be
increasingly dissolved to make room for a more
‘progressive’ form of government. The result of these
changes was that land was taken away from Africans and
given to white settlers and colonial companies, like the
British South African Company, for farming and mining. This
was also largely because, the presence of Europeans was
increasing, since by this time colonial officers were chosen
according to the requirements of colonial civil
administration. Experts were called in to help in the
improvement of areas like agriculture and the collection of
taxes from Africans.
After the war, colonial governments began to introduce
agricultural reforms aimed at improving the revenues
collected from African farmers. African societies were
deeply affected by these changes because most of them
were still dependent on agriculture for survival. Africans
were now forced to sell their crops to colonial markets at
lower prices. The colonial market would in turn sell the crops
to an international market at a much higher price. Colonies
made a lot of profit in this way. Many African farmers and
rulers blamed the colonial government for decreasing
profits and as a result, people began to demand an end to
colonial rule.
After World War II
Colonial Developments in the Gold Coast

After the Second World War, colonial governments became
increasingly aware that colonial rule could not be
maintained forever. They were under pressure to justify why
they were keeping African societies under their rule despite
the United Nations declaration that all people have the
right to self-determination. Africans had the right to be free
80
and independent from colonial rule. Therefore colonial
governments had an obligation to co-operate.
Colonial governments responded by saying that Africans
were being prepared for future self-government, but many
of them were not ready to hand over rule to Africans. Most
European governments thought that colonial rule would
end much later. In colonies like Angola, Mozambique,
Algeria, and Kenya, African people were forced to fight
wars to win their independence.
As part of the steps toward African self-governance,
colonial governments began to invest in education in the
colonies. This resulted in a growing number of young
educated black people whose social and political mobility
was restricted by colonial rule. These growing numbers of
educated elites were frustrated with the limited prospects
under the colonial state and driven to fight for an end to
colonial rule. Self-rule became the slogan. Kwame
Nkrumah, the first President of Ghana (the former Gold
Coast), changed that slogan to ‘independence now’. He
captured the aspiration for self-rule with his popular slogan:
“seek first the political kingdom, and the rest shall follow”.
What he meant was that independence from colonial rule
was the only way to guarantee a better life for all
Ghanaians.
In response to these growing demands for self-rule, the
British colonial government introduced the Burns constitution
in 1946. The Burns constitution, based on the Westminster
model, incorporated the elites, chiefs and kings of Ghana
into the colonial government. The majority of the people,
many of them blue-collar workers, were excluded from
government. Though rejected by Kwame Nkrumah’s party,
the Burns constitution proved an important step towards
independent Ghana’s constitution.
81
Answers to the end unit assessment (See Learner’s Book)

1. The colonial economic reforms were the following:
 Taxation: This was the main method of generating
revenue needed to run colonial administration. The
commonest taxes were the hut and gun taxes.
 Forced cash crop growing: This included growing of
rubber pyrethrum, coffee, and cotton under the
supervision of Europeans. These cash crops consisted
of raw materials for industries in Europe.
 Land alienation: This was a form of African
exploitation, especially in Kenya Highlands and
Mozambique.
 Massive exploitation of minerals: This was done in
many parts, for example at Kilembe in Uganda;
Witwatersrand in South Africa; Katanga in Congo; and
Musha, Rutongo and Rwinkwavu in Rwanda. This led
to the influx of white settlers who embarked on
excessive exploitation of these resources.
 Legitimate trade: This was introduced to replace slave
trade that had caused human suffering. It involved
trade in European goods like guns, beads, and clothes
in exchange for gold, copper, ivory, coffee, etc.
 Beginning of import and export economy: This led to
the exploitation of Africans. Exported raw materials
had less value than finished imported European
products.
 Development of road and railway transport: This
connected the interior of African colonies to the
coast.
2. The colonial social reforms were as follows:
82
 Western education was largely left to Christian
missionaries. Africans were given rudimentary skills to
serve as lower cadres of colonial rule known as
“colonial auxiliaries”
 The new social class of the elite: These were trained in
European ways. This made some of them agents of
colonial exploitation.
 Social sciences such as psychology, political science,
literature and history were neglected in order to keep
Africans away from forming revolutionary movements
against exploitative and oppressive policies. Africans
were taught arithmetic, Bible study, reading, and
writing of European languages.
 In Rwanda only the sons of chiefs had access to
education.
3. The effect of the colonial reforms on Africa societies were
as follows:
o Africans were forced to move from their fertile lands
to allow European to practice extensive agriculture.
Others were forced to go to work in the mines.
o There was overexploitation of Africans through
taxation and forced labour.
o There was development of communications lines
including roads, airport, and rail ways which opened
Africa to the outside world, hence improving trade
with other countries
o The introduction of western education led to the
creation of a new social class of the elite whose first
role was to be collaborators.
o The introduction of cash crops for the benefit of
European industries made Africans, neglect local food
crops leading to food shortages
Remedial activities
83
1. Give two colonial economic reforms introduced in
Africa.
2. Mention three consequences of colonial reforms on
African societies.
Expected answer
1. Two colonial economic reforms introduced in Africa
were taxation and forced cash crop growing.
2. Three consequences of colonial economic reforms on
African societies were: resettlement of Africans,
dependence of African economies and overexploitation
of Africans.
1. Analyze three consequences of colonial reforms on
African societies
Expected answers
1. Three consequences of colonial reforms on African
societies are the following:
o Political consequences: In case of resistance,
African leaders were exiled or banned and
replaced by others who were deemed to be
more loyal.
o African societies responded to colonial reforms
by active resistance. Some societies or
individual leaders picked up arms to fight these
reforms. This was because Africans had got fed
up with the policies of the colonialists.
o The reforms led to the birth and growth of
African nationalism which culminated in the
recovery of independence of most African
countries in the 1960s.
o Modernisation of agriculture: African agriculture
became modernised through the introduction
84
of modern techniques of farming such as
selected seeds of food crops, crop rotation,
application of organic manure etc. Besides,
schools teaching modern agriculture were
introduced.
o Westernised “African elites”: Europeans
constructed schools through which they started
initiating and educating the Africans in
European “civilisation”. This colonial education
had the aim of training the Africans to be
colonial collabourators. Africans were taught to
write, read and count and initiated in European
languages.
o In addition, a new class of Africans who were
assimilated into the culture of Europeans
emerged. This class enjoyed more privileges
than other Africans. For instance, they could live,
visit European places and study in the schools of
European children.
Extended activities
1. Assess two colonial reforms introduced in Africa.
Expected answer
1. Two colonial reforms introduced in Africa by colonisers
were the following:
o Massive exploitation of minerals: The explorers
located places with minerals. This led to the
coming of many white settlers who embarked on
excessive exploitation of these resources.
Examples include Kilembe mines in Western
Uganda, Witwatersrand and Transvaal in South
Africa, Katanga in Congo, and in Togo. This
eventually led to mineral exhaustion in many
parts of Africa.
85
o In Rwanda, mining started in 1923. The
important minerals were tin, Colombo-tentalite,
niobium and tungsten, gold wolfram and other
minerals associated with tin. The mines were
located in Gatumba, Musha, Rwamagana,
Rwinkwavu, Rutongo, Nyungwe, Gifurwe, and
other places.
o Promotion of education system: The colonial
education system was largely left to Christian
missionaries. In the colonial schools, Africans
were given skills to serve as lower cadres of
colonial rule known as “colonial auxiliaries”. The
main products of these schools best suited the
posts of clerks. They did not train engineers,
doctors and other professionals.
o This education system produced a class of
people trained in European ways of life, who
exploited of their fellow Africans.
o In Rwanda, priority in education was given to
the sons of chiefs. In French, Portuguese and
Italian colonies education used purposely to
assimilate Africans.
o Subjects such as psychology, political science,
literature and history were neglected in order to
keep Africans away from forming revolutionary
movements against exploitative, and
oppressive colonial policies. To colonialists, the
best subjects for Africans were Bible study,
reading, and writing.
86
UNIT 4: CAUSES OF DECOLONIZATION IN AFRICA: CASE STUDY
OF GHANA AND KENYA.

To be able to examine causes and consequences of
decolonization in Africa (Case Study; Ghana and Kenya).

before:
• Political, economic and socio-cultural colonial reforms
• Consequences of these reforms on African societies
Using the internet or the library carry out a research on the

decolonization of Africa. Then, examine causes and
consequences of decolonization of Ghana and Kenya.
d) Guidance on introductory activity
At the beginning of this unit, give an activity that requires

learners to be interested to know what happens or will
happen in this unit and help them to be passionate to know
by the end of the unit what they thought was not possible at
the beginning. As they get engaged in the lesson, they
themselves discover answers to the questions they were
asking at the beginning. This will help them identify some
issues and open them to what they did not know and be
inquisitive to know about the causes and the consequences
of decolonisation process in Ghana and Kenya.

“Analyse various causes of decolonisation of African
countries.” This problem statement can be given as
homework or in class discussion.
87

of
periods
1 Causes of Describe the causes 2

decolonization of of decolonization in
Africa Africa
2 Case study: Ghana Explain the causes 2

and Kenya of decolonisation of
Ghana and Kenya
4.4.1. Lesson 1: Causes of decolonization of Africa
Describe the causes of decolonization in Africa
Students’ books, a map of Africa, and in schools with

enough resources use a projector, a computer and its
accessories. Tactile maps and brailed materials. Sign
activity 5.1 that is in the student’s book.
Synthesis
88
The common causes of decolonisation of Kenya and Ghana
are:
 Unit of the population
 Influence of elites
 Influence of the second world war
 Formation of political parties
 The role of the press and mass media
The consequences of decolonisation of Kenya and Ghana
 Problems of national unity and cohesion
 Pervasive influence of the former colonial powers
 Authoritarian regimes
 The military as political rulers
 Problems of unemployment, under-development and
civil wars
 Population explosion, diseases and drought
Four factors that led to decolonisation of Africa are:
 Effects of the second world war
 Role of UNO
 Formation of political powers
 Role of press and mass media
1. Studying in Western countries helped Africans to be in
contact with the white liberals and socialists who were
against colonization. They also witnessed democracy
at work in European countries and America, and
wondered why Africans were denied such
democracy. On returning to Africa, such elites
89
demanded for democratic governance and an end
to colonization.
African elites also played a paramount role in the
growth of nationalism. They created political parties and
trade unions that fought the colonial regime. With their
writings and glorification of Africa through negritude, the
African elite rejected colonialism.
2. Africans who participated in Second World War
witnessed the weakness of the Europeans, as they saw
them sometimes as cowards, retreating and dying during
battles. They also learnt that the Europeans were not as
good as Africans thought them to be. For example, they
could also die of bullets like Africans. So when they
returned to Africa, the veterans organized and trained
their fellow Africans to fight against colonization.
4.4.2. Lesson 2: Case study: Ghana and Kenya

Explain the causes of decolonisation of Ghana and Kenya
Learner’s books, and a map of Ghana, and in schools
with enough resources, use a projector, a computer and
its accessories. Tactile maps and brailed materials. Sign
Organise learners into groups and then invite them to do
activity 2 that is in the learner’s book.
Synthesis
90

1. The factors that aided decolonisation of Ghana and
Kenya are:
• Unit of the population
• Influence of elites
• Influence of second world war
• Formation of political parties
• Role of the press and mass media
2. Seen the content
1. The role of UNO in the decolonisation of Africa are the
following:
• The creation of the Trusteeship Council that was
to take charge of preparing African countries to
get independence;
• UNO became the spokesperson for colonised
people and put pressure on the colonial masters
to grant Africans self- rule.
• It also organised conferences where
sensitisation of the need for self-rule was made
and all this led to decolonisation of Africa.
2. The Atlantic Charter inspired Africans who finally came to
demand the respect of their rights, including self-governance
and this led to decolonisation in Africa
4.5.1Additional information for the teacher
During the 20th Century, the decolonisation of Africa was
one of the turning points in the history of the post-war world.
Decolonisation brought many negative images of Africa;
91
which included hunger, arbitrary arrests, foreign exploitation
and ecological pressures and neglects. It also brought
positive images; such as erasing the view that blackness
meant inferiority.
The decolonisation of Africa was one of the historic

moments in the history of the post-war world. It captured the
imagination of a new generation of idealists who declared
their belief in racial equality and individual liberty. The
decolonisation of Africa was also caused by lots of
movement as a political struggle such as the people of
Africa helped to open the way for the civil rights movement
in America. By the end of 1960, former African colonies had
become independent members of the United Nations;
except Somalia, Nigeria, Zaire Congo and so forth.
However, the course of decolonisation was not always
smooth. Primarily the burst of decolonisation was the central
and most dramatic episode in a long process of political
change that affected the whole of Africa. Decolonisation
was the mirror image of the colonisation that had slowly
brought European domination to Africa in 20th Century. The
progress included violent rebellion; for example in Algeria
and Kenya or peaceful approaches such as in Gold Coast-
Ghana.
Ghana was the first African state to become independent

from British rule. Gold Coast became the independent and
sovereign state of Ghana in March 1957 with Kwame
Nkrumah as its first Prime Minister. In the case of Ghana,
British governments could claim with some conviction that
power had passed from colonial administration to an
apparently stable and mature local government. In
addition, Ghana was one of the Commonwealth states in
West Africa which was in problematic political
developments.
92
The other big debate was in Kenya which was one of the
British colonies. Kenya became an independent state in
1963 under the leadership of Jomo Kenyatta. The Mau Mau
rebellion that culminated in the decolonisation of the Kenya
began in 1952. When, in the mid-1960s, the government of
independent Kenya put pressure on its South Asian
community to leave the country, the administration quickly
imposed an annual quota of 1500 on Kenyan Asians wishing
to enter Britain. This measure was promptly denounced as a
betrayal of the agreement by which Kenya had achieved
independence in 1963.
To conclude the debates, Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya and

problematic political developments in Ghana show us why
decolonisation occurred in 20th Century.

A. Multiple choice question
1. A 2. B 3. B 4. B 5. A
B. Open questions
1. The term decolonisation means the act of granting or
giving autonomy, and sovereignty to a colony.
2. Factors that led to the decolonisation of Africa were as
follows:
• Continuous opposition to the system and to
exploitation
• The role played by elite
• Effect of the Second World War
• Effect of the creation of UNO in 1945
• The role of the Christian churches
93
• The anti-colonialist attitude of the superpowers
(USA and USSR)
• The 1941 Atlantic Charter
• The growth of African nationalism (Pan-
Africanism)
• The independence of Ghana in 1957
• Independence of Asian countries
3. Main Steps of independence in Kenya:
• At the end of the Second World War, the Native
Kenyans manifested dissatisfaction with the way
Kenya was governed without their involvement.
Kenyans could no longer tolerate being
excluded from the administration of their
country.
• Kenya had many European white settlers who
were opposed to black majority rule. They
refused to negotiate with the African leaders
and they wanted to prolong their stay.
• Groups of Africans organised a campaign of
terrorist attacks on Europeans owning farms
through the Mau-Mau.
• A state of emergency was declared in 1952 and
nationalistic leaders were imprisoned.
• Terrorism carried out by the Mau-Mau leaders in
1960 was defeated.
• Jomo Kenyatta was released and became
prime Minister in 1963.
• Kenya gained independence on December
12th, 1963 Main Steps of independence in
Ghana:
The manifestation of nationalism in Ghana was registered
early. Already in the 19th Century, the Ghanaian Natives
fought the British twice but they were defeated.
94
At the end of the second World War, a big number of
Ghanaians, who had participated in the war on the side of
Britain, formed political parties and taught people western
democracy.
Strikes, boycotts, acts of civil disobedience were organised
in 1950. Nkrumah was imprisoned but released in 1951 when
his party won with a majority local election.
The British tried to delay independence by supporting a

conservative opposition party created in 1952 and led by Dr
Koffi Busia.
During the elections held in 1957, the Convention People’s
Party got overwhelming victory with 72 out of 104 seats in
Parliament. The British agreed to grant independence on
March the 8th. Gold Coast changed her name to Ghana.
4. Common factors for independence in Ghana and

Kenya are:
• The formation of political parties and trade unions: In

Kenya political parties included Kenya African National
Union (KANU) and Kenya African Democratic Union
(KADU); and in Ghana, they were Convention Peoples
Party (CPP) and United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC).
All these spread nationalistic feelings, and carried out
mobilisation and sensitisation from the grassroots about
the need for independence which led to decolonisation.
• The role of the press: The press helped to spread

awareness to a big number of the people in both
countries about the evils of colonisation and benefits of
independence. • The influence of World War II: The
Second World War helped people in Ghana and Kenya
95
who had participated in this war to feel more confident to
claim for independence for their country.
• The influence of elites: These formed political parties

which played a paramount role in the struggle for
independence. They also informed people by putting
their ideas in writing.
• The independence enjoyed by other African countries.

5. Jomo Kenyatta was born in 1891 and died in 1978.
Jomo Kenyatta was the leader of KANU. He fought
against British colonization. In 1952 he was imprisoned
because he was accused of being a terrorist in the Mau-
Mau movement. Kenyatta was released and became
Prime Minister when Kenya became independent in 1963.
Kwame Nkrumah was born in 1909 and he died in 1972.
Nkrumah was the leading nationalist in Ghana who
spearheaded the independence struggle. Nkwame
Nkrumah stayed in the USA and Britain for ten years. In
1949, he created the Convention People’s Party (CPP)
with a Programme “immediate independence”. As a
strong negotiator, patient, and enjoying personal
prestige, he led tireless action against colonialism through
his political party.
Because of his campaign “positive action” Nkrumah was
imprisoned in 1950 and freed in 1951 when his party won
with a majority in a local election. Nkrumah became
president of Ghana at the time of independence in 1957.

Remedial activities
1. Mention two factors that led to the decolonization of
African countries.
2. Which country colonized Ghana and Kenya?
96
3. When did Kenya and Ghana recover their
independence?
Expected answer
1. Two factors that led to the decolonization of African
countries are:
• Effects of the Second World War,
• The role played by the elite in the growth of
African nationalism,
2. The European colonial master of Ghana and Kenya
was Britain.
3. Kenya recovered her independence on December
12th, 1963 and Ghana recovered hers on March 8th, 1957.
1. Explain the anti-colonialist attitude of USA and USSR.
2. Assess the role played by UNO in the decolonisation of
African countries.
Expected answers
1. The anti-colonialist attitude of the superpowers (USA
and USSR) can be explained as follows:
The two superpowers were United States of America
(USA) and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). They
both had an anticolonial attitude. Americans had
experienced colonisation and knew how bad being
colonised was. For USSR, colonisation meant exploitation
of colonies by their metropolitan powers. Besides, the
Russian Revolution of 1917 aimed at combating all forms
of exploitation and mainly that one based on
employment. With such ideologies and experience of
Americans and Soviets, the two superpowers exerted
pressure on colonial masters in Africa to decolonise. The
superpowers provided both military and financial
97
assistance to African nationalists to enable them fight for
self-rule.
2. The effects of the creation of UNO in 1945 were the
following: The United Nations Organisation (UNO) was
formed in 1945 after the Second World War. This was a
new international peace keeping body that replaced the
League of Nations. The UNO set up a Decolonisation
Committee charged with the responsibility of granting
political freedom to all colonised people and it was the
trusteeship council that partly prepared African countries
to get their independence. The UNO was founded on a
number of principles including equality of peoples and
the right of people to decide for themselves.
Extended activities
1. Evaluate the impact of the Second World War in the

decolonisation of African countries.
2. Evaluate the outcomes of the famous Afro-Asiatic
conference in the decolonisation of African countries.
Expected answer
1. The effects of the Second World War were as follows:
Africans who participated in the Second World War
witnessed the weakness of the Europeans. They saw
them sometimes as cowards, retreating and dying in
battles. They also learnt that the Europeans were not
as special as they thought them to be, that is why they
could also die of bullets like Africans. When they
returned to Africa, they organised and trained their
fellow Africans to fight against colonisation. 4. The
following were the outcomes of the famous Afro-
Asiatic conference in the decolonisation of African
countries:
98
2. From the time of their attainment of sovereignty, the
new Asian nations manifested solidarity with those
countries which were still under colonial rule. The
“Afro-asiatic movement” was born in 1947 during the
conference of New Delhi with the main principles
based on: the refusal to be affiliated to an ideological
bloc; fighting against imperialism; support to national
movements, and the search for economic renewal.
This movement was strengthened during the famous
Afro-Asiatic conference which met in Bandung,
Indonesia from 18 to 24 April 1955. This conference was
considered as an act of birth of the Third World. This
conference brought together representatives of 28 Asian
and African states who unanimously condemned
colonialism.
99
UNIT 5: ANALYZE THE 1789 FRENCH REVOLUTION

To be able to explain the causes and consequences of the
1789 French Revolution.

before:
• Industrial revolution
• American Revolution or the American war of
Independence).
• Effects of American Revolution both in America and in
the rest of the world
• Era of enlightenment and its effects
Using the internet or the library research on the 1789 French

Revolution and describe the characteristics of the Ancient
regime
before 1789.
e) Guidance on introductory activity
Give an activity that requires students to be interested to

them to be passionate to know, by the end of the unit, what
didn’t know and be inquisitive to know about the 1789
French revolution.
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One of the suggested problem statements here is the
following: “Make a synthesis of the causes and
consequences of the 1789 French Revolution”. This problem

of
periods
1 Causes of French Identify the causes of 2

Revolution the French Revolution.
2 Effects of French Explain the 1

Revolution consequences of the
French Revolution.
5.4.1. Lesson 1: Causes of French Revolution
Identify the causes of the French Revolution.

Student ’s books, a map of France and in schools with

enough use a projector, a computer and its accessories.
be used when teaching students with hearing impairment,
etc.
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activity 6.1 in the student’s book.
Synthesis

The ancient regime/Bourbon monarch had very poor
practices. The government ran systems that were so chaotic
in virtually all areas. It closed its doors to political reform, which
was taking place in other parts of Europe, especially Britain.
The king enjoyed absolute power and cared less about what
took place among the population. Common citizens had no
say or share in the government. The peasants were
underprivileged while the educated were unhappy with their
exclusion from official position at the head of the army, the
navy and the diplomatic service.

The outstanding causes were as follows:
- The existing government: It had very poor practices. The
government ran systems that were so chaotic in virtually
all areas. It closed its doors to political reform, which was
taking place in other parts of Europe, especially Britain.
The king enjoyed absolute power and cared less about
what took place among the population. Common
citizens had no say or share in the government. The
peasants were underprivileged while the educated were
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unhappy with their exclusion from official position at the
head of the army, the navy and the diplomatic service.
- The influence of the philosophers: The ideas of the

philosophers of the Enlightenment period had great
influence over the middle class and other people of the
French society. Ideas of key outstanding personalities
such as Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu and Rousseau
had a strong impact on the people. According to the
people, it was time such great ideas were put in practice.
This was part of the causes of the French revolution.
- Example of the American Revolution: America provided

a practical example of how a revolution could be
organized and its benefits. The French rulers had
supported the Americans against their masters, the British.
She did this to revenge her loss of colonies in Canada and
India to the British during the seven-year war (1756–1763).
When Americans won, the French rulers were happy

about the victory. Little did they know that it could
influence a revolution in France. French soldiers who
participated in the war were influenced by oppressive
democratic ideas. They reflected on why the Americans
rose up in arms against the British. It dawned on them that
the conditions back in France were worse and equally
oppressive. Americans rose against heavy taxation, yet
the French were also heavily taxed by the government.
- Bankruptcy of the French government: The French

government, as we have already observed, had been
bankrupt for many years before the revolution. This was
caused by the luxurious lifestyle of the kings and members
of the royal family. Exemption of the nobility, higher clergy
and -the church from taxation led to loss of Canada and
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India to Britain. French involvement in the American War
of Independence also contributed to its bankruptcy. All
these forced the government to live on debts, which
were a costly affair altogether. The bankrupt government
could not provide essential services to its citizens.
- The bankruptcy made successive government ministers

for finance to advise on taxing the exempted groups: This
was first never supported by the king (due to opposition
from the groups concerned) but the worsening
economic conditions, made the king to accept the idea
in May 1789. To enforce the recommendation, a meeting
of the estates-general was to be summoned. It was this
meeting that began a revolution. The third class had to
be handled well for things to move according to plan.
This meant removing some of the burden of taxation from
their shoulders and putting it onto into those of the first
and second classes. This was not to be.
- Character of King Louis XVI: Louis XVI was weak and

indecisive. His personality contributed to the revolution.
Louis XVI was inconsistent in his actions.
At every stage in the revolution he encouraged reform and
then drew back. This was dangerous and things were made
worse because he was influenced by his wife, Marie
Antoinette. Being an Austrian, she was viewed with
contempt because it was the French alliance with Austria
which made France to fight in the seven-year war, which
led to the loss of Canada and India. Marie Antoinette had
partly contributed to the people’s hatred of her. She was
ignorant of the need for reform and was unsympathetic to
her people’s situation at the time. The queen is said to have
misadvised the king into making unpopular decisions.
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- Inflation: There was high inflation which led to increase in
the price of various goods.
However, the rise in prices did not have a corresponding
increase in salaries. The result was widespread poverty
among the peasants.
- Bad weather of 1788: Climate equally contributed to the

revolution. There was bad weather in 1788 which ruined the
harvest. This eventually raised the prices of maize, bread
and other foodstuff, bringing about widespread starvation.
There also followed a severe winter in early 1789, which
besides the unbearable cold conditions froze all rivers and
ports in the country.
The result was even greater distress. Coupled with a treaty
France had signed with Britain in 1786, which allowed cheap
British manufactured goods into France in return for
corresponding concessions on French wine, there was much
suffering in the society. Unemployment increased and
people moved to towns, hoping to get better conditions.
These people brought into being the characteristic Paris mob
of the revolution – idle, desperate, ready to cheer on the
most extreme measures and destined to sway the fortunes of
events on several vital occasions.
All these factors jointly contributed to the breakout of the
revolution in 1780. The process began with the king’s,
summoning of the Estates-General meeting on 5 May 1789
1. The philosophers were great thinkers who were highly
educated in world affairs and put their ideas in writing,
condemning the social, political and economic situation
in France. They attacked and exposed the wrongs of
French society and created the French revolutionary spirit
among the peasantry and middle classes.
2. See learner’s book
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5.4.2. Lesson 2: Effects of French Revolution
Explain the consequences of the French Revolution.

