LAB MANUAL

SYSTEM SOFTWARE AND MICROPROCESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

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INDEX

SL.NO NAME OF THE EXPERIMENTS

CPU Scheduling
1.1 First Come First Serve Scheduling
1 1.2 Shortest Job First Scheduling
1.3 Priority Scheduling
1.4 Round Robin Scheduling
2 Bankers algorithm for dead lock avoidance
Disk Scheduling
3.1 First come first serve
3
3.2 Scan
3.3 C -Scan
Page Replacement Algorithm
4.1 First in first out
4
4.2 Least recently used
4.3 Least frequently used
File Organisation Techniques
5 5.1 Single Lvel Directory
5.2 Two Level Directory
6 Paging techniques of memory management
File allocation Strategies
7.1 Sequential
7
7.2 Indexed
7.3 Linked
Assembler
8 8.1 Pass one of Two pass assmbler
8.2 Pass two of two pass assembler
9 Loader and Linker
9.1 Absolute Loader
9.2 Relocating Loader
Two pass Macroprocessor
10 10.1 Pass one of Two pass macroprocessor
10.2 Pass Two of Two pass macroprocessor
11 Single Pass macroprocessor
Experiment using MASM
12.1 Basic arithmetic operations(16 bit and 32 bit)
12.2 String Display
12
12.3 String Concatenate
12.4 Sorting
12.5 Searching
Programs On 8086 Trainer Kit
13.1 Addition 16 bit
13.2 Subtraction 16 bit
13.3 Multiplication 16 bit
13
13.4 Sorting – Ascending
13.5 BCD to Hexa decimal
13.6 ASCII to BCD
13.7 BCD to ASCII

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INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS

An Operating System is a program that manages the Computer hardware. It controls and coordinates
the use of the hardware among the various application programs for the various users.

A Process is a program in execution. As a process executes, it changes state

• New: The process is being created
• Running: Instructions are being executed
• Waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
• Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a process
• Terminated : The process has finished execution

Apart from the program code, it includes the current activity represented by
• Program Counter,
• Contents of Processor registers,
• Process Stack which contains temporary data like function parameters, return
addresses and local variables
• Data section which contains global variables
• Heap for dynamic memory allocation

A Multi-programmed system can have many processes running simultaneously with the CPU
multiplexed among them. By switching the CPU between the processes, the OS can make the computer
more productive. There is Process Scheduler which selects the process among many processes that are
ready, for program execution on the CPU. Switching the CPU to another process requires performing a state
save of the current process and a state restore of new process, this is Context Switch.

Scheduling Algorithms
CPU Scheduler can select processes from ready queue based on various scheduling algorithms.
Different scheduling algorithms have different properties, and the choice of a particular algorithm may
favour one class of processes over another. The scheduling criteria include
• CPU utilization:
• Throughput: The number of processes that are completed per unit time.
• Waiting time: The sum of periods spent waiting in ready queue.
• Turnaround time: The interval between the time of submission of process to the time
of completion.
• Response time: The time from submission of a request until the first response is produced.

The different scheduling algorithms are

1. FCFS: First Come First Serve Scheduling

• It is the simplest algorithm to implement.

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• The process with the minimal arrival time will get the CPU first.
• The lesser the arrival time, the sooner will the process gets the CPU.
• It is the non-pre-emptive type of scheduling.
• The Turnaround time and the waiting time are calculated by using the following formula.

Turn Around Time = Completion Time - Arrival Time

Waiting Time = Turnaround time - Burst Time

Process Arrival Burst Completion Turn Waiting

ID Time Time Time Around Time
Time
0 0 2 2 2 0
1 1 6 8 7 1
2 2 4 12 8 4
3 3 9 21 18 9
4 4 12 33 29 17
Avg
Waiting Time=31/5

2. SJF: Shortest Job First Scheduling

• The job with the shortest burst time will get the CPU first.
• The lesser the burst time, the sooner will the process get the CPU.
• It is the non-pre-emptive type of scheduling.
• However, it is very difficult to predict the burst time needed for a process hence this algorithm is
very difficult to implement in the system.
• In the following example, there are five jobs named as P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5. Their arrival time and
burst time are given in the table below.

Process Arrival Burst Completion Turn Waiting

ID Time Time Time Around Time
Time
1 1 7 8 7 0
2 3 3 13 10 7
3 6 2 10 4 2
4 7 10 31 24 14

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5 9 8 21 12 4

Since, No Process arrives at time 0 hence; there will be an empty slot in the Gantt chart from time 0 to 1
(the time at which the first process arrives)
.
• According to the algorithm, the OS schedules the process which is having the lowest burst time among
the available processes in the ready queue.
• Till now, we have only one process in the ready queue hence the scheduler will schedule this to the
processor no matter what is its burst time.
• This will be executed till 8 units of time.
• Till then we have three more processes arrived in the ready queue hence the scheduler will choose the
process with the lowest burst time.
• Among the processes given in the table, P3 will be executed next since it is having the lowest burst
time among all the available processes.

Avg Waiting Time = 27/5

3. SRTF: Shortest Remaining Time First Scheduling

• It is the pre-emptive form of SJF. In this algorithm, the OS schedules the Job according to the
remaining time of the execution

4. Priority Scheduling

• In this algorithm, the priority will be assigned to each of the processes.

• The higher the priority, the sooner will the process get the CPU.
• If the priority of the two processes is same then they will be scheduled according to their arrival
time.

5. Round Robin Scheduling

• In the Round Robin scheduling algorithm, the OS defines a time quantum (slice).
• All the processes will get executed in the cyclic way.
• Each of the process will get the CPU for a small amount of time (called time quantum) and then get
back to the ready queue to wait for its next turn. It is a pre-emptive type of scheduling.

6. Multilevel Queue Scheduling

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• A multi-level queue scheduling algorithm partitions the ready queue into several separate queues.
• The processes are permanently assigned to one queue, generally based on some property of the
process, such as memory size, process priority, or process type.
• Each queue has its own scheduling algorithm.

7. Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling

• Multilevel feedback queue scheduling, however, allows a process to move between queues.
• The idea is to separate processes with different CPU-burst characteristics.
• If a process uses too much CPU time, it will be moved to a lower-priority queue.
• Similarly, a process that waits too long in a lower-priority queue may be moved to a higher-priority
queue.
• This form of aging prevents starvation.

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Pgm.No.1
CPU SCHEDULING

AIM

Similate the following non pre-emptive CPU scheduling algorithms to find turnaround time and waiting tme.

a). FCFS
b). SJF
c). Priority
d). Round Robin (Pre-emptive)

FCFS (First Come First Serve)

ALGORITHM

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Enter the number of processors.
Step 3: Enter the processes name, arrival time and burst time.
Step 4: Make the waiting time of the first process as the arrival of the first process. Step 5: Calculate the
waiting time of each process ie burst time – arrival time.
Step 6: Calculate the turnaround time of each process ie waiting time + burst time
Step7: Calculate average waiting time by adding waiting time of each process and divide by the total
number of processes and also display it.
Step 8: Calculate the average turnaround time and display it. Step 9: Call function display ()
Step 10: Stop.

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i=0,j=0,b[i],g[20],p[20],w[20],t[20],a[20],n=0,m;
float avgw=0,avgt=0;
printf("Enter the number of process : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("Process ID : ");
scanf("%d",&p[i]);

printf("Burst Time : ");

scanf("%d",&b[i]);

printf("Arrival Time: ");

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scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}

int temp=0;
for(i=0;i<n-1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<n-1;j++)
{
if(a[j]>a[j+1])
{
temp=a[j];
a[j]=a[j+1];
a[j+1]=temp;

temp=b[j];
b[j]=b[j+1];
b[j+1]=temp;

temp=p[j];
p[j]=p[j+1];
p[j+1]=temp;
}
}
}

g[0]=0;
for(i=0;i<=n;i++)
g[i+1]=g[i]+b[i];
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{

t[i]=g[i+1]-a[i];
w[i]=t[i]-b[i];
avgw+=w[i];
avgt+=t[i];
}
avgw=avgw/n;
avgt=avgt/n;
printf("pid\tarrivalT\tBrustT\tCompletionT\tWaitingtime\tTurnaroundTi\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("%d\t%d\t%d\t%d\t\t%d\t\t\t%d\n",p[i],a[i],b[i],g[i+1],w[i],t[i]);
}
printf("\nAverage waiting time %f",avgw);
printf("\nAverage turnarround time %f",avgt);
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OUTPUT 1

Enter the number of process : 5

Process ID : 1
Burst Time : 4
Arrival Time: 0
Process ID : 2
Burst Time : 3
Arrival Time: 1
Process ID : 3
Burst Time : 1
Arrival Time: 2
Process ID : 4
Burst Time : 2
Arrival Time: 3
Process ID : 5
Burst Time : 5
Arrival Time: 4

pid arrivalT BrustT CompletionT Waitingtime TurnaroundTi

1 0 4 4 0 4
2 1 3 7 3 6
3 2 1 8 5 6
4 3 2 10 5 7
5 4 5 15 6 11

Average waiting time 3.800000

Average turnaround time 6.800000

OUTPUT 2

Enter the number of process : 3

Process ID : 1
Burst Time : 24
Arrival Time: 0
Process ID : 2
Burst Time : 3
Arrival Time: 0
Process ID : 3
Burst Time : 3
Arrival Time: 0

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pid arrivalT BrustT CompletionT Waitingtime TurnaroundTi

1 0 24 24 0 24
2 0 3 27 24 27
3 0 3 30 27 30

Average waiting time 17.000000

Average turnaround time 27.000000

OUTPUT 3

Enter the number of process : 3

Process ID : 1
Burst Time : 24
Arrival Time: 0
Process ID : 2
Burst Time : 3
Arrival Time: 2
Process ID : 3
Burst Time : 3
Arrival Time: 3

pid arrivalT BurstT CompletionT Waitingtime TurnaroundTi

1 0 24 24 0 24
2 2 3 27 22 25
3 3 3 30 24 27

Average waiting time 15.333333

Average turnaround time 25.333334

SJF (Shortest Job First)

ALGORITHM

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Enter the number of processors.
Step 3: Enter the processes name, and burst time.
Step 4: Sort processes in ascending order of the burst time, if they arrive within the burst time of the
previous processes
Step 5: Calculate the average turnaround time and display it. Step 6: Call function display ( ).
Step 7: Stop.

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PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i=0,j=0,p[i],b[i],g[20],w[20],t[20],a[20],n=0,m;
int k=1,min=0,btime=0;
float avgw=0,avgt=0;
printf("Enter the number of process : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\nProcess id : ");
scanf("%d",&p[i]);

printf("Burst Time : ");

scanf("%d",&b[i]);

printf("Arrival Time: ");

scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}

//sort the jobs based on burst time.

int temp=0;
for(i=0;i<n-1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<n-1;j++)
{
if(a[j]>a[j+1])
{
temp=a[j];
a[j]=a[j+1];
a[j+1]=temp;

temp=b[j];
b[j]=b[j+1];
b[j+1]=temp;

temp=p[j];
p[j]=p[j+1];
p[j+1]=temp;
}
}
}

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for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
btime=btime+b[i];
min=b[k];
for(j=k;j<n;j++)
{
if(btime >= a[j] && b[j]<min)
{
temp=a[j];
a[j]=a[j-1];
a[j-1]=temp;

temp=b[j];
b[j]=b[j-1];
b[j-1]=temp;

temp=p[j];
p[j]=p[j-1];
p[j-1]=temp;
}
}
k++;
}
g[0]=a[0];
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
g[i+1]=g[i]+b[i];
if(g[i]<a[i])
g[i]=a[i];
}
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{

t[i]=g[i+1]-a[i];
w[i]=t[i]-b[i];
avgw+=w[i];
avgt+=t[i];
}
avgw=avgw/n;
avgt=avgt/n;
printf("pid\tBrustTime\tGantChart\tWaiting time\t\tTurnarround Time\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
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printf(" %d\t %d\t\t%d-%d\t\t%d\t\t\t%d\n",p[i],b[i],g[i],g[i+1],w[i],t[i]);

}
printf("\nAverage waiting time %f",avgw);
printf("\nAverage turnarround time %f\n",avgt);

OUTPUT 1

Enter the number of process : 5

Process id : 1
Burst Time : 7
Arrival Time: 0

Process id : 2
Burst Time : 5
Arrival Time: 1

Process id : 3
Burst Time : 1
Arrival Time: 2

Process id : 4
Burst Time : 2
Arrival Time: 3

Process id : 5
Burst Time : 8
Arrival Time: 4

pid Brust Time GantChart Waiting time Turnarround Time

8 7 0-7 0 7
3 1 7-8 5 6
4 2 8-10 5 7
2 5 10-15 9 14
5 8 15-23 11 19

Average waiting time 6.000000

Average turnaround time 10.600000

OUTPUT 2
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Enter the number of process : 4

Process id : 1
Burst Time : 7
Arrival Time: 0

Process id : 2
Burst Time : 4
Arrival Time: 2

Process id : 3
Burst Time : 1
Arrival Time: 4

Process id : 4
Burst Time : 4
Arrival Time: 5

pid Burst Time GantChart Waiting time Turnarround Time

1 7 0-7 0 7
3 1 7-8 3 4
2 4 8-12 6 10
4 4 12-16 7 11

Average waiting time 4.000000

Average turnaround time 8.000000

PRIORITY SCHEDULING

ALGORITHM

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Enter the number of processors.
Step 3: Enter the processes name, priority and burst time. Step 4: Sort processes in ascending order of the
priority.
Step 5: Calculate and display the average waiting time and turnaround time. Step 7: Call function display()
Step 10: Stop

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
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int burst_time[20], process[20], waiting_time[20], turnaround_time[20], priority[20];

int i, j, limit, sum = 0, position, temp;
float average_wait_time, average_turnaround_time;
printf("Enter Total Number of Processes:\t");
scanf("%d", &limit);
printf("\nEnter Burst Time and Priority For %d Processes\n", limit);
for(i = 0; i < limit; i++)
{
printf("\nProcess[%d]\n", i + 1);
printf("Process Burst Time:\t");
scanf("%d", &burst_time[i]);
printf("Process Priority:\t");
scanf("%d", &priority[i]);
process[i] = i + 1;
}
for(i = 0; i < limit; i++)
{
position = i;
for(j = i + 1; j < limit; j++)
{
if(priority[j] < priority[position])
{
position = j;
}
}
temp = priority[i];
priority[i] = priority[position];
priority[position] = temp;
temp = burst_time[i];
burst_time[i] = burst_time[position];
burst_time[position] = temp;
temp = process[i];
process[i] = process[position];
process[position] = temp;
}
waiting_time[0] = 0;
for(i = 1; i < limit; i++)
{
waiting_time[i] = 0;
for(j = 0; j < i; j++)
{
waiting_time[i] = waiting_time[i] + burst_time[j];
}
sum = sum + waiting_time[i];
}
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average_wait_time = sum / limit;

sum = 0;
printf("\nProcess ID\t\tBurst Time\t Waiting Time\t Turnaround Time\n");
for(i = 0; i < limit; i++)
{
turnaround_time[i] = burst_time[i] + waiting_time[i];
sum = sum + turnaround_time[i];
printf("\nProcess[%d]\t\t%d\t\t %d\t\t %d\n", process[i], burst_time[i], waiting_time[i],
turnaround_time[i]);
}
average_turnaround_time = sum / limit;
printf("\nAverage Waiting Time:\t%f", average_wait_time);
printf("\nAverage Turnaround Time:\t%f\n", average_turnaround_time);
return 0;
}

OUTPUT

Enter the number of process : 3

Process id : 1
Burst Time : 15
Priority: 3

Process id : 2
Burst Time : 10
Priority: 2

Process id : 3
Burst Time : 90
Priority: 1

pid Burst Time Waiting time Turnarround Time

3 90 0 90
2 10 90 100
1 15 100 115

Average waiting time 63.000000

Average turnaround time 101.000000

ROUND ROBIN(PRE-EMPTIVE)

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ALGORITHM
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Enter the number of processors. Step 3: Enter the time slice.
Step 4: If burst time < time slice, then execute process completely, go to step 7
Step 5: Execute the process upto the time slice and save the remaining burst time and start the next process.
Step 6: Calculate and display the average waiting time and turnaround time. Step 7: Call function display()
Step 8: Stop.

