INVISTIGATIVE PROJECT

INDEX
S.No. TITLE PAGE No.

1 MAGNETIC FLUX 2

2 FARADAY'S LAW OF INDUCTION 7

3 LENZ’S LAW 10

4 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 12

5 MOTIONAL ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE 15

6 EDDY CURRENTS 18

1
MAGNETIC FLUX

The magnetic interaction is described in terms of a vector field, where each point in space is
associated with a vector that determines what force a moving charge would experience at that
point (see Lorentz force).[1] Since a vector field is quite difficult to visualize, introductory
physics instruction often uses field lines to visualize this field. The magnetic flux through some
surface, in this simplified picture, is proportional to the number of field lines passing through
that surface (in some contexts, the flux may be defined to be precisely the number of field lines
passing through that surface; although technically misleading, this distinction is not important).
The magnetic flux is the net number of field lines passing through that surface; that is, the
number passing through in one direction minus the number passing through in the other
direction (see below for deciding in which direction the field lines carry a positive sign and in
which they carry a negative sign).[2] More sophisticated physical models drop the field line
analogy and define magnetic flux as the surface integral of the normal component of the
magnetic field passing through a surface. If the magnetic field is constant, the magnetic flux
passing through a surface of vector area S is

where B is the magnitude of the magnetic field (the magnetic flux density) having the unit of
Wb/m2 (tesla), S is the area of the surface, and θ is the angle between the magnetic field lines
and the normal (perpendicular) to S. For a varying magnetic field, we first consider the
magnetic flux through an infinitesimal area element dS, where we may consider the field to be
constant:

A generic surface, S, can then be broken into infinitesimal elements and the total magnetic flux
through the surface is then the surface integral

From the definition of the magnetic vector potential A and the fundamental theorem of the
curl the magnetic flux may also be defined as:

where the line integral is taken over the boundary of the surface S, which is denoted ∂S.
Magnetic flux through a closed surface

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Magnetic flux through a closed surface[edit]

Magnetic flux through a closed surface

one examples of closed surfaces (left) and open surfaces (right). Left:
Surface of a sphere, surface of a torus, surface of a cube. Right: Disk surface, square surface,
surface of a hemisphere. (The surface is blue, the boundary is red.)
Main article: Gauss's law for magnetism
Gauss's law for magnetism, which is one of the four Maxwell's equations, states that the total
magnetic flux through a closed surface is equal to zero. (A "closed surface" is a surface that
completely encloses a volume(s) with no holes.) This law is a consequence of the empirical
observation that magnetic monopoles have never been found.
In other words, Gauss's law for magnetism is the statement:

Magnetic flux through an open surface[edit]

For an open surface Σ, the electromotive force along the surface boundary, ∂Σ, is a combination
of the boundary's motion, with velocity v, through a magnetic

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field B (illustrated by the generic F field in the diagram) and the induced electric field caused
by the changing magnetic field.

While the magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero, the magnetic
flux through an open surface need not be zero and is an important quantity in
electromagnetism.
When determining the total magnetic flux through a surface only the boundary of the surface
needs to be defined, the actual shape of the surface is irrelevant and the integral over any
surface sharing the same boundary will be equal. This is a direct consequence of the closed
surface flux being zero

Changing magnetic flux:

For example, a change in the magnetic flux passing through a loop of conductive wire will
cause an electromotive force, and therefore an electric current, in the loop. The relationship is
given by Faraday's law:

where

 is the electromotive force (EMF),

 the minus-sign represents Lenz's Law,
 ΦB is the magnetic flux through the open surface Σ,
 ∂Σ is the boundary of the open surface Σ; the surface, in general, may be in motion and
deforming, and so is generally a function of time. The electromotive force is induced
along this boundary.
 dℓ is an infinitesimal vector element of the contour ∂Σ,
 v is the velocity of the boundary ∂Σ,
 E is the electric field,
 B is the magnetic field.
The two equations for the EMF are, firstly, the work per unit charge done against the
Lorentz force in moving a test charge around the (possibly moving) surface
boundary ∂Σ and, secondly, as the change of magnetic flux through the open surface Σ. This
equation is the principle behind an electrical generator.
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Comparison with electric flux[edit]
Main articles: Electric flux and Gauss's law
By way of contrast, Gauss's law for electric fields, another of Maxwell's equations, is

where
 E is the electric field,
 S is any closed surface,
 Q is the total electric charge inside the surface S,
 ε0 is the electric constant (a universal constant, also called the "permittivity of free
space").
The flux of E through a closed surface is not always zero; this indicates the presence of
"electric monopoles", that is, free positive or negative charges