Students’ books. In schools with enough resources, use a
teaching students with hearing impairment, etc.
Organize learners into groups and then invite them to do
activity 6.2. that is in the learner’s book.
Synthesis
• The 1789 French Revolution destroyed the
Bastille and this symbolized the end of despotism on
14 th July 1789.
• It revived the French parliament (National
Assembly or General meeting on May 5 th, 1789)
which had last sat 175 years before in 1614.
• The revolutionaries succeeded in spreading the French
revolutionary principles of equality, liberty and
fraternity beyond French borders.
• The French Revolutionaries passed a radical law known
as “civil constitution of the clergy” which allowed
freedom of worship in France and ended Catholic
Church dominance.
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• The national assembly produced a new constitution in
November 1791.
• The French Revolution ended feudal privileges on
August 4 th, 1789 in the assembly at Versailles. Land that
belonged to the Catholic Church and the nobles was
nationalized and given to the landless peasants at
cheaper prices.
• It led to the declaration of rights of Man and citizen on
August 27/1789.
• Multiparty politics was achieved in France with various
political parties or clubs like: Jacobin, Girondins,
Feuillants, Montagnards and Cord0liers.
• The royalists guards were replaced by the national
guards after the storming of the Bastille on July
14th,1789.
• It ended dictatorship/despotism in France after the
formulation of a new constitution.
• The revolutionaries introduced reforms in education
systems. Polytechnic schools were built to train and
produce skilled labor. Secondary schools were built
and old ones rehabilitated.

1. The financial crisis led to the French Revolution in the
following ways:
• People lost confidence in the government and
wished it could be removed.
• When the government failed to pay back the
money to the middle class, the people decided
to remove the government.
• That crisis led to inflation and unemployment
which forced people into the revolution.
2. Capable financial ministers such as Turgot and Necker
were dismissed and this worsened the financial crisis. They
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had suggested reforms which included taxing the wealth
of the nobles and the clergy, but the queen advised the
king to expel them. This led to the revolution against Louis
XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette in 1789.

Prelude to the French Revolution: monarchy in crisis
As the 18th Century drew to a close, France’s costly
involvement in the American Revolution and extravagant
spending by King Louis XVI (1754–1793) and his predecessor
had left the country bankrupt. In addition to the royal
coffers being depleted, two decades of poor cereal
harvests, drought, cattle disease and skyrocketing bread
prices had created unrest among peasants and the urban
poor. Many expressed their resentment toward a regime by
rioting, looting and striking.
In 1786, Louis XVI’s controller general, Charles Alexandre de

Calonne, proposed a financial reform package that
included a universal land tax from which the privileged
classes would no longer be exempt. To garner support for
these measures and forestall a growing aristocratic revolt,
the king summoned the Estates General (les états généraux)
– an assembly representing France’s clergy, nobility and
middle class–for the first time since 1614. The meeting was
scheduled for May 5, 1789. In the meantime, delegates of
the three estates from each locality were required to
compile lists of grievances (cahiers de doléances) to
present to the king.
The French revolution at Versailles: Rise of the Third Estate

The population of France had changed considerably since
1614. The non-aristocratic members of the Third Estate now
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represented 98 per cent of the people but could still be
outvoted by the other two bodies.
In preparation for the May 5 meeting, the Third Estate

began to mobilise support for equal representation and the
abolition of the noble veto powers. In other words, they
wanted voting by head and not by status. While all of the
orders shared a common desire for fiscal and judicial reform
as well as a more representative form of government, the
nobles in particular were not ready to give up the privileges
they enjoyed under the traditional system.
By the time the Estates General convened at Versailles, the

highly public debate over its voting process had erupted
into hostility between the three orders defeating the original
purpose of the meeting and the authority of the King who
had convened it. On June 17th, the Third Estate met alone
and formally adopted the title of National Assembly. Three
days later, they met in a nearby indoor tennis court and
took the so-called Tennis Court Oath (serment du jeu de
paume), vowing not to disperse until constitutional reform
had been achieved. Within a short time, most of the clerical
deputies and 47 liberal nobles had joined them, and on
June 27th Louis XVI grudgingly absorbed all three orders into
the new assembly.
The French Revolution hits the streets: The Bastille and

the great fear
On June 12, as the National Assembly continued to meet at
Versailles, fear and violence raged the capital. Though
enthusiastic about the recent breakdown of royal power,
Parisians panicked as rumours of an impending military
coup began to circulate. A popular insurgency escalated
on July 14th when rioters stormed the Bastille fortress in an
attempt to secure gunpowder and weapons. Many
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consider this event, now commemorated in France as a
national holiday, as the start of the French Revolution.
The wave of revolutionary fever and widespread hysteria

quickly swept the countryside. Revolting against years of
exploitation, peasants looted and burned the homes of tax
collectors, landlords and the seigniorial elite. Known as the
Great Fear (la Grande peur), the agrarian insurrection
propelled the growing exodus of nobles from the country.
The National Constituent Assembly decided to abolish
feudalism on August 4, 1789, by signing what was later
called the “death certificate of the old order.”
The French Revolution’s political culture: drafting a

constitution
On August 4th, the Assembly adopted the Declaration of the
Rights of Man and of the Citizen, a statement of democratic
principles grounded in the philosophical and political ideas
of thinkers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). The
document proclaimed the Assembly’s commitment to
replace the Ancien Régime with a system based on equal
opportunity, freedom of speech, popular sovereignty and
representative government.
The drafting of a formal constitution proved much more of a

challenge for the National Constituent Assembly, which had
the added burden of functioning as a legislature during
harsh economic times. For months, its members wrestled
with fundamental questions about the shape and expanse
of France’s new political landscape. For instance, who
would be responsible for electing delegates? Would the
clergy owe allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church or the
French government? How much authority would the king
retain after a failed attempt to flee in June 1791? On
September 3rd, 1791, France adopted her first written
constitution, establishing a constitutional monarchy in which
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the king enjoyed royal veto power and the ability to
appoint ministers. This compromise did not sound well with
radicals like Maximilien de Robespierre, Camille Desmoulins
and Georges Danton. These began drumming up for
popular support for a more republican form of government
and the trial of Louis XVI.
The French Revolution turns radical: terror and revolt

In April 1792, the newly elected Legislative Assembly
declared war on Austria and Prussia, where it believed
French émigrés were building counterrevolutionary
alliances. It also hoped to spread its revolutionary ideals
across Europe through warfare. Meanwhile, the political
crisis took a radical turn at home when a group of insurgents
led by the extremist Jacobins attacked the royal residence
in Paris and arrested the king on August 10th, 1792. The
following month, amid a wave of violence in which Parisian
insurrectionists massacred hundreds of accused
counterrevolutionaries, the Legislative Assembly was
replaced by the National Convention, which proclaimed
the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the
French Republic. On January 21st, 1793, the National
Convention had King Louis XVI, condemned to death for
high treason and crimes against the state and sent to the
guillotine. His wife Marie-Antoinette (1755–1793) suffered the
same fate nine months later.
Following the king’s execution, war with various European

powers and intense divisions within the National Convention
the French Revolution entered its most violent and turbulent
phase. In June 1793, the Jacobins seized control of the
National Convention from the more moderate Girondins
and instituted a series of radical measures. These measures
included the establishment of a new calendar and the
eradication of Christianity. They also unleashed the bloody
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Reign of Terror (la Terreur), a 10–month period in which
thousands of suspected enemies of the revolution were
guillotined. Many of the killings were carried out under
orders from Robespierre. Robespierre dominated the
Committee of Public Safety until his own execution on July
28, 1794. His death marked the beginning of the moderate
phase in which the French people revolted against excesses
of the Reign of Terror.
The French Revolution ends: Napoleon’s rise

On August 22, 1795, the National Convention, composed
largely of Girondins who had survived the Reign of Terror,
approved a new constitution that created France’s first
bicameral legislature. Executive power was in the hands of
a five-member Directory (“Directoire”) appointed by
parliament. The royalists and Jacobins protested the new
regime but were swiftly silenced by the army, now led by
Napoleon Bonaparte.
The Directory’s four years in power were riddled with

financial crises, popular discontent, inefficiency and, above
all, political corruption. By the late 1790s, the directors relied
almost entirely on the military to maintain their authority and
had ceded much of their power to the generals in the field.
On November 9th, 1799, Bonaparte staged a coup d’état,
abolishing the Directory and appointing himself France’s
“first consul.” The event marked the end of the French
Revolution and the beginning of the Napoleonic era, in
which France would come to dominate much of
continental Europe.

1. Characteristics of the ancient regime in France before
1789 are:
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French rule under the ancient regime was characterised
by despotic kings, especially from the time of Louis XIV.
The administration was characterised by dictatorship,
nepotism and abuse of human rights. The king’s powers
were absolute and could not be questioned. He was the
law and the law was himself, and that was why he
boasted that “the thing is legal because I wish it to be”,
“the state is myself!” There was no written constitution, no
democracy, and no fair representation in the parliament.
Even the King’s ministers had unlimited powers through”
lettre – de – cachet” (arrest warrant with imprisonment
without trial), which caused a lot of suffering to the
French people, forcing them to join the French
revolution.
2. The role of the French philosophers in the outbreak of
the French Revolution in 1789 is as follows:
The philosophers were great thinkers who were highly
educated in world affairs. They put their ideas in writing,
condemning the social, political and economic situation
in France. They attacked and exposed the wrongs of the
French society and created the French revolutionary
spirit among the peasants and middle classes.
3. The French society was divided into three social
classes; the clergy, the nobles and middle class with the
peasants.
The clergy and nobles were enjoying a lot of privileges
like owning a large tracts of land, dominating the key
government posts; being exempted from taxes, forced
labour, and military conscription; could not be
imprisoned; could be promoted in the army; were
entitled to education to be judged by special courts, to
extract tributes from the peasants, to have the rights to
get pensions; to enjoy all forms of freedom; to have
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slaves; to stay in the King’s palace; and had the right
move with weapons in public.
The peasants and the middle class were 23 million out of
25 million, but were denied to all sorts of freedom, were
subjected to forced labour, unfair taxation, imprisoned
without trial, and were denied promotion in the army
and higher education.
The middle class, the bourgeoisie, was composed of
teachers, lawyers, doctors, scientists and industrialists and
they had the problem that despite their education, they
were excluded from top posts in the government and in
the army. They had also to lend money to the
government and were not sure of recovering that
money. By 1789, they had read and interpreted the work
of philosophers which forced them to fight against the
ancient regime.
4. Positive effects of the French revolution of 1789 are as
follows:
• The 1789 French revolution destroyed the Bastille
as a symbol of despotism on 14th July, 1789.
• The revolutionaries succeeded in spreading the
French revolutionary principles of equality,
liberty, and fraternity beyond French borders.
• The French revolution brought freedom of
worship in France and ended Catholic Church
dominance in state affairs.
• It ended feudal privileges on August 4th, 1789.
The land that beloved to the Catholic Church
and the nobles was nationalised and given to
the landless peasants at cheaper prices.
• Multiparty politics was achieved in France with
various political parties or clubs likes Jacobins,
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Girondins, Feuillants, Montagnards and
Cordeliers.
• The national assembly produced a new
constitution in November 1791.
• It ended despotism in France.
5. Below are the negative effects of the 1789 French
Revolution:
• It led to terrible loss of lives and destruction of
property.
• The revolution led to serious financial collapse
and decline due to numerous wars which
France fought with the rest of Europe.
• It forced many French people into exile in
Austria, Russia and Italy where they came to be
known as the émigrés.
• The 1789 French revolution led to the outbreak
of the 1830 and 1848 revolutions in Europe that
left a lot of lives and properties destroyed.
6. The financial crisis led to the French revolution in the
following ways:
• People lost confidence in the government and
wished it could be removed.
• When the government failed to pay back the
money it had borrowed from the middle class,
the people decided remove the government.
• The crisis led to the inflation and unemployment,
which forced people into the revolution.
• It forced the King to call the Estates General
meeting which started the revolution.

Remedial activities
1. Mention two causes of the French Revolution.
2. Give three effects of the French Revolution.
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Expected answer
1. Two causes of the French Revolution are:
• The role played by the French philosophers
• Unfair land ownership
• Weakness of the monarchy
2. Three effects of the French Revolution are:
• The July 1790 Civil Constitution of the Clergy
which was passed during the French revolution
made the Catholic Church and the state
enemies.
• It spoilt the diplomatic relations between France
and her neighbours like Prussia, Austria, Russia
and Britain due to the mistreatment of King Louis
XVI.
• The 1789 French revolution inspired the outbreak
of the 1830 and 1848 revolutions in Europe.
1. Analyse five causes of the French Revolution.
2. Identify three effects of the French Revolution.
Expected answers
1. Five causes of the French Revolution are the following:
 Influence of England: England provided an
example to the French society. By 1750, she had
modernised and had the best parliament, a
good constitution and she had an independent
Judiciary as well as freedom of religious
practices. In addition to a better political
environment, England became a reference for
political philosophers who based their
arguments on Britain. Many French people
desired the life of England and wanted to put it
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into practice through the 1789 French
Revolution.
 Dismissal of the financial reformers: Capable
financial controllers, Turgot and Necker, were
dismissed and this worsened financial crisis in
France. They had suggested reforms of taxing
the wealth of the nobles and the clergy, but the
Queen advised the King to expel them because
they had attacked financial mismanagement at
the royal palace. This led to the revolution
against the King Louis XIV and his wife Marie
Antoinette in 1789.
 Role of the French philosophers: The
philosophers were great thinkers who were
highly educated in world affairs who put their
ideas in writing, condemning the social, political
and economic situation in France. They
attacked and exposed the wrongs of the French
society and instilled a revolutionary spirit among
the French peasants and middle classes.
 Unfair land ownership: The land was unfairly
distributed among the nobles and the clergy at
the expense of the majority peasants. The
church also owned 20 per cent of the land,
which it rented to the peasants. So, the peasants
survived as tenants on their landlord’s estates
who exploited them. This is one reason why they
demanded for reforms in the revolution of 1789.
 Unfair taxation system: By 1789, the taxation
system of France was unfair. The poor peasants
were forced to pay a lot of taxes like salt tax,
church tax, property tax, road tax, tithe and
customs duty while the rich nobles and the
clergy were exempted from taxation. The
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peasants, tired of this unfair taxation system rose
up in the French revolution.
2. These are three effects of the French revolution:
The French revolutionaries passed a radical law known as
“Civil Constitution of the Clergy” and brought freedom of
worship in France and ended the Catholic Church
dominance in state affairs. The national assembly
produced a new constitution in November 1791.
The French revolution ended feudal privileges on August
4th 1789 in the assembly at Versailles. Land that belonged
to the Catholic Church and the nobles was nationalised
and given to the landless peasants at cheaper prices.
It led to the declaration of rights of man and citizens on
August 27th 1789. The document abolished the social
class divisionism, which had existed in France during the
Bourbon monarchy (ancient regime) and this brought
equality among French citizens. It also declared that all
men were equal before the law.
Extended activities
1. Describe the characteristics of the ancient regime in
France before 1789.
Expected answer
The characteristics of the ancient regime in France before
1789 are:
Despotism (Dictatorship): The administration of Bourbon

monarchy is characterized by nepotism, corruption,
sectarianism, abuse of human right, absence of democracy
and above all despotism.
Absence of constitutionalism: The rights of people were not

represented at all and there were not checks and balance
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to excessive powers of the monarchs. The French masses
had no choice but to use a revolution as the only way to
better the lives.
Unfair judicial system: The bourbon monarchy had no fair

judicial system. For instance, by 1789 there existed 360
feudal courts of law in different parts of France
The miseries in the army: The army of peasantry origin hated

the unfair procedures of promotion in which the nobles were
the beneficiaries of the higher ranks.
The unfair administrative structure: The political

administrative structure favoured the nobles and the clergy
at the expanse of the peasants and the middle class.
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UNIT 6: CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

To be able to explain the causes and effects of the First
World War.

before:
 The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871
 The creation and development of alliance system
including Triple Alliance and Triple Entente.
 The 19th Century nationalistic movements in
Europe.
 Economic imperialism among European countries
 Decline of the Ottoman Empire
a) Introductory activity (unity level)
Examine the causes and effects of the First World War,

present your results to the class
Begin with an activity that requires students to be interested

to know what happens or will happen in this unit and help
didn’t know and be inquisitive to know about the causes
and effects of the First World War.

“Analyse the causes and effects of the First World War.” This
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problem statement can be given as homework or in class
discussion.
# Lesson titles Learning objectives Num

er o
per
1 Causes of the First World War Describe both long term and 2
immediate causes of the First
World War.
2 Effects of the First World Explain the effects of the First 1

World War.
3 Versailles Treaty Analyse the aims, 2

achievements and failures of
the Versailles Peace Treaty
4 League of Nations Analyse the aims, 2

achievements and failures of
the League of Nations
6.4.1. Lesson 1: Causes of the First World War
Describe both long term and immediate causes of the First

World War.
121
Student ’s books, and a world map and in schools with
enough resources, use a projector, a computer and its
accessories.

etc.

activity 7.1 that are in the learner’s book.
Synthesis
To make a synthesis of the lesson, summarize the content that
is in the Student’s Book basing on the answers developed by
the students
Causes of the First World War
In the background there were many conflicts between
European nations. Nations grouped among themselves to
form military alliances as there were tension and suspicion
among them. The causes of the First World War were:
(1) Conflict between Imperialist countries: Ambition of
Germany
 Conflict between old imperialist countries (Eg: Britain
and France) vs new imperialist countries (Eg:
Germany).
 Germany ship – Imperator.
 German railway line – from Berlin to Baghdad.
(2) Ultra Nationalism
 Pan Slav movement – Russian, Polish, Czhech, Serb,
Bulgaria and Greek.
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 Pan German movement.
(3) Military Alliance
 Triple Alliance or Central Powers (1882) – Germany,
Italy, Austria-Hungary.
 Triple Entente or Allies (1907) – Britain, France, Russia.
Note: Although Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance
alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary, it did not join the
Central Powers, as Austria-Hungary had taken the offensive,
against the terms of the alliance. These alliances were
reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the
war: Italy, Japan and the United States joined the Allies,
while the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central
Powers.
(4) International Anarchy

 Secret agreement between Britain and France
allowing Britain to control Egypt and France to take
over Morocco. Germany opposed, but settled with a
part of French Congo.
 Hague conference of 1882 and 1907 failed to emerge
as an international organisation.
(5) Balkan Wars
 Many Balkan nations (Serbia, Bulgaria, Albania,
Greece and Montenegro) were under the control of
Turkey. They defeated Turkey in the First Balkan War.
The subsequent war was between the Balkan countries
themselves – Eg: Serbia vs Bulgaria.
 Defeated countries like Turkey and Bulgaria sought
German help.
(6) Alsace-Loraine
 During German unification, Germany got Alsace-
Loraine from France. France wanted to capture
Alsace-Loraine back from Germany.
(7) Immediate Cause: assassination of Francis Ferdinand
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 Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was assassinated
by a Serbian native (in Bosnia). Austria declared war
on Serbia on 28th July, 1914. [Reason for assassination:
Annexation by Austria the Bosnia-Herzegovina, against
the congress of Berlin, 1878]
Consequences of First World War
1. Rule of King ended in Germany: Germany became a

republic on November 1918. The German Emperor
Kaiser William II fled to Holland.
2. Around 1 crore people were killed.
3. Unemployment and famine.
4. Epidemics.
5. The fall of Russian empire after October revolution
(1917) which resulted in the formation of USSR (1922)
6. Emergence of USA as a super power.
7. Beginning of the end of European supremacy.
8. Japan became a powerful country in Asia.
9. Poland, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia became new
independent states.
10. Baltic countries – Estonia, Latvia and Lithvania –
became independent.
11. Rule of Ottamans came to an end in Turkey.
12. New boundary lines were drawn for Austria, Germany
and Turkey.
13. Strengthened independence movements in Asia and
Africa.
14. League of Nations came into being.
15. Germany had to return Alsace-Loraine to France.
16. German colonies were shared.
17. Germany gave up Saar coal field.
18. Germany gave up Polish corridor, and made city of
Danzig independent.
124
19. Monarchy was abolished in Germany, Austria,
Hungary, Turkey and Russia.
20. The harsh clauses of the Treaty of Versailles finally
resulted in the second world war.

1. Conflict is a serious disagreement or argument,
typically a protracted on
A War is a state of armed conflict between different
countries or different groups within a country.
2. See answer for introductory activity
Immediate Cause: assassination of Francis Ferdinand
Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was assassinated by a
Serbian native (in Bosnia). Austria declared war on Serbia on
28th July, 1914. [Reason for assassination: Annexation by
Austria the Bosnia-Herzegovina, against the congress of
Berlin, 1878]. The assassination of Francis Ferdinand can or
cannot cause the war. It can dependent to the interest of
some countries. The war existed but it didn’t cause the world
war.
6.4.2. Lesson 2: Effects of the First World

Explain the effects of the First World War.
c) Teaching resources
activity 7.3 in the student’s book.
125
Synthesis
Consequences of First World War
21. Rule of King ended in Germany: Germany became

a republic on November 1918. The German Emperor
Kaiser William II fled to Holland.
22. Around 1 crore people were killed.
23. Unemployment and famine.
24. Epidemics.
25. The fall of Russian empire after October revolution
(1917) which resulted in the formation of USSR (1922)
26. Emergence of USA as a super power.
27. Beginning of the end of European supremacy.
28. Japan became a powerful country in Asia.
29. Poland, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia became new
independent states.
30. Baltic countries – Estonia, Latvia and Lithvania –
became independent.
31. Rule of Ottamans came to an end in Turkey.
32. New boundary lines were drawn for Austria, Germany
and Turkey.
33. Strengthened independence movements in Asia and
Africa.
34. League of Nations came into being.
35. Germany had to return Alsace-Loraine to France.
36. German colonies were shared.
37. Germany gave up Saar coal field.
38. Germany gave up Polish corridor, and made city of
Danzig independent.
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39. Monarchy was abolished in Germany, Austria,
Hungary, Turkey and Russia.
40. The harsh clauses of the Treaty of Versailles finally
resulted in the second world war

See the answer on learning activity 7.3
6.4.3. Lesson 3: Versailles Treaty
Analyze the aims, achievements and failures of the Versailles
Peace Treaty
Student’s books. In schools with enough resources, use a
Guidance to learning activity
Synthesis
Versailles peace treaty was signed because of the following
reasons:
 To maintain lasting peace in the world
 To look for ways of punishing Germany and her allies
 To promote political integrity of independent states
 To reduce production of dangerous weapons
 To redraw the map of Europe
 To set up a body for maintaining international peace
127
1. The aims of the Versailles Peace Treaty include the
following:
• To maintain lasting peace in the world
• To look for ways to punish Germany and her allies
• To promote the political integrity of independent
states.
2. The achievements of the Versailles Peace Treaty were
the following:
• The Versailles Peace Treaty destroyed the German
arms and her army was reduced to 100,000 soldiers to
prevent her military aggression.
• The treaty granted independence to some states like
Yugoslavia, Serbia, Montenegro, Poland, and
Czechoslovakia.
• The treaty came up with a disarmament policy and
although it was only applied on defeated powers, it
helped in maintaining world peace.
3. The failures of the Versailles Peace Treaty were the
following:
• The war reparations of 6.6 billion for pounds were
impossible for Germany to pay.
• The disarmament policy was also unfair because it was
only Germany to be disarmed while other European
powers were busy manufacturing weapons.
• Germany’s loss of territories in Europe and Africa lead
to the loss of raw materials and markets, leading to
economic decline in Germany.
4. The following are the consequences of the 1919
Versailles Peace Treaty on Germany:
• The landlocked Poland was granted a corridor to the
Port of Danzig in the Baltic sea through Germany.
128
• The Germans who were greatly inspired by Adolf Hitler
attacked and opposed the Weimar Republic leaders
for having accepted the treaty whose the terms were
unfair and harsh on Germany. It demilitarised the
Rhinelands and all the fortifications that Germany had
already made on the banks of the Rhine were
destroyed.
• The treaty forced the defeated Germany to give back
Schleswig to Denmark, Alsace and Lorraine mineral
provinces to France.
6.4.4. Lesson 4: League of Nations