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i, limit, total = 0, x, counter = 0, time_quantum;
int wait_time = 0, turnaround_time = 0, arrival_time[10], burst_time[10], temp[10];
float average_wait_time, average_turnaround_time;
printf("\nEnter Total Number of Processes:\t");
scanf("%d", &limit);
x = limit;
for(i = 0; i < limit; i++)
{
printf("\nEnter Details of Process[%d]\n", i + 1);
printf("Arrival Time:\t");
scanf("%d", &arrival_time[i]);
printf("Burst Time:\t");
scanf("%d", &burst_time[i]);
temp[i] = burst_time[i];
}
printf("\nEnter Time Quantum:\t");
scanf("%d", &time_quantum);
printf("\nProcess ID\t\tBurst Time\t Turnaround Time\t Waiting Time\n");
for(total = 0, i = 0; x != 0;)
{
if(temp[i] <= time_quantum && temp[i] > 0)
{
total = total + temp[i];
temp[i] = 0;
counter = 1;
}
else if(temp[i] > 0)
{
temp[i] = temp[i] - time_quantum;
total = total + time_quantum;
}
if(temp[i] == 0 && counter == 1)
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{
x--;
printf("\nProcess[%d]\t\t%d\t\t %d\t\t\t %d", i + 1, burst_time[i], total - arrival_time[i], total -
arrival_time[i] - burst_time[i]);
wait_time = wait_time + total - arrival_time[i] - burst_time[i];
turnaround_time = turnaround_time + total - arrival_time[i];
counter = 0;
}
if(i == limit - 1)
{
i = 0;
}
else if(arrival_time[i + 1] <= total)
{
i++;
}
else
{
i = 0;
}
}
average_wait_time = wait_time * 1.0 / limit;
average_turnaround_time = turnaround_time * 1.0 / limit;
printf("\n\nAverage Waiting Time:\t%f", average_wait_time);
printf("\nAvg Turnaround Time:\t%f\n", average_turnaround_time);
return 0;
}

OUTPUT

Enter Total Number of Processes: 4

Enter Details of Process[1]

Arrival Time: 0
Burst Time: 9

Enter Details of Process[2]

Arrival Time: 1
Burst Time: 5

Enter Details of Process[3]

Arrival Time: 2
Burst Time: 3
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Enter Details of Process[4]

Arrival Time: 3
Burst Time: 4

Enter Time Quantum: 5

Process ID Burst Time Turnaround Time Waiting Time

Process[2] 5 9 4
Process[3] 3 11 8
Process[4] 4 14 10
Process[1] 9 21 12

Average Waiting Time: 8.500000

Avg Turnaround Time: 13.750000

Viva Questions

1. What is CPU Scheduler?

Selects from among the processes in memory that are ready to execute, and allocates the CPU to one of them.
CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:
a. .Switches from running to waiting state.
b. .Switches from running to ready state. c
c. .Switches from waiting to ready.
d. Terminates.
Scheduling under a. and d. is non-pre-emptive.
All other scheduling is pre-emptive

2. What are all the scheduling algorithms?

a. FCFS(First Come First Serve)
b. SJF(Shortest Job First)
c. Round robin
d. Priority Scheduling algorithms

3. Explain FCFS(First Come First Served)?

a. The process that requests the CPU first is allocated the CPU first. The code for
b. FCFS scheduling is simple to write and understand.
c. Explain SJF(Shortest Job First)?
d. The process which has the less burst time execute first. If both process have same burst time
then FCFS will be used.

4. Explain Round Robin?

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The round-robin (RR) scheduling algorithm is designed especially for timesharing systems. CPU
switch between the processes based on a small unit of time called time slice.

5. Explain Priority Scheduling algorithm?

CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority.

6. Which algorithm gives minimum average waiting time?

SJF(Shortest Job First)

7. What is CPU utilization?

We want to keep the CPU as busy as possible. Conceptually, CPU utilization can range from 0 to
100 percent. In a real system, it should range from 40 percent (for a lightly loaded system) to 90
percent.

8. What is Throughput?
The amount of work is being done by the CPU. One unit of work is the number of processes that are
completed per unit time, called throughput
9. What is Turnaround time.
The interval from the time of submission of a process to the time of completion is the turnaround
time

10. What is waiting time?

Waiting time is the sum of the periods spent waiting in the ready queue.

11. What is Response time?

the time from the submission of a request until the first response is produced.

12. What are short, long and medium-term scheduling?

a. Long term scheduler determines which programs are admitted to the system for processing. It
controls the degree of multiprogramming. Once admitted, a job becomes a process.
b. Medium term scheduling is part of the swapping function. This relates to processes that are in a
blocked or suspended state. They are swapped out of real-memory until they are ready to execute.
The swapping-in decision is based on memory-management criteria.
c. Short term scheduler, also known as a dispatcher executes most frequently, and makes the finest-
grained decision of which process should execute next. This scheduler is invoked whenever an event
occurs. It may lead to interruption of one process by pre-emption.

13. What are turnaround time and response time?

Turnaround time is the interval between the submission of a job and its completion.

14. What is pre-emptive and non-pre-emptive scheduling?

a. Pre-emptive scheduling: The pre-emptive scheduling is prioritized. The highest priority process
should always be the process that is currently utilized.
b. Non-Pre-emptive scheduling: When a process enters the state of running, the state of that process is
not deleted from the scheduler until it finishes its service time.
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DEADLOCK

Deadlock :

A set of processes is deadlocked if each process in the set is waiting for an event that only another process in
the set can cause (including itself).

Waiting for an event could be:

• Waiting for access to a critical section

• Waiting for a resource Note that it is usually a non-pre-emptable (resource). Pre-emptable resources can
be yanked away and given to another.

Conditions for Deadlock

• Mutual exclusion: resources cannot be shared.

• Hold and wait: processes request resources incrementally, and hold on to what they've got.
• No pre-emption: resources cannot be forcibly taken from processes.
• Circular wait: circular chain of waiting, in which each process is waiting for a resource held by the next
process in the chain.

Deadlock Avoidance

• This approach to the deadlock problem anticipates deadlock before it actually occurs.
• This approach employs an algorithm to access the possibility that deadlock could occur and acting
accordingly.
• This method differs from deadlock prevention, which guarantees that deadlock cannot occur by denying
one of the necessary conditions of deadlock.
• If the necessary conditions for a deadlock are in place, it is still possible to avoid deadlock by being
careful when resources are allocated.
• Perhaps the most famous deadlock avoidance algorithm, due to Dijkstra [1965], is the Banker’s
algorithm.

Safe State

Safe state is one where

• It is not a deadlocked state
• There is some sequence by which all requests can be satisfied.

• To avoid deadlocks, we try to make only those transitions that will take you from one safe state to another.
• We avoid transitions to unsafe state (a state that is not deadlocked, and is not safe).
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• Banker's algorithm is a deadlock avoidance algorithm.

• It is named so because this algorithm is used in banking systems to determine whether a loan can be
granted or not.
• Consider there are n account holders in a bank and the sum of the money in all of their accounts is S.
• Every time a loan has to be granted by the bank, it subtracts the loan amount from the total money the bank
has.
• Then it checks if that difference is greater than S.
• It is done because, only then, the bank would have enough money even if all the n account holders draw all
their money at once.
• Banker's algorithm works in a similar way in computers.
• The Banker's algorithm is run by the operating system whenever a process requests resources.
• The algorithm prevents deadlock by denying or postponing the request if it determines that accepting the
request could put the system in an unsafe state (one where deadlock could occur).
• When a new process enters a system, it must declare the maximum number of instances of each resource
type that may not exceed the total number of resources in the system.
• For the Banker's algorithm to work, it needs to know three things:
• How much of each resource each process could possibly request
• How much of each resource each process is currently holding
• How much of each resource the system has available
• Some of the resources that are tracked in real systems are memory, semaphores and interface access.

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Pgm.No.2
BANKER’S ALGORITHM FOR DEADLOCK AVOIDANCE

AIM
Implement banker’s algorithm for deadlock avoidance

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
struct pro{
int all[10],max[10],need[10];
int flag;
};
int i,j,pno,r,nr,id,k=0,safe=0,exec,count=0,wait=0,max_err=0;
struct pro p[10];
int aval[10],seq[10];
void safeState()
{
while(count!=pno){
safe = 0;
for(i=0;i<pno;i++){
if(p[i].flag){
exec = r;
for(j=0;j<r;j++)
{
if(p[i].need[j]>aval[j]){
exec =0;
}
}
if(exec == r){
for(j=0;j<r;j++){
aval[j]+=p[i].all[j];
}
p[i].flag = 0;
seq[k++] = i;
safe = 1;
count++;

}
}
}
if(!safe)
{
printf("System is in Unsafe State\n");
break;
}
}
if(safe){
printf("\n\nSystem is in safestate \n");

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printf("Safe State Sequence \n");

for(i=0;i<k;i++)
printf("P[%d] ",seq[i]);
printf("\n\n");
}
}
void reqRes(){
printf("\nRequest for new Resourses");
printf("\nProcess id ? ");
scanf("%d",&id);
printf("Enter new Request details ");
for(i=0;i<r;i++){

scanf("%d",&nr);
if( nr <= p[id].need[i])
{
if( nr <= aval[i]){
aval[i] -= nr;
p[id].all[i] += nr;
p[id].need[i] -= nr;
}
else
wait = 1;
}
else
max_err = 1;
}
if(!max_err && !wait)
safeState();
else if(max_err){
printf("\nProcess has exceeded its maximum usage \n");
}
else{
printf("\nProcess need to wait\n");
}

}
void main()
{

printf("Enter no of process ");

scanf("%d",&pno);

printf("Enter no. of resourses ");

scanf("%d",&r);

printf("Enter Available Resourse of each type ");

for(i=0;i<r;i++){
scanf("%d",&aval[i]);
}

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printf("\n\n---Resourse Details---");
for(i=0;i<pno;i++){

printf("\nResourses for process %d\n",i);

printf("\nAllocation Matrix\n");
for(j=0;j<r;j++){
scanf("%d",&p[i].all[j]);
}
printf("Maximum Resourse Request \n");
for(j=0;j<r;j++){
scanf("%d",&p[i].max[j]);
}
p[i].flag = 1;

}
// Calcualting need
for(i=0;i<pno;i++){
for(j=0;j<r;j++){
p[i].need[j] = p[i].max[j] - p[i].all[j];
}
}

//Print Current Details

printf("\nProcess Details\n");
printf("Pid\t\tAllocattion\t\tMax\t\tNeed\n");
for(i=0;i<pno;i++)
{
printf("%d\t\t",i);
for(j=0;j<r;j++){
printf("%d ",p[i].all[j]);
}
printf("\t\t");
for(j=0;j<r;j++){
printf("%d ",p[i].max[j]);
}
printf("\t\t");
for(j=0;j<r;j++){
printf("%d ",p[i].need[j]);
}
printf("\n");

//Determine Current State in Safe State

safeState();
int ch=1;
do{
printf("Request new resourse ?[0/1] :");
scanf("%d",&ch);
if(ch)

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reqRes();
}while(ch!=0);

//end:printf("\n");

OUTPUT

Enter no of process 5
Enter no. of resourses 3
Enter Available Resourse of each type 3
3
2

---Resourse Details---
Resourses for process 0

Allocation Matrix
010
Maximum Resourse Request
753

Resourses for process 1

Allocation Matrix
302
Maximum Resourse Request
322

Resourses for process 2

Allocation Matrix
302
Maximum Resourse Request
902

Resourses for process 3

Allocation Matrix
211
Maximum Resourse Request
222

Resourses for process 4

Allocation Matrix
002
Maximum Resource Request
433

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Process Details
Pid Allocation Max Need
0 0 1 0 7 5 3 7 4 3
1 3 0 2 3 2 2 0 2 0
2 3 0 2 9 0 2 6 0 0
3 2 1 1 2 2 2 0 1 1
4 0 0 2 4 3 3 4 3 1

System is in safe state

Safe State Sequence

P[1] P[2] P[3] P[4] P[0]

Request new resource ?[0/1] :

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Viva questions

1. What is deadlock?
Deadlock is a situation that when two or more process waiting for each other and holding the resource
which is required by another process.

2. What are the necessary conditions to occur deadlock?

Mutual exclusion: At least one resource must be held in a non-sharable mode, that is, only one process at
a time can use the resource. If another process requests that resource, the requesting process must be
delayed until the resource has been released.
Hold and wait: A process must be holding at least one resource and waiting to acquire additional
resources that are currently being held by other processes.
No pre-emption: Resources cannot be pre-empted.; that is, a resource can be released only voluntarily by
the process holding it, after that process has completed its task.
Circular wait: A set {P$, Pi, ..., Pn} of waiting processes must exist such that P-0 is waiting for a
resource held by P\, P\ is waiting for a resource held by P?, •••, P.,--i is waiting for a resource held by
Pn, and P, is waiting for a resource held by Pn.

3. Explain about resource allocation graph?

Deadlocks can be described more precisely in terms of a directed graph called a system resource-
allocation graph. If the graph contains no cycles, then no process in the system is deadlocked. If the
graph does contain a cycle, then a deadlock may exist.