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How do we measure magnetic flux?
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (named after German physicist and co-inventor of
the telegraph Wilhelm Weber) and the unit has the symbol WbWbW, b.
Because the magnetic flux is just a way of expressing the magnetic field in a given area, it can
be measured with a magnetometer in the same way as the magnetic field. For example, suppose
a small magnetometer probe is moved around (without rotating) inside
a 0.5 m20.5 m20, point, 5, space, m, squared area near a large sheet of magnetic material and
indicates a constant reading of 5 mT5 mT5, space, m, T. The magnetic flux through the area is
then (5⋅10−3 T)⋅(0.5 m2)=0.0025 Wb(5⋅10−3 T)⋅(0.5 m2)=0.0025 Wbleft parenthesis, 10, start
superscript, minus, 3, end superscript, space, T, right parenthesis, dot, left parenthesis, 0, point,
5, space, m, squared, right parenthesis, equals, 0, point, 0025, space, W, b. In the event that the
magnetic field reading changes with position, it would be necessary to find the average
reading.
A related term that you may come across is the magnetic flux density. This is measured in
Wb/m2Wb/m2W, b, slash, m, squared. Because we are dividing flux by area we could
also directly state the units of flux density in Tesla. In fact, the term magnetic flux density is
often used synonymously with the magnitude of the magnetic field.

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= Faraday's law of induction (or simply Faraday's law)
Faraday's law of induction (or simply Faraday's law) is a basic law
of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric
circuit to produce an electromotive force (emf)—a phenomenon known as electromagnetic
induction. It is the fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and many types
of electric motors, generators and solenoids.[2][3]
The Maxwell–Faraday equation (listed as one of Maxwell's equations) describes the fact that a
spatially varying (and also possibly time-varying, depending on how a magnetic field varies in
time) electric field always accompanies a time-varying magnetic field, while Faraday's law
states that there is emf (electromotive force, defined as electromagnetic work done on a unit
charge when it has traveled one round of a conductive loop) on the conductive loop when the
magnetic flux through the surface enclosed by the loop varies in time.
Faraday's law had been discovered and one aspect of it (transformer emf) was formulated as the
Maxwell–Faraday equation later. The equation of Faraday's law can be derived by the
Maxwell–Faraday equation (describing transformer emf) and the Lorentz
force (describing motional emf). The integral form of the Maxwell–Faraday equation
describes only the transformer emf, while the equation of Faraday's law describes both the
transformer emf and the motional emf.

Faraday's law :
Alternating electric current flows through the solenoid on the left, producing a changing
magnetic field. This field causes, by electromagnetic induction, an electric current to flow in the
wire loop on the right.
The most widespread version of Faraday's law states:
The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the negative of the time rate of change
of the magnetic flux enclosed by the path.[15][16]
Mathematical statement[edit]

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 The definition of surface integral relies on splitting the surface Σ
into small surface elements. Each element is associated with a vector dA of magnitude equal
to the area of the element and with direction normal to the element and pointing "outward"
(with respect to the orientation of the surface).
For a loop of wire in a magnetic field, the magnetic flux ΦB is defined for
any surface Σ whose boundary is the given loop. Since the wire loop may be moving, we
write Σ(t) for the surface. The magnetic flux is the surface integral:

where dA is an element of area vector of the moving surface Σ(t), B is the magnetic field, and
B · dA is a vector dot product representing the element of flux through dA. In more visual
terms, the magnetic flux through the wire loop is proportional to the number
of magnetic field lines that pass through the loop.
When the flux changes—because B changes, or because the wire loop is moved or deformed, or
both—Faraday's law of induction says that the wire loop acquires an emf, defined as the energy
available from a unit charge that has traveled once around the wire loop.[17]: ch17 [18][19] (Although
some sources state the definition differently, this expression was chosen for compatibility with
the equations of special relativity.) Equivalently, it is the voltage that would be measured by
cutting the wire to create an open circuit, and attaching a voltmeter to the leads.
Faraday's law states that the emf is also given by the rate of change of the magnetic flux:

where is the electromotive force (emf) and ΦB is the magnetic flux.

The direction of the electromotive force is given by Lenz's law.
The laws of induction of electric currents in mathematical form was established by Franz Ernst
Neumann in 1845.[20]
Faraday's law contains the information about the relationships between both the magnitudes
and the directions of its variables. However, the relationships between the directions are not
explicit; they are hidden in the mathematical formula.