Analyze the aims, achievements and failures of the League
of Nations
The teaching resources can include students’ textbooks,
computer, internet, and Braille materials should be availed if
there are impaired students.
In this lesson, the teacher divides the students into different
groups and provides them with textbooks and other readings
related to the origins of the League of Nations, its objectives,
organization, achievements, weaknesses and factors that led
to its downfall. Thereafter, he or assigns them the task students
to do the learning activity provided in teacher’s guide. After
having done this activity, students present their works to the
whole class. The teacher harmonizes the different
presentations and helps the students come up with a
summary of the lesson taught.
Answers for learning activity
129
The genesis of the creation of the League of Nations
The League of Nations was the first worldwide

intergovernmental organization whose principal mission was
to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920
following the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First
World War.
The concept of a peaceful community of nations had been

proposed as far back as 1795, when Immanuel Kant's
Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch outlined the idea of
a league of nations to control conflict and promote peace
between states
International co-operation to promote collective security

originated in the Concert of Europe that developed after the
Napoleonic Wars in the 19th Century in an attempt to
maintain the status quo between European states and so
avoid war.
This period also saw the development of international law,

with the first Geneva Conventions establishing laws dealing
with humanitarian relief during wartime, and the international
Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war
and the peaceful settlement of international disputes.
At the start of the First World War, the first schemes for an
international organization to prevent future wars began to
gain considerable public support, particularly in Great Britain
and the United States. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, a British
political scientist, coined the term "League of Nations" in 1914
and drafted a scheme for its organization.
In 1915, a similar body to the Bryce group proposals was set

up in the United States by a group of like-minded individuals,
including William Howard Taft. It was called the League to
Enforce Peace and was substantially based on the proposals
130
of the Bryce Group. It advocated the use of arbitration in
conflict resolution and the imposition of sanctions on
aggressive countries.
In the course of the diplomatic efforts surrounding World War

I, both sides had to clarify their long-term war aims. By 1916 in
Britain, the leader of the Allies, and in the neutral United
States, long-range thinkers had begun to design a unified
international organization to prevent future wars.
When David Lloyd George took power in December 1916,

there was widespread discussion among intellectuals and
diplomats of the desirability of establishing such an
organization. Wilson, president of USA, himself included in his
Fourteen Points in January 1918 a league of nations to ensure
peace and justice.
In London, British foreign secretary, Arthur Balfour,

commissioned the first official report into the matter in early
1918, under the initiative of Lord Robert Cecil. The British
committee was finally appointed in February 1918. It was led
by Walter Phillimore. The recommendations of the so-called
Phillimore Commission approved by the British government,
and much of the commission's results were later incorporated
into the Covenant of the League of Nations.
The French also drafted a much more far-reaching proposal

in June 1918; they advocated annual meetings of a council
to settle all disputes, as well as an "international army" to
enforce its decisions.
The two principal drafters and architects of the covenant of

the League of Nations were the British Politician Lord Robert
Cecil and the South African statesman Jan Smuts. Smuts'
proposals included the creation of a Council of the great
powers as permanent members and a non-permanent
selection of the minor states. He also proposed the creation
131
of a Mandate system for captured colonies of the Central
Powers during the war. Cecil focused on the administrative
side and proposed annual Council meetings and
quadrennial meetings for the Assembly of all members. He
also argued for a large and permanent secretariat to carry
out the League's administrative duties.
The first meeting of the Council of the League of Nations took

place on 16 January 1920 in the Salle de l'Horloge at the Quai
d'Orsay in Paris and the first meeting of the Assembly of the
League of Nations took place on 15 November 1920 at the
Salle de la Réformation in Geneva.
Answers to the application activity

1. Analyze two factors that led to the downfall of the League
of Nations.
Two factors that led to the collapse of the League of Nations

are the following:
Exclusion of small countries from the League of Nations

contributed to its downfall. The basis on which the League of
Nations was built was weak and dangerously contradictory
because only the big powers were represented while the
small powers were left out. Without the support and sympathy
of the majority countries of the world, the League was bound
to fail.
Over reliance of the League of Nations on Britain and France

also contributed to its failure. The League was over
dependant on Britain and France for funding, leadership,
decisions and direction and yet these countries had their own
individualistic ends to pursue. Above all these powers were
preoccupied with the reconstruction of their shattered
economies. They minded less about the League of Nations.
132
2. Discuss three weaknesses of the League of Nations.
Three weaknesses of the League of Nations are as follows:
• The difference in ideologies of members states of the

League was also a source of problem, while some
members were capitalist (Britain, France, Germany,
etc.), others (like Russia) were socialists and
communists, others like Britain and France were
democratic nations.
• The League was not worldwide in its membership, i.e. it
was dominated by European countries like Britain and
France. Such a League required having members in
Asia and Africa if it was to be successful.
• The League lacked the military power that would
enforce her decisions. It failed to create a joint
international force to maintain world peace and for
checking the actions of the aggression. It failed to
control against the withdrawal of her members, i.e.
member states were free to join and withdraw without
any penalties, and e.g. Germany withdrew in 1933 and
immediately embarked on the serious programme of
re-arming herself. Other country members such as Italy,
Japan and Brazil also left the League of Nations. In
addition, although the American President Woodrow
Wilson was the principal initiator of the creation of the
League of Nations, his country was not a member of
this organization. He met an opposition on the
Congress formed its majority by Republicans while he
was a democrat. This was a great loss for the League
of Nations and this situation weakened heavily the
Organization.
3. Evaluate two social achievements of the League of Nations
133
Two social achievements of the League of Nations are the
following:
The League of Nations also achieved valuable economic

and social work. It set up a slavery commission that declared
slave trade and slavery illegal and anti-social internationally.
It also effectively solved the problem of drug trafficking by
setting up anti-slavery commissions and encouraging
member states to cooperate in stopping slave trade.
Moreover, the health organization of the League of Nations

organized medical assistance and the distribution of
vaccines to combat epidemics like syphilis, leprosy, cholera,
dysentery and malaria which had swept Europe.
The League of Nations achieved success in dealing with

matters of human welfare, for example, the International
Labour Organization (ILO) was formed to improve general
conditions of workers.
The League of Nations recorded success in looking after

refugees. World War I had a problem of caring and settling
millions of prisoners of war and by 1934; the League of Nations
had provided assistance to people of such category.

The League of Nations

The League of Nations was an international peace keeping
body formed after the First World War. It formally came into
existence on January 10, 1920. It began with 42 member
states but the number increased to 55 by 1926 when
Germany was admitted. In Africa, its members were South
134
Africa, Egypt, Ethiopia and Liberia. The official languages of
the LON were English, French and Spanish.
Headquarters were located in Geneva, Switzerland a neutral

State. The League of Nations is the first international
organisation that was deliberately created to maintain
peace and security in the world.
The origins of the League of Nations
The League of Nations was an integral part of the Treaty of

Versailles. It is often spoken of as being the brainchild of the
US President W. Wilson. However, although Wilson was
certainly a great supporter of the idea of an international
organization for peace, the League was the result of a
coming together of similar suggestions made during the First
World War by a number of world statesmen.
Lord Robert Cecil of Britain, Jan Smuts of South Africa and

Leon Bourgeois of France put forward detailed schemes as
to how such an organisation might be set up. Wilson’s
contribution was to insist that the League covenant (the list
of rules by which the League was to operate) should be
included in each of the separate peace treaties. This ensured
that the League actually came into existence instead of
merely remaining a topic of discussion.
Objectives of the League of Nations
The aims and objectives of the League of Nations were as

follows:
To solve international disputes diplomatically through

conferences and negations before the disputes could
explode into war;
To restore and preserve world peace by preventing war: This

was to be through collective security. If one country attacked
135
another member state, the members would act together to
restrain the aggressor;
To promote international cooperation: This was partly

because one of the major causes of the Great War was due
to rivalry among European countries which had led to the
two antagonistic military alliances;
To find solutions to the problems caused by the war: Many

people had been wounded without shelter, food, clothing
and medicine. Social and economic infrastructures in many
countries were destroyed. The League of Nations therefore
intended to mobilise funds to help the victims of war;
To preserve the territorial integrity and independence of

member states: Member countries were not to interfere in the
internal affairs of other countries and no power was to
interfere in the internal affairs of another country;
To control the arms race, limit production of the disastrous

military weapons and enforce general disarmament of all
countries to the lowest levels possible. The arms manufacture
was to be restricted to the lowest point consistent with
national safety;
To look after the mandate states: These were the former

colonies and territories of the defeated members of the triple
alliance which were placed under the mandate of the
League of Nations;
To abolish slave trade and slavery in the world: Slavery

caused human suffering and misery and dehumanised the
victims;
To improve the conditions of workers in the world: The working

conditions in many industrialised countries were so poor that
international intervention was necessary;
136
To promote and enforce international justice and to control
trafficking and consumption of dangerous or harmful drugs:
These included marijuana, opium and cocaine;
To suppress Sea pirates who were a threat to international

trade on big waters like the Mediterranean Sea, black sea
and the Pacific Ocean;
To work out a plan for repatriating and resettling refugees or

people displaced by the First World War.
Achievements of the League of Nations
After some initial troubles, the League of Nations seemed to

be functioning successfully during the 1920s. It solved a
number of minor international disputes. It managed to solve
border conflicts between Greece and Bulgaria by
demanding that the Greeks withdraw and pay
compensation.
The League of Nations also achieved valuable economic

and social work. It set up a slavery commission that declared
slave trade and slavery illegal and anti-social internationally.
It also effectively solved the problem of drug trafficking by
setting up anti-slavery commissions and encouraging
member states to cooperate in stopping slave trade.
Moreover, the health organisation of the League of Nations

organised medical assistance and the distribution of
vaccines to combat epidemics like syphilis, leprosy, cholera,
dysentery and malaria which had swept Europe.
The League of Nations achieved success in dealing with

matters of human welfare, for example, the International
Labour Organisation (ILO) was formed to improve general
conditions of workers.
137
The League of Nations recorded success in looking after
refugees. World War I had a problem of caring and settling
millions of prisoners of war and by 1934; the League of Nations
had provided assistance to people of such category.
The League of Nations recorded success in maintaining

peace by solving political conflicts that involved smaller
powers for example, in 1920, the League of Nations solved
the conflict between Sweden and Finland, where the
countries claimed the Aaland Island, and the League of
Nations ruled that the island belonged to Finland.
In 1921, the League intervened in the conflict between

Germany and Poland over the important industrial area of
Upper Silesia. The League divided the territory between the
two countries.
When Turkey claimed the province of Mosul- part of the British

mandate territory to Iraq, the League intervened and ruled in
favour of Iraq.
The League of Nations monitored and controlled mandated

states by sending questionnaires to mandated states asking
them how they are controlled by the new colonial masters.
The League of Nations made an achievement in disarming

Germany, which helped in reducing Germany’s supremacy.
The financial commission of the League of Nations

succeeded in negotiating for loans for the reconstruction of
the economy of Austria after World War I.
Failures and weaknesses of the League of Nations
The failures and weaknesses of the League of Nations are the

following:
138
The League of Nations failed in its mission to ensure world
disarmament, i.e. it failed to disarm victorious powers like
France, Britain and Russia. It was only successful in disarming
Germany.
The Italian invasion of Abyssinia/Ethiopia was a violation of

the League of Nations rules and regulations. The League tried
half-hearted sanctions and in the end recognised a decision
that placed the whole of Abyssinia under Italy.
The League of Nations failed to ensure against aggression as

an instrument of policy. It failed to restrain Japanese
aggression against China and her eventual occupation of
the rich Chinese province of Manchuria.
In its early days, membership of the League was restricted.

Germany and Italy were denied membership for fear
aggression. Russia was sidelined on grounds that it would
spread socialism. Therefore, since its early days of formation,
the League was merely an Anglo-French affair.
The difference in ideologies of members states of the League

was also a source of problem, while some members were
capitalist (Britain, France, Germany, etc.), others (like Russia)
were socialists and communists, others like Britain and France
were democratic nations.
It also had a weak administrative set up. The secretary

general had limited powers and therefore he/she could not
do much to enforce the League’s aims and resolutions.
The League was not worldwide in its membership, i.e. it was

dominated by European countries like Britain and France.
Such a League required having members in Asia and Africa
if it was to be successful.
139
The League lacked the military power that would enforce her
decisions. It failed to create a joint international force to
maintain world peace and for checking the actions of the
aggression.
It failed to control against the withdrawal of her members, i.e.

member states were free to join and withdraw without any
penalties, e.g. Germany withdrew in 1933 and immediately
embarked on the serious programme of re-arming herself.
Other country members such as Italy, Japan and Brazil also
left the League of Nations.
In addition, although the American President Woodrow

Wilson was the principal initiator of the creation of the
League of Nations, his country was not a member of this
organisation. He met an opposition on the Congress formed
its majority by Republicans while he was a democrat. This was
a great loss for the League of Nations and this situation
weakened heavily the Organisation.
During the German invasion of Poland which led to the

Second World War, the League was not even consulted, and
it was unable to exert the slightest influence to prevent the
outbreak of the war. After December 1939, it did not meet
again and it was dissolved in 1946.
Factors that led to the downfall of the League of Nations
Exclusion of small countries from the League of Nations

contributed to its downfall. The basis on which the League of
Nations was built was weak and dangerously contradictory
because only the big powers were represented while the
small powers were left out. Without the support and sympathy
of the majority countries of the world, the League was bound
to fail.
140
Over reliance of the League of Nations on Britain and France
also contributed to its failure. The League was over
dependant on Britain and France for funding, leadership,
decisions and direction and yet these countries had their own
individualistic ends to pursue. Above all these powers were
preoccupied with the reconstruction of their shattered
economies. They minded less about the League of Nations.
Withdraw of USA from the League of Nations also contributed

to its failure. This left the League without a planner since
Woodrow Wilson the founder was from USA. As a matter of
opinion, the withdrawal of USA was a major blow because
the country to which millions of people looked to for
guidance, protection and economic support left the people
and the world without guidance and at the greatest hour of
need. It was unfortunate.
The League also lacked collective military strength and

administrative power to enforce its resolutions and decisions
agreed upon. The countries which disobeyed the resolutions
of the world body could not be punished because the
League lacked the necessary military force to do so.
There was no mutual unity among the members of the

League of Nations in handling the problems of the
organisation. This always brought disagreements among the
member states and the League continued in failing to get
solutions to the problems. For example, the Italian rape of
Ethiopia tested the readiness of the League members to go
to war just for the sake of principle.
The armament policy by the member states also contributed

to the failure of the League of Nations. The deliberate refusal
by some countries to reduce national armament to the
lowest point consistent with national safety made other
141
countries to regain arms production which frustrated the
helpless League and led to the Second World War.
The initial exclusion of Germany and Russia which were major

world powers rendered the League of Nations weak and
contributed to its downfall. Although these countries were
later admitted in 1926 and 1934 respectively, the damage
had already been done. If the League of Nations was to
effectively work and succeed, it needed the genuine support
of these two world powers right from its inception.
The world economic depression of 1929 also contributed to

the collapse of the League of Nations. The depression caused
unemployment and very poor standards of living which in
turn led to the rise of extremist characters like Hitler and
Mussolini. These repeatedly violated the resolutions of the
League which revealed its weaknesses.
Inadequate resources to run the activities of the League also

made it hard for the League to carry out its activities hence
failure.
The League of Nations was too closely linked to the Versailles

treaty and this made it lack respect in the eyes of many
peoples of the world.
The rigidity of the council which required unanimous decisions

by all the permanent members before any decision is taken,
was also a big blow to the League. This made it difficult to get
unanimous decisions and take action against any aggressor
nation. Such acts weakened the League of Nations and led
it to its collapse.

On this unit the “causes and the consequences of the first
world war” some content was added. It is the League of
Nations. The teacher should teach it as it is planned in this
142
teacher’s guide. The learning activity and the application
activity of this lesson are planned in this teacher’s guide.
Learning activity on League of Nations
Carry out a research on internet or in the school library and
briefly explain the genesis of the creation of the League of
Nations.
Application activity on League of Nations
1. Analyse two factors that led to the downfall of the
League of Nations.
2. Discuss three weaknesses of the League of Nations.
3. Evaluate two social achievements of the League of

Nations

1. The two antagonists (opposing alliances) during First
World war were:
The Allies also called the Triple Entente: Britain, France and
Russia
The central Powers or Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-
Hungary and
Italy.
2. The main causes of the First World War were:
 Lack of an international peace keeping body
because the Congress system which would
have solved a local affair between Austria and
Serbia had collapsed in 1914.
 Economic competition among European
countries mostly between Germany, France and
Britain let to problems like the Moroccan crisis in
1906 and 1911 when Germany lost Morocco to
France.
143
 Alliance system
 Rapid spread of industrialization, especially in
Germany
 Growth of intense nationalism
 The Arms race or military rivalry among
European nations
3. The economic consequences of the first World war in
Europe
 It led to destruction of property and life.
 Germany lost rich territories.
 It led to women emancipation.
 It led to the decline of triple alliance members.
 German military equipment was confiscated.
 German was asked to pay compensation of 6.6
billion pounds..
 It led to the problem of unemployment in
Germany and in Britain.
 It led to the great changes in the political map
of Europe.
 The provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were
handed over back to France.
 It led to the rise of Fascism in Italy and Nazism in
Germany.
4. The objectives of the Versailles Peace Treaty in Europe
were:
 To maintain lasting peace in the World
 To look for ways of punishing Germany and her
allies
 To promote political integrity of independent
states
 To reduce production of dangerous weapons
 To redraw the political map of Europe
 To set up a body for maintaining international
peace
144
 To free the different races dominated by
Germany.
5. The main achievements of the League of Nations
were:
 The International Labour Organisation (ILO) was
formed to improve the general condition of
workers.
 It put in place ways of looking after refugees.
 It provided assistance to people.
 It recorded success in health by disease control.
 It also organised campaigns against malaria,
leprosy, rabies and syphilis.
 It recorded success in maintaining peace by
solving political conflicts that involved small
powers.
 It monitored and controlled mandated states.
 It helped in reducing Germany’s supremacy.
 It affectively solved the problem of slavery and
drug trafficking.

Remedial activities
1. Give three causes of the First World War.
2. Identify three weaknesses of the 1919 Versailles Peace
Treaty.
Expected answer
1. Three causes of the First World War are the following:
 Lack of an international peace keeping body
because the Congress System which would have
solved a local affair between Austria and Serbia
had collapsed in 1914,
 The alliance system initiated by Bismarck such as
Triple Alliance and Triple Entente, were formed for
145
defensive purposes, but thereafter became hostile
to each other, leading to the First World War.
 Economic competition among European countries
mostly between Germany, France and Britain
created problems like the Moroccan Crises in 1906
and 1911 when Germany lost Morocco to France,
2. Three weaknesses of the 1919 Versailles peace treaty
are as follows:
 The treaty was imposed on Germany because
Germany was only invited to sign without
participating in the negotiations.
 It was too harsh on Germany in terms of
disarmament which encouraged Adolf Hitler to rise
up and start an arms race that led to the Second
World War.
 It forced Germany to pay huge sums of war
reparations in forms of physical goods like ships,
chemicals, cattle and agricultural products, plus 6.6
billion pounds. This led to unemployment in
Germany and economic depression.
1. Assess two effects of the First World War
Expected answers
1. Two effects of the First World War are the following:
 The rise of dictators like Benito Mussolini in Italy
and Adolf Hitler in Germany.
 The rise of Japan and USA as superpowers.
 Enrichment of certain countries like Canada,
Brazil, Mexico and Argentina.
Extended activities
1. Analyse the immediate cause of the First World War.
2. Examine two achievements of the 1919 Versailles
Peace Treaty.
146
3. Assess two effects of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty
on Germany.
Expected answers
1. Sarajevo incident of June 28th, 1914 was the
immediate cause of First World War. On this day Franz
Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne, was
assassinated together with his wife Sophia at Sarajevo by
a Serbian Gravrilo Princip. Austria was already sick with
Serbian nationalism and decided to use the incident to
punish Serbia, causing the World War.
2. Two achievements of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty
are the following:
The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty ended the First World
War and brought relative peace in Europe during the
inter-war period from 1919 up to 1939.
The Versailles Peace Treaty granted independence to
states like Yugoslavia, Serbia, Montenegro, Poland, and
Czechoslovakia.
3. Two effects of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty on
Germany are the following:
 The Germans who were greatly inspired by Adolf
Hitler attacked and opposed the Weimar
Republic leaders for having accepted the treaty
whose terms were unfair and harsh on Germany.
 It demilitarised the Rhine lands and all the
fortifications that Germany had already made
on the banks of the Rhine were destroyed
beyond repair.
147
UNIT 7: BETWEEN TWO WARS

To be able to analyse the political, economic and social
changes in the World between two World Wars

before:
 Effects of the First World War
 The US stock exchange market system;
 The policy of protectionism
 Effects of the First World War;
 The gold standard system;
 The weakness of the League of Nations
Using internet or library research explain the World between

Two Wars
c) Guidance on introductory activity
Provide an activity that requires students to be interested to

didn’t know and be inquisitive to know about the world
situation between the two world wars.

“Account for the rise and downfall of the totalitarian
regimes in Europe and be able to compare and contrast
148
Fascism and Nazism”. This problem statement can be given
as homework or in class discussion.

# Lesson titles Learning objectives Number
of
periods
1 Causes , effects and Explain the causes 4

measures to and effects of the
overcome the World 1929 -1933 Economic
Economic Crisis of Crisis.
1929-1933
2 Totalitarian regimes in Describe the rise and 3

Europe: Fascism and downfall of the
Nazism totalitarian regimes in
Europe.
7.4.1. Lesson 1: Causes, effects and measures to overcome

the World Economic Crisis of 1929-1933
Explain the causes and effects of the 1929 -1933 Economic

Crisis.
Students ’s books. In schools with enough resources, use a
149
the activity 8.2 that is in the student ’s book.
Synthesis
that is in the Student ’s Book basing on the answers
In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period lasted

from 11 November 1918 to 1 September 1939 (20 years, 9
months, 21 days), the end of the First World War to the
beginning of the Second World War. The interwar period
was relatively short, yet featured many significant social,
political, and economic changes throughout the world.
Petroleum-based energy production and associated
mechanisation led to the prosperous Roaring Twenties, a
time of both social mobility and economic mobility for
the middle class. Automobiles, electric lighting, radio, and
more became common among populations in
the developed world. The indulgences of the era
subsequently were followed by the Great Depression, an
unprecedented worldwide economic downturn that
severely damaged many of the world's largest economies.
Politically, the era coincided with the rise of communism,
starting in Russia with the October Revolution and Russian
Civil War, at the end of World War I, and ended with the rise
of fascism, particularly in Germany and in Italy. China was in
the midst of half-a-century of instability and the Chinese Civil
War between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist
Party. The empires of Britain, France and others faced
150
challenges as imperialism was increasingly viewed
negatively in Europe, and independence movements
emerged in many colonies; for example the south of Ireland
became independent after much fighting.
The Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and German Empires were
dismantled, with the Ottoman territories and German
colonies redistributed among the Allies, chiefly Britain and
France. The western parts of the Russian
Empire, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania,
and Poland became independent nations in their own right,
and Bessarabia (now Moldova and parts of Ukraine) chose
to reunify with Romania.
The Russian communists managed to regain control of the
other East Slavic states, Central Asia and the Caucasus,
forming the Soviet Union. Ireland was partitioned between
the independent Irish Free State and the British-
controlled Northern Ireland after the Irish Civil War in which
the Free State fought against "anti-treaty" Irish republicans,
who opposed partition. In the Middle East,
both Egypt and Iraq gained independence. During
the Great Depression, countries in Latin
America nationalised many foreign companies, most of
which were American, in a bid to strengthen their own
economies. The territorial ambitions of the Soviets,
Japanese, Italians, and Germans led to the expansion of
their domains.
The period ended at the beginning of World War II
The impact of World War I: The war was very destructive in

nature. Many industries were destroyed war. The War
indemnity charged on the defeated powers like Germany,
Hungary, Austria, and Bulgaria weakened their economy.
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Domestic overproduction
Poor distribution in income
Most profits of industries were not equally shared by the
workers; The employers were determined to continue taking
huge profits while minding less on the workers who refused to
continue working.
Collapse of international trade
The rise of young and weaker states after world War :These
states could not support themselves financially.
General decline in agriculture: This was due rural-urban
migration throughout the world, specifically in USA and
other European countries..
Failure of the League of Nations to carry out proper trade

policy
Poor trade policy after World War I also contributed to the
economic depression. The defeated powers were not
allowed to export their products even though they could
import goods from other bigger nations.
Increased population with limited welfare services
The Wall Street crash of 24th October1929:When people in
Europe got the news about the Wall Street crash, they quickly
withdrew their savings.. All investment plans were put off.
High interest rate charged on foreign aid
Reduced efficiency in the European labour force :This came
as a result of World War I where many able bodied people
were killed. This affected efficiency in factory production
Effects of the 1929 - 1935 economic crisis