4. What are the methods to handle the dead locks?

a. We can use a protocol to prevent or avoid deadlocks, ensuring that the system will never
enter a deadlock state.
b. We can allow the system to enter a deadlock state, detect it, and recover.
c. We can ignore the problem altogether and pretend that deadlocks never occur in the system.
d. The third solution is the one used by most operating systems

5. What are the deadlock avoidance algorithms?

A dead lock avoidance algorithm dynamically examines there source-allocation state to ensure that a
circular wait condition can never exist. The resource allocation state is defined by the number of
available and allocated resources, and the maximum demand of the process. There are two algorithms:
Resource allocation graph algorithm
a. Banker’s algorithm
b. Safety algorithm
c. Resource request algorithm

6. What is Bankers Algorithm.

It is an algorithm which used in a banking system to ensure that the bank never allocated its available
cash in such a way that it could no longer satisfy the needs of all its customers.

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7. What is a Safe State and what is its use in deadlock avoidance?

When a process requests an available resource, system must decide if immediate allocation leaves the
system in a safe state. System is in safe state if there exists a safe sequence of all processes. Deadlock
Avoidance: ensure that a system will never enter an unsafe state.

8. What is starvation and aging?

Starvation is Resource management problem where a process does not get the resources it needs for a
long time because the resources are being allocated to other processes.

9. What is a Safe State and its’ use in deadlock avoidance?

When a process requests an available resource, system must decide if immediate allocation leaves the
system in a safe state
• System is in safe state if there exists a safe sequence of all processes.
• Sequence is safe if for each Pi, the resources that Pi can still request can be satisfied by currently
available resources + resources held by all the Pj, with j If Pi resource needs are not immediately
available, then Pi can wait until all Pj have finished. When Pj is finished, Pi can obtain needed
resources, execute, return allocated resources, and terminate. When Pi terminates, Pi+1 can
obtain its needed resources, and so on.
• Deadlock Avoidance Þ ensure that a system will never enter an unsafe state.

10. Recovery from Deadlock?

• Process Termination:
->Abort all deadlocked processes.
->Abort one process at a time until the deadlock cycle iseliminated.
->In which order should we choose to abort?
• Priority of the process.
How long process has computed, and how much longer tocompletion.
Resources the process has used.
Resources process needs to complete.
How many processes will need to be terminated?
Is process interactive or batch?
• Resource Preemption:
->Selecting a victim – minimize cost.
->Rollback – return to some safe state, restart process for thatstate.
->Starvation – same process may always be picked as victim,include number of rollback in cost
factor.

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DISK SCHEDULING

Disk scheduling is is done by operating systems to schedule I/O requests arriving for disk. It is also known
as I/O scheduling.
Disk scheduling is important because:
▪ Multiple I/O requests may arrive by different processes and only one I/O request can be served at a
time by disk controller. Thus other I/O requests need to wait in waiting queue and need to be
scheduled.
▪ Two or more request may be far from each other so can result in greater disk arm movement.
▪ Hard drives are one of the slowest parts of computer system and thus need to be accessed in an
efficient manner.
There are many Disk Scheduling Algorithms but before discussing them let’s have a quick look at some of
the important terms:
▪ Seek Time:Seek time is the time taken to locate the disk arm to a specified track where the data is to
be read or write. So the disk scheduling algorithm that gives minimum average seek time is better.
▪ Rotational Latency: Rotational Latency is the time taken by the desired sector of disk to rotate into a
position so that it can access the read/write heads. So the disk scheduling algorithm that gives
minimum rotational latency is better.
▪ Transfer Time: Transfer time is the time to transfer the data. It depends on the rotating speed of the
disk and number of bytes to be transferred.
▪ Disk Access Time: Disk Access Time is:

Disk Access Time = Seek Time + Rotational Latency + Transfer Time

▪ Disk Response Time: Response Time is the average of time spent by a request waiting to perform
its I/O operation. Average Response time is the response time of the all requests. Variance Response
Time is measure of how individual request are serviced with respect to average response time. So the
disk scheduling algorithm that gives minimum variance response time is better.

▪ Disk Scheduling Algorithms

▪ FCFS
▪ SSTF
▪ SCAN
▪ CSCAN
▪ LOOK
▪ CLOOK

1. FCFS: FCFS is the simplest of all the Disk Scheduling Algorithms. In FCFS, the requests are
addressed in the order they arrive in the disk queue.

Advantages:
• Every request gets a fair chance

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• No indefinite postponement

Disadvantages:
• Does not try to optimize seek time
• May not provide the best possible service

3. SCAN: In SCAN algorithm the disk arm moves into a particular direction and services the requests
coming in its path and after reaching the end of disk, it reverses its direction and again services the
request arriving in its path. So, this algorithm works like an elevator and hence also known
as elevator algorithm. As a result, the requests at the midrange are serviced more and those arriving
behind the disk arm will have to wait.

Advantages:
▪ High throughput
▪ Low variance of response time
▪ Average response time

Disadvantages:
• Long waiting time for requests for locations just visited by disk arm. These situations are avoided
in CSAN algorithm in which the disk arm instead of reversing its direction goes to the other end
of the disk and starts servicing the requests from there. So, the disk arm moves in a circular
fashion and this algorithm is also similar to SCAN algorithm and hence it is known as C-SCAN
(Circular SCAN).

Advantages:
• Provides more uniform wait time compared to SCAN

4. CSCAN: In SCAN algorithm, the disk arm again scans the path that has been scanned, after
reversing its direction. So, it may be possible that too many requests are waiting at the other end or
there may be zero or few requests pending at the scanned area.

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Pgm.No.4

DISK SCHEDULING ALGORITHMS

AIM

Simulate the following disk scheduling algorithms

a). FCFS
b). SCAN
c). C-SCAN

FIRST COME FIRST SERVE (FCFS)

ALGORITHM

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare necessary variables Step 3: Get number of tracks
Step 4: Get the number of tracks to be traversed
Step 5: By using the for loop, tohm[i]=t[i+1]-t,if that variable <0, multiply it with -1.
Step 6: calculate total header and movements and then its average. Step 7: Print the track traversed
Step 8: Print average movement. Step 9: Stop.ITHM

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
void main(){

int ioq[20],i,n,ihead,tot;
float seek=0,avgs;

printf("Enter the number of requests\t:");

scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the initial head position\t:");
scanf("%d",&ihead);
ioq[0] = ihead;
ioq[n+1] =0;

printf("Enter the I/O queue requests \n");

for(i=1;i<=n;i++){
scanf("%d",&ioq[i]);
}
ioq[n+1] =ioq[n];// to set the last seek zero

printf("\nOrder of request served\n");

for(i=0;i<=n;i++){

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tot = ioq[i+1] - ioq[i];

if(tot < 0)
tot = tot * -1;
seek += tot;
// printf("%d\t%d\n",ioq[i],tot);// to display each seek
printf("%d --> ",ioq[i]);

avgs = seek/(n);

printf("\nTotal Seek time\t\t: %.2f",seek);

printf("\nAverage seek time\t: %.2f\n\n",avgs);
}
OUTPUT 1

Enter the number of requests :5

Enter the initial head position :100
Enter the I/O queue requests
23
89
132
42
187

Order of request served

100 --> 23 --> 89 --> 132 --> 42 --> 187 -->
Total Seek time : 421.00
Average seek time : 84.20

OUTPUT 2
Enter the number of requests :5
Enter the initial head position :100
Enter the I/O queue requests
23
89
132
42
187

Order of request served

100 77
23 66
89 43
132 90
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42 145
187 0

Total Seek time : 421.00

Average seek time : 84.20

SCAN

ALGORITHM

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare necessary variables.
Step 3: Get the tracks to be traversed.
Step 4: Get position head.
Step 5: Sort the tracks using bubble sort
Step 6: while the tracks become 0,atr[p]=t[j]; j--; p++; Step 7: for j=0;jatr[j+1]d[j]=atr[j]-atr[j+1];else
d[j]=atr[j+1]-atr[j]; sum+=d[j];
Step 8: Find the sum f the total movements and average Step 9: Print the values
Step 10: Stop.

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int ioq[20],i,n,j,ihead,temp,scan,tot;
float seek=0,avgs;

printf("Enter the number of requests\t:");

scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the initial head position\t:");
scanf("%d",&ihead);
ioq[0] = ihead;
ioq[1] = 0;
n += 2;
printf("Enter the I/O queue requests \n");
for(i=2;i<n;i++){
scanf("%d",&ioq[i]);
}

for(i=0;i<n-1;i++){
for(j=0;j<n-1;j++)
{
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if(ioq[j] > ioq[j+1]){

temp = ioq[j];
ioq[j] = ioq[j+1];
ioq[j+1] = temp;

}
}
ioq[n]=ioq[n-1];
for(i=0;i<n;i++){

if(ihead == ioq[i]){

scan = i;
break;

printf("\nOrder of request served\n\n");

tot = 0;
for(i=scan;i>=0;i--){
//rai tot = ioq[i+1] - ioq[i];
tot = ioq[i] – ioq[i-1]; // me
if(i==0) // me
tot=ioq[i]-ioq[scan+1];//me
if(tot < 0)
tot = tot * -1;
//seek += tot;
printf("%d\t%d\n",ioq[i],tot);
}

for(i=scan+1;i<n;i++){
tot = ioq[i+1] - ioq[i];
if(tot < 0)
tot = tot * -1;
//seek += tot;
printf("%d\t%d\n",ioq[i],tot);
}
seek = ihead + ioq[n-1];
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avgs = seek/(n-2);

printf("\n\nTotal Seek time\t\t: %.2f",seek);

printf("\nAverage seek time\t: %.2f\n\n",avgs);

}
OUTPUT

Enter the number of requests :8

Enter the initial head position :53
Enter the I/O queue requests
98
183
37
122
14
124
65
67

Order of request served

53 16
37 23
14 14
0 65
65 2
67 31
98 24
122 2
124 59
183 0

Total Seek time : 236.00

Average seek time : 29.50

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C-SCAN

ALGORITHM
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare necessary variables.
Step 3: Get tracks to be traversed
Step 4: Get position head
Step 5: Sort tracks using bubble sorting
Step 6: For I to n+2 Check track=header then break
Step 7: while t[j]!=tot-1atr[p]=t[j]; j++;p++;
Step 8: Find the sum f the total movements and average Step 9: Print the values
Step 10: Stop.

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int ioq[20],i,n,j,ihead,itail,temp,scan,tot=0;
float seek=0,avgs;

printf("Enter the number of requests\t: ");

scanf("%d",&n);
ioq[0] = 0;
printf("Enter the initial head position\t: ");
scanf("%d",&ihead);
ioq[1] = ihead;
printf("Enter the maximum track limit\t: ");
scanf("%d",&itail);
ioq[2] = itail;
n += 3;

printf("Enter the I/O queue requests \n");

for(i=3;i<n;i++){
scanf("%d",&ioq[i]);
}

for(i=0;i<n-1;i++){
for(j=0;j<n-1;j++)
{

if(ioq[j] > ioq[j+1]){

temp = ioq[j];
ioq[j] = ioq[j+1];
ioq[j+1] = temp;

}
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}
}

for(i=0;i<n+1;i++){

if(ihead == ioq[i]){

scan = i;
break;

i = scan;
temp = n;

printf("\nOrder of request served\n");

printf("\n");

while(i != temp){

if(i < temp-1){

tot = ioq[i+1] - ioq[i];

if(tot < 0)
tot = tot * -1;
seek += tot;
}
printf("%d --> ",ioq[i]);
// printf("%d\t%d\n",ioq[i],tot);
i++;

if(i == n){

i = 0;
temp = scan;
seek += itail;

avgs = seek/(n-3);

printf("\n\nTotal Seek time\t\t: %.2f",seek);

printf("\nAverage seek time\t: %.2f\n\n",avgs);
}

OUTPUT

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Enter the number of requests : 8

Enter the initial head position : 50
Enter the maximum track limit : 200
Enter the I/O queue requests
90
120
35
122
38
128
65
68

Order of request served

50 --> 65 --> 68 --> 90 --> 120 --> 122 --> 128 --> 200 --> 0 --> 35 --> 38 -->

Total Seek time : 388.00

Average seek time : 48.50

PAGE REPLACEMENT TECHNIQUES

First In First Out (FIFO) –

This is the simplest page replacement algorithm. In this algorithm, the operating system keeps track of
all pages in the memory in a queue, the oldest page is in the front of the queue. When a page needs to
be replaced page in the front of the queue is selected for removal.
• Example-1Consider page reference string 1, 3, 0, 3, 5, 6 with 3 page frames.Find number of page
faults.

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• Initially all slots are empty, so when 1, 3, 0 came they are allocated to the empty slots —> 3 Page
Faults.
when 3 comes, it is already in memory so —> 0 Page Faults.
Then 5 comes, it is not available in memory so it replaces the oldest page slot i.e 1. —>1 Page
Fault.
6 comes, it is also not available in memory so it replaces the oldest page slot i.e 3 —>1 Page
Fault.
Finally when 3 come it is not avilable so it replaces 0 1 page fault

Belady’s anomaly – Belady’s anomaly proves that it is possible to have more page faults when
increasing the number of page frames while using the First in First Out (FIFO) page replacement
algorithm. For example, if we consider reference string 3, 2, 1, 0, 3, 2, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 4 and 3 slots, we
get 9 total page faults, but if we increase slots to 4, we get 10 page faults.

Optimal Page replacement –

In this algorithm, pages are replaced which would not be used for the longest duration of time in the
future.
Example-2:Consider the page references 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, with 4 page frame. Find
number of page fault.

• Initially all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the empty slots —> 4 Page faults
0 is already there so —> 0 Page fault.
when 3 came it will take the place of 7 because it is not used for the longest duration of time in
the future.—>1 Page fault.
0 is already there so —> 0 Page fault..
4 will takes place of 1 —> 1 Page Fault.
• Now for the further page reference string —> 0 Page fault because they are already available
in the memory.
• Optimal page replacement is perfect, but not possible in practice as the operating system cannot
know future requests. The use of Optimal Page replacement is to set up a benchmark so that
other replacement algorithms can be analyzed against it.

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Least Recently Used –

In this algorithm page will be replaced which is least recently used.
Example-3Consider the page reference string 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2 with 4 page frames.Find
number of page faults.

• Initially all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the empty slots —> 4 Page faults
0 is already their so —> 0 Page fault.
when 3 came it will take the place of 7 because it is least recently used —>1 Page fault
0 is already in memory so —> 0 Page fault.
4 will takes place of 1 —> 1 Page Fault
Now for the further page reference string —> 0 Page fault because they are already available
in the memory.