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 A Left Hand Rule for Faraday's Law. The sign of ΔΦB, the change in
flux, is found based on the relationship between the magnetic field B, the area of the loop A,
and the normal n to that area, as represented by the fingers of the left hand.
If ΔΦB is positive, the direction of the emf is the same as that of the curved fingers (yellow
arrowheads). If ΔΦB is negative, the direction of the emf is against the arrowheads.[21]
It is possible to find out the direction of the electromotive force (emf) directly from Faraday’s
law, without invoking Lenz's law. A left hand rule helps doing that, as follows:[21][22]

 Align the curved fingers of the left hand with the loop (yellow line).
 Stretch your thumb. The stretched thumb indicates the direction of n (brown), the
normal to the area enclosed by the loop.
 Find the sign of ΔΦB, the change in flux. Determine the initial and final fluxes (whose
difference is ΔΦB) with respect to the normal n, as indicated by the stretched thumb.
 If the change in flux, ΔΦB, is positive, the curved fingers show the direction of the
electromotive force (yellow arrowheads).
 If ΔΦB is negative, the direction of the electromotive force is opposite to the
direction of the curved fingers (opposite to the yellow arrowheads).
For a tightly wound coil of wire, composed of N identical turns, each with the same ΦB,
Faraday's law of induction states that[23][24]

where N is the number of turns of wire and ΦB is the magnetic flux through a single loop.

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Lenz’s law
What is Lenz’s law?
The general definition of Lenz’s Law is, It is a scientific law that specifies the direction of
induced current but states nothing about its magnitude. The magnetic field associated with the
closed It is a scientific law that specifies the direction of induced current but states nothing
about its magnitude. The magnetic field associated with the closed circuit amplifies the induced
current flow in such a way that it creates a magnetic field in the opposite direction of the
original magnetic field. Thus, opposing the cause which produced it and stating its similarity
with Newton’s third law. it amplifies the induced current flow in such a way that it creates a
magnetic field in the opposite direction of the original magnetic field. Thus, opposing the cause
which produced it and stating its similarity
with Newton’s third law.

Lenz’s Law Formula

Lenz’s Law formula is stated from Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.
According to this law, EMF on the coil is calculated as,

E = -N(d∅/dt)
where,
negative sign indicates that the direction of induced emf is such that it opposes the change in
magnetic flux)
E is the electromotive force
N is number of loops the coil made
d∅ is the change in magnetic flux dt
is change in time

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Lenz’s Law Experiment
Lenz’s law provides the direction of the induced electromotive force and current induced in
the closed circuit. The experiments proved by Lenz to state its theory are,
The image given below shows a metallic conductor placed in a magnetic field.

First Experiment
First experiment by Lenz proved that the current flowing in the coil produces a magnetic field
in the circuit and the strength of the magnetic field increases with an increase in the strength of
the induced current. Also, this magnetic field produced opposes the original magnetic field i.e.
the direction of the induced current is opposite to the original magnetic field.
Second Experiment
Second experiment by Lenz states that the iron rod wound by the current-carrying wire and its
left end behave as N-pole if moves towards the coil an induced current is produced in the coil.
Third Experiment
Third experiment by Lenz states that if the coil is pulled towards the magnetic flux, the
magnetic flux linked with the coil decreases as the area of the coil inside the magnetic field
decreases. Now the induced current in the same direction opposes the motion of the coil
according to Lenz’s law.
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From the above experiments, we can conclude that the current is produced when the magnet
exerts the force in the loop and to resist the change, the current exerts a force on the
magnet.
What is Electromagnetic Induction?
It is the phenomenon of production of induced emf due to a change of magnetic flux
(number of magnetic field lines) connected to a closed circuit called electromagnetic
induction.
Lenz’s Law Explanation
Lenz’s law is easily explained by two cases.
Case 1:

As shown in the figure, when the North pole bar magnet is moved towards the coil, the induced
current in the coil flows in the anticlockwise direction, when we see it from the magnet side.
The face of the coil develops north polarity. As we know, that same pole repels, so the north
pole-north pole repels. So, it opposes the motion of the North pole of a magnet.
Conclusion: The motion of the magnet increases the flux through the coil and flux will be
generated in the opposite direction by the induced current.