Trade protectionism (Economic nationalism) :Economic
protectionism is the economic policy of restraining trade
between states (countries) through methods such as tariffs on
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imported goods, restrictive quotas, and a variety of other
government regulations.
The stock market wall crash sunk millions of dollars: This
belonged to investors who had paid high prices for their
shares anticipating higher profits.
Gold standards were neglected
Closure of industries: The economic depression led to
collapse of industries which affected many sectors of the
economy. Due to low purchasing power by many people in
Europe, some factories had to be closed.
The fall in prices affected the production process
The 1933 Economic Recovery Acts were instituted: Under the
scheme of Farmers Relief Acts, farmers were compensated
with higher prices, especially those who had produced less
output.
The national Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 tried to maintain
workers by provision of a permanent wages that was to come
monthly.
It led to closure of banking institutions: The news about the
Wall Street Crash made many customers withdraw their
savings from the Bank. This forced banks to close down as
they could no longer continue bank operations without
capital.
It led to collapse of capital markets; The economic
depression led to collapse of industries and other capital
markets. This was because industries were operating at a loss
It made the League of Nations unpopular: The League of

Nations failed to provide immediate practical solutions to this
deepening crisis.
New economic blocks or co -operations were formed: These

were to overcome economic deepening trend in U.S.A and
European states. These include SIETCO, EEC and later E.U. In
1933, The Scandinavian Countries formed OSLO block while
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Americans developed a regional integration between North
and South America to combat the economic depressions.
It led widespread unemployment
World aggression increased

Powerful countries of the world undertook to solve their
economic problems by launching aggressive expeditions on
weaker countries to exploit their economies. An example is
Japan which invaded China in 1931; Germany invaded
Rhineland in 1934 while Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935.
It aided the expansion of socialism in Germany :The
economic crisis provided an opportunity for the spread of
socialism especially in Germany and other Balkan states. The
economic crisis had been blamed on policies and ideologies
of capitalism.
Answers to the application activity on world economic

depression
1. The two causes of the world economic depression are:
The impact of World War I: The war was very destructive in

nature. Many industries were destroyed war. The War
indemnity charged on the defeated powers like Germany,
Hungary, Austria, and Bulgaria weakened their economy.
Domestic overproduction
Poor distribution in income
Most profits of industries were not equally shared by the
workers; The employers were determined to continue taking
huge profits while minding less on the workers who refused to
continue working.
2. How was the economic depression controlled or
solved?
 Germany on her part attempted to solve the
depression by violating the Versailles peace terms
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where she stopped paying the war indemnity and
started serious industrialization thus solving the
depression
 World economic conference was held on Genoa in

1933 in which they resolved to remove obstacles to free
trade and implementing a uniform tax on imports and
exports
 World powers attempted to solve the depression by
using an aggressive policy where they invaded weak
states so as to solve the problem of market for their
goods
 America depreciated the value of her dollar so as to
increase the purchasing power
 European countries formed regional economic
integration, for example, the EEC (European Economic
Community)
7.4.2. Lesson 2: Totalitarian regimes in Europe: Fascism and

Nazism
Describe the rise and downfall of the totalitarian regimes in
Europe.
Student ’s books, and a world map. In schools with enough
resources, use a projector, a computer and its accessories.
etc.
Synthesis
155
1. Totalitarianism is a form of government that attempts to
assert total control over the lives of its citizens. It is
characterized by strong central rule that attempts to
control and direct all aspects of individual life through
coercion and repression. It does not permit individual
freedom.
2. The names of totalitarian regime in Europe between the

two wars are:
 Adolph Hitler with Nazism in Germany

 Benito Mussolini with Fascism in Italy.
Answers to the application activity on totalitarian regime in
Europe
1. Factors for the rise of Benito Mussolini in Europe:
 The negative effects of the First World War: The war
made King Victor Emmanuel III unpopular
 Corruption and embezzlement of public funds
characterized the government of king victor.
 The influence of socialist (communist) party :The rich
middle class and businessmen supported Mussolini
morally and financially. In return, Mussolini promised to
destroy socialism, which earned him support and
confidence during his rise to power.
 The weakness of King Victor Emmanuel III
 Absence of unity among members of different political
parties in Italy
 Benito Mussolini’s personality and oratory talent
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 The role of fascist terrorist groups: He used a group of
hooligans and law breakers that were jobless to bring
chaos in Italy.
 The disappointment that the Italian patriots got as a
result of the 1919 Versailles Peace settlement/treaty
:Italy joined Triple Entente in 1915 during World War I
and was promised the territories of Trieste, Adalia and
Trientino after the war. The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty
poorly rewarded Italy.
 The May 1921 parliamentary elections :The May 1921
elections increased the fascist representation to 35 in
parliament. Extreme nationalism in Italy
 Mussolini promised to restore the Italian greatness and
prestige especially the defeat of Italy in the Battle of
Adowa in 1896 in Ethiopia
2. The common characteristics of totalitarian regime in
Europe are:
 Extreme nationalism i.e. emphasis on rebirth of the
nation after a period of decline with an implication
that one’s own state is superior to all.
 Dislike of the importance of Human Rights (abuse of
Human Rights).
 Identification of enemies or scapegoats as a unifying
cause in order to divert the people’s attention from
other problems.
 Supremacy of the military or avid militarism because
the ruling elites were always identified closely with the
military and the industrial infrastructure that supported
it.
 Rampant / extensive sexism where males dominated
and these regimes inevitably viewed women as
second class citizens
 Over-control of mass media through the control of
licensing and access to resources, economic pressure,
appeal to patriotism, and implied threats.
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 Obsession with national security, that was under direct
control of the ruling elite. It was usually an instrument of
oppression, operating in secret and beyond any
constraints.
 Defence and protection of religion because fascist
regime attached themselves to the predominant
religion of the country and wanted to be considered
as militant defenders of the religion.
 Suppression of intellectuals and artists because

intellectual and academic freedom were considered
subversive to national security and the patriotic ideal.
To these regimes, art and literature should either
serve the national interest or they had

Application activity on world economic depression
3. Explain any two causes of the world economic
depression.
4. Identify any two measure used to control world
economic depression.
Application activity on totalitarian regime in Europe
1. Identify the common characteristics of totalitarian
regime in Europe.
2. What are the factors for the rise of Benito Mussolini?
Nazi Ideology
Key elements of the Nazi ideology

1. National Socialist Programme
2. Racism
• Especially anti-Semitism, which eventually
culminated in the Holocaust.
158
• The creation of a Herrenrasse (Master Race) = by
the Lebensborn
• (Fountain of Life) a department in the Third
Reich)
• Anti-Slavism
• Belief in the superiority of the White, Germanic,
Aryan or Nordic races.
3. Euthanasia and Eugenics with respect to “Racial
Hygiene”
4. Anti-Marxism, Anti-Communism, Anti-Bolshevism
5. The rejection of democracy, with as a consequence the
ending the existence of political parties, labour unions,
and free press.
6. Leader Principle or belief in the leader (Responsibility up
the ranks, and authority down the ranks.)
7. Strong show of local culture
8. Social Darwinism
9. Defense of blood and soil represented by the red and
black colours in the Nazi flag
10. The creation of more living space for Germans related to
Nazism

1. The economic depression was a general economic
decline in economic activities characterised by
unemployment, low income, low aggregate demand,
low prices, low investment and low economic activities
after the First World War.
2. The main causes of the Wall Street crash/world
economic depression in1929 were:
• The poor trading policy adopted after First World
War
159
• The weakness of League of Nations
• The Gold Standard system which was operating
in world economies by 1929
• The Versailles peace settlement
• Shortage of production
• Poor quality of goods
• The lack of workers in industries where women
and children were used after First World War
• The general reduction in agricultural activities
• The lack of strong farmers because of rural-
urban migration
• The emergence of weak and young countries
which needed help
• The general reduction in the level of
international trade, during and after First World
War
• The distruction of industries, cities, airports ,
communication lines during the first world war
• The closure of world stock market of USA
3. The consequences of the economic depression on
USA and world Economies are:
• It made USA unable to lend money any more.
• It affected banking institutions where over 4,200
banks in USA were closed.
• It reduced people’s savings and their
purchasing power.
• USA products were not being bought.
• It led to unemployment.
• It led to surplus products.
• It led to the change in leadership in many
countries.
• The Gold Standard system was abandoned.
• It lead to the Second World War.
• It led to the rise of dictators.
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• It led to the failure of the League of Nations.
• It led to formation of the European Economic
Community.
4. The main factors for the rise of Benito Mussolini to power
were:
• Mussolini’s personal talent: He was an orator,
especially in his speeches.
• Majority of Italians such as middle class,
industrialists, the jobless, supported him.
• He formed the fascist terrorist group which
played a very big role in his rise to power.
• Political inefficiency that characterised the rule
of Victor Emmanuel III.
• Victor Emmanuel III was criticised for having
caused all loss of lives during the First World War
where 600,000 soldiers died, hence the rise of
Mussolini
• The effects of the First World War I on Italy
• Mussolini was against communism, thus winning
a lot of support.
• He promised better working conditions and
employment to all Italians.
• Victor Emmanuel III failed to control the political
affairs of the time.
• There was conflict which Mussolini took
advantage of to blame the government and
criticised it. This made King Victor Emmanuel III to
become unpopular among the Italians, hence
the rise of Mussolini to power.
• In Italy, there were socio-economic problems
which gave advantage to Mussolini.
• Mussolini promised to make Italy a world power.
5. The reasons for the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in
Germany are the following:
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● The Weimar Republic was weak and Hitler took
advantage of this.
● Effects of the First World War and unfair terms of the
1919 Versailles settlement in Germany became a spring
board for Hitler.
● Effects of the world economic depression of 1929 were
blamed on the Weimar Republic, which increased
support for Hitler.
● Role of the Nazi storm troopers supported Hitler.
● Hitler’s personal talent and his own writings and the
Nazi 25 manifesto made him popular.
● The Nazi party mobilised Germans to rally behind Hitler.
● Unpopularity of communist-socialist policies in
Germany and the death of President Hindenburg on
August 2nd, 1934 gave Hitler an advantage.
6. Factors for the downfall of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in

Germany in 1945
● Hitler’s problems caused largely by the Second World War
which we will study in unit 9. In addition he had other
problems:
● The great decline in the economy of Germany due to
bombardment of her factories and industries by Allied
Forces of Britain, France and USA during the Second World
War, among others, harmed Hitler’s popularity.
● Dictatorship coupled with excessive oppression like the
banning of political parties, and harassing and killing of his
German opponents caused Germans to turn against him.
● The size and heterogeneous nature of the German
empire, which by 1942 included the Germans, the
Austrians, the Poles, the Dutch and the Czechoslovakians,
became too much for Adolf Hitler to manage and control.
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● Poor political agenda and principles whereby the radical
ex-service men of the First World War, who were not
politically informed, dominated the Nazi party.
● Germany’s withdrawal from the League of Nations gave
Hitler a was a diplomatic blow to Hitler and isolated him
from the global affairs.
● Hitler’s Aggressive foreign policy, especially in Austria,
Czechoslovakia and Poland contributed to the outbreak
of the Second World War
that eventually led to his downfall;
● As we will see in the next unit the Germans were eventually
defeated in the Second World War and Hitler committed
suicide in Berlin as his enemies advanced.

Remedial activities
1. Mention two causes of the 1929–1933 economic
depression.
2. Identify three effects of the 1929–1933 crisis.
Expected answer
1. Two causes of the 1929–1933 economic depression
were : There was general reduction in the level of
international trade during and after the First World War:
The world trade remained low because countries were
unable to import in large quantities. This was due to the
low level of consumption.
The payment of a heavy the war indemnity by Germany,
imposed by the victorious powers during the 1919
Versailles Peace Treaty, greatly affected the German
economy. This forced Germany to print many bank
notes, leading to inflation. This contributed to the
outbreak of the economic depression.
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2. Three effects of the 1929–1933 crisis were the following:
 The economic depression led to the rise of
dictators in Europe. They included Adolf Hitler in
Germany, Benito Mussolini in Italy and General
Franco in Spain.
 The economic depression weakned of the
League of Nations as various member states
could not meet the financial obligations of the
League.
 The economic depression led to international
aggression from powerful countries against the
weak ones as a way to resolve their economic
problems. For example, Japan invaded China,
Italy invaded Ethiopia and Germany invaded
Austria.
1. Analyse four measures that were taken to
overcome the world economic depression.
Expected answers
Four measures to overcome the world economic
depression were the following:
 World powers attempted to solve the economic
depression by using aggressive policies by
invading weak states so as to solve the problem
of raw materials for their industries and markets
for their manufactured goods. In 1935 Italy
invaded Ethiopia, in 1936, Germany invaded
Czechoslovakia, and in 1939 invaded Poland.
 Different countries formed integrated regional
economic blocks as a solution to end the
economic depression. The Scandinavians
formed the Oslo Bloc, USA with South American
states also formed an economic bloc.
164
 Unemployment relief schemes were adopted by
various countries which included USA, Britain
and France to benefit the unemployed citizens
above 18 years.
 Most European countries made efforts to
improve on their agricultural and industrial
sectors in order to increase the level of
production that would solve the problem of low
supply and inflation;
 Dictatorship was resorted to by most of the
European leaders and demonstrations and
strikes were severely dealt with.
Extended activities
1. Describe four characteristics of dictatorial regimes.
2. Discuss two factors for the rise of totalitarian regimes in
Europe.
Expected answers
1.Four characteristics of dictatorship are the following:
 Identification of enemies or scapegoats as a
unifying cause in order to divert the people’s
attention from other problems;
 Supremacy of the military or avid militarism
because the ruling elites always identified
closely with the military and the industrial
infrastructure that supported it
 Rampant sexism where males dominated and
these regimes inevitably viewed women as
second class citizens
 Over-control of mass media by using different
methods as the control of licensing and access
165
to resources, economic pressure, appeal to
patriotism and implied threats
2.Factors for the rise of totalitarian regime in Italy are:
• The influence of the communist-socialist policies
in Italy forced the middle class and industrial
capitalists to support Mussolini who was anti-
communist. This support helped him to
overthrow the government of King Victor
Emmanuel III.
• Effects of the First World War weakened the
Italian economy and the King failed to carry out
the necessary socio-economic reforms. Mussolini
used this to denounce the government and he
got a lot of support that helped him to rise to
power.
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Unit 8: CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

To be able to explain the causes and effects of the Second
World War.

before:
 The Economic Crisis of 1929–1933 and its effects.
 Totalitarian regimes in Europe: Fascism and Nazism
 The effects of the First World War
 The weaknesses of the League of Nations
Based on the causes and effects of the First World War,

make a research on the internet or in the library about the
causes and the effects of the Second World War.
At the beginning of this unit, give an activity that requires

learners to be interested to know what happens or will
happen in this unit and help them to be passionate to know
by the end of the unit what they thought was not possible
at the beginning. As they get engaged in the lesson, they
themselves discover answers to the questions they were
asking at the beginning. This will help them identify some
issues and open them to what they did not know and be
inquisitive to know about the causes and effects of the
Second World War.
One of suggested problem statement here is: “Explain the

causes of the Second World War and assess its
167
consequences.” This problem statement can be given as
homework or in class discussion.

of
periods
1 Causes of the Discuss both long 2

Second World War term and immediate
causes of the Second
World War
2 Effects of the Second Describe the effects 1

World War of the Second World
War
8.4.1. Lesson 1: Causes of the second World War
Discuss both long term and immediate causes of the

Second World War
Student ’s books, and in schools with enough resources, a
teacher can deliver his or her lesson by using a projector, a
computer and its accessories. Tactile maps and brailed
168
students with hearing impairment language.
activity 9.1 that is in the learner’s book.
Synthesis
1. The causes of the second world war are:

 Treaty of Versailles
 Economic depression
 Germany’s militarism
 Failure of appeasement
 Failure of League of Nations
 Japan’s militarism
2.
Comparison Table Between WWI and WWII (in Tabular

Form)
Parameters of
World War I World War ll
Comparison
The world war 1 The second world war

Duration of started in the started in the year
the war year 1914 and 1939 and lasted till
lasted till 1918. 1945.
169
Parameters of
World War I World War ll
Comparison
The first world

war was The second World War
Conflict between the was fought between
between Central Powers the Axis powers and
and the Allied the Allied powers.
Powers.
The Americans The Jews

were forced to and Romans made
Genocide
genocide by the the German Nazis
Ottoman Turks. commit genocide.
Woodrow Wilson Franklin D. Roosevelt

was the President and Harry Truman
American Pre
of the US during served as the
sident
the first World Presidents during the
War. second World War.
The first world The second world war

Weapons war used used modern
used machine guns, machines like ships,
poisonous gases. planes, tanks, etc.

See answers of introductory activity
1. The following are some of the causes of Second World
War:
The peacemakers at the Versailles Peace Treaty were
unrealistic and instead of creating peace they prepared
the ground for the outbreak of the Second World War.
170
The Alliance System or military alliances, like the Axis Powers
(Italy, Germany and Japan) and Allied Democratic Powers
(Britain, France, USA and later Russia among others), divided
the world into two hostile camps which created enmity,
fear, hostility, mistrust, and suspicion leading to the Second
World War.
The appeasement policy adopted by France and Britain
towards Hitler when he occupied the Rhineland and
Czechoslovakia led Hitler to ask for more and encouraged
him to invade Poland. His refusal to withdraw as demanded
by Britain and France resulted in the outbreak of the
Second World War.
2. USA’s responsibility in the outbreak of the Second
World War:
 USA was blamed for not being a member of the
League of Nations although the idea of forming it
was initiated by US President Woodrow Wilson.
 USA’s policy of isolation and economic
nationalism, known as Protectionism, was also
partly responsible for the outbreak of Second
World War. The policy resulted into the World
Economic depression which favoured the rise of
dictators who opened war on other countries to
solve their economic problems.
 USA was also was accused of being involved in
the arms race. They manufactured atomic
bombs that were used to defeat Japan during
the Second World War.
 Germany’s responsibility in the outbreak of the
Second World War:
 Germany started the arms race in order to
challenge the disarmament policy of the
Versailles Peace Treaty which created hostility,
fear and mistrust.
171
 Hitler created the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis to
oppose and destroy the influence of Western
powers which created the Democratic Alliance
to oppose the Axis.
 Germany under Hitler withdrew from the League
of Nations. This contributed to the weakness of
the League and made it fail to prevent the
Second World War
8.4.2. Lesson 2: Effects of the Second World War

Describe the effects of the Second World War
teaching student with hearing impairment, etc.
Synthesis
Most of the consequences are the same such as:

 Loss of lives
 Destruction of properties and infrastructures
 Environmental degradation
 Widows and widower
 Orphans
172
 Traumatism
 Decline in economy
 Emancipation of women
 Rise of new leaders
The common ways to avoid a war are:
1. De-escalate the concept of enemy. An enemy can
be reframed, in progressive order, as an adversary,
competitor, partner, teacher, and finally your equal.
2. Treat the other side with respect. Otherwise you lose
them before you start.
3. Recognize that there is the perception of injustice on
both sides. This is a point of agreement adversaries
can join in.
4. Be prepared to forgive and ask for forgiveness. Here
forgiveness means letting go of your desire for
retribution and revenge. This is an act of true
courage. Even if you believe that the other side
doesn’t deserve forgiveness, you deserve peace.
5. Refrain from belligerence. It will be taken as bullying
and arouses renewed antagonism.
6. Use emotional intelligence, which means
understanding the other side’s feelings, giving them
value, and making them equal to your feelings.
7. Reach out to understand the other side’s values,
both personal and cultural. The fog of war descends
when two adversaries know nothing about one
another. The result is a war based on projections and
prejudice. The goal is mutual acceptance. At the
deepest level we all want the same things.
8. Refrain from ideological rhetoric over politics and
religion.
9. Recognize that there is fear on both sides. Don’t be
afraid to express your anxieties and to ask the other
side what they are afraid of.
173
10. Do not insist on being right and proving the other side
wrong. Give up the need to be right allows you to
focus on what you actually want.

1. Their ultimate goal was to create more Lebensraum
(living space) for Germany, and the eventual
extermination of the indigenous Slavic peoples by mass
deportation to Siberia, Germanisation, enslavement,
and genocide.
2. The Japanese, however, immediately followed their
Pearl Harbor assault with attacks against US and British
bases in the Philippines, Guam, Midway Island, Wake
Island, Malaya, and Hong Kong. Within days, the
Japanese were masters of the Pacific

Cause and Effect: The Outbreak of the Second World War
Question
What were the causes of the Second World War?
Answer
A series of conditions contributed to the outbreak of the
Second World War. The unfair Treaty of Versailles (which
forced a crippling peace on Germany to end the First World
War) and the global economic depression that engulfed
the world during the 1930s (which led to particularly
desperate conditions in many European nations as well as
the United States) usually emerge as two of the most
crucial. Those conditions formed the background against
which Adolf Hitler ascended to the position of German
Chancellor in the 1930s.
174
Virtually Adolf Hitler’s rise to power was the proximate cause
of the war between 1939 and 1945. Without Hitler, a leader
bent on establishing the German empire through military
conquest, it becomes extremely difficult to imagine the
outbreak of such a lengthy and devastating war.
At the same time, Hitler’s rise to power did not just occur.
Much of his appeal to the German citizenry had to do with
his promises to restore German honour, which many
Germans believed had been lost via the Treaty of
Versailles. By this peace agreement Germany was forced to
accept full responsibility for the Great War. The Treaty levied
massive reparation payments to help restore areas
devastated during the war in Belgium and France. The
Treaty of Versailles also required Germany to disarm its
military, restricting it to a skeleton force intended only to
operate on the defensive. Many Germans viewed the terms
of the treaty as unnecessarily punitive and profoundly
shameful.
Hitler offered the German people an alternative
explanation for their humiliating defeat in the Great War. He
believed that German armies had not been defeated in the
field but rather, they had been betrayed by an assortment
of corrupt politicians, Bolsheviks, and Jewish interests who
sabotaged the war effort for their own gain. To a German
people saddled with a weak and ineffective democratic
government, a hyperinflated currency, and an enfeebled
military, this “stab in the back” proved an explanation that
essentially absolved them of the blame for the war and their
loss in it. Hitler’s account of the German defeat not only
offered a clear set of villains but a distinct path back to
national honour by pursuing its former military glory.
During the 1930s, Hitler’s Germany embarked on a
programme of rearmament, in direct violation of the terms
of the Versailles Treaty. German industry produced military
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vehicles and weapons; German men joined “flying clubs”
that served as a thin pretence for training military pilots.
Rearmament and militarisation provided appealing
avenues for Germans seeking some means to reassert their
national pride.
Hitler’s racial theories provided more context, both for his
explanation of defeat in the First World War and for his plans
for a German empire. In Hitler’s account, Communists and
Jews — whom Hitler depicted as stateless parasites who
exploited European nations for their own gain — had
conspired to stab Germany in the back in 1918. Hitler’s
vision of a racially pure German nation expanding across
Europe, combined with his aggressive rearmament
programmes, proved a powerful enticement for the
German people in the 1930s. Politicians in Britain, France,
and the United States, encumbered with their own
economic troubles during the global economic depression,
were reluctant to check Hitler’s expansionism.
That conquest began with the German invasion of Poland in
1939 and the attack on France and the Low Countries, six
months later. Hitler’s quest for more “living-space” for his
empire led to the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. By
March of 1942, Hitler’s fanatical desire to conquer Europe —
along with Japan’s concurrent push across East Asia and
the Pacific — had plunged the world into a war that would
last nearly six
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years and cost the lives of more than 50 million soldiers and civilians: by far the
largest catastrophe in human history.