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Pgm.No.7

PAGE REPLACEMENT ALGORITHMS

AIM

Simulate the following page replacement algorithms

a) FIFO
b) LRU
c) LFU

PROGRAM

FIFO (FIRST IN FIRST OUT)

#include<stdio.h>

void main()
{
int n,f,fr[20],p[50],rep=0, found,fi=0;
int i,k;
printf("Enter the number of pages ");
scanf("%d",&n);

printf("Enter the reffrence string : ");

for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf("%d",&p[i]);

printf("Enter the frame number :");

scanf("%d",&f);

for(i=0;i<f;i++)
fr[i] = -1;

printf("\n\nPages\t\tFrames\n\n");

for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("%d\t\t",p[i]);
found = 1;
for(k=0;k<f;k++)
{

if(p[i] == fr[k]){
found = 0;
break;
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}
if(found)
{

fr[fi] = p[i];
rep++;
fi = (fi+1)%f;
for(k=0;k<f;k++)
printf("%d\t",fr[k]);
}
printf("\n");

}
printf("\n\nNumber of page fault : %d\n",rep);

}
OUTPUT

Enter the number of pages 20

Enter the reference string : 7 0 1 2 0 3 0 4 2 3 0 3 2 1 2 0 1 7 0 1
Enter the frame number :3

Pages Frames

7 7 -1 -1
0 7 0 -1
1 7 0 1
2 2 0 1
0
3 2 3 1
0 2 3 0
4 4 3 0
2 4 2 0
3 4 2 3
0 0 2 3
3
2
1 0 1 3
2 0 1 2
0
1
7 7 1 2
0 7 0 2
1 7 0 1

Number of page fault : 15

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LEAST RECENTLY USED (LRU)

#include<stdio.h>
int findLRU(int time[], int n){
int i, minimum = time[0], pos = 0;

for(i = 1; i < n; ++i){

if(time[i] < minimum){
minimum = time[i];
pos = i;
}
}
return pos;
}

int main()
{
int no_of_frames, no_of_pages, frames[10], pages[30], counter = 0, time[10], flag1, flag2, i, j, pos, faults
= 0;
printf("Enter number of frames: ");
scanf("%d", &no_of_frames);
printf("Enter number of pages: ");
scanf("%d", &no_of_pages);
printf("Enter reference string: ");
for(i = 0; i < no_of_pages; ++i){
scanf("%d", &pages[i]);
}

for(i = 0; i < no_of_frames; ++i){

frames[i] = -1;
}

for(i = 0; i < no_of_pages; ++i){

flag1 = flag2 = 0;

for(j = 0; j < no_of_frames; ++j){

if(frames[j] == pages[i]){
counter++;
time[j] = counter;
flag1 = flag2 = 1;
break;
}
}

if(flag1 == 0){
for(j = 0; j < no_of_frames; ++j){
if(frames[j] == -1){
counter++;
faults++;

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frames[j] = pages[i];
time[j] = counter;
flag2 = 1;
break;
}
}
}

if(flag2 == 0){
pos = findLRU(time, no_of_frames);
counter++;
faults++;
frames[pos] = pages[i];
time[pos] = counter;
}

printf("\n");

for(j = 0; j < no_of_frames; ++j){

printf("%d\t", frames[j]);
}
}
printf("\n\nTotal Page Faults = %d", faults);

return 0;
}

OUTPUT

Enter number of frames: 3

Enter number of pages: 6
Enter reference string: 5 7 5 6 7 3
5 -1 -1
5 7 -1
5 7 -1
576
576
376
Total Page Faults = 4

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LEAST FREQUENTLY USED (LFU)

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int total_frames, total_pages, hit = 0;
int pages[25], frame[10], arr[25], time[25];
int m, n, page, flag, k, minimum_time, temp;
printf("Enter Total Number of Pages:\t");
scanf("%d", &total_pages);
printf("Enter Total Number of Frames:\t");
scanf("%d", &total_frames);
for(m = 0; m < total_frames; m++)
{
frame[m] = -1;
}
for(m = 0; m < 25; m++)
{
arr[m] = 0;
}
printf("Enter Values of Reference String\n");
for(m = 0; m < total_pages; m++)
{
printf("Enter Value No.[%d]:\t", m + 1);
scanf("%d", &pages[m]);
}
printf("\n");
for(m = 0; m < total_pages; m++)
{
arr[pages[m]]++;
time[pages[m]] = m;
flag = 1;
k = frame[0];
for(n = 0; n < total_frames; n++)
{
if(frame[n] == -1 || frame[n] == pages[m])
{
if(frame[n] != -1)
{
hit++;
}
flag = 0;
frame[n] = pages[m];
break;
}
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if(arr[k] > arr[frame[n]])

{
k = frame[n];
}
}
if(flag)
{
minimum_time = 25;
for(n = 0; n < total_frames; n++)
{
if(arr[frame[n]] == arr[k] && time[frame[n]] < minimum_time)
{
temp = n;
minimum_time = time[frame[n]];
}
}
arr[frame[temp]] = 0;
frame[temp] = pages[m];
}
for(n = 0; n < total_frames; n++)
{
printf("%d\t", frame[n]);
}
printf("\n");
}
printf("Page Hit:\t%d\n", hit);
return 0;
}

OUTPUT

Enter number of frames: 4

Enter number of pages: 5
Enter reference string: 5 3 1 2 4
5 -1 -1 -1
5 3 -1 -1
5 3 -1 -1
5 3 1 -1
5312
4312
Total Page hit=0

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Viva Questions

1. Why paging is used?

Paging is solution to external fragmentation problem which is to permit the logical address space of a
process to be non-contiguous, thus allowing a process to be allocating physical memory wherever the
latter is available.

2. What is virtual memory?

Virtual memory is memory management technique which is used to execute the process which has
more than actual memory size.

3. What is Demand Paging?

It is memory management technique used in virtual memory such that page will not load into the
memory until it is needed.

4. What are all page replacement algorithms?

a. FIFO(First in First out)
2. Optimal Page Replacement
3. LRU(Least-Recently-used)

5. Which page replacement algorithm will have less page fault rate?
Optimal Page Replacement
6. What is thrashing?
It is situation that CPU spends more time on paging than executing.

7. What is swapping
A process must be in memory to be executed. A process, however, can be swapped temporarily out
of memory to a backing store and then brought back into memory for continued execution. This
process is called swapping.

8. What is fragmentation?
fragmentation is a phenomenon in which storage space is used inefficiently, reducing capacity or
performance.

9. Explain External fragmentation?

As processes are loaded and removed from memory, the free memory space is broken into little
pieces. External fragmentation exists when there is enough total memory space to satisfy a request,
but the available spaces are not contiguous.

10. Explain Internal fragmentation?

Consider a multiple-partition allocation scheme with a hole of 18,464 bytes. Suppose that the next
process requests 18,462 bytes. If we allocate exactly the requested block, we are left with a hole of 2
bytes. The overhead to keep track of this hole will be substantially larger than the hole itself. The
general approach to avoiding this problem is to break the physical memory into fixed-sized blocks

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 System Software and Microprocessor Lab

and allocate memory in units based on block size. With this approach, the memory allocated to a
process may be slightly larger than the requested memory. The difference between these two
numbers is internal fragmentation.

11. What is paging?

Paging is a memory-management scheme that permits the physical address space of a process to be
non-contiguous. Paging avoids the considerable problem of fitting memory chunks of varying sizes
onto the backing store.

12. What is frame?

Breaking main memory into fixed number of blocks called frames.

13. What is page?

Breaking logical memory into blocks of same size is page.

14. What is the best page size when designing an operating system?
The best paging size varies from system to system, so there is no single best when it comes to page
size. There are different factors to consider in order to come up with a suitable page size, such as
page table, paging time, and its effect on the overall efficiency of the operating system.

15. What is virtual memory?

Virtual memory is hardware technique where the system appears to have more memory that it
actually does. This is done by time-sharing, the physical memory and storage parts of the memory
one disk when they are not actively being used.

16. What is Throughput, Turnaround time, waiting time and Response time?
Throughput – number of processes that complete their execution per time unit. Turnaround time –
amount of time to execute a particular process. Waiting time – amount of time a process has been
waiting in the ready queue. Response time – amount of time it takes from when a request was
submitted until the first response is produced, not output (for time-sharing environment).

17. Explain Belady's Anomaly?

Also called FIFO anomaly. Usually, on increasing the number of frames allocated to a process
virtual memory, the process execution is faster, because fewer page faults occur. Sometimes, the
reverse happens, i.e., the execution time increases even when more frames are allocated to the
process. This is Belady's Anomaly. This is true for certain page reference patterns.

18. What is fragmentation? Different types of fragmentation?

Fragmentation occurs in a dynamic memory allocation system when many of the free blocks are too
small to satisfy any request.
• External Fragmentation: External Fragmentation happens when a dynamic memory allocation
algorithm allocates some memory and a small piece is left over that cannot be effectively used. If

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too much external fragmentation occurs, the amount of usable memory is drastically reduced.
Total memory space exists to satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous
• Internal Fragmentation: Internal fragmentation is the space wasted inside of allocated memory
blocks because of restriction on the allowed sizes of allocated blocks. Allocated memory may be
slightly larger than requested memory; this size difference is memory internal to a partition, but
not being used Reduce external fragmentation by compaction
->Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory together in one large block.
->Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic, and is done at execution time.

19. Explain Segmentation with paging?

Segments can be of different lengths, so it is harder to find a place for a segment in memory than a
page. With segmented virtual memory, we get the benefits of virtual memory but we still have to do
dynamic storage allocation of physical memory. In order to avoid this, it is possible to combine
segmentation and paging into a two-level virtual memory system. Each segment descriptor points to
page table for that segment. This give some of the advantages of paging (easy placement) with some
of the advantages of segments (logical division of the program).

20. Under what circumstances do page faults occur? Describe the actions taken by the operating system
when a page fault occurs?
A page fault occurs when an access to a page that has not been brought into main memory takes
place. The operating system verifies the memory access, aborting the program if it is invalid. If it is
valid, a free frame is located and I/O is requested to read the needed page into the free frame. Upon
completion of I/O, the process table and page table are updated and the instruction is restarted

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 System Software and Microprocessor Lab

FILE ORGANISATION TECHNIQUES

Information about files is maintained by Directories. A directory can contain multiple files. It can even have
directories inside of them. In Windows we also call these directories as folders.

Following is the information maintained in a directory :

Name : The name visible to user.
Type : Type of the directory.
Location : Device and location on the device where the file header is located.
Size : Number of bytes/words/blocks in the file.
Position : Current next-read/next-write pointers.
Protection : Access control on read/write/execute/delete.
Usage : Time of creation, access, modification etc.
Mounting : When the root of one file system is "grafted" into the existing tree of another file system
its called Mounting.

Advantages of maintaining directories are:

Efficiency: A file can be located more quickly.
Naming: It becomes convenient for users as two users can have same name for different files or may
have different name for same file.
Grouping: Logical grouping of files can be done by properties e.g. all java programs, all games etc.
Naming problem: Users cannot have same name for two files.
Grouping problem: Users cannot group files according to their need.

Two-Level Directory
In this separate directories for each user is maintained.
Path name: Due to two levels there is a path name for every file to locate that file.
So same file name for different user are possible. Searching is efficient in this method.

Single-Level Directory
In this a single directory is maintained for all the users.

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Pgm.No.8

FILE ORGANISATION TECHNIQUES

AIM
Simulate the following file organization techniques
a). Single level
b). Two level
c). Hierarchical

SINGLE LEVEL DIRECTORY

ALGORITHM
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Initialize values gd=DETECT,gm,count,i,j,mid,cir_x; Initialize character array fname[10][20];
Step 3: Initialize graph function as Initgraph(& gd, &gm," c:/tc/bgi"); Clear device();
Step 4: Set back ground color with setbkcolor();
Step 5: Read number of files in variable count.
Step 6: If check i<count
Step 7: For i=0 & i<count i increment; Cleardevice();setbkcolor(GREEN); read file
name;setfillstyle(1,MAGENTA);
Step 8: mid=640/count;
cir_x=mid/3; bar3d(270,100,370,150,0,0);settextstyle(2,0,4); settextstyle(1,1);
outtextxy(320,125,"rootdirectory"); setcolor(BLUE);i++;
Step 9: For j=0&&j<=i&&cir_x+=mid j increment; line(320,150,cir_x,250); fillellipse(cir_x,250,30,30);
outtextxy(cir_x,250,fname[i]);
Step 10: End

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>

struct dirct{

char dir[20],file[20][10];
int findex;
};

void main(){

int i, ch=1;
struct dirct d;

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char ser[20];
d.findex=0;
printf("Enter the directory name ");
scanf("%s",d.dir);

do{

printf("\n1<<<Create new file\t2<<<Delete a file\t3<<<Search a file\t\n4<<< List

files\t\t0<<<Ezxit\n");
printf("Enter your choice ");
scanf("%d",&ch);

switch(ch){

case 1: printf("\nEnter the file name ");

scanf("%s",d.file[d.findex++]);
printf("File created\n");
break;
case 2: printf("\nEnter the file to delete ");
scanf("%s",ser);
for(i=0;i<d.findex;i++){
if(!strcmp(ser,d.file[i]))
{
printf("File removed \n");
strcpy(d.file[i],d.file[d.findex-1]);
d.findex--;
break;
}
}
if(i==d.findex)
printf("No such file or directory\n");
break;

case 3: printf("\nEnter the file to search ");

scanf("%s",ser);
for(i=0;i<d.findex;i++){
if(!strcmp(ser,d.file[i]))
{
printf("\nSearch completed\nFile found at %d position\n",i+1);
break;
}
}
if(i==d.findex){
printf("\nSearch completed\n");
printf("No such file or directory\n");
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}
break;

case 4: printf("\nThe files in the directory %s are;\n",d.dir);

for(i=0;i<d.findex;i++)
printf("%s\n", d.file[i]);
break;

}while(ch);
printf("\n");
}

OUTPUT

Enter the directory name cse

1<<<Create new file 2<<<Delete a file 3<<<Search a file

4<<< List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 1

Enter the file name a

File created

1<<<Create new file 2<<<Delete a file 3<<<Search a file

4<<< List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 1

Enter the file name b

File created

1<<<Create new file 2<<<Delete a file 3<<<Search a file

4<<< List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 1

Enter the file name c

File created

1<<<Create new file 2<<<Delete a file 3<<<Search a file

4<<< List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 4

The files in the directory cse are;