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Case 2:

As shown in the figure when the North pole of a bar magnet is taken away from the coil, the
induced current in the coil flows in the clockwise direction. The face of the coil develops South
polarity. We know that opposite poles attract. So, the north pole and south polarity attract each
other.
Conclusion: The motion of the magnet decreases the flux through the coil. The flux is
generated in the same direction by induced current, hence opposing and increasing the flux.
Lenz’s Law Applications
Lenz’s Law finds its importance in various cases and some of the most common uses of
Lenz’s law are,
 The braking system in trains works on the principle of Lenz’s law
 AC generators work on the principle of Lenz’s law
 Eddy currents are balanced using Lenz’s Law
 Metal Detectors, Card readers, and many other electronic devices use the concept of
Lenz’s law for their application

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Lenz’s law and Law of Conservation of Energy
Lenz’s law is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy. The law of conservation of
energy states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but it can be changed from
one form to another form. Lenz’s law states that the direction of current is such that it opposes
the change in the magnetic flux. So, extra effort is required to do work against opposing
forces. This extra work leads to periodic changes in magnetic flux hence more current is
induced. Thus, the extra effort gets converted into electrical energy only, which is nothing but
the law of conservation of energy.
The magnetic flux increases as the North Pole of the magnet approaches it and drops as it is
driven away in the activity above. In the first scenario, opposing the cause involves moving
the magnet, and the face facing the coil gains North Polarity. The magnet’s north pole and
the coil’s north pole repel each other. To counteract the force of repulsion, mechanical action
must be done to bring the magnet towards the coil. This mechanical energy is transformed
into electrical energy. Due to Joule’s Effect, this electrical energy is turned into heat energy.
The image given below shows the magnetic flux linked with the coil when a magnet is taken
close or away from the coil.

When the magnet is moved away from the coil, the coil’s nearer face obtains south polarity.
In this instance, the produced emf will oppose the magnet’s outward motion. To resist the
force of attraction between the North Pole of the magnet and the South Pole of the coil,
mechanical labour must be done once more. This labour is transformed into electrical energy.
There is no mechanical work done if the magnet is not moved, hence no emf is induced in the
coil.
As a result, Lenz’s Law is consistent with the law of conservation of energy.

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Motional Electromotive Force
The process of induction occurs when a change in magnetic flux causes an emf to oppose that
change. One of the main reasons for the induction process in motion. We can say, for example,
that a magnet moving toward a coil generates an emf, and that a coil moving toward a magnet
creates a comparable emf.

This section will cover motion in a magnetic field that is stationary in relation to the planet
Earth, resulting in motional emf. The Hall effect is one scenario where we may claim there is a
motion that typically happens. The magnetic force experienced by moving charges in a
magnetic field is indicated by

F = qvB sinθ

where F is the magnetic force, q is the charge, v is the velocity and B is the magnetic field.
Proof of motional emf

 Consider a straight conductor PQ as shown in the figure, moving in the rectangular loop
PQRS in a uniform and time-independent magnetic field B, perpendicular to the plane of
the system.
 Let us suppose the motion of rod to be uniform at a constant velocity of v m/sec and the
surface to be frictionless.

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  Thus, the rectangle PQRS forms a closed circuit enclosing a varying area due to the
motion of the rod PQ.
 The magnetic flux ΦB enclosed by the loop PQRS can be given as
ΦB = Blx
Where, RQ = x and RS = l, Since the conductor is moving, x is changing with time. Thus, the
rate of change of flux ΦB will induce an emf, which is given by:
Where, the speed of conductor (PQ), v = -dx/dt and is the formula of induced emf. This
induced emf due to the motion of an electric conductor in the presence of the magnetic field
is called motional emf. Thus, emf can be induced in two major ways:
 Due to the motion of a conductor in the presence of a magnetic field.
 Due to the change in the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit.
Following is the table of links related to EMF:
What Is Electromotive Force?
Electromotive force is defined as the electric potential produced by either an electrochemical
cell or by changing the magnetic field. EMF is the commonly used acronym for electromotive
force.
A generator or a battery is used for the conversion of energy from one form to another. In these
devices, one terminal becomes positively charged while the other becomes negatively charged.
Therefore, an electromotive force is a work done on a unit electric charge.
Electromotive force is used in the electromagnetic flowmeter which is an application of
Faraday’s law.
Symbol for Electromotive Force The
electromotive force symbol is ε. Read
More: Faraday’s Law
What Is Electromotive Force Formula? Following is
the formula for electromotive force:

ε = V + Ir

Where,
 V is the voltage of the cell
 I is the current across the circuit
 r is the internal resistance of the cell