1. The main causes of the Second World War were:
 The appeasement policy by France and Britain made Germany to attack
other countries
 The Spanish civil war of 1936–1939 served as a preliminary for a major war
 The Alliance system divided the major powers into opposing blocs
 The Versailles Peace Settlement of 1919 was unfair to Germany which
later violated it
 Germany aggressive policy made her to attack otehr countries in Europe
 The weakness of the League of Nations made it unable to avert the war
 The economic depression of 1929 made countries like Germany to invade
other countries
 The new arms race made Germany and other countries produce arms
and ammunitions in preparation for war
 The rise of dictators in Europe
 The growth of nationalism
 World powers wanted to revenge on Hitler for having killed the Jews in
Germany basing on his anti-semitism ideology
 The fear of the spread of communism
 Invasion of Poland by German troops on September 1st 1939 served as an
immediate cause of the Second World War
2. The Axis powers were defeated by Allied powers because of the following
reasons:
 Numerical disadvantage of the Axis powers
 Internal weakness of Germany
 Germany did not get support from countries she had occupied
 The role played by Americans who introduced atomic bombs that led to
the surrender of Japan
 The Allied powers were more experienced in fighting on sea than the Axis
powers
 The economy of the Axis powers was very weak compared to that of the
Allied powers
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 Hitler failed to realise the danger of winter and refused to withdraw
his troops from the Russian territories, which weakened the military
capacity of Germany.
3. The consequences of World War II:
 It led to massive loss of lives where about 50 million people died, both
soldiers and civilians.
 The Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were destroyed.
 About 6 million Jews were killed by Hitler.
 It led to destruction of property.
 It led to displacement of many people.
 It led to the problem of refugees.
 Many people lost their homes and became homeless.
 It led to the rise of new superpowers, that is USA and USSR.
 It led to the defeat and downfall of dictators in Europe.
 It led to economic decline since agriculture, trade, transport and
industries.
 It led to famine and starvation.
 It caused inflation and unemployment among European countries.
 It led to the Cold War.
 It led to rapid development in science and technology.
 The war led to military building and weapons producing (atomic
bombs, biological weapons and nuclear bombs).
 It led to the formation of non-alignment by countries who never
wanted to participate in the Cold War.
 It led to the decline of European economies.
 It led to partition of Germany.
 It led to the formation of Economic organisations.
 It led to the liberation of small states.
 It led to the formation of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) in
1945.
 It led to the formation of new alliances like the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation NATO.
 It led to the end of fascism by killing its leaders.
 The war made USA dominant in world affairs.
 Enrichment of some countries such as USA and Canada.
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Remedial activities
1. Mention two reasons for the defeat of the Axis powers in the Second World
War.
2. Give the effects of the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Expected answer
1. Two reasons for the defeat of Axis powers in the Second World War are the
following:
 The Axis were few in number compared to the Allies;
 Germany as leader of the Axis powers had internal weaknesses that
made her fail to get massive support at home because Hitler was a
dictator;
2. Three effects of the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima Nagasaki are the
following:
 Japan was defeated even after the use of her Kamikaze pilots.
 Allied power’s forces occupied Japan up to 1950.
 About 84 000 people were killed at Hiroshima and around 40
 000 people were killed at Nagasaki;
1. Analyse the effects of the Second World War.
Expected answers
1. Five effects of the Second World War were:
 It led to the massive destruction of infrastructure especially in France
and in Japan due to heavy bombing of major cities.
 It led to a large number of refugees. Most refugees were in camps of
Western Europe and many of them were the Jews who were running
away from Adolf Hitler.
 It paved way for the formation of the United Nations Organisation in
1945 to replace the League of Nations.
 It led to the production of nuclear weapons which up to the present
day have disorganised World politics.
 It led to the defeat and downfall of dictators in Europe such as Adolf
Hitler who committed suicide on April 30, 1945 and Benito Mussolini
who was killed by his own forces on April 28th, 1945.
Extended activities
179
2. Explain two causes of the Second World War.
Expected answers
2. Two causes of the Second World War were:
 The appeasement policy was adopted by France and Britain in order
to appease Hitler when he occupied the Rhineland and
Czechoslovakia led Hitler to ask for more and encouraged him to
invade Poland. His refusal to withdraw as demanded by Britain and
France resulted in the outbreak of the Second World War.
 Because of weaknesses, the League of Nations failed to effect
peace since its formation. It had failed to put an economic embargo
on the countries which violated peace. It also failed to condemn
and react against the aggressors of the time, and then aggression
continued and resulted in the Second World War.
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UNIT 9: NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS AND THE
PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

To be able to analyse the effectiveness of national and international Human
Rights instruments and ways in which human Rights can be protected in the
context of democracy.

As prerequisites to facilitate the teaching and learning of this unit the following
elements should have been learned before:
 Concept of human rights
 Ways of preventing human rights violations and gender based violence
including rape and sexual abuse.
 Basic human rights with a special focus on gender equality and children’s
rights
 Citizen’s duties and responsibilities
Through the use of internet, textbooks and or newspapers make a research

about national and international Human Rights instruments and give answer to
the following question. What do you understand by national and international
human rights instruments?
At the beginning of this unit, give an activity that requires learners to be

interested to know what happens or will happen in this unit and help them to be
passionate to know by the end of the unit what they thought was not possible at
the beginning. As they get engaged in the lesson, they themselves discover
answers to the questions they were asking at the beginning. This will help them
identify some issues and open them to what they did not know and be
inquisitive to know about national and international human rights instruments
and protection of human rights. One of suggested problem statement here is
the following: “What are the national and international human rights instruments
and analyse ways in which human rights can be protected.” This problem
181
of
periods
1 National and international Evaluate national and 2

human rights instruments international Human Rights
instruments
2 Effectiveness of national and Explain effectiveness of 1

international human rights national and international
instruments human rights instruments.
3 Ways human rights can be Analyse different ways of 1

protected in the context of protecting human rights in the
democracy context of democracy
9.4.1. Lesson 1: National and international human rights instruments
Evaluate national and international Human Rights instruments
Student ’s books, and in schools with enough resources, a teacher can
deliver his or her lesson by using a projector, a computer and its accessories.
Tactile maps and brailed materials. Sign language should be used when
Learning activities
Organize students into groups and then invite them to do activity 10.1 that is in
the student’s book.
Synthesis
To make a synthesis of the lesson, summarize the content that is in the Student’s
Book basing on the answers developed by the students.
182
National Human Rights instruments are state bodies endowed with a
constitutional and/or legislative mandate to protect and to promote Human
Rights while International Human Rights instruments are treaties and other
international documents relevant to international Human Rights Law and
protection of Human Rights in general.
1. Different names of national Human rights institutions in Rwanda are:
• Civil rights protector

• Commissioner
• Human Rights commission
• Human Rights institute or centre
• Ombudsman or commissioner for Human Rights
• Public defender/protector
• Parliamentary advocate
2.The role played by national Human Rights instruments is the following:
• To protect and promote economic social and cultural rights as well
as civil and political rights;
• To ensure that laws and regulations concerning the protection of
Human Rights are in place.
• To monitor the state’s compliance with its own and with international
Human Rights laws and if necessary, recommend changes
• To prepare of reports on the national situation with regard to Human
Core International Human Rights Instruments There are seven core
international human rights treaties. Each of these treaties has
established a committee of experts to monitor implementation of the
treaty provisions by its States parties. Some of the treaties are
supplemented by optional protocols dealing with specific concerns.
3.For international Human Rights instrument see the content in Student book.
1. Different names of national Human rights institutions in Rwanda are:

• Commissioner
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The role played by national Human Rights instruments is the following:
Human Rights laws and if necessary, recommend changes.
international human rights treaties. Each of these treaties has established a
committee of experts to monitor implementation of the treaty provisions by
its States parties. Some of the treaties are supplemented by optional
protocols dealing with specific concerns.
Treaty Date Treaty Bodies
International 1965 -
Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms
of Racial
Discrimination (ICERD)
International Covenant on 1966 Human Rights
Civil and Political Rights Committee (HRC)
(ICCPR)
International Covenant 1966 Committee on
on Economic, Social and Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights (ICESCR) Cultural Rights (CESCR)
184
Convention on the 1979 Committee on the
Elimination of All Forms Elimination of Racial
of Discrimination against Discrimination (CERD)
Women (CEDAW)
Committee on
the Elimination of
Discrimination Against
Women (CEDAW)
Convention against Torture 1984 Committee Against
and Other Cruel, Inhuman Torture (CAT)
or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment (CAT)
Convention on the Rights 1989 Committee on the
of the Child (CRC) Rights of the Child
(CRC)
International Convention 1990 Committee on Migrant
on Protection of the Rights Workers (CMW)
of All Migrant Workers and
Members of Their Families
(ICMRW)
Other Relevant International Conference Documents and Meetings:
Consensus Document/Meeting Date
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against 1993

Women
World Conference on Human Rights, Declaration 1993

and Programme of Action (‘Vienna Declaration’)
International Conference on Population and 1994

Development (ICPD or Cairo Consensus)
Fourth World Conference on Women (Also, FWCW 1995

or ‘Beijing’), Declaration and Platform for Action
Glen Cove Meeting: Human rights approaches to 1996

women’s health with a focus on sexual and
reproductive health and rights
United Nations Programme for Reform 1997
185
International Guidelines on HIV/AIDS and Human 1998
Rights (last revised 2002)
Millennium Declaration and Development Goals 2000
UN World Conference Against Racism 2001
An Agenda for Further Change (Followup to the 2001

1997 UN Programme for Reform)
Glen Cove + 5: Application of Human Rights to 2001

Sexual and Reproductive Health
The Second Interagency Workshop on 2003

Implementing a Human Rights-based Approach in
the Context of UN Reform
9.4.2. Lesson 2: Effectiveness of national and international human rights

instruments
Explain effectiveness of national and international human rights instruments
Student ’s books, and in schools with enough resources, a teacher can
deliver his or her lesson by using a projector, a computer and its accessories.
Tactile maps and brailed materials. Sign language should be used when
Organize students into groups and then invite them to do activity 10.2 that is in
the student’s book.
Synthesis
To make a synthesis of the lesson, summarize the content that is in the Student’s
Book basing on the answers developed by the students.

Three mechanisms for the protection of Human Rights, that states must use are:
• Access to justice for all
• Independent and impartial justice
186
• Develop a free press and media.
Answers to the application activity on mechanism to protect Human Rights
• Access to justice for all
• Independent and impartial justice
• Justice system that protects Human Rights
• Effective justice
• To put in place national institutions for the promotion and protection of
Human Rights
• Allow non- governmental Human Rights organisations
• Develop a free press and media
9.4.3. Lesson 3: Ways human rights can be protected in the context of democracy
Analyse different ways of protecting human rights in the context of democracy
Student’s books. In schools with enough resources, use a projector, a computer
and its accessories. Tactile maps and brailed materials. Sign language should
be used when teaching student with hearing impairment, etc.
Organize students into groups and then invite students to do the activity in the
teacher’s guide and make presentation to the whole class.
Synthesis
To make a synthesis of the lesson, summarize the content that is in the student’s
Book basing on the answers developed by the students in different groups.
Answers for learning activity on ways human Rights can be protected in the
context of democracy.
• Educate people about Human Rights formally or informally.
• Police and army are contributing to the maintenance of security. By
preventing violence, they help to protect Human Rights.
• Using dialogue to fight against to fight against Human Rights violation.
• Rwanda government is promoting freedom of press and media
• Role of international observers and reporters
• Trying in court of law without fear or favor all those who are suspected of
having violated Human Rights.
• To expose the culprit by taking pictures, audio or video record of violation.
187
Three mechanisms of protection of human rights that states have to use are the
following:
• To put in place national institutions for the promotion and protection
of human rights;
• To allow non-governmental human rights organization.
• To develop a free press and media.

Introductory activity
Through the use of internet, textbooks and or newspapers make a research
about national and international Human Rights instruments and give answer to
the following question. What do you understand by national and international
human rights instruments?
Application activity on mechanism to protect Human Rights
Identify the mechanisms for the protection of Human Rights that states must use.
Learning activity
By using internet or another document, describe different ways Rwandan
government is using to protect Human Rights of its people.
Major Universal Human Rights Instruments and mechanisms for their
implementation
United Nations Charter

The Charter of the United Nations (also known as the UN Charter) of 1945 is the
foundational treaty of the United Nations. It was signed in San Francisco, United
States, on June 20th, 1945, by 50 of the 51 original member countries. It entered
into force on October 24th,1945, after being ratified by the original five members
(France, Britain, USA, China, and USSR).
As a charter, it is a constituent treaty, and all member states are bound by its
articles. Furthermore, Article 103 of the Charter states that obligations to the
United Nations prevail over all other treaty obligations. Most countries in the
world, including Rwanda, have now ratified the Charter.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is an international document that
states basic rights and fundamental freedoms to which all human beings are
188
entitled. It was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on
December 10th 1948. It begins by recognising that ‘the inherent dignity of all
members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace
in the world’. It declares that human rights are universal — to be enjoyed by all
people, no matter who they are or where they live.
The Universal Declaration is not a treaty, so it does not directly create legal
obligations for countries. However, it is an expression of the fundamental values
which are shared by all members of the international community. And it has
had a profound influence on the development of international human rights
law.
The United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
The United Nations International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
attempts to ensure the protection of civil and political rights. It was adopted by
the United Nations’ General Assembly on December 19, 1966, and it came into
force on March 23, 1976.
The ICCPR recognises the inherent dignity of each individual and undertakes to
promote conditions within states to allow the enjoyment of civil and political
rights. Countries that have ratified the Covenant are obligated “to protect and
preserve basic human rights and are compelled to take administrative, judicial,
and legislative measures in order to protect the rights enshrined in the treaty
and to provide an effective remedy.” There are currently 74 signatories and 168
parties to the ICCPR.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) is
a multilateral treaty adopted by the UN General Assembly on 16 December
1966, and came into force from 3 January 1976. It commits its parties to work
toward the granting of economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) to the Non-
Self Governing and Trust Territories and individuals, including labour rights and
the right to health, the right to education, and the right to an adequate
standard of living. As of 2015, the Covenant has 164 parties. A further six
countries, including the United States, have signed but not ratified the
Covenant.
Implementation mechanisms
Most conventions establish mechanisms to oversee their implementation. In
some cases these mechanisms have relatively little power, and are often
189
ignored by member states, while in other cases these mechanisms have great
political and legal authority, and their decisions are almost always
implemented.
Mechanisms also vary as to the degree of individual access to them. Under some
conventions individuals or states are permitted, subject to certain conditions, to
take individual cases to the enforcement mechanisms; under most, however (e.g.
the UN conventions), individual access is contingent on the acceptance of that
right by the relevant state party, either by a declaration at the time of ratification
or accession, or through ratification of or accession to an optional protocol to the
convention. This is part of the evolution of international law over the last several
decades. It has moved from a body of laws governing states to recognizing the
importance of individuals and their rights within the international legal framework
1. Regional Human Rights instrument: These are Human Rights instruments which
are restricted to states in particular regions of the World. Some of these are
those adopted by the African Union, the Council of Europe and the
European Union, the organisation of American States and Organisation of the
Islamic Conference.
The African union includes the following protocols:
• Protocol to the African charter on Human Rights and peoples ’rights on the
establishment of an African court on human and people’s rights;
• Protocol to the African charter on Human Rights and peoples ’rights on the
rights of women in Africa;
• Convention governing the specific aspects of refugee problems in Africa.
2. The role played by national Human Rights instruments is the following:
190
2.The following are the way through which Human Rights can be protected in
Rwanda:
• Using dialogue to fight against to fight against Human Rights
violation.
• Trying in court of law without fear or favor all those who are
suspected of having violated Human Rights.
• To expose the culprit by taking pictures, audio or video record of
violation.
National Human Rights instruments that are involved in the protection of

Human Rights are:

• Commissioner
4. The following are the national Human Rights instruments:

• Commissioner
Treaty Date Treaty Bodies
191
International 1965 -
Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms
of Racial
Discrimination (ICERD)
International Covenant on 1966 Human Rights
Civil and Political Rights Committee (HRC)
(ICCPR)
International Covenant 1966 Committee on
on Economic, Social and Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights (ICESCR) Cultural Rights (CESCR)
Convention on the 1979 Committee on the
Elimination of All Forms Elimination of Racial
of Discrimination against Discrimination (CERD)
Women (CEDAW)
Committee on
the Elimination of
Discrimination Against
Women (CEDAW)
Convention against Torture 1984 Committee Against
and Other Cruel, Inhuman Torture (CAT)
or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment (CAT)
Convention on the Rights 1989 Committee on the
of the Child (CRC) Rights of the Child
(CRC)
International Convention 1990 Committee on Migrant
on Protection of the Rights Workers (CMW)
of All Migrant Workers and
Members of Their Families
(ICMRW)
5.Examples of global Human Rights instruments include the following;
 The international bill of human rights which includes Universal Declaration of
human rights (UDHR).
 The United Nations Human Rights Convention.
 Convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide.
192
 International convention on elimination of all forms of discrimination against
women.
 Convention against torture and other cruel or degrading treatment or
punishment.
 International convention on elimination of all forms of racial discrimination.
 Convention on the rights of children.
 International convention on the protection of all rights of all migrants, workers
and their families.
 Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities.
 International convention on civil and political rights.
International convention for the protection of all persons from enforced
disappearance
5.Among mechanisms for protection of human rights, states must ensure the
following;
 Access to justice for all.
 Independent and impartial justice.
 Justice system that protects human rights.
 Effective justice.
 To put in place national institutions for the promotion and protection of
human rights.
 Allow non-governmental human rights organizations.
 Develop a free press and media.
5.Some mechanisms of protection of human rights that states have to use

are the following:
• To put in place national institutions for the promotion and protection
of human rights;
• To allow non-governmental human rights organization.
• To develop a free press and media.
Remedial activities
1. What is Human Rights?
2. Mention two Human Rights legal instruments working in Rwanda
193
Expected answer
1. Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person
in the world, from birth until death.
2. They include a treaty on civil and political rights; a treaty on economic,
social, and cultural rights; treaties to combat racial and gender-based
discrimination; treaties prohibiting torture and forced disappearances; and
treaties protecting the rights of children, migrant workers, and persons with
disabilities.
1. Explain the importance of Human Rights instruments in Rwanda.
2. State two examples of global Human Rights instruments
Expected answers
1. The role played by national Human Rights instruments is the following:
2. Examples of global Human Rights instruments include the following;

 The international bill of human rights which includes Universal Declaration of
human rights (UDHR).
 The United Nations Human Rights Convention.
 Convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide.
 International convention on elimination of all forms of discrimination against
women.
 Convention against torture and other cruel or degrading treatment or
punishment.
 International convention on elimination of all forms of racial discrimination.
 Convention on the rights of children.
194
 International convention on the protection of all rights of all migrants, workers
and their families.
 Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities.
 International convention on civil and political rights.
 International convention for the protection of all persons from enforced
disappearance
Extended activities
Assess the ways through which Human Rights can be protected in Rwanda.
Expected answers
The following are the way through which Human Rights can be protected in
Rwanda:
• Using dialogue to fight against to fight against Human Rights
violation.
• Trying in court of law without fear or favor all those who are
suspected of having violated Human Rights.
• To expose the culprit by taking pictures, audio or video record of
violation.
195
UNIT 10: DEMOCRATIZATION PROCESS
10.1. Key unit competence

To be able to describe the democratization process in Rwanda.
10.2. Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)

In order to study this unit, the students should have knowledge, skills and
competences on forms and principles of democracy studied in senior 1 unit 10.

A) Introductory activity
In Senior One, you learnt about democracy. Make a research on the internet or
in textbooks and do the following activities: Define the term “democracy” and
outline 3 characteristics of democratic societies.
B) Guidance on the introductory activity:

At the beginning of this Unit 10, the introductory activity motivates students to
know what happens or will happen in this unit and help them to be passionate to
know about the democratization process. As the students get engaged in the
lessons of this unit, they themselves discover answers to the questions they were
asking at the beginning. This will help them identify some issues and open them to
what they did not know and be inquisitive to know the Process of democratization
and its indicators and Comparison of the democratization in Rwanda and the
sub-region.

of
periods
1 Process of The students should be able to describe the 1
democratization and its process of democratization and explain its
indicators indicators.
2 Comparison of the The students should be able to compare the 1

democratization in democratization in Rwanda and the sub-
Rwanda and the sub- region
region
196
10.4.1. Lesson title 1: Process of democratization and its indicators
The students should be able to explain how someone can understand oneself in
reference to Rwanda and East Africa.
b) Teaching aids
The following materials will help the teacher during the lesson: History and
Citizenship student book S3, different books, different documents, internet,
pictures, maps, media, (newspapers and videos), tactile materials, jaws software,
talking globes & tactile maps and braille materials. Sign language should be used
when teaching learners with hearing impairment, etc.
The teacher should try as much as possible to make the learning interactive. Give
the students time to participate and ask questions and air their views. Guide the
students to form groups to discuss Activity 11.1. Remember to let them write points
as they discuss in groups. They should appoint one student to represent them
during plenary discussion. Ensure that that the is maximum order in class to allow
good atmosphere for discussion make a synthesis of the lesson, summarise the
content that is in the Learner’s Book basing on the answers developed by the
learners.

Answer to the introductory activity
Democracy is a political system which is applied throughout the world today. It is

a system in which people enjoy freedom and equality. The democratization
process is the way people or governments try to build democratic societies so
that people are involved in the governance of their country. Some indicators like
participation of the population, open political space and existence of
oppositions, attest to the existence of the democracy.
Suggested answer to learning activity 11.1.
The indicators of a Democratic Regime include the respect of Human Rights,
power limitation, control, participation of the population, free elections, multi-
party democracy and freedom of the press and expression.
Suggested answer to application activity 11.1
197
The indicators of a Democratic Regime are the following:
The respect of Human Rights: Civil and political rights are constitutive elements of
democracy, hence democracy and the respect of Human Rights are linked in a
democratic society.
Power limitation: This indicator reflects the availability of checks and balances
between the organisation’s powers such as between legislative, executive and
judicial powers.
Control: Citizens are able to control the political authority. When representatives
implement the mandate according to which they are elected, they can be
praised. The process implies the evaluation of transparency in the decision-
making process.
Participation of the population: This indicator describes the citizens’ ability to

influence and participate in the decision-making. The citizens have the right to
address petitions to those in power.
Free elections: This is the ability of the government to organise free and fair
elections from the local administration level to the national level. People are free
to elect leaders of their choice, who can respond to their expectations.
Multi-party democracy: This is the existence of many political parties competing

for power. Many political parties compete for power and the party which gets
majority votes wins. However, this is only one form of democracy. There can be
one party democracies.
Freedom of the press and expression: People are entitled to express their views
through newspapers, radio, television and magazines without fear.
10.4.2. Lesson title 2: Comparison of the democratization in Rwanda and the sub-
region
The students should be able to compare the democratization in Rwanda and the
sub-region.
b) Teaching aids
198
as they discuss in groups. They should appoint one student to represent them
during plenary discussion. Ensure that that the is maximum order in class to allow
good atmosphere for discussion make a synthesis of the lesson, summarise the
content that is in the Learner’s Book basing on the answers developed by the
learners.

Answers to the learning activity 11.2
Rwanda, like other countries of the sub-region, has common indicators of
democratisation like: Open political space, existence of the opposition, existence
of multiparty democracy, existence of three powers and respect for Human
Rights.
Common indicators of the democracy in Rwanda and the Sub-region
• The respect of human rights are one of the pillars of democratic society
• Free elections: People are free to choose their leaders
• Freedom of press and expression constitute essential elements in a democratic
society
Similarities between Rwanda and the sub-region concerning the democratization
process are:
• Open political space: Multipartism is allowed in Rwanda as well as in the sub-

region i.e. Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
• Like in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, Rwanda, organises free democratic
elections.
• Existence of three branches of government: executive, legislature and,
judiciary.
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Differences between Rwanda and the sub-region concerning the
democratisation process:
• Rwanda has implemented its own institutions according to the traditions of the
country (Abunzi, Gacaca courts, etc.).
• Many organisations and institutions deal with Human Rights problems
(Transparency Rwanda, National Police, Ombudsman, etc.) which is not the
reality in some regional countries like Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi,
Somalia etc.
• The principles of accountability, transparency, and the rule of law. In Rwanda,
authorities are accountable to the people.
10.5. Additional informational for the teacher
Democracy
Democracy is ‘a system in which the majority opinion rules, as opposed to a
system where a single person’s opinion is the law. For instance, say a group comes
to a crossroads. In a democracy, people vote on which road to take. In a non-
democratic system, the leader makes the decision alone. A democratic system
is universally understood the best protect the rights of the people. However, this is
not always the case. Historically, kings, emperors, and other people with absolute
authority were in charge of the government.
Democratization
Imagine that we have a kingdom. A king runs this kingdom! This king has absolute
power. We call this an authoritarian government. Nevertheless, the people of this
kingdom are tired of not having any political rights or say in how their nation is run.
So, they start protesting, and they get some political power — maybe they refuse
to pay taxes or get the nobles or military to support them — and they convince
the king that it is time for a more democratic system of government.
Democratization is ‘the transition to a more democratic system of government’.

Historically, democratization has been kicked off by several factors. Higher wealth
throughout the population gives more people economic equality, which often
turns into a desire for political equality. Literate populations, are more likely to
think, read, and write about their rights, and are more likely to encourage
democratisation. Healthy economies, lengthy periods of peace, good
international relations, industrial technology, cultural values, and even the growth
of a middle class, have all influenced the move towards democratisation.
200
Processes and Examples
In Great Britain, which was an absolute monarchy for a long time,
democratisation began with the formation of an elected parliament, a legislative
body that removed some power from the king (monarch). The Parliament was
first formed in 1215, at which point only lords could be elected. The British
Parliament changed several times over the centuries, continually moving towards
a more democratic system that represented the needs of the people and took
absolute authority away from the monarch. This does not mean that it was a
smooth transition. Democratisation is very rarely a smooth process, and in Great
Britain, monarchs often tried to reclaim their absolute authority, leading to a few
civil wars. The one that really finalised Britain’s dedication to democratisation was
the Glorious Revolution of 1688, after which the victorious Parliament forced the
king to accept a bill of rights.
Sometimes democracy will be embraced, rejected, and embraced again before

it sticks. That is what happened in Japan. When Japan started to develop an
industrial economy in the late 19th Century, minor democratic reforms were
established, creating Japan’s version of a parliament, called the National Diet.
Then, in the early 20th Century, those reforms were expanded and Japan became
even more democratic. And then, a new emperor rose to power and reclaimed
his absolute authority. Japan moved away from democracy until the end of
Second World War resulted in a new constitution that guaranteed democratic
rights and elevated the National Diet to be more powerful than the emperor.