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 System Software and Microprocessor Lab

a
b
c

1<<<Create new file 2<<<Delete a file 3<<<Search a file

4<<< List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 3

Enter the file to search b

Search completed
File found at 2 position

1<<<Create new file 2<<<Delete a file 3<<<Search a file

4<<< List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 2

Enter the file to delete b

File removed

1<<<Create new file 2<<<Delete a file 3<<<Search a file

4<<< List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 4

The files in the directory cse are;

a
c

1<<<Create new file 2<<<Delete a file 3<<<Search a file

4<<< List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 3

Enter the file to search b

Search completed
No such file or directory

1<<<Create new file 2<<<Delete a file 3<<<Search a file

4<<< List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 0

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TWO LEVEL DIRECTORY

ALGORITHM
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Initialize structure elementsstruct tree_ element char name[20];Initialize integer variables x, y, ftype,
lx, rx, nc, level; struct tree_element
*link[5];}typedef structure tree_element node;
Step 3: Start main function
Step 4: Step variables gd=DETECT,gm; node *root;root=NULL;
Step 5: Create structure using create(&root,0,"null",0,639,320);
Step 6: initgraph(&gd, &gm,"c:\tc\bgi"); display(root);closegraph();
Step 7: End main function
Step 8: Initialize variables i,gap;
Step 9: If check *root==NULL (*root)=(node*)malloc(sizeof(node)); enter name of ir file name in dname;
fflush(stdin);gets((*root)->name);
Step 10: If check lev==0||lev==1 (*root)->ftype=1; else(*root)->ftype=2; (*root)->level=lev; (*root)-
>y=50+lev*5; (*root)->x=x;
(*root)->lx=lx; (*root)->rx=rx;
Step 11: For i=0&&i<5increment i
(*root)->link[i]=NULL;
if check (*root)->ftype==1
Step 12: If check (lev==0||lev==1)
if check(*root)->level==0
print "how many users" else print"how many files" print (*root)->name
read (*root)->nc
Step 13: Then (*root)->nc=0;
if check(*root)->nc==0 gap=rx-lx;
else gap=(rx-lx)/(*root)->nc;
Step 14: For i=0&&i<(*root)->nc increment i;
create(&((*root)->link[i]),lev+1,(*root)->name, lx+gap*i,lx+gap*i+gap,lx+gap*i+gap/2);
then
(*root)->nc=0;
Step 15: Initialize e display function Initialize i
set textstyle(2,0,4); set textjustify(1,1); set fillstyle(1,BLUE);
setcolor(14); step 13:if check root!=NULL
Step 16: For i=0&&i<root->nc
increment i
line(root->x,root->y,root->link[i]->x,root->link[i]->y);
Step 17: If check root->ftype==1
bar3d(root->x-20,root->y-10,root->x+20,root->y+10,0,0); else fill ellipse(root->x,root->y,20,20);
out textxy(root->x,root->y,root->name);
Step 18: For i=0&&i<root->nc increment i display(root->link[i]);
Step 19: End

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 System Software and Microprocessor Lab

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>

struct dirct{

char dir[20],file[20][10];
int findex;
};

void main(){

int i,j,ch=1,dindex=0,found=0;
struct dirct d[10];
char ser[20];
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
d[i].findex=0;

do{

printf("\n1<<<Create new directory\t2<<<Create new file\n3<<<Delete new file\t\t");

printf("4<<<Search files\n5<<<List files\t\t\t0<<<Exit\nEnter your choice ");
scanf("%d",&ch);

switch(ch){

case 1: printf("\nEnter the directory name ");

scanf("%s",d[dindex].dir);
dindex++;
printf("Directoiry Created created\n");
break;
case 2: printf("\nEnter the directory name ");
scanf("%s",ser);
found = 0;
for(i=0;i<dindex;i++){
if(!strcmp(ser,d[i].dir))
{
printf("\nEnter the file name ");
scanf("%s",d[i].file[d[i].findex++]);
printf("File created\n");
break;
}
}
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 System Software and Microprocessor Lab

if(i==dindex){
printf("\nSearch completed\n");
printf("No such file or directory\n");
}

break;

case 3: printf("\nEnter the file name ");

scanf("%s",ser);
found = 0;
for(i=0;i<dindex;i++){
for(j=0;j<d[i].findex;j++){

if(!strcmp(ser,d[i].file[j]))
{
printf("%s is removed\n", d[i].file[j]);
strcpy(d[i].file[j],d[i].file[d[i].findex-1]);
d[i].findex--;
found=1;
break;
}
}

if(!found){
printf("\nSearch completed\n");
printf("No such file or directory\n");
}

break;
case 4: printf("\nEnter the file name ");
scanf("%s",ser);
found = 0;
for(i=0;i<dindex;i++){
for(j=0;j<d[i].findex;j++){

if(!strcmp(ser,d[i].file[j]))
{
printf("%s is removed\n", d[i].file[j]);
found=1;
break;
}
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 System Software and Microprocessor Lab

if(!found){
printf("\nSearch completed\n");
printf("No such file or directory\n");
}
break;

case 5: for(i=0;i<dindex;i++){
printf("\nThe files in the directory %s are;\n",d[i].dir);
for(j=0;j<d[i].findex;j++)
printf("%s\n", d[i].file[j]);
}
break;

}while(ch);
printf("\n");
}

OUTPUT

1<<<Create new directory 2<<<Create new file

3<<<Delete new file 4<<<Search files
5<<<List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 1

Enter the directory name cse

Directory Created

1<<<Create new directory 2<<<Create new file

3<<<Delete new file 4<<<Search files
5<<<List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 1

Enter the directory name eee

Directoiry Created created

1<<<Create new directory 2<<<Create new file

3<<<Delete new file 4<<<Search files
5<<<List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 2
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 System Software and Microprocessor Lab

Enter the directory name cse

Enter the file name cg

File created

1<<<Create new directory 2<<<Create new file

3<<<Delete new file 4<<<Search files
5<<<List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 2

Enter the directory name cse

Enter the file name csaa

File created

1<<<Create new directory 2<<<Create new file

3<<<Delete new file 4<<<Search files
5<<<List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 2

Enter the directory name eee

Enter the file name cp

File created

1<<<Create new directory 2<<<Create new file

3<<<Delete new file 4<<<Search files
5<<<List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 5

The files in the directory cse are;

cg
csaa

The files in the directory eee are;

cp

1<<<Create new directory 2<<<Create new file

3<<<Delete new file 4<<<Search files
5<<<List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 4

Enter the file name cp

cp is found
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 System Software and Microprocessor Lab

1<<<Create new directory 2<<<Create new file

3<<<Delete new file 4<<<Search files
5<<<List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 3

Enter the file name cg

cg is removed

1<<<Create new directory 2<<<Create new file

3<<<Delete new file 4<<<Search files
5<<<List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 4

Enter the file name cg

Search completed
No such file or directory

1<<<Create new directory 2<<<Create new file

3<<<Delete new file 4<<<Search files
5<<<List files 0<<<Exit
Enter your choice 5

The files in the directory cse are:

csaa

The files in the directory eee are:

cp

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PAGING

Paging is a memory management scheme that eliminates the need for contiguous allocation of physical

memory. This scheme permits the physical address space of a process to be non – contiguous.

• Logical Address or Virtual Address (represented in bits): An address generated by the CPU

• Logical Address Space or Virtual Address Space( represented in words or bytes): The set of all

logical addresses generated by a program

• Physical Address (represented in bits): An address actually available on memory unit

• Physical Address Space (represented in words or bytes): The set of all physical addresses

corresponding to the logical addresses

In computer operating systems, memory paging is a memory management scheme by which a computer

stores and retrieves data from secondary storage[a] for use in main memory.[1] In this scheme, the operating

system retrieves data from secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages. Paging is an important part

of virtual memory implementations in modern operating systems, using secondary storage to let programs

exceed the size of available physical memory.

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 System Software and Microprocessor Lab

Pgm.No.9

PAGING TECHNIQUES OF MEMORY MANAGEMENT

AIM

Implement different paging techniques of memory management

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int memsize=15;
int pagesize,nofpage;
int p[100];
int frameno,offset;
int logadd,phyadd;
int i;
int choice=0;
printf("\nYour memsize is %d ",memsize);
printf("\nEnter page size:");
scanf("%d",&pagesize);

nofpage=memsize/pagesize;

for(i=0;i<nofpage;i++)
{
printf("\nEnter the frame of page%d:",i+1);
scanf("%d",&p[i]);
}

do
{
printf("\nEnter a logical address:");
scanf("%d",&logadd);
frameno=logadd/pagesize;
offset=logadd%pagesize;
phyadd=(p[frameno]*pagesize)+offset;
printf("\nPhysical address is:%d",phyadd);
printf("\nDo you want to continue(1/0)?:");
scanf("%d",&choice);
}while(choice==1);
}

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OUTPUT:

Your memsize is 15
Enter page size:5

Enter the frame of page1:2

Enter the frame of page2:4

Enter the frame of page3:7

Enter a logical address:3

Physical address is:13

Do you want to continue(1/0)?:1

Enter a logical address:1

Physical address is:11

Do you want to continue(1/0)?:0

FILE ALLOCATION STRATEGIES

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The purpose of file allocation in operating systems is first of all the efficient use of the disk space or
efficient disk utilization.

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Pgm.No.10

FILE ALLOCATION STRATEGIES

AIM

Simulate following file allocation strategies.

a) Sequential
b) Indexed
c) Linked

PROGRAM

Sequencial

#include < stdio.h>

//#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int f[50], i, st, len, j, c, k, count = 0;
//clrscr();
for(i=0;i<50;i++)
f[i]=0;
printf("Files Allocated are : \n");
x: count=0;
printf(“Enter starting block and length of files: ”);
scanf("%d%d", &st,&len);
for(k=st;k<(st+len);k++)
if(f[k]==0)
count++;
if(len==count)
{
for(j=st;j<(st+len);j++)
if(f[j]==0)
{
f[j]=1;
printf("%d\t%d\n",j,f[j]);
}
if(j!=(st+len-1))
printf(” The file is allocated to disk\n");
}
else
printf(” The file is not allocated \n");
printf("Do you want to enter more file(Yes - 1/No - 0)");
scanf("%d", &c);
if(c==1)
goto x;
else
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//exit();
return 0
//getch();
}

OUTPUT
Files Allocated are :
Enter starting block and length of files: 14 3
14 1
15 1
16 1
The file is allocated to disk
Do you want to enter more file(Yes - 1/No - 0)1
Enter starting block and length of files: 14 1
The file is not allocated
Do you want to enter more file(Yes - 1/No - 0)1
Enter starting block and length of files: 14 4
The file is not allocated
Do you want to enter more file(Yes - 1/No - 0)0

Indexed

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main()
{
int f[50], index[50],i, n, st, len, j, c, k, ind,count=0;
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<50;i++)
f[i]=0;
x:printf("Enter the index block: ");
scanf("%d",&ind);
if(f[ind]!=1)
{
printf("Enter no of blocks needed and no of files for the index %d on the disk : \n", ind);
scanf("%d",&n);
}
else
{
printf("%d index is already allocated \n",ind);
goto x;
}
y: count=0;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d", &index[i]);
if(f[index[i]]==0)
count++;
}

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if(count==n)
{
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
f[index[j]]=1;
printf("Allocated\n");
printf("File Indexed\n");
for(k=0;k<n;k++)
printf("%d-------->%d : %d\n",ind,index[k],f[index[k]]);
}
else
{
printf("File in the index is already allocated \n");
printf("Enter another file indexed");
goto y;
}
printf("Do you want to enter more file(Yes - 1/No - 0)");
scanf("%d", &c);
if(c==1)
goto x;
else
exit(0);
getch();
}

OUTPUT
Enter the index block: 5
Enter no of blocks needed and no of files for the index 5 on the disk :
4
1234
Allocated
File Indexed
5-------->1 : 1
5-------->2 : 1
5-------->3 : 1
5-------->4 : 1
Do you want to enter more file(Yes - 1/No - 0)1
Enter the index block: 4
4 index is already allocated
Enter the index block: 6
Enter no of blocks needed and no of files for the index 6 on the disk :
2
78
A5llocated
File Indexed
6-------->7 : 1
6-------->8 : 1
Do you want to enter more file(Yes - 1/No - 0)0

Linked

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#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct file
{
char fname[10];
int start,size,block[10];
}f[10];
main()
{
int i,j,n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter no. of files:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("Enter file name:");
scanf("%s",&f[i].fname);
printf("Enter starting block:");
scanf("%d",&f[i].start);
f[i].block[0]=f[i].start;
printf("Enter no.of blocks:");
scanf("%d",&f[i].size);
printf("Enter block numbers:");
for(j=1;j<=f[i].size;j++)
{
scanf("%d",&f[i].block[j]);
}
}
printf("File\tstart\tsize\tblock\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("%s\t%d\t%d\t",f[i].fname,f[i].start,f[i].size);
for(j=1;j<=f[i].size-1;j++)
printf("%d--->",f[i].block[j]);
printf("%d",f[i].block[j]);
printf("\n");
}
getch();

OUTPUT

Enter no. of files: 2

Enter file name:a
Enter starting block:1
Enter no. of blocks:2
Enter block number:1
2

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Enter filr name: b

Enter starting block:5
Enter no. of blocks:2
Enter block number:3
4
File start size block
a 1 2 1-->2
b 5 2 3-->2

MEMORY ALLOCATION TECHNIQUES

. First Fit: In the first fit, the partition is allocated which is the first sufficient block from the
top of Main Memory. It scans memory from the beginning and chooses the first available
block that is large enough. Thus it allocates the first hole that is large enough.

2. Best Fit Allocate the process to the partition which is the first smallest sufficient
partition among the free available partition. It searches the entire list of holes to find the
smallest hole whose size is greater than or equal to the size of the process.

3. Worst Fit Allocate the process to the partition which is the largest sufficient among the
freely available partitions available in the main memory. It is opposite to the best-fit
algorithm. It searches the entire list of holes to find the largest hole and allocate it to
process.

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Although best fit minimizes the wastage space, it consumes a lot of processor time for
searching the block which is close to the required size. Also, Best-fit may perform poorer
than other algorithms in some cases.

ASSEMBLER

• System software which is used to convert assembly language program to its equivalent object code.
Input to the assembler is a source code written in assembly language. Output is the object code.
Design of assembler depends upon the machine architecture as the language used is mnemonic
language.

Analysis Phase

➢ Build the Symbol table.

➢ Separate labels, opcodes and operand fields in a statement.
➢ Check correctness of opcodes by looking at the contents of the mnemonics table.
➢ Update contents of location counter based on the length of each instruction.
Synthesis Phase

➢ Look at the mnemonics table and get the opcode corresponding to the mnemonic.
➢ Obtain the address of a memory operand from the symbol table.
➢ Synthesize the machine instruction.

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TYPES OF ASSEMBLER

1. Single Pass Assembler

2. Two Pass Assembler

Single Pass Assembler

➢ The assembler reads the source file once.