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  ε is the electromotive force
What Is the Unit of EMF?
The unit for electromotive force is Volt.
EMF is numerically expressed as the number of Joules of energy given by the source
divided by each Coulomb to enable a unit electric charge to move across the circuit.
Dimension of Electromotive Force
EMF is given as the ratio of work done on a unit charge which is represented as follows:
Therefore, EMF dimension is given as M1L2T-3I-1
Difference between Electromotive Force and Potential Difference

Electromotive Force Potential Difference

Potential difference is defined as the energy which is

EMF is defined as the work done
dissipated as the unit charge pass through the
on a unit charge
components

EMF remains constant Potential difference is not constant

EMF is independent of circuit The potential difference depends on the resistance

resistance between the two points during the measurement

Due to EMF, electric, magnetic,

Due to the potential difference, the only electric
and the gravitational field is
field is induced
caused

It is represented by E It is represented by V

Can Electromotive Force Be Negative?

Yes, the electromotive force can be negative. Consider an example where an inductor is
generating the EMF such that it is opposing the incoming power. Then the produced EMF is
taken as negative as the direction of flow is opposite to the real power. Therefore, the
electromotive force can be negative.
What Is the Difference between Terminal Voltage and EMF? Following
are the difference between terminal voltage and EMF:
 Terminal voltage is defined as the potential difference across the terminals of a load
when the circuit is on. While EMF is defined as the maximum potential difference that is
delivered by the battery when there is no flow of current.
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Eddy Currents Definition:
Eddy currents flow through conductors like whirling eddies in a stream, and they are
frequently formed in reaction to a changing magnetic field. Also, they flow in closed loops
perpendicular to the plane of the magnetic field plane, caused by changing magnetic fields.

In 1824, François Arago, a mathematician, scientist, and astronomer, was the first to observe
what has been called rotatory magnetism and understood that most conductive things could be
magnetized. Then, 10 years later, in 1824 Heinrich Lenz proposed
the Lenz law which became foundational in further research. But it wasn’t until 1855 that the
French scientist Léon Foucault proposed it.
Eddy currents were formally discovered by Foucault. He conducted several tests and
determined that when the rim of a copper disc is put between the poles of a magnet, the force
required to spin it rises ( like a horseshoe magnet). The heat was created in the disc as a result
of the induced eddy currents.

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Cause of Eddy Currents
When a conductor travels through a magnetic field or when the magnetic field around a
stationary conductor changes, eddy currents are produced. Eddy currents can thus be generated
anytime the intensity or direction of a magnetic field changes in a conductor.

We know from Lenz’s Law that the direction of an induced current, such as an eddy current,
will be such that the magnetic field created by it opposes the change in the magnetic field that
caused it. Electrons in a conductor swirl in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field for this
to happen. The eddy current’s magnitude is:
 Proportional to the magnetic field’s magnitude
 Proportional to the area of the loop
 Proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux inversely
 Proportional to the conductor’s resistance
Eddy currents tend to counter the change in the magnetic field that produces them, resulting in
energy loss in a conductor. These convert energy into heat, such as kinetic or electrical energy.
In order to stop rotating power tools and rollercoasters, we employ the resistance caused by
opposing magnetic fields to generate eddy currents.

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Explanation of Braking using Eddy Currents
Imagine a conductive metal sheet traveling past a stationary magnet in a roller coaster or
train’s braking system. When the sheet extends beyond the magnet’s left edge, the
magnetic field intensity increases, causing eddy currents to form on its surface in a
counter-clockwise manner. We know that these currents, according to Lenz’s law, will
generate a magnetic field in the opposite direction of the external magnetic field, resulting
in magnetic drag when the sheet departs the magnetic field at the other edge of the magnet.

The field shift will be in the opposite direction, causing clockwise eddy currents and a
magnetic field to act downwards. As a result, it will attract an external magnet to itself,
causing a drag effect. By slowing the moving sheet, these drag forces provide the braking
action in the sheet. Electromagnets are frequently used in place of external magnets as
controlling the current flowing through the coil of the electromagnet makes it easy to
regulate the size of the braking action. Due to eddy braking is contactless, there is no
mechanical wear or tear. However, in order to get efficient results with eddy currents, the
conductor must be moving. Eddy currents are ineffective for low-speed stopping because
they do not retain objects in their rest positions; in these circumstances, regular friction
brakes are used.

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Minimizing Eddy Currents
Eddy currents are very useful the majority of the time but sometimes they can produce
undesirable effects such as heating, loss of power due to the conversion of electrical energy
into heat, and in magnetic recording – degradation of performance, etc. To prevent these
effects there are several ways to limit the eddy currents.

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