Answers to End Unit Assessment.
1. The three indicators of democratization society include:

• The respect of human rights are one of the pillars of democratic society
• Free elections: People are free to choose their leaders
• Freedom of press and expression constitute essential elements in a democratic
society
2. Similarities between Rwanda and the sub-region concerning the
democratisation process are:
• Open political space: Multipartism is allowed in Rwanda as well as in the sub-
region i.e. Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
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• Like in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, Rwanda, organises free democratic
elections.
• Existence of three branches of government: executive, legislature and,
judiciary.
3. Differences between Rwanda and the sub-region concerning the
democratization process:
• Rwanda has implemented its own institutions according to the traditions of the
country (Abunzi, Gacaca courts, etc.).
• Many organisations and institutions deal with Human Rights problems
(Transparency Rwanda, National Police, Ombudsman, etc.) which is not the
reality in some regional countries like Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi,
Somalia etc.
• The principles of accountability, transparency, and the rule of law. In Rwanda,
authorities are accountable to the people.
Remedial activities
Question
1. What do you understand by “democratization process”?
2. Mention four principles of democracy.
Answers
1. Democratization is a process of building political institutions that ensure
equality, freedom and participation of all citizens in decision making.
2. Principles of democracy are the following:
• Respect for human rights
• Power limitation
• Participation of the population
• Free elections
• Multi-party democracy
• Freedom of press and expression
Consolidated activities
Questions
202
1. Define the concept of democratisation process.
2. Explain two indicators of democratisation process.
Answers
1. Democratization is ‘the transition to a more democratic system of government’.

Historically, democratization has been kicked off by several factors. Higher wealth
throughout the population gives more people economic equality, which often
turns into a desire for political equality. Literate populations, are more likely to
think, read, and write about their rights, and are more likely to encourage
democratisation. Healthy economies, lengthy periods of peace, good
international relations, industrial technology, cultural values, and even the growth
of a middle class, have all influenced the move towards democratisation.
2. Two indicators of democratisation are:
 The respect of Human Rights

Civil and political rights are constitutive elements of democracy, hence
democracy and the respect of Human Rights are linked in a democratic society.
 Power limitation
This indicator reflects the availability of checks and balances between the
organisation’s powers such as between legislative, executive and judicial powers.
Extended Activities
Questions
1. Describe the situation of respect of human rights in Rwanda and in the sub
region.
2. Discuss the common indicators of democratization in the sub-region of
Rwanda.
Answers
1. In the region where Rwanda is located, the respect for human rights has largely
become a culture in different countries of the region. However, because of
armed conflicts operating in some countries of the region and political instability,
the violation of human rights is still common in the region, mainly in Democratic
Republic of Congo, South Sudan, Somalia and Burundi. Nonetheless, in other
countries of the region, the fundamental human rights are respected.
203
2. Rwanda like others countries of the sub-region, has common indicators of
democratization which include:
Open political space

All political groups are allowed to compete and convince the public to vote for
them.
The existence of opposition

Some political parties challenge the ruling political party during elections and
obtain seats in parliament and senate, as it is in the sub-regional countries.
Existence of multiparty democracy

Rwanda government allows the existence of many political parties like RPF
(Rwanda Patriotic Front), Democratic Green Party of Rwanda, PSD, PL, etc.
Free democratic elections

Since 2003 in Rwanda, free and fair residential and legislative elections were
organised with fair polling and honest tabulations of ballots. Through this, people
are able to elect leaders of their choice, just like other democratic states in the
sub-region do.
Existence and separation of three political powers

There are three separate but collaborating political powers: executive power,
legislative power and judicial power. This separation and mutual collaboration
of different political powers are granted by the national constitutions of the sub-
regional countries.
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UNIT 11: IDENTIFY RWANDANS IN REFERENCE TO REGIONAL GROUPINGS
11.1.Key unit competence

To be able to evaluate Rwandans in reference to regional groupings

competences on living together in society and forms of identities already studied
in senior 1 or previous units of Senior 2.
11.3.Introductory activity and guidance

Account for ways through which Rwandans can be identified by others. This can
be done in the following ways e.g. Location Rwanda is a landlocked country
which is located in central eastern Africa. It is bordered in the north by Uganda,
in the south by Burundi, in the east by Tanzania and in the west by The
Democratic Republic of Congo. Its capital is Kigali. Now think of other ways
Rwandans can be identified from other groups of people.

At the beginning of this Unit 11, the introductory activity motivates students to
know what happens or will happen in this unit and help them to be passionate
to know about the Rwanda regional and sub-regional integration. As the
students get engaged in the lessons of this unit, they themselves discover answers
to the questions they were asking at the beginning. This will help them identify
some issues and open them to what they did not know and be inquisitive to know
ways through which Rwandans can be identified by others and East Africa and
the importance of regional integration in East Africa.

of periods
1 Understand The students should be able to 1
oneself in account for ways through which
reference to Rwandans can be identified by others.
Rwanda and East
Africa
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2 The importance The students should be able to explain 1
of regional the importance of regional integration
integration in East in East Africa.
Africa

11.4.1. Lesson title 1: Understand oneself in reference to Rwanda and East Africa
d) Learning objective
The students should be able to explain how someone can understand oneself in
reference to Rwanda and East Africa.
e) Teaching aids
Learning activities
students to form groups to discuss Activity 12.1. Remember to let them write
points as they discuss in groups. They should appoint one student to represent
them during plenary discussion. Ensure that that the is maximum order in class to
allow good atmosphere for discussion make a synthesis of the lesson, summarise
the content that is in the Learner’s Book basing on the answers developed by the
learners.

During the pre-colonial period, Rwandans were identified through clans (amoko)
such as Abega, Abanyiginya, Abasindi, Abagesera, Abazigaba, Abatsobe,
Abasinga, etc. With the coming of colonialists, the situation changed. The
colonialists began to identify Rwandans through their social classes: Twa, Hutu,
206
and Tutsi. But, instead of calling them social classes they called these “ethnic”
groups. The divisions which were started in Rwanda by the colonisers led to the
1994 genocide against the Tutsi. Today, the government of Rwanda is promoting
the concept of “Ndi Umunyarwanda” (I am Rwandan). The “Ndi
Umunyarwanda” campaign aims at strengthening unity among Rwandans and
combating divisionism that has been emphasised from the colonial period and
reinforced during the First and Second Republics.
Rwanda is a landlocked country that is located in central eastern Africa. It is

bordered in the north by Uganda, in the south by Burundi, in the east by Tanzania
and in the west by The Democratic Republic of Congo.
Two references that can help to identify Rwandans are as follows:
Unity and Reconciliation: The Rwandan model of unity and reconciliation is

based on a national vision, the constitution and positive cultural values to build
citizenship, good governance and economic development.
This process has to be approached through repentance, confession, forgiveness
and to the restoration of broken relations. In fact, memory, truth, justice,
confession and forgiveness are at the heart of the process of reconciliation in
Rwanda.
Home-Grown Initiatives:Home Grown solutions include traditional Gacaca,

which has given rise to Gacaca jurisdictions that deal with genocide issues
Gacaca (truth and reconciliation traditional courts), Abunzi (mediators), Imihigo
(performance contracts), Ubudehe (community-based and participatory effort
towards problem solving), Girinka (One cow per Family program) reducing
poverty through dairy cattle farming, improving livelihoods through increased
milk consumption and income generation and promoting unity and
reconciliation among Rwandans based on the cultural principle that if a cow is
given from one person to another, it establishes trust, respect and friendship
between the donor and the beneficiary.
11.4.2. Lesson title 2: The importance of regional integration in East Africa
207
f) Learning objective
The students should be able to explain the importance of regional integration in
East Africa.
Learning activities
students to form groups to discuss Activity 12.2. Remember to let them write
points as they discuss in groups. They should appoint one student to represent
them during plenary discussion. Ensure that that the is maximum order in class to
allow good atmosphere for discussion make a synthesis of the lesson, summarise
the content that is in the Learner’s Book basing on the answers developed by the
learners.

Answers to the learning activity 12.2
The advantages of regional integration in East Africa are the following:
Regional integration provides security by helping countries come together to
address the problem of security;
It leads to the free movement of goods, labour and capital;
It stimulates the establishment of manufacturing industries in a rational way;
It enlarges the market of goods produced by individual countries and this goes
with easy transfer of technology across borders;
Acquisition of raw materials to support local industries is made easy;
It increases the exchange of skilled labour since there is cooperation between
different institutions;
It promotes the development of member countries. This is because member
countries work together as a single bloc and have a huge market which attracts
investors from other countries.
Two advantages of regional integration are the following:
208
• It leads to the free movement of goods, labour and capital. People can freely
go to compete in another country and products are cheap because taxes are
reduced.
• The benefits of economic integration are that it promotes development of the
countries involved in it. This is because countries work together as a single bloc
and have a huge market which attracts investors from overseas countries.
The East African Community

The East African Community (EAC) is the regional intergovernmental organisation
of the Republics of Kenya, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Republic of
Rwanda and Republic of Burundi with its headquarters in Arusha, Tanzania.
The Treaty for Establishment of the EAC was signed on November 30, 1999 and
came into force on July 7, 2000 following its ratification by the original member
States—Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. The Republic of Rwanda and the
Republic of Burundi acceded to the EAC Treaty on June 18th, 2007 and became
full members of the Community with effect from July 1st, 2007.
Aims and Objectives

The EAC aims at widening and deepening co-operation among the Partner
States in, among others, political, economic and social fields for their mutual
benefit. The EAC countries established a Customs Union in 2005 and are working
towards the establishment of a Common Market, subsequently a Monetary Union
and ultimately a Political Federation of the East African States.
Enlargement of the Community

The realization of a large regional economic bloc encompassing Burundi, Kenya,
Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda with a combined population of more than 125
million people, land area of 1.82 million sq km, and a combined Gross Domestic
Product of about $60 billion, bears great strategic and geopolitical significance
and prospects of a renewed and reinvigorated East African Community.
Current status
The regional integration process is at a high speed at the moment. The
encouraging progress of the East African Customs Union, the enlargement of the
Community with admission of Rwanda and Burundi, the ongoing negotiations of
the East African Common Market as well as the consultations on fast tracking the
209
process towards East African Federation, all underscore the serious
determination of the East African leadership and citizens to construct a powerful
and sustainable East African economic and political bloc.
11.6.End unit assessment

1. The identities of Rwandans:
• Kinyarwanda language, which is currently spoken throughout the country
• The Rwandan culture learnt in Itorero, ingando, ibitaramo, and games
contributed to the development of the cultural heritage
• Rwanda is known to be clean. Kigali City, the capital of Rwanda, is one of the
cleanest cities in Africa
2. Account for the contributions of Rwandans to regional organisations.
• Rwandan contributes to the provision of security in the region. Rwandan

soldiers and police participate in the maintenance security in Sudan, Central
African Republic etc. The Rwandan police collaborates with police in other
countries to fight criminality.
• Rwandans exchange skilled people with other countries. For example, there is
cooperation between schools and Universities.
• Rwanda enhances free movement of goods, labour and capital. People can
freely go to compete in another country and products are cheap because taxes
are reduced.
Remedial activities
Questions
1. Mention three ways through which Rwandans can be identified by others.
2. Give three advantages for Rwanda’s integration in the region.
Expected answers
1. A Rwandan can be identified by others through the clan, nationality, and
language spoken — Kinyarwanda and culture.
2. It provides security to Rwanda, it leads to free movement of goods, labour and
capital, it expands the markets, it increases the exchange of skilled people and
it facilitates the acquisition of raw materials.
210
 Consolidation activities
Questions
Describe ways through which Rwandans can be identified by others.
Answers
Rwandans have specific characteristics compared to other people in the sub-
region, so that it is easy to be identified.
They speak one language — Kinyarwanda — which is the basis of national unity.
They also live in one country, have one ancestor, share the same historical
background and have a rich cultural heritage which includes poems, songs,
traditional dances etc.
Extended Activities
Questions
Assess the importance for Rwanda to be integrated in the region.
Answers
 Regional integration provides security. Rwanda cooperates with other regional
countries to deal with the problem of insecurity.
 It can help to address conflicts between Rwanda and other countries, and
ensure political stability.
 It leads to the free movement of goods, labour and capital to and from Rwanda.
Rwandans can freely go to compete in other countries and products are cheap
because taxes are reduced.
 It stimulates the establishment of manufacturing industries in Rwanda.
 It enlarges the export market of goods made in Rwanda and this goes with easy
transfer of technology across borders.
 Acquisition of raw materials to support local industries is made easy, thanks to

regional integration.
 It increases the exchange of skilled people e.g. cooperation between schools

and universities.
 The benefits of economic integration are that it promotes development of the

countries involved in it. This is because countries work together as a single bloc
and have a huge market which attracts investors from overseas countries.
211
UNIT 12: NATIONAL LAWS IN CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION

To be able to assess how national laws leads to conflict transformation.

competences on the conflict transformation which is studied in General Studies.

Use the textbook or internet and describe the different meaning of conflict
transformation.
At the beginning of this Unit 12, the introductory activity motivates students to know
what happens or will happen in this unit and help them to be passionate to know
about the national laws in conflict transformation. As the students get engaged in
the lessons of this unit, they themselves discover answers to the questions they were
what they did not know and be inquisitive to know the conflict transformation and
sources of Rwandan codes and laws and the Legal mechanism such as the National
Commission for Human Right, office of the Ombudsman, National Police, and
Constitution in conflict transformation and organs vis-a- vis conflict transformation.
of periods
1 Conflict transformationThe students should be able to define the1
and sources ofconcept of
Rwandan codes
conflict transformation and explain the
and laws
sources of
Rwandan codes and laws.
2 Legal mechanism and The students should be able to explain the1

organs vis-a- vis conflictlegal
transformation mechanism and organs vis-a- vis conflict
transformation.
212
12.4.1. Lesson title 1: Conflict transformation and sources of Rwandan codes
and laws
The students should be able to define the concept of conflict transformation and
explain the sources of Rwandan codes and laws.
b) Teaching aids
The following materials will help the teacher during the lesson: History and Citizenship
student book S3, different books, different documents, internet, pictures, maps,
media, (newspapers and videos), tactile materials, jaws software, talking globes &
tactile maps and braille materials. Sign language should be used when teaching
as they discuss in groups. They should appoint one student to represent them during
plenary discussion. Ensure that that the is maximum order in class to allow good
atmosphere for discussion make a synthesis of the lesson, summarise the content
that is in the Learner’s Book basing on the answers developed by the learners.

Conflict transformation involves transformation of individuals, transformation of

relationships, and transformation of social systems large and small. It also involves
transforming the relationships that support violence and conflict management
approaches. Conflict management seeks to change the conditions that give rise to
the underlying root causes of the conflict.

Conflict transformation is a concept designed to reframe the way in
which peacebuilding initiatives are discussed and pursued, particularly in contexts
of ethnic conflict. Traditionally the emphasis has been on conflict
resolution and conflict management methods, which focus on reducing or defusing
213
outbreaks of hostility. Conflict transformation, in contrast, places a greater weight
on addressing the underlying conditions which give rise to that conflict, preferably
well in advance of any hostility, but also to ensure a sustainable peace. In other
terms, it attempts to make explicit and then reshape the social structures and
dynamics behind the conflict, often employing analytical tools borrowed
from systems thinking. "The very structure of parties and relationships may be
embedded in a pattern of conflictual relationships that extend beyond the
particular site of conflict. Conflict transformation is therefore a process of engaging
with and transforming the relationships, interests, discourses and, if necessary, the
very constitution of society that supports the continuation of violent conflict
1. Conflict transformation is the process by which conflicts, such as conflict or other

misunderstanding, are transformed into peaceful outcomes. The conflict
transformation process involves conflict settlement, then conflict management,
conflict resolution, and ending with conflict transformation in harmony.
2. The different sources of Rwandan codes and laws are the constitution, national
legislation and case law, international treaties and conventions, etc.
12.4.2. Lesson title 2: Legal mechanism and organs vis-a- vis conflict
transformation
The students should be able to explain the legal mechanism and organs vis-a- vis
conflict transformation.
b) Teaching aids
214

The different sources of Rwandan codes and laws are the constitution, national
legislation and case law, international treaties and conventions, etc
1. The role of different organs in conflict transformation is as follows:

a) Abunzi committee: Abunzi, the mediators, play a big role in conflict resolution
where, due to their competence they make trials of the problems that affect
Rwandans. The activities of Abunzi cement national unity and all social categories
are equally treated by these kinds of courts. Abunzi help to the number of cases
introduced in ordinary courts because many problems are resolved in local
communities. Abunzi pave a strong way to national reconciliation because the
solutions are coming from the neighbours. To achieve its goal, as Abunzi committee
uses two major methods such as negotiation and mediation. Negotiation is a
process in which two or more participants attempt to reach a joint decision on
matters of common concern in situations where they are in actual or potential
disagreement or conflict. While mediation is a process, in which an impartial third
party helps disputants resolve a dispute or plan a transaction, but does not have the
power to impose a binding solution. Here the parties negotiate face-to-face with
the guidance of the third party.
b) National Commission for Human Rights improves both the analysis and practice
involved in moving from violence to sustainable peace in Rwanda. The Commission
of Human Rights, therefore, brings the relevance of rights for organising and
governing the interaction between the Rwandan citizens, and amongst individuals
and groups in society so as to bring lasting peace and co-existence.
c) Rwanda national police and community policing committee are of great
importance in conflict transformation. The police patrol function continues to be the
backbone of community law enforcement. For any police force intending to adopt
215
the methods of conflict resolution, the patrolling function becomes the first step. The
police officers frequently meet members of the community and develop rapport.
The feelings of trust develop in the members of community and police.
Conflict transformation by the police also involves the discretionary use of authority
and prevention of criminal activity by an assertive police presence. It also involves
maintaining good relations with citizens in the community.
The police is also supposed to build trust and understanding among the community
members. It is a method in which the police officer anticipates conflict between
members of the community and plays a proactive role.
d) The Office of the Ombudsman in Rwanda is an independent high-level public
office responsible to the Parliament and appointed by constitutional or legislative
provisions to monitor the administrative activities of government. The Ombudsman
has the power to investigate a citizen’s complaints of maladministration and
administrative injustice, but may also act on his or her own. The ombudsman may
recommend changes to prevent further administrative injustices and may also issue
public reports.
1. The different sources of Rwandan codes and laws are the constitution,
international treaties and conventions, national legislation and case law.
Monitoring and Mediating Conflicts

Programme staff and interns monitor world events and armed conflicts to better
understand the histories, underlying causes, primary actors, disputed issues, and
dynamics on the ground, as well as efforts being made to resolve these disputes.
The Centre intervenes when no current avenues for mediation exist or if value can
be added to existing efforts. It must be invited by the major adversaries and see
indications that they are truly interested in resolving the conflict. Conflict Resolution
Programme staff pave the way through ground-level contacts.
Implementing Peace Agreements and Peace building

An end to fighting does not always mean a conflict has been completely resolved.
The process that leads to a peace agreement represents the beginning of an even
longer process of peace implementation and post-conflict reconciliation. All parties
must be held accountable for implementing agreements in good faith. Even after
a peace agreement is implemented, a conflict’s root causes may continue to fester,
sometimes even reigniting the conflict. The Carter Centre seeks ways to ease
216
tensions, identify and build consensus around shared goals, strengthen the rule of
law, and bring justice to victims. For example, a successful Carter Centre project in
Liberia has strengthened peace by providing greater awareness of, and access to,
the nation’s justice system, especially in rural areas.
Preventing Conflict
While direct negotiation to resolve armed conflict is the Programme’s major focus,
it also emphasizes preventing conflict. A series of minor crises can signal or
contribute to deteriorating societal and political stability. In such situations, parties
in dispute may approach the Centre as a neutral third party to facilitate dialogue
that can keep tensions from erupting into violent conflict. The Carter Centre’s
conflict monitoring also helps alert Carter Centre staff to nascent crises.
Results and Impact

• The Carter Centre has furthered avenues to peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Ethiopia, Eritrea, Haiti, Korean Peninsula, Liberia, Israel and Palestine, Nepal, South
Sudan, and South Americans.
• Since 2007, more than 7,000 cases across Liberia have been opened by community
justice advisors, giving access to justice to many who otherwise could not afford or
access it.
• In 1999, President Carter and The Carter Centre negotiated the Nairobi Agreement
between Sudan and Uganda, in which both sides committed to stop supporting
forces against each other’s government and agreed to re-establish full diplomatic
relations.
• In 1994, President Carter negotiated terms for the first dialogue in 40 years between
the United States and North Korea.
• President Carter; Sen. Sam Nunn, D-Ga.; and former Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman
Colin Powell successfully negotiated the departure of Haiti’s military leaders in 1994,
paving the way for the restoration of Jean-Bertrande Aristide as president.
• The Carter Centre advised negotiations for the 2003 Geneva Accord, an informal
draft agreement to end the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
217
1. Rwandan codes and laws have been influenced by German and Belgian
colonisation. Belgian laws were a model and inspired independent Rwanda. The
constitution of Rwanda resembled the Belgian constitution
2. The role of the Rwandan constitution and other relevant laws in conflict
transformation are the following:
• Protecting rights
• Empowering citizens
• Limiting state actions in order to avoid abuse of power
• Establishing rules for peaceful changes of government
• Ensuring the security of private properties
• Establishing procedures for the settlement of disputes
3. The contribution of National Police in conflict transformation is as follows:
The national police and community committee are very important in conflict
transformation. The following are some of the contributions of the national police:
• The police patrol function continues to the backbone of community law

enforcement. For any police force intending to adopt the methods of conflict
resolution the patrolling function is the first step.
• Police officers frequently meet the members of community and develop rapport.
• Conflict transformation by the police also involves the discretionary use of
authority and prevention of criminal activity by an assertive police presence. It also
involves maintaining good relations with citizens in the community.
• The police is also supposed to build trust and understanding among the members
of community. It builds relations and works closely with members of the community
to fight crime.
• The Rwandan national police has adopted the community policing strategy since
it foundation in 2000.
4. The role of Abunzi (mediators) in conflict management is as follows:
• Abunzi (mediators) play a big role in conflict management. They help address
problems that affect Rwandans.
• The activities of Abunzi cement national unity. Social categories are equally
treated by the Abunzi.
218
• Abunzi reduced the number of the cases introduced in ordinary courts because
many problems are resolved in local communities.
• The problems are locally resolved. This facilitates national reconciliation because
the solutions come from the neighbours.
• To achieve its goal, as Abunzi committee uses two major methods such as
negotiation and mediation.
Remedial activities
Questions
1. Give two sources of Rwandan codes and laws.
2. Mention two organs in conflict transformation.
Expected answers
1. Rwanda Customary law and Germany and Belgian civil law systems.
2. Constitution and other relevant laws, National Commission for Human Rights,
National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, Office of Ombudsman, Rwanda
national Police and Abunzi Committee.
Consolidated Activities
Questions
1. Define the term conflict transformation.