➢ During the single pass, the assembler handles both label definitions and assembly.
➢ Here whole process of scanning, parsing and object code conversion is done in single pass.
➢ The only problem with this method is resolving forward reference.
➢ One pass assembler is used when it is necessary or desirable to avoid a second pass over the source
program.
➢ The external storage for the intermediate file between two passes is slow or is inconvenient to use.
➢ One-pass/ Single pass assemblers are used when
o It is necessary or desirable to avoid a second pass over the source program.
o The external storage for the intermediate file between two passes is slow or is inconvenient to
use
➢ Main problem: forward references to both data and instructions
o One simple way to eliminate this problem: require that all areas be defined before they are
referenced.
o It is possible, although inconvenient, to do so for data items.
o Forward jump to instruction items cannot be easily eliminated.
Two Pass Assembler

➢ Here there are two passes

➢ It resolves the forward references and then converts in to the object code.
➢ Here forward references in symbol definition are not allowed.
➢ Symbol definition must be completed in pass 1.
(Forward reference: When we use the symbol or literal (identifier) before declaring it and the error
caused due to this is called a Forward Reference Problem. For example:- int c, b=10;)

➢ In the first pass it reads the entire source file, looking only the label definitions.
➢ All labels are collected, assigned values and placed in the symbol table in this pass.

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➢ No instructions are assembled and at the end of the pass, the symbol table should contain all the labels
defined in the program.
➢ In the second pass, the instructions are again read and are assembled using the symbol table.

Pass 1 (Define Symbols):

i. Assign address to all statements in program

ii. Save the values assigned to all labels for use in pass 2.
iii. Perform some processing of assembler functions

Pass 2 (Assemble Instructions and Generate Object Code):

i. Assembler instructions.
ii. Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD, etc.
iii. Perform processing of assembler directives not done during pass 1.
iv. Write object program and assembly listing.

Pgm.No.10

PASS ONE OF TWO PASS ASSEMBLER

AIM

Write a C program to implement pass one of two pass assembler

ALGORITHM

Step 1: Open the files fp1 and fp4 in read mode and fp2 and fp3 in write mode Step 2: Read the source
program
Step 3: If the opcode read in the source program is START, the variable location counter is initialized with
the operand value.
Step 4: Else the location counter is initialized to 0.
Step 5: The source program is read line by line until the reach of opcode END. Step 6: Check whether the
opcode read is present in the operation code table. Step 7: If the opcode is present, then the location counter
is incremented by 3. Step 8: If the opcode read is WORD, the location counter is incremented by3.
Step 9: If the opcode read is RESW, the operand value is multiplied by 3 and then the location counter is
incremented.
Step 10: If the opcode read is RESB, the location counter value is incremented by operand value.
Step 11: If the opcode read is BYTE, the location counter is auto incremented.
The length of the source program is found using the location counter value.
Step 12: stop.

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PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
FILE *f1,*f2,*f3,*f4;
char s[100],lab[30],opcode[30],opa[30],opcode1[30],opa1[30];
int locctr,x=0;
f1=fopen("input.txt","r");
f2=fopen("opcode.txt","r");
f3=fopen("out1.txt","w");
f4=fopen("sym1.txt","w");
while(fscanf(f1,"%s%s%s",lab,opcode,opa)!=EOF)
{
if(strcmp(lab,"**")==0)
{
if(strcmp(opcode,"START")==0)
{
fprintf(f3,"%s %s %s",lab,opcode,opa);
locctr=(atoi(opa));

}
else
{
rewind(f2);
x=0;
while(fscanf(f2,"%s%s",opcode1,opa1)!=EOF)
{
if(strcmp(opcode,opcode1)==0)
{
x=1;
}
}
if(x==1)
{
fprintf(f3,"\n %d %s %s %s",locctr,lab,opcode,opa);
locctr=locctr+3;
}
}
}
else
{
if(strcmp(opcode,"RESW")==0)
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{
fprintf(f3,"\n %d %s %s %s",locctr,lab,opcode,opa);
fprintf(f4,"\n %d %s",locctr,lab);
locctr=locctr+(3*(atoi(opa)));
}
else if(strcmp(opcode,"WORD")==0)
{
fprintf(f3,"\n %d %s %s %s",locctr,lab,opcode,opa);
fprintf(f4,"\n %d %s",locctr,lab);
locctr=locctr+3;
}
else if(strcmp(opcode,"BYTE")==0)
{
fprintf(f3,"\n %d %s %s %s",locctr,lab,opcode,opa);
fprintf(f4,"\n %d %s",locctr,lab);
locctr=locctr+1;
}
else if(strcmp(opcode,"RESB")==0)
{
fprintf(f3,"\n %d %s %s %s",locctr,lab,opcode,opa);
fprintf(f4,"\n %d %s",locctr,lab);
locctr=locctr+1;
}
else
{
fprintf(f3,"\n %d %s %s %s",locctr,lab,opcode,opa);
fprintf(f4,"\n %d %s",locctr,lab);
locctr=locctr+(atoi(opa));
}
}
}
}

INPUT FILES

input.txt
** START 2000
** LDA FIVE
** STA ALPHA
** LDCH CHARZ
** STCH C1
ALPHA RESW 1
FIVE WORD 5
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CHARZ BYTE C'Z'

C1 RESB 1
** END **
opcode.txt
START *
LDA 03
STA 0F
LDCH 53
STCH 57
END

OUTPUT FILES

out1.txt

** START 2000
2000 ** LDA FIVE
2003 ** STA ALPHA
2006 ** LDCH CHARZ
2009 ** STCH C1
2012 ALPHA RESW 1
2015 FIVE WORD 5
2018 CHARZ BYTE C'Z'
2019 C1 RESB 1
2020 ** END **

sym1.txt

2012 ALPHA
2015 FIVE
2018 CHARZ
2019 C1

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Pgm.No.11

PASS TWO OF TWO PASS ASSEMBLER

AIM

Write a program to implement pass one of two pass assembler

ALGORITHM

Step 1: Start the program

Step 2: Initialize all the variables
Step 3: Open a file by namefp1=fopen("assmlist.dat","w"); fp2=fopen("symtab.dat","r");
fp3=fopen("intermediate.dat","r"); fp4=fopen("optab.dat","r");
Step 4: Read the content of the file
Step 5: If opcode is BYTEif(strcmp(opcode,"BYTE")==0)
thenfprintf(fp1,"%d\t%s\t%s\t%s\t",address,label,opcode,operand);
Else if opcode is WORDelse if(strcmp(opcode,"WORD")==0)
thenfprintf(fp1,"%d\t%s\t%s\t%s\t00000%s\n",address,label,opcode,operand,a);
Else perform
else if((strcmp(opcode,"RESB")==0)(strcmp(opcode,"RESW")==0))
fprintf(fp1,"%d\t%s\t%s\t%s\n",address,label,opcode,operand);
if it is not math anything elsefprintf(fp1,"%d\t%s\t%s\t%s\t%d0000\n",address,label,opcode,operand,code);
Step 6: Finally terminate the of pass two of pass two assembler
Step 7: Stop

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char opcode[20],operand[20],symbol[20],label[20],code[20],mnemonic[25], character,
add[20],objectcode[20];
int flag,flag1,locctr,location,loc;
FILE *fp1,*fp2,*fp3,*fp4;

fp1=fopen("out3.txt","r"); fp2=fopen("twoout.txt","w");
fp3=fopen("opcode.txt","r"); fp4=fopen("sym1.txt","r");
fscanf(fp1,"%s%s%s",label,opcode,operand);
if(strcmp(opcode,"START")==0)

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{ fprintf(fp2,"%s\t%s\t%s\n",label,opcode,operand);
fscanf(fp1,"%d%s%s%s",&locctr,label,opcode,operand);
}
while(strcmp(opcode,"END")!=0)
{ flag=0;
fscanf(fp3,"%s%s",code,mnemonic);
while(strcmp(code,"END")!=0)
{ if((strcmp(opcode,code)==0) && (strcmp(mnemonic,"*"))!=0)
{ flag=1;
break;
}
fscanf(fp3,"%s%s",code,mnemonic);

}
if(flag==1)
{ flag1=0; rewind(fp4);
while(!feof(fp4))
{
fscanf(fp4,"%s%d",symbol,&loc);
if(strcmp(symbol,operand)==0)
{
flag1=1; break;
}}
if(flag1==1)
{
sprintf(add,"%d",loc);
strcpy(objectcode,strcat(mnemonic,add));
}}
else if(strcmp(opcode,"BYTE")==0 || strcmp(opcode,"WORD")==0)
{
if((operand[0]=='C') || (operand[0]=='X'))
{
character=operand[2];
sprintf(add,"%d",character);
strcpy(objectcode,add);
}
else
{
strcpy(objectcode,add);
}}
else
strcpy(objectcode,"\0");
fprintf(fp2,"%s\t%s\t%s\t%d\t%s\n",label,opcode,operand,locctr,objectcode);
fscanf(fp1,"%d%s%s%s",&locctr,label,opcode,operand);
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}
fprintf(fp2,"%s\t%s\t%s\t%d\n",label,opcode,operand,locctr);
fclose(fp1);
fclose(fp2);
fclose(fp3);
fclose(fp4);
}

INPUT FILES

opcode.txt
START *
LDA 03
STA 0F
LDCH 53
STCH 57
END +

out3.txt
** START 2000
2000 ** LDA FIVE
2003 ** STA ALPHA
2006 ** LDCH CHARZ
2009 ** STCH C1
2012 ALPHA RESW 1
2015 FIVE WORD 5
2018 CHARZ BYTE C'Z'
2019 C1 RESB 1
2020 ** END **

sym1.txt
2012 ALPHA
2015 FIVE
2018 CHARZ

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2019 C1

OUTPUT FILES

twoout.txt

** START 2000
** LDA FIVE 2000 032018
** STA ALPHA 2003 0F2015
** LDCH CHARZ 2006 532019
** STCH C1 2009 572019
ALPHA RESW 1 2012
FIVE WORD 5 2015 2019
CHARZ BYTE C'Z' 2018 90
C1 RESB 1 2019
** END ** 2020

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1. Define the basic functions of assembler.

* Translating mnemonic operation codes to their machine language
equivalents.
* Assigning machine addresses to symbolic labels used by the
programmer.

2. What is meant by assembler directives? Give example.

These are the statements that are not translated into machine instructions, but they provide instructions to
assembler itself.
example START,END,BYTE,WORD,RESW and RESB.
3. What are forward references?
It is a reference to a label that is defined later in a program.
Consider the statement
10 1000 STL RETADR
....
....
80 1036 RETADR RESW 1
The first instruction contains a forward reference RETADR. If we attempt to translate the program line by
line, we will unable to process the statement in line10 because we do not know the address that will be
assigned to RETADR .The address is assigned later(in line 80) in the program.

4. What are the three different records used in object program?

The header record, text record and the end record are the three different records used in object program.
The header record contains the program name, starting address and
length of the program.
Text record contains the translated instructions and data of the program.
End record marks the end of the object program and specifies the address in the program where execution is
to begin.

5. What is the need of SYMTAB (symbol table) in assembler?

The symbol table includes the name and value for each symbol in the
source program, together with flags to indicate error conditions. Some times it may contain details about the
data area. SYMTAB is usually organized as a hash table for efficiency of insertion and retrieval.

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6. What is the need of OPTAB (operation code table) in assembler?

The operation code table contains the mnemonic operation code and its
machine language equivalent. Some assemblers it may also contain information about instruction format and
length. OPTAB is usually organized as a hash table, with mnemonic operation code as the key.

10. Write the steps required to translate the source program to object program.
• Convert mnemonic operation codes to their machine language
equivalents.
• Convert symbolic operands to their equivalent machine addresses
• Build the machine instruction in the proper format.
• Convert the data constants specified in the source program into their internal machine representation
• Write the object program and assembly listing.

11. What is the use of the variable LOCCTR (location counter) in assembler?
This variable is used to assign addresses to the symbols. LOCCTR is
initialized to the beginning address specified in the START statement. After each source statement is
processed the length of the assembled instruction or data area to be generated is added to LOCCTR and
hence whenever we reach a label in the source program the current value of
LOCCTR gives the address associated with the label.
12. Define load and go assembler.
One pass assembler that generates their object code in memory for
immediate execution is known as load and go assembler. Here no object programmer is written out and
hence no need for loader.

13. What are the two different types of jump statements used in MASM assembler?
• Near jump
A near jump is a jump to a target in the same segment and it is
assembled by using a current
code segment CS.
• Far jump
A far jump is a jump to a target in a different code segment and it is
assembled by using different segment registers .

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15. Differentiate the assembler directives RESW and RESB.

RESW –It reserves the indicated number of words for data area.
Eg: 10 1003 THREE RESW 1
In this instruction one word area (3 bytes) is reserved for the symbol
THREE. If the memory is byte addressable then the address assigned for the next symbol is 1006.
RESB –It reserves the indicated number of bytes for data area.
Eg: 10 1008 INPUT RESB 1
In this instruction one byte area is reserved for the symbol INPUT .Hence the address assigned for the next
symbol is 1009.

17. Write down the pass numbers (PASS 1/ PASS 2) of the following activities that occur in a two pass
assembler:
a. Object code generation
b. Literals added to literal table
c. Listing printed
d. Address location of local symbols
Answer:
a. Object code generation - PASS 2
b. Literals added to literal table – PASS 1
c. Listing printed – PASS2
d. Address location of local symbols – PASS1
18. What is meant by machine independent assembler features?
The assembler features that do not depend upon the machine
architecture are known as machine independent assembler features.
Eg: program blocks, Literals.

20. What is meant by external references?

Assembler program can be divided into many sections known as control
sections and each control section can be loaded and relocated independently of the others. If the instruction
in one control section need to refer instruction or data in another control section.the assembler is unable to
process these references in normal way. Such
references between control are called external references.

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25. What is the use of the assembler directive START?

The assembler directive START gives the name and starting address of
the program.
The format is
PN START 1000
Here
PN – Name of the program
1000 - Starting address of the program.

26. What are the basic functions of loaders?

• Loading – brings the object program into memory for execution
• Relocation – modifies the object program so that it can be loaded at an address different from the location
originally specified
• Linking – combines two or more separate object programs and also
supplies the information needed to reference them.

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LOADER AND LINKER

• The source program written in assembly language or high level language will be converted to object
program, which is in the machine language form for execution.
• This conversion is either from assembler or from compiler, contains translated instructions and data
values from the source program, or specific addresses in primary memory where these items are to
be loaded for execution.
• This contain three processes:
1. Loading- It allocates memory location and brings the object program in to memory for execution.
2. Linking- It combines two or more separate object programs and supplies the information needed
to allow references between them.
3. Relocation- It modifies the object program so that it can be loaded at address different from the
location originally specified.
LOADER: It is a utility of an operating system. It copies program from a storage device to a computer’s
main memory, where the program can then be executed.

Various Steps Loader Performs

1. Read executable file’s header to determine the size of text and data segments.
2. Create new address space for the program.
3. Copies instructions and add data in to address space.
4. Copies arguments passed to the program on the stack.
5. Initializes the machine registers including the stack pointer.
6. Jumps to a start-up routine that copies the program’s arguments from the stack to registers and calls
the program’s main routine.
Types of Loader

1. Assemble and Go Loader

2. Relocating Loader (Relative Loader)
3. Absolute Loader (Bootstrap Loader)
4. Direct Linking Loader

ABSOLUTE LOADER
➢ It is also known as Bootstrap Loader.
➢ It is the simplest loader.

