Electromagnetic Waves

Module - 2

 Introduction
 Physics of divergence, gradient and curl
 Surface and volume integral
 Maxwell equation
 Displacement current
 EM wave equation in free space
 Plane EM waves in free space, Hertz experiment
Reference Books
1. Introduction to Electrodynamics by David J. Griffiths, Pearson; Cambridge University Press.
2. Principles of Electromagnetics by M.N.O. Sadiku, 2015, 6th Edition, Oxford University Press, India.
Introduction
Introduction
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Different Types of Electromagnetic Waves
EM Wave
Propagation
Comparison between the Mechanical waves and EM waves
• Electrostatics:
The study of electric forces, fields and potentials arising from static or rest
charges or objects

• Electrodynamics:
The study of time varying electric and magnetic fields
• A field is function that describes the behaviour of a physical quantity at all
points in a given region of space
• The physical quantity described by the field can be either a scalar or vector
• Thus, a field can also be a scalar field or vector field

Scalar Field: A scalar field is a function that gives a single value of some variable for
every point in space
E.g. Temperature, volume, mass, density, energy, voltage, current, etc.

Vector Field: A vector is quantity which has both magnitude and a direction in space
E.g. Velocity, momentum, acceleration, force, electric field, magnetic field, etc.
Scalar field (Temperature) Vector field (Wind)
Every location has associated value At every location speed and direction both
change
1. Gradient is a generalized derivative with three components

2. Gradient of scalar is a vector quantity

3. Gradient points in the direction of maximum increase of the function

4. Magnitude of gradient gives the slope in the increasing direction of

function

, results into stationary value of the function

Significance of the curl:
• Is a measure of how much the vector curls around the given point. Zero curl
means there is no rotation
• The curl of a vector function is a vector
• The curl of a vector function is a vector

• The divergence of a curl is zero

• The curl of scalar function is not possible

Line Integrals Surface Integrals Volume Integrals
A magnetic field is described either by magnetic field strength H or by the magnetic
induction (or magnetic flux density) B
 • Mathematically it can be written as

“The total electric flux passing • If 𝒗 is the charge density, then total charge enclosed by
surface is
through any closed surface is 2
equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface” • Therefore, Gauss law in integral form can be written as

3
s
• Using Divergence theorem, we can write
4

• From eqn (3) and (4)

This is Maxwell’s first equation in differential form

 This is Maxwell’s first equation in differential form

The electric field produced by electric charge diverges from positive charge and converges
upon negative charge
 This is Maxwell’s first equation in integral form

•Electric charge q produces an electric field E

•The electric field flux passing through any closed surface is proportional to the total charge
contained within that surface
“In a magnetic field, the magnetic lines of force are closed on themselves OR
Net magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero”

This is Maxwell’s second equation

in differential form
•The divergence of the magnetic field at any point is zero.
•The assumption that there are no magnetic monopoles
•The total magnetic flux passing through any closed surface is 0.
•The assumption that there are no magnetic monopoles.
•There are no magnetic flow sources, and the magnetic flux lines always close upon themselves.
•Also called the law of conservation of magnetic flux
“Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with the circuit, an emf is
induced in that circuit. The magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of change
of the flux”
The work done in moving a test charge from one point to
the other point is given by

This is integral form of the Faraday’s law.

Using Stoke’s theorem, we can write

This is Maxwell’s third equation in differential form

A circulating electric field is produced by a magnetic field
that changes with time
•Changing magnetic flux through a surface induces an electromotive force (EMF) in any boundary path of
that surface.
•A changing magnetic field induces a circulating electric field.
•The voltage accumulated around a closed circuit is proportional to the time rate of change of the magnetic
flux it encloses.
“The line integral of magnetic field intensity
H around a closed path is equal to the
current enclosed by the path”

i.e. or 𝟎
This is integral form of Ampere’s law.

This is Maxwell’s fourth equation

in differential form
A circulating magnetic field is produced by an electric current and by an
electric field that changes with time.
•An electric current I or a changing electric flux through a surface produces a circulating
magnetic field around any path that bounds that surface.
•Electric currents and changes in electric fields are proportional to the magnetic fields
circulating about the areas where they accumulate.
• Ampere’s law is applicable in magnetostatics and is valid for steady currents passing
through the closed surface (i.e. constant electric field with time)
• In time varying electric field, the rate of change of electric field will results into the
displacement current density D
Displacement current
Properties
•It is a vector quantity and obeys the property of continuity in a closed path.
•It changes with the rate of change of current in an electric density field.
•It gives zero magnitudes when the current in an electric field of a wire is steady
•It depends on the varying time of an electric field.
•It had both direction and magnitude, which can be a value of positive, negative, or zero
•The length of this can be taken as the minimum distance from the starting point to the
ending point regardless of the path.
•It has a minimum or maximum or equal magnitude of displacement for a given time to
the actual distance from the point.
•It depends on an electromagnetic field.
•It gives zero value when the starting point and the ending point is the same.

75
76
77
What is Displacement Current
Consider a circuit with ac voltage source and a capacitor.
We know, in static condition,

If voltage source is varying with time

1
Differentiating with t

2
79
Hertz Experiment
Principle of Hertz Experiment
• Hertz showed that oscillating electric charge radiates electromagnetic waves.

• The energy carried by the waves is actually transformed kinetic energy of the
oscillating charge.

• The distance of oscillation of charge is closely related to wavelength of the radiation.

 Experimental Setup

Hertz experimental arrangement consists of two square metal plates P1and P2 made up of either copper or zinc placed
at a distance of 60 cm approximately. These plates behave as capacitors. These plates were connected to two highly
polished metal spheres S1 and S2 (separated by 2 – 3 cm) through thick copper wires. An induction coil is used to
apply a high potential difference of several thousand volts across the spheres. The detector shown in the figure is in the
form of an open metallic coil having small metallic spheres S1ʹ and S2ʹ with some gap. This arrangement can produce
radiations of wavelength about 6 m.
Working
• A spark is produced between S1 and S2 and electromagnetic waves of high frequency are radiated.

• The resonant frequency of oscillation of charges on the plates is expressed as

𝟏
𝟐𝝅 𝑳𝑪

The frequency of oscillation is high ( 5 x 107 Hz).

• Hertz demonstrated the production of electromagnetic waves owing to spark occurring across the spheres
S1 and S2 and detected them by the detector coil.
• An EMF is induced in the detector resulting in sparking produced between S1ʹ and S2ʹ. This is an
indication of transference of energy to the detector which is due to the flow of EM waves from resonant
(LC) circuit to the detector.