2. Determine the sources of Rwandan codes and laws.
Expected Answers
1. The conflict transformation process involves conflict settlement, conflict

management, conflict resolution, and ending with conflict transformation.
2. Before colonisation, the Rwandan codes and laws found their origin in the
Rwandan customary laws as set up according to the Rwandan culture. During
colonisation and even after, the Rwandan codes and laws are inspired by Germany
and Belgian civil law systems.
Extended Activities
Questions
Evaluate the importance of Abunzi in the judiciary system of Rwanda.
219
Expected answers
Abunzi, the mediators play a big role in conflict resolution where, due to their
competence they make trials of the problems that affect Rwandans.
The activities of Abunzi cement national unity and all social categories are equally
treated by these kinds of courts.
Abunzi reduced the number of the cases introduced in ordinary courts because
many problems are resolved in local communities. As the problems are locally
resolved, Abunzi pave a strong way to national reconciliation because the solutions
are coming from the neighbours.
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UNIT 13: FACTORS FOR NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE

To be able to examine the factors for national independence.
competences on the national independence and other related topics already
studied in previous units in senior 3 and senior 2.
Discuss different factors that are likely to sustain the independence of a nation or
country. Present the results of your discussion to the class.

about the factors for national independence. As the students get engaged in the
lessons of this unit, they themselves discover answers to the questions they were
what they did not know and be inquisitive to know the political factors for national
independence, economical and socio-cultural factors for national independence
and the promotion and sustenance of self-reliance.
of periods
1 Political factors forThe students should be able to explain the1
national independence political factors for national independence
2 Economical and socio-The students should be able to describe the1

cultural factors foreconomical and socio-cultural factors for
national independence national independence
3 Promotion andThe students should be able to examine how1
sustenance of self-to promote and sustain self-reliance
reliance

13.4.1. Lesson title 1: Political factors for national independence
221
The students should be able to explain the political factors for national
independence
b) Teaching aids

The different factors that are likely to sustain the independence of a nation or
country comprise self-esteem and confidence among the citizens, national security
and sovereignty, promotion and support of the private sector, improvement of the
industrial sector, promotion of good investment climate, good resource
management, etc.
The political factors that are likely to sustain the independence of a nation or
country comprise self-esteem and confidence among the citizens, national security
and sovereignty.
Two political factors for national independence are the following:
Good governance is about the processes for making and implementing decisions.
It is not about making ‘correct’ decisions, but about the best possible process for
222
making those decisions. Good decision making processes, and therefore good
governance, share several characteristics. All have a positive effect on various
aspects of local government including consultation policies and practices, meeting
procedures, service quality protocols, councillor and officer conduct, role
clarification and good working relationships. The main characteristics of good
governance are accountability, transparency, rule of law, responsiveness, equity,
inclusion, effectiveness, efficiency and participation of the citizens in decision
making. In Rwanda and the region, the implementation of good governance is
carried out through decentralisation of administration and involvement of the
population in decision-making, including the youth, women and vulnerable groups.
Having a strong sense of patriotism: Patriotism is the attachment to a homeland. This

attachment can be viewed in terms of different features relating to one’s own
homeland, including cultural, political or historical aspects. It encompasses a set of
concepts closely related to nationalism. To preserve national independence, the
citizens should have love for their own country. This state of someone that loves his
or her country is termed patriotism.
13.4.2. Lesson title 2: Economical and socio-cultural factors for national independence
b) Teaching aids
223

The different economic and socio-cultural factors that are likely to sustain the
independence of a nation or country include promotion and support of the private
sector, improvement of the industrial sector, promotion of good investment climate,
good resource management, etc.
Three economic and socio-cultural factors for national independence are the
following:
Promotion and support of private sector: The government has to enhance

collaboration and cooperation between the private sector and the public sector.
This would improve service delivery and the performance of the private sector,
hence paving way for economic independence.
Improvement on the industrial sector: In developing countries, lack of

independence is a result of deficit balance of payment. Then, the creation of local
industries would substitute the imported manufactured goods. With such a strong
economy, any country can be economically independent.
Promotion of good investment climate: To be economically autonomous, a country

should promote business and investment by setting up favourable investment
policies and supporting local investors. This can be done by subsidising local
investors such as giving tax holidays to investors and free land among others which
can increase their capacities. All this can lead to the creation of employment,
widening of the tax base and a desirable independent economy.
13.4.3. Lesson title 3: Promotion and sustenance of self-reliance
b) Teaching aids
224

Two home-grown solutions that the Rwandan government has taken to overcome
different problems it was faced with are:
Ubudehe is a poverty eradication Programme under the Ministry of finance. A pilot
Programme was launched in 2001. The official launch of the full Programme was in
2004. It is a culture of collective action and solidarity to solve problems of poverty
by people themselves. This is done by categorising Rwandans into different income
groups according to self-sustenance. The poor are given priority in terms of health
insurance, education, electricity, water supply and even accommodation.
The campaign for made in Rwanda: This campaign aims at finding a solution to the
country’s socioeconomic challenges by promoting locally made products and
services to boost domestic production. This will in turn stimulate local consumption
habits and reduce the country’s heavy import bill. This campaign for “made in
Rwanda” is done mainly through exhibitions on local products.
13. 5. Additional content/ text for student and teacher
13.5.1. Additional content/ text for student and teacher

Learning activities 14.3
What does it mean self-reliance? Which kind of strategies has the Government of
Rwanda adopted so as to achieve self-reliance?
225
13.5.2. Additional informational for the teacher
In this unit, the lesson 14.3 had not any learning activity. The latter had been added
as well as its answer. The below text will help you have a deeper understanding on
this unit.
Answers for learning activities

Learning activity 14.3
Self-reliance is a state of being independent in all aspects. It can be social, political
and economic independence. To stimulate development and be self-reliant,
Rwandans have adopted a number of home-grown solutions. After the 1994
genocide against the Tutsi and its legacy of suffering and division, Rwandans
decided to find their own methods of solving their problems.
Nationalism and decolonisation in Africa

There has emerged as many definitions of African nationalism as there are scholars
who have tried to define the word. However, the following descriptions are useful:
• African nationalism is a desire of African people to terminate all foreign rule.
Basically, nationalism is the political will of the people of Africa in opposition of
foreign domination but in favour of African rule. It represents African struggles
against Western colonialism and imperialism.
• Nationalism is an expression of hostility to alien rule. In the colonial context,
nationalism is anti-colonialism. Colonialism, therefore, should be regarded as one of
the major progenitors of African nationalism, because any people subjected to
alien rule will struggle to overthrow that rule. The process may take a generation or
a century, but it is inevitable.
• Nationalism is a patriotic sentiment or activity on the part of a group of Africans
held together by the bonds of common language and common historical
experience to impose their right to live under a government of their own making for
the preservation of their political, economic, and social interests.
• Nationalism is the feeling of national consciousness or awareness by the people
that they are members of a nation state and desire freedom from colonial rule.
The process of decolonisation

The process of decolonisation or national liberation was fundamental in Africa, for it
allowed African states to regain their independence, which they had lost for more
than half a century. The rise of African nationalism dates back to the period of
colonial conquest and the imposition of colonial rule, and primary resistance against
colonial rule. However, later, exploitation stimulated the nationalistic struggle.
226
Forms of African liberation
Colonial powers did not intend to create a sense of nationhood among the
colonised people. Their major aim was to undermine all ethnic or regional loyalties.
There was very little feeling of nationhood among the colonial subjects. Almost
everybody thought of himself as belonging to an ethnic group or region.
The colonialists had different sentiments about granting independence to African

states. The bourgeoisie in the metropole were interested in maintaining colonial
exploitation, but they differed in the best way to do it. There were three different
opinions on how to maintain this among the colonialists.
• The liberal realised that the only way to silence the anti-colonial struggle was
through granting flag independence to the colonised subjects. Thus between 1950
and 1960 the liberal government of France and Britain began to grant flag
independence. That was why their form of liberation was peaceful.
• Conservatives thought that maintaining the status-quo was the best way to
preserve capitalist interests. Thus whenever these people were in power the question
of granting independence to Africa never rose, and this was especially true in
Portugal. That was why the form of liberation in such Portuguese colonies was
different.
• The opinion of the settlers was that their interests clashed with those of the
bourgeoisie in the metropole. The neocolonial government, under black skinned
leadership, believed that their interests could not be maintained no matter how
neocolonialism was. If the worse came to the worst they seized power as in case of
Ian Smith in 1965 in then Rhodesia.
Forms of liberation
They were four methods that Africans applied in their struggle to liberate themselves
from colonial domination,
1. Liberation through peaceful dialogue

This involved intensive negotiation between the colonialists and African nationalists.
For example, Tanganyika, Ghana, Uganda, and Zambia applied negotiation or
peaceful means to get their independence.
2. Liberation by revolution
This type of liberation involved complete overthrow of the existing political system.
This existed in colonies where independence was given to the minority at the
expense of the majority. A case in point is in Zanzibar where minority Arabs were
227
granted independence by the British. This prompted the majority blacks to carry out
a revolution in 1964, and a new government was established. It took place in Egypt
and Libya. Liberation by revolution is always sudden and involves bloodshed.
3. Liberation by armed struggle/arbitration

This was conducted in the situation where peaceful means failed and the
imperialists were reluctant to negotiate or to give independence to the Africans. In
such situations, the Africans picked up arms to fight the imperialists as a way of
achieving their independence. It involved bloodshed through the use of guerrilla
warfare e.g. in Zimbabwe, Kenya, Angola, South Africa, Namibia, and Mozambique
4. Combination of dialogue and armed struggle

These liberations combined both methods. Firstly, the Africans resorted to armed
struggle as a way to achieve their independence and then applied dialogue or
peaceful means to solve the problem of their independence. This happened in
Kenya and Zimbabwe.
Factors that determined the forms of de-colonisation/liberation

Existence of white settlers
In colonies like Kenya and Zimbabwe where they had made investment, the
colonialists were not willing to surrender their wealth to Africans and were not sure
of their future in case Africans took over control. This was why Africans started armed
struggle as a means of getting their independence.
The nature of the colony: In colonies that were regarded as overseas provinces,
colonialists were not ready to grant independence until Africans decided to stage
armed resistance. Therefore, armed struggle was the only solution, for example, in
Kenya, Angola, Mozambique and South Africa.
The economic strength of the colony: In those colonies where development was
very high and colonial investment was huge like South Africa and Zimbabwe,
colonialists were not willing to grant independence to Africans peacefully. The only
solution was to apply forceful means.
The financial economic position of the colonial power: Many colonies that
belonged to Portugal applied armed struggle because Portugal’s economic
position was not good and highly depended on African colonies for domestic
development. So, she was unwilling to give independence to Africans.
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Trustee colonies: Colonies that were under the trusteeship of the UN achieved their
Independence through peaceful means because of the pressure from UN and USA.
For example, Tanganyika got her independence earlier than other East African
countries.
Minority rule: In Zimbabwe and South Africa where the minority white settlers were in
control of government and in Zanzibar where the minority Arabs were given
independence at the expense of the majority, Africans had to regain their
independence through armed struggle.
Existence of peasant cash crops: Colonies that had developed peasant cash crops
like, Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana, and Tanganyika, achieved their independence
through peaceful means. Colonialists could not delay their independence after
realising that they could continue exploiting their resources through neocolonialism.
Existence of wealth: Where minerals and industries, well developed like in south
Africa and Kenya, independence was not easily given because colonialists were
not ready to leave such wealth unexploited. So armed struggle became the only
solution. On the other hand, in colonies where development was minimal,
independence was easily given through peaceful means e.g. in Tanganyika.
African nationalism and the struggle for independence

Nationalism literally refers to the love for one’s nation. In Africa the term nationalism
has been used to signify the struggle for independence or self determination. In case
of Europe the term nationalism has been used to signify the struggle for national
unification in Germany and Italy and to acquire overseas colonies.
Some scholars define nationalism as a feeling of national consciousness or

awareness by the people of the same state and desire for freedom from colonial
rule.
Nationalism in Africa is divided into two phases according to the period as discussed
below.
Nationalism before 1945

In the first decades of colonial rule, most African communities experienced only
spasmodic contacts with the white man. Nevertheless, by mid 1920s, the activities
of government officials, missionaries and settlers were beginning to affect much
more directly the lives of many Africans. Acts such as land alienation, forced labour,
injustice and taxation were affecting Africans. As in most parts of tropical Africa, the
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missionaries proved to be the most vigorous alien stimulators of change and their
success that was measured in terms of conversion was often remarkable. But
excessive missionary pressure could serve to counter African nationalism.
The struggle for self-determination and resistance against the intruders began in
Africa immediately with the onset of colonialism in the 1890s. Africans started to resist
colonial domination, for example, Abushiri and Bwana Heri in Tanganyika, Shona
and Ndebele in Zimbabwe, and Nama and Herero in Namibia. Some of the
resistances were passive, while others were active.
The period and the intensity of early African resistance in various societies depended
on the intensity of colonial activities and their impact. For example, as early as the
1890s the people of Ghana had already formed the Gold Coast Aborigine’s Rights
Protection Society which was to fight against laws that had been enacted to
expropriate African land. Also in 1920 the biggest welfare association in the region
was the National Congress of British West Africa in Accra. It was largely formed by
the emerging African elites who wanted increased and effective representation in
various organs of the state, especially in the legislature.
Features of African nationalism (resistance) before 1945
They were spontaneous and ethnic-based in nature or regional oriented. It lacked

national scope, every tribe was resisting alone and for tribal or regional interests. For
example, Kagera Coffee Growers, and Kilimanjaro National Cooperation Union
(KNCU) etc.
They were apolitical and lacked clear political focus. They lacked political elements.
They were fighting for the social welfare of their society’s low wages, land alienation,
and poor working conditions. They were against Kikuyu Central Association fought
for the return of the lost land, the restoration of Kikuyu culture, and rejection of
missionary teachings, which interfered with the culture of female circumcision.
They were elite based. They were mostly organised by those who worked for the
colonial government in urban areas. They organised themselves and begun to ask
for their rights. The interests they represented were mainly related to cooperation
with colonialism. For example, Harry Thuku, a clerk in the colonial government
services in 1922 started the Young Kikuyu Association in Nairobi.
Most of the resistances were easily suppressed by the colonialists. They registered
limited success. For example, the Maji Maji uprising, the Shona Ndebele uprising, and
the resistance of the Dembe people of Angola in 1907–10.
230
They lacked a well organised resistance. Most of the uprisings were sporadic in
nature and generated internally rather than externally, like cattle confiscation, land
alienation, etc.
It lacked the element of uniformity and effectiveness. It was characterised by

uprising in different areas and at different times.
They were mostly motivated by the need to restore the pre-colonial social order
which had been overthrown by the colonialists.
Causes of nationalism in Africa before 1945
Political grievances
Africans had lost their independence and wanted to regain it. African rulers were
thrown out and replaced by foreign rulers. Africans wanted to restore their
traditional rulers.
Economic grievances
There was forced labour on colonial plantations. Any African who resisted it was
punished heavily. Taxes like hut tax, and poll tax were introduced and indigenous
people were forced to work in plantations to enable them to pay taxes.
Cattle were confiscated to stop Africans from engaging in other economic activities
and only supply cheap labour.
Land alienation was introduced to stop Africans from practicing their subsistence
agriculture so as to supply cheap labour in plantations belonging to whites.
Africans lost control of their trading activities which were replaced by legitimate
trade.
African agriculture was destroyed and cash crop growing introduced. This caused
shortage of food.
Social grievances
There was colonial injustice and oppression like long working hours, social abuse and
separation of men from their families.
Africans suffered heavy punishment like chopping off their hands as was the case in
the Congo colony under Belgium, and corporal punishment in Tanganyika under
Carl Peters.
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There was racism and segregation of Africans, insulting them because of their colour
and making them third grade citizens.
There was destruction of African values and traditions and introduction of foreign
cultural practices like religion, language, education, and culture.
Nationalism after 1945

This refers to nationalistic activities that occurred, after the Second World War. It was
in this period that Africans were successful in their struggle. It is referred to as modern
nationalism. It was characterised by the following:
• It was well organised and planned by African leaders who were educated in
colonial schools. Examples of these leaders include Nyerere, Kenyatta, Nkrumah,
and Obote.
• It was a nation-wide since it covered the whole nation through opening up many
branches, both in the rural and urban areas.
• It was political in nature since they struggled for political independence.
• It was dominated by both dialogue and armed struggle, where dialogue proved
a failure.
• It was motivated by both internal and external factors unlike those before 1945
which were motivated by internal factors.
Factors for the rise of nationalism after 1945

The factors that gave birth to African nationalism are of two kinds;
• Internal factors
• External factors
Internal factors
These forces were internally motivated, and generated in Africa and they favoured
the growth of nationalism in Africa. These included the following:
Formation of peasant cooperative unions in rural areas: They were formed to defend
the interests and welfare of farmers. Some associations were formed by colonialists
to speed up the production and the marketing of cash crops as well as sensitising
peasants about cultivation. Later on, they developed nationalistic feelings and
turned against the colonialists using their structures in rural areas. Some of the
232
associations included Kilimanjaro Cooperative Union, Victoria Cooperative, and
Buhaya Cooperative Union.
Intensive exploitation of Africans after the Second World War: The colonisers wanted
to revamp their ruined economies which were heavily damaged by the war. New
measures to increase production in the colonies and to reduce metropole
expenditure on the colonies were introduced. Land alienation was introduced to
establish more plantations for the white settlers. Forced labour was carried out on
the colonial plantations so as to increase output. New, taxes like gun tax and hut
tax were introduced. Such forms of exploitation awakened Africans to start fighting
for their self-determination.
Formation of independent churches: These were churches lead by Africans who

broke away from mainstream white churches. They addressed not only religious but
also social, political, and economic grievances of Africans. Such churches included
Joseph Ejayi in West Africa, the Kikuyu Native Church in Kenya, the Watch Tower
Church movement in Malawi, the African National Church in Tanganyika, the
People of God and Religion of Jesus in Kenya, and United Native Church in
Cameroon.
Such churches openly criticised the colonialists and encouraged their followers to
fight them, hence the rise of African nationalism.
Formation of segregated African schools: After realising that the missionary and
colonial schools taught nothing but European based education some African
societies started their own schools. Among the Kikuyu in Kenya, Africans were taught
African based subjects and this helped in educating Africans and developing the
spirit of nationalism.
Rise of elites: Some Africans like Nyerere in Tanganyika, Nkrumah in Ghana, Kamuzu
Banda in Malawi, Abafemi Awolowo of Nigeria, received colonial education which
helped them to get exposed to various liberation struggles. These elites mobilised
Africans and provided leadership for nationalistic struggles.
Independence of Ghana in 1957: This served as an example to encourage other

African nations to fight for their freedom and independence.
The Italy-Ethiopia war of 1935–1941: This increased the momentum of African

nationalism. Italy was resisted by an African nation. This encouraged nationalists in
the struggle for independence was defeated.
233
Formation of social welfare associations: These associations aimed to improve the
working conditions of African workers. Examples include the Kikuyu Central
Association in Kenya that was formed by Harry Thuku, the Railway Territory Civil
Association in Tanganyika, Tanganyika Territory Civil Service Association which was
formed by Martin Kayamba, and the Peoples Union in 1908 in Nigeria. Such
associations exerted more pressure on the colonialists.
Mass media: Newspapers played a big role in spreading awareness among the
population in both rural and urban areas. Such newspapers included Sauti ya TANU
in Tanganyika, The Pilot, and The Comet in Nigeria.
Colonial social infrastructure: These played a big role in facilitating the rise and the
spread of African nationalism. Infrastructure like railways and roads facilitated the
nationalistic activities in rural and urban centres by spreading the massage of
liberation to all parts of Africa.
External factors
These were factors from outside Africa that motivated nationalism. Such forces
included:
The returning of ex-soldiers: These were Africans who participated in

World War II on the side of their colonial masters assisting them as porters and
security guards. The soldiers were exposed to western democracy, and freedom.
Some veterans like Dedan Kimathi who became the leader of Mau-Mau in Kenya,
and Jonathan Okwiriri who became the president of the Young Kavirondo,
Association formed movements that directly opposed the colonialists.
Formation of United Nations Organisation: This replaced the League of Nations.

Independent African states were allowed to participate as members. African and
Asian nations, through the UN, opposed colonialism and demanded for self-
determination.
The independences of India and Pakistan: This acted as an example for Africans to
emulate. Both were British colonies that attained their independence in 1948 as one
nation but later separated into two. Africans used such events to demand for their
independence.
The Bandung conference of 1955: Asian and African nations like Ghana, Nigeria,
Egypt and Libya met in Indonesia to discuss their problems which included
colonialism and economic underdevelopment. They emphasised solidarity, and it
234
was during this conference that the Non Aligned Movement (NAM) was formed. The
NAM called for the end of colonial rule.
Rise of communism in USSR: The Second World War witnessed the expansion and
consolidation of the communist bloc. USSR begun to provide material and moral
support to anti-colonial struggles. In Africa, it supported rebel groups in Angola and
Namibia to fight against colonialists.
Marshal plan: This was initiated by George Marshall, the prime minister of USA. He
offered loans to the war ravaged European nations on condition that they world
decolonise Africa and Asia, by granting independence to their colonies.
Open-door policy of USA: USA introduced a policy of conducting business with

independent African states, thus it asked colonialists to give independence to
African countries to enable them to do business with the US.
Formation of Pan-African Association: This was formed at the First Pan African
Conference in 1900 by William Sylvester. This led to the formation of OAU, an
organisation that united all African independent nations and also supported the
independence struggle.
The British Labour Party: This assumed power in 1945 and it was opposed to
colonialism, which it regarded as oppression of humanity and wastage of British tax
payers’ money. Such anti-colonial sentiments in Britain encouraged many
nationalistic movements to agitate for immediate independence.
The rise of USA as a leading capitalist nation: After World War Two USA became the
chief supplier of raw materials. She became the leading capitalist nation and
advocated for the decolonisation of Africa.
Aftermath of the Second World War: Colonial powers which incurred a lot of losses
and could not continue with spending on the colonies were forced to grant
independence to their colonies. But some European powers adopted intensive
exploitation to revamp their economies, which awakened many Africans to resist,
hence the rise of nationalism.

Answers to End Unit Assessment
235
1. There are many political, economic and social factors for national
independence.
The political factors for national independence are:
• Respect of principles of democracy
• Good governance
• Strong patriotic sense
• National security and sovereignty
• Self-esteem and confidence among the citizens.
The economic and social factors for national independence are:
• Promotion and support of the private sector
• Good resources management
• Promotion of good investment climate
• Improvement of the industrial sector
• Promoting and sustaining self-reliance
2. Many methods are proposed to promote and sustain self-reliance. Some of these
are:
• Girinka (one cow per poor family) Programme
• Establishment of mediators(abunzi)
• Establishment of agaciro development funds
• Ubudehe
• Kuremera
• National Itorero Commission
• Ndi Umunyarwanda Programme
• The campaign for ‘Made in Rwanda’
3. The home-grown solutions adopted by Rwanda to achieve self-reliance are the
following:
• Ubudehe
• Girinka Munyarwanda
• Ndi Umunyarwanda
• Agaciro Development Fund,
• Itorero
236
• Vision Umurenge Programme
• Mutuelle de Santé
Remedial activities
Questions
1. Give two factors for national independence.
2. Mention four economic and socio-cultural factors that favour national
independence.
Expected answers
1. Political factors, economical and socio-cultural factors
2. Promotion and support of private sector, improvement of the industrial sector,
promotion of good investment climate and good resources management
Consolidated Activities
Questions
1. Explain one socio-economic factor that is likely to sustain the independence.

2. Account for one political factor for national independence.
Expected Answers
1. Promotion of good investment climate: To be economically autonomous, the

country needs to promote business and investment by setting up favourable
investment policies and supporting local investors. This can be done by subsidising
local investors which can increase their capacities, giving tax holidays to investors
and free land among others. All this can lead to expanded employment, wide tax
base and a desirable independent economy.
2. Good governance: Good governance is about the processes for making and
implementing decisions. It is not about making correct decisions, but about the best
possible process for making those decisions. Good decision-making processes, and
therefore good governance, share several characteristics. All have a positive effect
on various aspects of local government including consultation policies and
237
practices, meeting procedures, service quality protocols, councillor and officer
conduct, role clarification and good working relationships.
The main characteristics of good governance are accountability, transparency, rule
of law, responsiveness, equity, inclusion, effectiveness, efficiency, and participation
of the citizens in decision-making.
In Rwanda and the region, the implementation of good governance is carried out
through decentralisation of administration and involvement of the population in
decision-making, including the youth, women and vulnerable groups.
Extended Activities
Questions
1. Analyse the political factors for national independence.
2. Explain the economic and socio-cultural factors for national independence.
Expected answers
1. To ensure national independence, the factors to be considered are:
• Respect of principles of democracy: This allows the people to establish their own
government.
• Implementation of good governance: It is about the process for the making and
implementation of decisions made.
• Existence of strong spirit of patriotism
• Self-esteem and confidence among the citizens
• Ensuring national sovereignty
2. To cement national independence, the following factors are necessary:
 Promotion and support of the private sector
 Improvement of the industrial sector,
 Promotion of good investment climate
 Good resources management
238
UNIT 14: CONCEPT OF DISABILITY AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

To be able to differentiate special needs education and inclusive education and
appreciate the impact of inclusive education.

competences on living in harmony in Social Studies and other related topics already
studied in previous units in senior 3, senior 2 and upper primary level.