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➢ It can read a machine language program from the specified back up storage and place it in memory
starting from a pre- determined address.
➢ Machine language program so loaded will work correctly only if it is loaded starting from the
specified address.
➢ Absolute type of loader is impractical, there are lots of complications involved in loading the
program.
➢ “Bootstrap loader” is an example of absolute loader.
Advantage:

o It simply performs input and output operation to load a program into the main memory.
o It is coded in very few machine instructions.
o Program is stored in the library in their ready to execute form. Such a library is called a Phase
Library.
Disadvantage:

o Programmer must explicitly specify the assembler the memory where the program is to be
loaded.
o Handling multiple subroutine become difficult since the programmer must specify the
address of the routines whenever they are referenced to perform subroutine linkage.
o When dealing with lots of subroutines the manual shuffling and re-shuffling of memory
address references in the routines become tedious and complex.
Design of Absolute Loader

➢ The operation of absolute loader is simple.

➢ Object code is loaded to specified locations in the memory.
➢ At the end the loader jumps to the specified address to begin execution of the loaded program.
➢ Initially the header record is checked to verify that the correct program has been presented for
loading
➢ As each text record is read the object code it contains is moved to the indicated memory location.
When the end record is encountered loader jumps to the specified i.e. location starting location of the
program to begin execution.

SIMPLE BOOTSTRAP LOADER

• It is a special type of absolute loader that is executed when computer is first turned o or restarted.
• The bootstrap loads the first program to be run by the computer- usually by operating systems.
Bootstrap Loader for SIC/XE

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➢ The bootstrap begins at address 0 in the memory of the machine.

➢ It loads the operating system starting at address 80.

➢ Because this loader is used in a unique situation, the program to be loaded can be represented in
very simple format:

i. Each byte of object code to be loaded is represented on device F1 as two hexadecimal digits.

ii. The object code from device F1 is always loaded into consecutive bytes of memory, starting
at address 80.

iii. After loading, the bootstrap jumps to address 80 to execute loaded program

Algorithm
➢ Clear the accumulator content.
➢ The index register ‘X’ is initialized to the hexadecimal value of 80.
➢ Test the input device to see if it is ready.
➢ When the input device becomes ready, read an ASCII character code.
➢ The input characters that have ASCII code less than hexadecimal 30 is skipped which will prevent
the bootstrap, from misinterpreting any control bytes as end of file marker.
➢ Convert the ASCII character code to hexadecimal digit.
➢ Save the hexadecimal digit in register ‘S’ and left shift it 4 bit position.
➢ Repeat the processing from step 4 to 6 to get the next character from the input device and convert it
to hexadecimal form.
➢ The hexadecimal value of the 2nd character read is added with the left shifted hexadecimal value of
the 1st character which is already stored in register ‘S’.
➢ The resultant byte is stored in the address currently in register ‘X’.
➢ Increment the value of index register by 1, to make it hold the next address location
➢ Repeat steps 3 to 11 until an end of the file is encountered.
➢ If the character read indicate the end of the file, jump to the starting location of the program just
loaded to begin the program execution.
Repeat the steps from 3 to 13 until there is no input

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Pgm.No.12

ABSOLUTE LOADER

AIM

Write a C program to implement Absolute Loader

ALGORITHM

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare necessary variables
Step 3: Open input file in read mode
Step 4: Read the program name
Step 5: Read first line from the file until space occur
Step 6: Access the name from the line and put ‘\0’ at the end
Step 7: Display the name
Step 8: If program name and object name are same and then continue
Step 9: Read next line from file and check line [0]==’T’ then continue
Step 10: Read address into straddr[j] and put ‘\0’ at the end
Step 11: While line[i]!=’$’ then continue
Step 12: Convert address into integer, set i=12
Step 13: If line[i]!=’^’
Step 14: Display address, line, data and increment i by 2, go back to step 13
Step 15: Increment i by 1, go back to step 12
Step 16: If line[0]=’E’ then break
Step 17: Close the file
Step 18: Stop

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp;
int i,addr1,l,j,staddr1;
char name[10],line[50],name1[10],addr[10],rec[10],ch,staddr[10];

printf("enter program name:" );

scanf("%s",name);

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fp=fopen("objectcode.txt","r");
fscanf(fp,"%s",line);
for(i=2,j=0;i<8,j<6;i++,j++)
name1[j]=line[i];
name1[j]='\0';
printf("name from obj. %s\n",name1);
if(strcmp(name,name1)==0)
{
fscanf(fp,"%s",line);
do
{

if(line[0]=='T')
{
for(i=2,j=0;i<8,j<6;i++,j++)
staddr[j]=line[i];
staddr[j]='\0';
staddr1=atoi(staddr);
i=12;
while(line[i]!='$')
{
if(line[i]!='^')
{
printf("00%d \t %c%c\n", staddr1,line[i],line[i+1]);
staddr1++;
i=i+2;
}
else i++;
}
}
else if(line[0]='E')
printf("jump to execution address:%s",&line[2]);
fscanf(fp,"%s",line);
}while(!feof(fp) );

}
fclose(fp);
}

objectcode.txt

H^SAMPLE^001000^0035
T^001000^0C^001003^071009$
T^002000^03^111111$
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H^SAMPLE^001000^0035
T^001000^0C^001003^071009$
T^002000^03^111111$
E^001000

OUTPUT

enter program name:SAMPLE

name from obj. SAMPLE
001000 00
001001 10
001002 03
001003 07
001004 10
001005 09
002000 11
002001 11
002002 11
jump to execution address:001000

Pgm.No.13

RELOCATING LOADER

AIM

Write a C program to implement relocating loader

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void convert(char h[12]);
char bitmask[12];
char bit[12]={0};
void main()
{char add[6],length[10],input[10],binary[12],relocbit,ch,pn[5];
int start,inp,len,i,address,opcode,addr,actualadd,tlen;
FILE *fp1,*fp2;
clrscr();
printf("\n\n Enter the actual starting address : ");

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scanf("%x",&start);
fp1=fopen("RLIN.txt","r");
fp2=fopen("RLOUT.txt","w");
fscanf(fp1,"%s",input);
fprintf(fp2," ----------------------------\n");
fprintf(fp2," ADDRESS\tCONTENT\n");
fprintf(fp2," ----------------------------\n");
while(strcmp(input,"E")!=0)
{
if(strcmp(input,"H")==0)
{
fscanf(fp1,"%s",pn);
fscanf(fp1,"%x",add);
fscanf(fp1,"%x",length);
fscanf(fp1,"%s",input);
}
if(strcmp(input,"T")==0)
{
fscanf(fp1,"%x",&address);
fscanf(fp1,"%x",&tlen);
fscanf(fp1,"%s",bitmask);
address+=start;
convert(bitmask);
len=strlen(bit);
if(len>=11)
len=10;
for(i=0;i<len;i++)
{
fscanf(fp1,"%x",&opcode);
fscanf(fp1,"%x",&addr);
relocbit=bit[i];
if(relocbit=='0')
actualadd=addr;
else
actualadd=addr+start;
fprintf(fp2,"\n %x\t\t%x%x\n",address,opcode,actualadd);
address+=3;
}
fscanf(fp1,"%s",input);
}
}
fprintf(fp2," ----------------------------\n");
fcloseall();
printf("\n\n The contents of output file(RLOUT.TXT n\n");
fp2=fopen("RLOUT.txt","r");
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ch=fgetc(fp2);
while(ch!=EOF)
{
printf("%c",ch);
ch=fgetc(fp2);
}
fclose(fp2);
getch();
}
void convert(char h[12])
{
int i,l;
strcpy(bit,"");
l=strlen(h);
for(i=0;i<l;i++)
{
switch(h[i])
{
case '0':
strcat(bit,"0");
break;
case '1':
strcat(bit,"1");
break;
case '2':
strcat(bit,"10");
break;
case '3':
strcat(bit,"11");
break;
case '4':
strcat(bit,"100");
break;
case '5':
strcat(bit,"101");
break;
case '6':
strcat(bit,"110");
break;
case '7':
strcat(bit,"111");
break;
case '8':
strcat(bit,"1000");
break;
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case '9':
strcat(bit,"1001");
break;
case 'A':
strcat(bit,"1010");
break;
case 'B':
strcat(bit,"1011");
break;
case 'C':
strcat(bit,"1100");
break;
case 'D':
strcat(bit,"1101");
break;
case 'E':
strcat(bit,"1110");
break;
case 'F':
strcat(bit,"1111");
break;
}
}
}

INPUT file:

RLIN.TXT

H COPY 000000 00107A

T 000000 1E FFC 14 0033 48 1039 10 0036 28 0030 30 0015 48 1061 3C 0003 20 002A 1C 0039 30 002D
T 002500 15 E00 1D 0036 48 1061 18 0033 4C 1000 80 1000 60 1003
E 000000

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OUTPUT

Enter the actual starting address : 4000

The contents of output file(RLOUT.TXT):
-----------------------------------------------------
ADDRESS CONTENT
-----------------------------------------------------
4000 144033
4003 485039
4006 104036
4009 284030
400c 304015
400f 485061
4012 3c4003
4015 20402a
4018 1c4039
401b 30402d
6503 1d4036
6506 184033
6509 4c1000
650c 801000
650f 601003

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MACRO PROCESSORS

A macro instruction (macro) is a notational convenience for the programmer. It allow the
programmer to write a shorthand version of a program . A macro represents a commonly used group of
statements in the source programming language. It replaces each macro instruction with the corresponding
group of source language statements.
A macro processor Essentially involve the substitution of one group of characters or lines for
another. Normally, it performs no analysis of the text it handles. It doesn’t concern the meaning of the
involved statements during macro expansion The design of a macro processor generally is machine
independent.

Macro processor should processes the

o Macro definitions : Define macro name, group of instructions
o Macro invocation (macro calls): A body is simply copied or substituted at the point of call

Two new assembler directives are used in macro definition:

MACRO: identify the beginning of a macro definition
MEND: identify the end of a macro definition

label op operands
name MACRO parameters
:
body
:
MEND

Parameters: the entries in the operand field identify the parameters of the macro instruction . We require
each parameter begins with ‘&’
Body: the statements that will be generated as the expansion of the macro.
Prototype for the macro: The macro name and parameters define a pattern or prototype for the macro
instructions used by the programmer

One-pass macro processor

Two-pass macro processor
• All macro definitions are processed during the first pass.
• All macro invocation statements are expanded during the second pass.
Nested macro definitions - The body of a macro contains definitions of other macros because all macros
would have to be defined during the first pass before any macro invocations were expanded.

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Pgm.No.16

TWO PASS MACRO PROCESSOR

AIM

Write a C program to implement two pass macro processor

PROGRAM

Pass one of two pass macro processor

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{

char macros[20][10], label[20],opcode[20],operand[20];

int i, j, n,m=0;
FILE *fp1, *fp[10];

fp1=fopen("inputm.txt","r");
fscanf(fp1,"%s%s%s",label,opcode,operand);
while(strcmp(opcode,"END")!=0)
{
if(!strcmp(opcode,"MACRO")){
fp[m]=fopen(operand,"w");
m++;
fscanf(fp1,"%s%s%s",label,opcode,operand);
while(strcmp(opcode,"MEND")!=0){
fprintf(fp[m-1],"%s\t%s\t%s\n",label,opcode,operand);
fscanf(fp1,"%s%s%s",label,opcode,operand);
}
}
fscanf(fp1,"%s%s%s",label,opcode,operand);
}
}

INPUT FILES
inputm.txt
** MACRO m1
** LDA ALPHA
** STA BETA

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** MEND **
** MACRO m2
** MOV a,b
** MEND **
** START 1000
** LDA a
** CALL m1
** CALL m2
** END **

OUTPUT FILES
m1.txt
** LDA ALPHA
** STA BETA
m2.txt
** MOV a,b

Pass two of two macroprocessor

ALGORITHM

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare necessary variables
Step 3: Open input.c in read mode and output,c in write mode
Step 4: Read first character from input.c
Step 5: While ch!=EOF do
Step 6: If ch==’#’ then continue otherwise go to step 16
Step 7: Call subfunction valid(ch) to check ch is valid or not.if valid continue, otherwise go to step 8
Step 8: Assign ch into a[j],j++,get next character and go back to step 7 Step 9: If ch is invalid, then set
a[j]=’\0’,j=0
Step10: Check if a[]=define then read next word file and check valid otherwise go to step15
Step11: While valid(ch) is true,then set b[i][j]=ch,j++,ch=getc(fp)
Step12: Otherwise b[i][j]=’\0’ and j=0
Step 13: Read next character and call valid()
Step 14: If valid of ch is true, then assign the macro value into array called c[]
Step 15: Write character into output file and continue fetching by set j=0
Step 16: Write character into output
Step 17: Read next word in d[j] and compare with b[j]
Step 18: Read whitespaces and symbols and save into output file
Step 19: If both matches then go to step 21
Step 20: Replace the macroname with value
Step 21: Stop

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PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{

char macros[20][10], label[20],opcode[20],operand[20];

int i, j, n,m=0;
FILE *fp1, *fp[10],*fp2;

fp1=fopen("inputm.txt","r");
fp2=fopen("macro_out.txt","w");
fscanf(fp1,"%s%s%s",label,opcode,operand);
while(strcmp(opcode,"END")!=0)
{
if(!strcmp(opcode,"CALL"))
{
fp[m]=fopen(operand,"r");
m++;
fscanf(fp[m-1],"%s%s%s",label,opcode,operand);
while(!feof(fp[m-1]))
{
fprintf(fp2,"%s\t%s\t%s\n",label,opcode,operand);
fscanf(fp[m-1],"%s%s%s",label,opcode,operand);
}
}
else
{
fprintf(fp2,"%s\t%s\t%s\n",label,opcode,operand);
}

fscanf(fp1,"%s%s%s",label,opcode,operand);
}
fprintf(fp2,"%s\t%s\t%s\n",label,opcode,operand);
}
INPUT FILES

inputm.txt
** MACRO m1
** LDA ALPHA
** STA BETA
** MEND **
** MACRO m2
** MOV a,b
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** MEND **
** START 1000
** LDA a
** CALL m1
** CALL m2
** END **

OUTPUT FILES

m1.txt
** LDA ALPHA
** STA BETA
m2.txt
** MOV a,b
output file
** MACRO m1
** LDA ALPHA
** STA BETA
** MEND **
** MACRO m2
** MOV a,b
** MEND **
** START 1000
** LDA a
** END **

Pgm.No.17

SINGLE PASS MACRO PROCESSOR

AIM

Write a C program to implement single pass macro processor

PROGRAM

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
#include<string.h>
int m=0,i,j,flag=0;
char c,*s1,*s2,*s3,*s4,str[50]=" ",str1[50]=" ";
char mac[10][10];
void main()

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{
FILE *fpm=fopen("macro.txt","r");
FILE *fpi=fopen("minput.txt","r");
FILE *fpo=fopen("moutput.txt","w");
clrscr();
while(!feof(fpm))
{
fgets(str,50,fpm);
s1=strtok(str," ");
s2=strtok(NULL," ");
if(strcmp(s1,"MACRO")==0)
{
strcpy(mac[m],s2);
m++;
}
s1=s2=NULL;
}
fgets(str,50,fpi);
while(!feof(fpi))
{
flag=0;
strcpy(str1,str);
for(i=0;i<m;i++)
{
if(strcmp(str1,mac[i])==0)
{
rewind(fpm);
while(!feof(fpm))
{
fgets(str,50,fpm);
s2=strtok(str," ");
s3=strtok(NULL," ");
if(strcmp(s2,"MACRO")==0&&strcmp(s3,str1)==0)
{
fgets(str,50,fpm);
strncpy(s4,str,4);
s4[4]='\0';
while(strcmp(s4,"MEND")!=0)
{
fprintf(fpo,"%s",str);
printf("\n####%s",str);
fgets(str,50,fpm);
strncpy(s4,str,4);
s4[4]='\0';
}
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}
}
flag=1;
break;
}
}
if(flag==0)
{
fprintf(fpo,"%s",str);
printf("%s",str);
}
fgets(str,50,fpi);
}
fclose(fpm);
fclose(fpi);
fclose(fpo);
}

INPUT FILES

Macro.txt

MACRO ADD1
MOV A,B
ADD C
MEND
MACRO SUB1
STORE C
MEND

MInput.txt

MOV B,10
MOV C,20
ADD1
MUL C
SUB1
END

OUTPUT

MOutput.txt

MOV B,10
MOV C,20
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MOV A,B
ADD C
MUL C
STORE C
END

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Define macro processor.