Using the internet or dictionary, research the meaning of the following terms: special
needs education, special education needs, inclusive education, exclusion, inclusion
and integration.
about the concept of disability and inclusive education. As the students get
engaged in the lessons of this unit, they themselves discover answers to the questions
they were asking at the beginning. This will help them identify some issues and open
them to what they did not know and be inquisitive to know the definition of the
concepts of inclusive education, exclusion, inclusion and integration, special needs
education and children with special needs and ways to help children with special
needs and the impacts of inclusive education.

of periods
1 Definition of specialThe students should be able to define the2
needs education,concepts of special needs education,
children with specialchildren with special needs,
needs, inclusive
inclusive education, exclusion, inclusion and
education, exclusion,
integration and explain the ways to help
inclusion and integration
children with special needs.
and ways to help
239
children with special
needs
2 Impacts of inclusiveThe students should be able to evaluate the1
education impacts of inclusive education

14.4.1. Lesson title 1: Definition of special needs education, children with
special needs, inclusive education, exclusion, inclusion and integration and ways
to help children with special needs
The students should be able to define the concepts of special needs education,
children with special needs, inclusive education, exclusion, inclusion and integration
and ways to help children with special needs.
b) Teaching aids

a) Special needs education is a specific educational arrangement put in place for
learners with learning difficulties or disabilities.
b) Special educational needs are learning difficulties or disabilities which make it
harder for learners to learn in the same way as their peers of the same age.
240
c) Inclusive education refers to an education system which takes into consideration
the learning and educational support needs for all learners irrespective of their
abilities and backgrounds.
d) Inclusion is based on the right of all learners for a quality and equitable education
that meets their basic needs and takes into account the diverse of backgrounds
and abilities as a learning opportunity.
e) Exclusion is the of not allowing someone to take part in an activity or to enter a
place.
f) Integration is the combining of two or more things so that they work together
effectively. When people become part of a group or society and are accepted by
them, integration has taken place.
Children with special needs are children who have a disability or a combination of
disabilities that make learning or other activities difficult. Special needs children
include those who have intellectual disability (ID), physical disability, learning
disabilities, or learning disorders, visual impairment, hearing impairment,
developmental disability, mental health and emotional disabilities, gifted and
talented learners.
1. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) officially defines speech and
language impairments as
“a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language
impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational
performance.” Each point within this official definition represents a speech and
language subcategory. “A communication disorder such as stuttering provides an
example of a fluency disorder. Other fluency issues include unusual word repetition
and hesitant speech. “Impaired articulation” indicates impairments in which a child
experiences challenges in pronouncing specific sounds. “A language impairment”
can entail difficulty comprehending words properly, expressing oneself and listening
to others. Finally, “a voice impairment” involves difficulty voicing words; for instance,
throat issues may cause an abnormally soft voice. Physical disability (wheel chair
users, crutch users) is an impairment that makes one unable to use his or her physical
limbs to perform a function: cannot easily move around school environment, may
have difficulty getting to school, may not participate in games with other children;
inaccessible school infrastructure i.e. playground, toilet.
241
2. The strategies that can be used to help learners with visual impairment are the
following:
 Ask the children where they can see best and allow them to sit in that place
 Write with yellow chalk on a clean chalkboard
 Use big writing on the chalkboard
 Sit next to them and help them
3.
Case study Impairment
Francine is 10 years old, but she stillLearning disabilities or learning

cannot read her own name. disorders
John is an albino. His eyes look unusualVisual impairment

and he cannot copy from the
blackboard.
Claude cannot walk well. He has noPhysical impairment

wheelchair but can move slowly with the
help of a crutch.
Nelly never answers the teacher when heHearing impairment

talks, but she can copy the notes on the
blackboard very well.
Fred has Fred has down’s syndrome. HeIntellectual impairment

cannot read or write.
4.
Impairment Classroom strategies
Visual  Ask the children where they can see best and allow
them to sit in that place
 Write with yellow chalk on a clean chalkboard
 Use big writing on the chalkboard
 Sit next to them and help them
Hearing  Look at them when speaking
 Speak clearly and loudly
 Sit next to them and help
242
 Write instructions on the chalkboard or on paper
Physical  Help them to move around
 Allow them to sit in a place where they can move
around easily
 Encourage them as they take more time and
practice to write
 Copy important notes for them on paper, if it takes
them too much time to copy all
Learning  Encourage them to utilise the time given to them to
finish work and to answer questions and sit close to
them and help
 Give the learner a slate (urubaho) to help them
communicate
 Speak slowly and use simple words
 Give the child real objects to use
14.4.2. Lesson title 2: Impacts of inclusive education
The students should be able to evaluate the impacts of inclusive education
b) Teaching aids
243
The benefits of inclusive education are the following:
 Learners with Special education needs can access basic education

 Special education needs learners can interact with their peers and develop social
skills
 Special education needs learners have an opportunity to become adults who can
work and contribute to the community
 All learners gain respect for others
 Inclusive classrooms develop generic competences of cooperation and life skills
 Reduces dropout rates in schools
 Creates motivating environment for special education needs learners
1. Two consequence of the absence of inclusive education are:

• Such learners may increase absenteeism and dropouts
• Special Education Needs learners may be bored in class.
Here are key findings about the benefits of inclusion for children and families.
Families’ visions of a typical life for their children can come true. All parents want
their children to be accepted by their peers, have friends and lead “regular” lives.
Inclusive settings can make this vision a reality for many children with disabilities.
Children develop a positive understanding of themselves and others. When children

attend classes that reflect the similarities and differences of people in the real world,
they learn to appreciate diversity. Respect and understanding grow when children
of differing abilities and cultures play and learn together.
Friendships develop. Schools are important places for children to develop

friendships and learn social skills. Children with and without disabilities learn with and
from each other in inclusive classes.
244
Children learn important academic skills. In inclusive classrooms, children with and
without disabilities are expected to learn to read, write and count. With higher
expectations and good instruction children with disabilities learn academic skills.
All children learn by being together. Because the philosophy of inclusive education
is aimed at helping all children learn, everyone in the class benefits. Children learn
at their own pace and style within a nurturing learning environment.

1. Children with special needs are those who have:

• Intellectual disability
• Communication disorder
• Physical disability
• Learning disabilities or learning disorders
• Visual and Hearing impairment, etc.
2. Special educational needs are learning difficulties or disabilities which make it
hard for learners to learn in the same way as their peers of the same age.
• Inclusion is based on the rights of all learners, quality and equitable education
that meets their basic needs and caters for the diversity of backgrounds and abilities
as a learning opportunity.
• Integration is the combining of two or more things so that they work together
effectively. When people become part of a group or a society and are accepted
by them.
3. The benefits of Inclusive Education are:
• Learners with Special Educational Needs can access basic education.
• Special Education Needs learners can interact with their peers and develop social
skills.
• Special Education Needs learners have an opportunity to become adults who
can work and contribute to the community.
• All learners gain respect for others.
• Inclusive classroom develops generic competence of cooperation and life skills.
• It reduces dropout rates in schools.
245
It provides a motivating environment for Special Education Needs
Remedial activities
Questions
1. Give three ways to help children with special needs.
2. Give two advantages of inclusive education.
Answers
1. Ways to help children with special needs are:
• Facing the learner while you speak to them might help learners with a hearing
impairment
• Using large writing on the blackboard and or visual aids to help those with visual
impairment.
• Trying to understand the specific talents of the learner and helping to develop
them.
2. Two advantages of inclusive education
• Learners with special needs can access basic education.
• Special education needs learners can interact with their peers and develop social
skills.
Questions
1. Define special needs education.

2. Who are children with special needs?
Answers
1. The term special needs education is a specific educational arrangement for

learners with learning difficulties or disabilities.
2. Children with special needs are those who have disability or a combination of
disabilities that makes learning or other activities difficult. They include those with
mental retardation, speech and language impairment, etc.
246
Extended Activities
Questions
1. Describe ways to help children with special needs.
2. Assess benefits of inclusive education.
Expected Answers
3. Ways to help children with special needs are:
• Be positive because a positive attitude is the single most important quality for
anyone who works with children with special needs.
• Be positive because a positive attitude is the single most important quality for
anyone who works with children with special needs.
• Be motivational to them. Provide praising comments that link the activity directly
with the recognition.
4. Learners with Special Education Needs can access basic education.
• Special Education Needs learners can interact with their peers and develop social
skills.
• Special Education Needs learners have an opportunity to become adults who
can work and contribute to the community.
• All learners gain respect for others.
• Inclusive classrooms develop generic competences of cooperation and life skills.
• It reduces dropout rates in schools.
• It provides motivating environment for Special Education Needs learners.
247
UNIT 15: TOLERANCE AND RESPECT

To be able to recognize and respond to the effects of bias, prejudice,
intolerance and stigma on individual and family.

competences on gender and society, human rights, duties and
responsibilities in Social Studies and other related topics already studied in
previous units in senior 3, senior 2 and upper primary level.

Discuss the characteristics and principles of tolerance. Present the results of
your discussion to the class.
At the beginning of this Unit 15, the introductory activity motivates students
to know what happens or will happen in this unit and help them to be
passionate to know about the concept of tolerance and respect. As the
students get engaged in the lessons of this unit, they themselves discover
answers to the questions they were asking at the beginning. This will help
them identify some issues and open them to what they did not know and be
inquisitive to know the effects of bias, prejudice, intolerance and stigma on
individual and family.

of
periods
1 Definition of The students should be able to 2
the define the concepts of
concepts:
bias, prejudice, stigma,
bias,
intolerance, harassment,
prejudice,
rejection and bullying
stigma,
intolerance,
harassment,
248
rejection and
bullying
2 Impact of bias,The students should be able to evaluate2
prejudice, stigma,the impacts of bias, prejudice, stigma,
intolerance onintolerance on healthy relationships
healthy relationshipsamong peers, people living with
among peers,HIV/AIDS, people with disabilities,
people living withpeople who are perceived to be
HIV/AIDS, peopledifferent
with disabilities,
people who are
perceived to be
different

15.4.1. Lesson title 1: Definition of the concepts: bias, prejudice, stigma, intolerance,
harassment, rejection and bullying
The students should be able to define the concepts of bias, prejudice, stigma,
intolerance, harassment, rejection and bullying
b) Teaching aids
249
Characteristics of tolerance
1. Tolerance is a patience toward a practice or opinion you disapprove of — Tolerance

is being agreeable—listening carefully and treating the person with dignity and
respect—while you disagree. You continue a critical analysis of all you know
and believe to be true, in light of the different viewpoint expressed by the person
you disagree with. In the best case each of you has learned from the other. In the
end you may or may not be persuaded, yet because of your tolerance
the relationship has been strengthened by your dialogue, not eroded by obstinacy
or mistrust. Without disagreement there is not tolerance, only affirmation.
As Voltaire famously said: “I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the
death your right to say it.”
2. Tolerance has limits—Reality is beyond opinion. Tolerance is relevant to opinion, not
fact. [5] The test of truth is its correspondence to reality, and when opinion meets
face-to-face with reality, reality must ultimately prevail. Furthermore, erosion of
the categorical moral imperatives is intolerable. Tolerating cruelty and brutality is
abdication, not respect.
3. Tolerance allows for spirited and principled debate—Your well-
founded beliefs deserve to be heard, advocated, and vigorously debated. Expect
them to be dissected, analyzed, questioned and criticized long before any
consensus emerges. Identifying, examining, and resolving inconsistencies increase
our understanding. Truth continues to be forged from critical consideration of dissent
and new points of view. The sceptics help us all move forward, the demagogues do
not. In addition, confronting destructive behavior is an act
of compassion and courage, not brutality.
4. Non-tolerance is essential and distinct from intolerance—Certain reprehensible
behavior, including beeches of the categorical moral imperatives, cannot be
tolerated. Non-tolerance—the straightforward refusal to tolerate a wrong—
expresses the limits of tolerance. Tolerant people are nontolerant towards brutality.
Paradoxically, intolerance is not to be tolerated. Tolerance finds a balance
between indulgence—anything goes—and narrow-mindedness. Tolerance is the
thoughtful virtue resolutely between intolerance and non-tolerance.
5. Tolerance is the virtue that makes peace possible—Tolerance allows people the
liberty and personal freedom of self-determination. Toleration promotes the free
250
exchange of ideas, including criticism and debate of public policy in the interest of
the people. Toleration sustains civic order by promoting its on-going criticism,
analysis, debate, and improvement by the people, and in the best cases, for the
people. Finally, non-tolerance establishes what is unacceptable in the culture.
6. Respect the person as you disagree with their ideas—Criticism—disagreeing with an
opinion, idea or behavior—is distinct from insult—an attack on the person’s very
being. Care for their humanity as you take offense at their opinions. We can
separate who people are from what they think and do. Don't initiate or tolerate Ad
hominem attacks
7. Tolerance is not philosophical indifference—You can care very much about what is
true and what is false, what is kindness, and what is brutality, while exercising
tolerance. Tolerance helps move us toward truth, not away from it, by
promoting dialogue and making space for critical thinking. “Unless one loves the
truth,” Jacques Maritain once wrote, “one is not a man.”
8. Tolerance is consistent with your own well-founded convictions about truth and
moral behavior—When an opinion is expressed, ask yourself “is it true?” and
proceed skillfully from there, making as much progress toward common
understanding as the cultural limits of respect and the frailties of human nature will
allow.
9. Vigorous deliberation of disagreement and moral evaluation is promoted by
tolerance and moves us toward a common understanding of the good—Ongoing
deliberation, conducted in good faith, continues to forge truth and advance
human rights. Tolerance does not extend to aggressive intolerance—the coercive
suppression of other points of view. [6] Tolerance provides the space for a culture
of dialogue, where we can all benefit.
10. Tolerance respects context – If your grandmother makes a racial slur at a family
gathering we can tolerate it as a reminder of the progress made during her lifetime.
If a politician makes a racial slur at a town hall meeting, it is intolerable. Achieve
both truth and grace.
Principles of Tolerance
Tolerance is respect, acceptance and appreciation of the rich diversity of our
world's cultures, our forms of expression and ways of being human. It is fostered by
knowledge, openness, communication, and freedom of thought, conscience and
belief. Tolerance is harmony in difference. It is not only a moral duty, it is also a
political and legal requirement. Tolerance, the virtue that makes peace possible,
contributes to the replacement of the culture of war by a culture of peace.
251
Tolerance is not concession, condescension or indulgence. Tolerance is, above all,
an active attitude prompted by recognition of the universal human rights and
fundamental freedoms of others. In no circumstance can it be used to justify
infringements of these fundamental values. Tolerance is to be exercised by
individuals, groups and States.
Tolerance is the responsibility that upholds human rights, pluralism (including cultural
pluralism), democracy and the rule of law. It involves the rejection of dogmatism
and absolutism and affirms the standards set out in international human rights
instruments.
Consistent with respect for human rights, the practice of tolerance does not mean
toleration of social injustice or the abandonment or weakening of one's convictions.
It means that one is free to adhere to one's own convictions and accepts that others
adhere to theirs. It means accepting the fact that human beings, naturally diverse
in their appearance, situation, speech, behaviour and values, have the right to live
in peace and to be as they are. It also means that one’s views are not to be imposed
on others.
After having carried out the research in a dictionary, the following definitions have
been found:
Bias is inclination towards something. Partiality, preference. Inclined to one side. A

preconceived opinion about something, or someone.
Bullying is an act of intimidating a weaker person to do something, especially with

repeated coercion. Persistent acts intended to make life unpleasant for another
person. In many cases, bullying is also defined as the activity of repeated,
aggressive behaviour intended to hurt another individual, physically, mentally or
emotionally. It can be individual, physical, verbal, relational or collective etc.
Schools, students; teenagers can be targeted because of clothes, shoes, colour of
your skin etc. Bullying is a punishable offense in all schools.
Stigma is a mark of infamy or disgrace. It is also defined as an association of disgrace

or public disapproval of something, such as an action or condition. e.g. HIV infected
person.
252
Intolerance is the fact of not accepting other people’s opinions or beliefs or
practices. Refusal to tolerate or respect persons of a different social group,
especially members of a minority group. e.g. religious intolerance.
Harassment is persistent attacks and criticism causing worry and distress or an

excessive intimidation. It is behaviour which appears to be disturbing or threatening.
This includes sexual harassment which refers to persistent and unwanted sexual
advances, typically in the workplace, where the consequences of refusing are
potentially very disadvantageous to the victim.
Rejection is refusal of accepting other people’s performance. Denying others
opinions or beliefs. Act of pushing someone or something away.
The definitions of the term of Bias, stigma and rejection are the following:
Bias is inclination towards something. Partiality, preference. Inclined to one side. A

preconceived opinion about something, or someone.
Stigma is a mark of infamy or disgrace. It is also defined as an association of disgrace
or public disapproval of something, such as an action or condition. e.g. HIV infected
person.
Rejection is refusal of accepting other people’s performance. Denying others

opinions or beliefs. Act of pushing someone or something away.
15.4.2. Lesson title 2: Impact of bias, prejudice, stigma, intolerance on healthy

relationships among peers, people living with HIV/AIDS, people with disabilities,
people who are perceived to be different
The students should be able to evaluate the impacts of bias, prejudice, stigma,
intolerance on healthy relationships among peers, people living with HIV/AIDS,
people with disabilities, people who are perceived to be different
b) Teaching aids
253
In this unit, the lesson 15.2 had not any answer for both learning activity and
application. In this part, the answers have been provided. The below text will help
you have a deeper understanding on this unit.
Answers for activities

1. Many schools oblige students to wear uniforms because uniforms make it easier
for students to focus in class and that uniforms promote inclusion.
2. Very many schools in Rwanda have removed canteens to insure uniformity
amongst students.
3. Wearing uniforms prevent students from bullying one another over brand names
or baring too much skin. While these all sound like worthy goals, students also learn
important social and life lessons by choosing their own fashions.
Students who choose their clothing each school day learn to adapt to shifting social
standards and contexts—skills that will serve them well as adults.
After all, uniforms provide a cookie-cutter, conformist solution, while workplaces
and
4. Students from poor families who are victims of discrimination can be helped in the
following ways:
 Treating them with respect and awareness;

 Political leaders have to elaborate laws to protect children against discrimination.
254
 Parents, school staff, and other adults in the community can help children prevent
discrimination by talking against it.
 Building a safe school environment, inclusive education (code of conduct) and
creating a community - wide bullying prevention strategy can do much. The bullied
student reports to a trusted adult such as parent, teacher, or a guardian.
 Tolerance can provide an opportunity to learn from others while respecting and
valuing their differences in religious and cultural beliefs. Tolerance works as a barrier
to prejudice and brings people of a community together.
 Being a good role model and setting an example of respect can teach others to be
tolerant.
Suggested answers for application activities 16.2
The strategies to avoid the negative practice of stigma, bullying, bias, intolerance,
and segregation at school and in the community are the following:
 Using inclusive language;
 Including human rights, democratic citizenship and intercultural education in the
curriculum;
 Encouraging the discussion of controversial issues;
 Promoting student voice;
 Involving students in peer education and peer mediation activities;
 States should adopt a combination of strong anti-discrimination measures and
policies that promote more inclusive education systems where all children learn
together so as to ensure more equal treatment of all children and, in the long term,
improve social cohesion
What can be done to help someone who is being bullied?

To help someone who is being bullied, support the person and condemn the bullying
behaviour. Other ways to help, including what to do if a person is in immediate
danger, are listed below. To support a child who is being bullied:
• Listen to the child and let him or her know you are available to talk or even
help. A child who is being bullied may struggle talking about it. Consider letting the
child know there are other people who can talk with him or her about bullying. In
addition, you might consider referring the child to a school counsellor, psychologist,
or another mental health specialist.
255
• Give the child advice about what he or she can do. You might want to include
role-playing and acting out a bullying incident as you guide the child so that the
child knows what to do in a real situation.
• Follow up with the child to show that you are committed to helping to stop to
bullying.
To address the bullying behaviour:
• Make sure a child whom you suspect or know is bullying knows what the problem
behaviour is and why it is not acceptable.
• Show children that bullying is taken seriously. If you know someone is a bully to
someone else, tell the bully that bullying will not be tolerated. It is important,
however, to demonstrate good behaviour when speaking with a bully so that you
serve as a role model of good interpersonal behaviour.
• Show children that bullying is taken seriously. If you know someone is a bully to
someone else, tell the bully that bullying will not be tolerated. It is important,
however, to demonstrate good behaviour when speaking with a bully so that you
serve as a role model of good interpersonal behaviour.
• Be a friend to the person who is being bullied, so they do not feel alone.
• Be a friend to the person who is being bullied, so they do not feel alone.
• Tell a trusted adult if you see someone being bullied.
• Tell a trusted adult if you see someone being bullied.
• Help the person to get away from the bullying without putting yourself at risk.
• Do not enable bullying by providing an audience.
• Set a good example by not bullying.

1. The definitions are the following:

• Bias: Inclination towards something; partiality or preference inclined to one side;
a preconceived opinion about something or someone.
• Bullying: An act of intimidating a weaker person to do something especially by
repeated coercion.
• Prejudice: Opinion formed beforehand or without knowledge of the facts. Any
pre-conceived opinion or feeling, whether positive or feeling negative
256
• Harassment: Persistent attacks and criticism on someone causing worry and
distress or an excessive intimidation. It is behaviour which appears to be disturbing
or threatening. This includes sexual harassment, which refers to persistent and
unwanted sexual advances, like in the workplace, where the consequences of
refusing are potentially very disadvantageous to the victim.
2. The impact of stigma and discrimination are the following:
For stigma, the victims develop fear and mistrust others and do not want to meet
them. He or she develops a practice of non-self-esteem. Besides, the victims of
stigma and discrimination can exhibit the following:
• Loss of income and livelihood

• Difficult in getting married and producing children
• Being hopeless and having feelings of worthlessness
• Lack of reputation
• Depression and anger
3. The consequences of harassment are:
• Disbelief
• Anger
• Self-blame: “I shouldn’t have been there”
• Loss of self-confidence: “I’m so stupid for letting this happen. I must be as bad as
they say”.
• Powerlessness” “nothing is going to stop this”, “no one will believe me”.
• Isolation, withdrawal, illness, depression
• Loss of sleep
• Loss of appetite
• Headache, stomach-ache
4. Three strategies to stop bullying at school:
• The bullied learner surrounds himself with supportive friends and stays in groups.
• The bullied learner can also avoid places where they are bullied.
• Parents, school staff, and other adults in the community can help children to
prevent bullying by talking against it.
257
Remedial activities
Questions
1. Define the term bias.
2. Give two social consequences of stigma.
Answers
1. Bias: Inclination towards something. Practicality, preference, inclined to one side.
2. Two social consequences of stigma
• The victims develop fear and mistrust. Others do not want to meet, thus
stigmatising them.
• It creates lack of self-esteem in the victim
Questions
1. Mention two consequences of harassment.
2. What are three effects of stigma and discrimination?
Answers
1. Two effects of harassment are as follows:
 It leads to loss of self-confidence: “I’m so stupid for letting this happen. I must be
as bad as they say”.
 It causes a feeling of powerlessness: “nothing is going to stop this”, “no one will
believe me”.
2. Three effects of stigma and discrimination are:
a. Stigma makes the victims develop fear and mistrust of others and do not want to
meet them. They develop a practice of non-self-esteem. Besides, the victims of
stigma and discrimination can suffer from the following: Loss of income and
livelihood
b. Difficulty to get married and failing to produce children
c. Being hopeless and having feelings of worthlessness
Extended Activities
Questions
1. What do you understand by the following terms: bias, prejudice, stigma,
intolerance, harassment, rejection and bullying?
258
2. Evaluate the impact of stigma on healthy relationships among people living with
HIV/AIDS.
Answers
1) Bias: Inclination towards something. Partiality, preference inclined to one side.
Prejudice: Opinion formed beforehand or without knowledge of the facts. It is a

preconceived, usually unfavourable, judgment toward people or a person because
of gender, political opinion, social class, age, disability, religion, race/ethnicity,
language, nationality etc.
Stigma: It is a mark of infamy or disgrace. It is also defined as an association of

disgrace or public disapproval with something, such as an action or condition such
as HIV infected person.
Intolerance: It is the act of not accepting opinions of other people or beliefs, or

practices. It is also defined as refusal to tolerate or respect persons of a different
social group, especially members of a minority group. For example, Religious
intolerance.
Harassment: It is a persistent attack and criticism of someone causing worry and

distress or excessive intimidation. It is behaviour which appears to be disturbing or
threatening. This includes sexual harassment, which refers to persistent and
unwanted sexual advances, like in the workplace, where the consequences of
refusing are potentially very disadvantageous to the victim.
Rejection: It is refusal to accept the performance of other people. Denying others

opinions or beliefs. It is an act of pushing someone or something away.
Bullying: It is defined as an act of intimidating a weaker person to do something

unwillingly. Bullying is also defined as the activity of repeated, aggressive behaviour
intended to hurt another individual, physically, mentally or emotionally.
2) HIV related stigma refers to prejudice, negative attitude and abuses directed to
people living with HIV and AIDS.
• The victims develop fear and mistrust towards others and do not want to meet
them.
• He or she develops low self-esteem.
• It leads to loss of income and livelihood.
• It can make it difficult for someone to get married and to produce children.
259
• It makes a person hopeless and they develop feelings of worthlessness.
• It causes lack of reputation
260
References
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262

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History and

Rwanda Basic Education Board is honoured to present

In line with efforts to improve the quality of education, the

Dr. MBARUSHIMANA Nelson

Special thanks are given to those who gave their time to

Finally, my word of gratitude goes to the Rwanda Education

Suggested ways to teach the units step by step........................... 17

UNIT I: INDEPENDENT RWANDA..........................................................19

UNIT II: CONSEQUENCES OF GENOCIDE AGAINST THE TUTSI …......53

UNIT III:COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS AND COLONIAL

UNIT IV: COLONIAL REFORMS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES ON

UNIT V: CAUSES OF DECOLONISATION IN AFRICA: CASE STUDY,

UNIT VI: THE 1789 FRENCH REVOLUTION ….................................. 167

UNIT VIII: BETWEEN TWO WARS ........................................................ 219

UNIT X: NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS

UNIT XI: DEMOCRATISATION PROCESS........................................... 287

UNIT XII: UNDERSTANDING RWANDANS IN REFERENCE TO REGIONAL

UNIT XIII: NATIONAL LAWS IN CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION…… 316

UNIT XIV: FACTORS FOR NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE..................... 330

Lesson 3: Promoting and sustaining self-reliance ........ 340

UNIT XV: CONCEPT OF DISABILITY AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION.. 355

References ...................................................................................... 383

Introduction to the new Curriculum

Active techniques to be used in developing competences

Group work is used to motivate learners, encourage active

How to apply this technique in teaching history?

• To be successful by using group work in teaching

• Write down the main ideas on the chalkboard or paper

• agree on aims and objectives

7. Learning corner/ centre

General Guidelines on Assessment in History Subject

Define Give the precise meaning. Examine the

List of equipment needed for the subject

Guidance on what to do if these materials are not available

A lesson plan is the teacher’s road map of what learners

1.1 Key Unit competence

1.2 Prerequisite (knowledge, skills, attitude and values)

1.3. Introductory activity and guidance

A) Introductory activity (unity level)

Do research using the internet and library to answer the

At the beginning of this unit, the given introductory activity

2 Root causes, Discuss the causes and 2

Guidance on different lessons

Suggested answers for activities

At the time of Independent, Rwanda faced many problems

The first republic started immediately after on independence

The first republic was characterized by dictatorship and civil

Some of the features that took place during the second

The major changes that took place in the second republic

 Infrastructural development continued in some areas

In conclusion the first and second republic fed the people of

1. Identify and explain problems faced by the First Republic

Political issues: Refer to the answers given to the

- The coup d’état leaders dissolved the National

The North was favored, during the Second Republic

• Do you think this policy was good?

1.2.1. Root Causes of the 1990 - 1994 liberation struggle

3. Mismanagement of government resources: The natural

 In 1987, this group developed into the Rwanda Patriotic

Answers for learning activity 1.4