Macro processor is system software that replaces each macro instruction with the corresponding group of
source language statements. This is also called as expanding of macros.

2. What do macro expansion statements mean?

These statements give the name of the macro instruction being invoked
and the arguments to be used in expanding the macros. These statements are also known as macro call.

3. What are the directives used in macro definition?

MACRO - it identifies the beginning of the macro definition
MEND - it marks the end of the macro definition

4. What are the data structures used in macro processor?

DEFTAB – the macro definitions are stored in a definition table i.e. it contains a macro prototype and the
statements that make up the macro body.
NAMTAB – it is used to store the macro names and it contains two
pointers for each macro instruction which indicate the starting and end location of macro definition in
DEFTAB. it also serves as an index to DEFTAB
ARGTAB – it is used to store the arguments during the expansion of macro invocations.

5. Define conditional macro expansion.

If the macro is expanded depends upon some conditions in macro
definition (depending on the arguments supplied in the macro expansion) then it is called as conditional
macro expansion.

6. What is the use of macro time variable?

Macro time variable can be used to store working values during the macro expansion. Any symbol that
begins with the character & and then is not a macro instruction parameter is assumed to be a macro time
variable.

7. What are the statements used for conditional macro expansion?

IF-ELSE-ENDIF statement
WHILE-ENDW statement

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8. What is meant by positional parameters?

If the parameters and arguments were associated with each other
according to their positions in the macro prototype and the macro invocation statement, then these
parameters in macro definitions are called as positional parameters.

10. What are known as nested macro call?

The statement, in which a macro calls on another macro, is called nested macro call. In the nested macro
call, the call is done by outer macro and the macro called is the inner macro.

11. How the macro is processed using two passes?

Pass1: processing of definitions
Pass 2:actual-macro expansion.

12. Give the advantage of line by line processors.

• It avoids the extra pass over the source program during assembling.
• It may use some of the utility that can be used by language translators so that can be loaded once.

13. What is meant by line by line processor?

This macro processor reads the source program statements, process the
statements and then the output lines are passed to the language translators as they are generated, instead of
being written in an expanded file.

14. Give the advantages of general-purpose macro processors.

• The programmer does not need to learn about a macro facility for each compiler.
• Overall saving in software development cost and maintenance cost.

15. What is meant by general-purpose macro processors?

The macro processors that are not dependent on any particular
programming language, but can be used with a variety of different languages are known as general purpose
macro processors.
Eg. The ELENA macro processor.

16. What are the important factors considered while designing general purpose macro processors?
• comments
• grouping of statements
• tokens
• syntax used for macro definitions

18. How the nested macro calls are executed?

The execution of nested macro call follows the LIFO rule. In case of nested macro calls the expansion of the
latest macro call is completed first.

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19. Mention the tasks involved in macro expansion.

• identify the macro calls in the program
• the values of formal parameters are identified
• maintain the values of expansion time variables declared in a macro
• expansion time control flow is organized
• determining the values of sequencing symbols
• expansion of a model statement is performed

20. How to design the pass structure of a macro assembler?

To design the structure of macro-assembler, the functions of macro
pre-processor and the conventional assembler are merged. After merging, the functions are structured into
passes of the macro assembler.

STUDY OF ASSEMBLER AND DEBUGGING COMMANDS

MASM (MICROSOFT MACRO ASSEMBLER)

The Microsoft macro assembler is an assembler for the x86 family of microprocessors.It was
originally produced by Microsoft for development work on their MS-DOS operating system and was for
some time the most popular assembler available for that operating system.

STEPS TO WORK ON MASM

mount c c:\masm
edit pgmname.asm
masm pgmname.asm
link pgmname.obj
debug pgmname.exe

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DEBUG COMMANDS
It has a number of commands to facilitate users to write, execute and debug programs. A DEBUG
command is represented by one letter symbol. DEBUG commands are not case sensitive.

➢ A – Assemble command : It allows users to enter assembly language program and convert it into
machine code.
Syntax: A[offset-address]
➢ U – Unassemble command : It disassemble machinecodes of specified memory addresses and give
ninemonics
Syntax: U [address-range]
➢ R – Register Command : Used to display the contents of one or more registers.It also displaythe
status of flags.
➢ G – Go Commands: It is used to execute a program
Syntax: G[= address]
➢ T - Trace command: It is used to runa program in single step mode.
Syntax: T= address [step]
➢ D – Display or Dump command : It is used to display the contents of specified locations
Syntax: D address – range or D –address
➢ E – Enter command: It is used to enter the data or mahine code. It default register.
Syntax: E –address
➢ F – Fill command: It is used to fill specified range of locations with the values given in a list.
➢ M – Move command : It copies the block of data from one memory area to another
Synatx: M range address

An ALP contains two types of ststements:

• Instructions: These are translated into machine codes.
• Directives: It gives direction to the assembler to perform the taste of assembly process.
EXAMPLES: MASM, TASM, FASM, NASM etc.
The following characters are used for:
• Symbols: A to Z, a to z, 0 TO 9, -,@,$,?
• Variables: A to Z ,a to z, 0 to 9,-,@
Maximum length of varaiables is up to 32 characters. The letters B, D, H are written in the end of
binary, decimal, hexadecimal

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DIRECTIVES

• DB – Define Byte : It defines a byte type variable. It directs the assembler to reserve one byte
of memory and initialise it with a specified value. It candefine single or multiple variables.
Example: Temperature DB 10, Temp DB 100 DUP (?)
• DW – Define Word : It directs assembler to reserve two bytes of memory and initialise it
with specified value.
Example: Temp DW 1234H, TEMP DW 2 DUP (0)
• DQ – Define Quad Word: It defines aquad word type varaiable. It directs assembler to
reserve eight byte of memory.
Example: Temp DQ12345678
• EXTERN – External: It tells the assembler that names or labels following the directives are
some other assembly module.
Example: EXTERN Temperature: word
• PUBLIC – It informs the assembler that the defined name or label can be accessed from other
program modules.
Example : PUBLIC Temperature 1, Temperature?
• SEGMENT – It indicate the beginning of a logical segment
Syntax: Segment name SEGMENT [word/public]
• ENDS - ENDP , It indicate the end of procedure and segment
Synatx: Procedure name ENDP , segment name ENDS.
• END : It indicates the end of a program.
• EQU : It assign name to some value.
Example: TEMP EQU 04H
• ASSUME : This tells the assembler the name of a logical segment which is to be used for a
specific segment.
ASSUME CS: CODE, DS:DATA
• ORG:It tells the assembler to assign address, to data items or instructions in a program.
Example: ORG 0100H
• STRUCT or STRUE : It is used to define the start of a data structure.
• PTR: It is an operator. It points the type of memory access.
Example: MOV byte Ptr [bx], 58h
• LENGTH: It tells the assembler to determine the number of elements in a specified variable.
Example: Mov cx, length arry 1
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• SIZE: It gives number of bytes allocated to data item.

• OFFSET :It determines the offset.
• Define ten Bytes
• GLOBAL
• Define Double Word: It defines a double word type variable. It directs the assembler to
reservefour byte of memory and initialise those bytes with the specified value. It can define
single or multiple variables.
Example: Temperature DD 12345678
Temperature DD 5 DUP (?)

PROGRAMS ON 8086 MASM

Pgm.No.18

BASIC ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS (16 bit and 32 bit)

AIM

Write a program to perform basic arithmetic operations (bith 16 and 32 bit)

16 BIT ADDITION

PROGRAM:

DATA SEGMENT

N1 DW 1731H

N2 DW 9212H

N3 DW ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS :CODE;DS:DATA

START:

MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

XOR AX,AX
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MOV BX,AX

MOV AX,N1

ADD AX,N2

MOV N3,AX

JNC STOP

INC BX

STOP:

MOV CX,AX

MOV AH,4CH

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

END START

OUTPUT

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32 BIT ADDITION

PROGRAM:

DATA SEGMENT

LIST DD 12121212H,12121212H

N3 DW ?

N4 DW ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS :CODE;DS:DATA

START:

MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

XOR AX,AX

MOV CL,AL

MOV AX,[SI]

ADD AX,[SI+4]

MOV BX,AX

MOV N3,BX

MOV AX,[SI+2]

ADD AX,[SI+6]

MOV DX,AX

MOV N4,DX

JNC STOP

INC CL

STOP:

MOV AX,4CH

INT 21H

CODE ENDS
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END START

OUTPUT

16 BIT SUBTRACTION

PROGRAM:

DATA SEGMENT

N1 DW 8888H

N2 DW 4444H

N3 DW ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS :CODE;DS:DATA

START:

MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

XOR AX,AX

MOV BX,AX

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MOV AX,N1

SUB AX,N2

MOV N3,AX

JNC STOP

INC BX

STOP:

MOV CX,AX

MOV AH,4CH

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

END START

OUTPUT

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32 BIT SUBTRACTION

PROGRAM:

DATA SEGMENT

LIST DD 12121212H,12121212H

N3 DW ?

N4 DW ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS :CODE;DS:DATA

START:

MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

XOR AX,AX

MOV CL,AL

MOV AX,[SI]

ADD AX,[SI+4]

MOV BX,AX

MOV N3,BX

MOV AX,[SI+2]

ADD AX,[SI+6]

MOV DX,AX

MOV N4,DX

JNC STOP

INC CL

STOP:

MOV AX,4CH

INT 21H

CODE ENDS
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END START

OUTPUT

16 BIT MULTIPLICATION

PROGRAM:

DATA SEGMENT

N1 DW 8888H

N2 DW 4444H

N3 DW ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS :CODE;DS:DATA

START:

MOV AX,4343

MOV BX,1111

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INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

OUTPUT

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Pgm.No.19

STRING DISPLAY
AIM

Write a program to display a given string

PROGRAM

DATA SEGMENT

MSG1 DB "HELLO WORLD$"

DATA ENDS

ASSUME CS:CODE; DS:DATA

CODE SEGMENT

START:

MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

MOV DX,OFFSET MSG1

MOV AH,09H

INT 21H

MOV AH,4CH

MOV AL,00H

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

END START

OUTPUT

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Pgm.No.20

STRING CONCATENATE
AIM

Write a program to concatenate two strings

PROGRAM

DATA SEGMENT

MSG1 DB "HELLO$"

MSG2 DB "WORLD$"

DATA ENDS

ASSUME CS:CODE; DS:DATA

CODE SEGMENT

START:

MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

MOV DX,OFFSET MSG1

MOV AH,09H

INT 21H

MOV DX,OFFSET MSG2

MOV AH,09H

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

END START

OUTPUT

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Pgm.No.21

SORTING
AIM

Write a program to perform sorting

PROGRAM:

DATA SEGMENT

STRING1 DB 99H,12H,56H,45H,36H

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS:CODE,DS:DATA

START: MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

MOV CH,04H

UP2: MOV CL,04H

LEA SI,STRING1

UP1:MOV AL,[SI]

MOV BL,[SI+1]

CMP AL,BL

JNC DOWN

MOV DL,[SI+1]

XCHG [SI],DL

MOV [SI+1],DL

DOWN: INC SI

DEC CL

JNZ UP1

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DEC CH

JNZ UP2

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

OUTPUT

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Pgm.No.22

SEARCHING
AIM

Write a program to perform searching

PROGRAM:

DATA SEGMENT

STRING1 DB 11H,22H,33H,44H,55H

MSG1 DB "FOUND$"

MSG2 DB "NOT FOUND$"

SE DB 33H

DATA ENDS

PRINT MACRO MSG

MOV AH, 09H

LEA DX, MSG

INT 21H

INT 3

ENDM

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS:CODE, DS:DATA

START:

MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV AL, SE

LEA SI, STRING1

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MOV CX, 04H

UP:

MOV BL,[SI]

CMP AL, BL

JZ FO

INC SI

DEC CX

JNZ UP

PRINT MSG2

JMP END1

FO:

PRINT MSG1

END1:

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

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OUTPUT

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PROGRAMS ON 8086 TRAINER KIT

8086

16 bit addition
16 bit subtraction
BCD to hexadecimal conversion
Sorting in ascending order

Pgm.No.23

ADDITION-16 BIT
AIM

Write a program to perform addition of two 16 bit numbers

PROGRAM

ADDRESS MNEMONICS

0400 AND AX,0000

0403 MOV BX,0600
0406 MOV SI,0500
0409 MOV DI,0550
040C MOV AX,[SI]
040E MOV AX,[DI]
0410 MOV [BX],AX
0412 MOV AX,0000
0415 ADC AX,0000
0418 MOV [BX+2],AX
041B HLT

INPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
0500 B5
0501 7A
0550 2A

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0551 E6

OUTPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
0600 DF
0601 5F
0602 01

Pgm.No.24

SUBTRACTION-16 BIT
AIM

Write a program to perform subtraction of two 16 bit numbers

PROGRAM

ADDRESS MNEMONICS

0400 CLC
0401 MOV BX,0900
0404 MOV SI,0700
0407 MOV DI,0800
040A MOV AX,[SI]
040C SSB AX,[DI]
040E MOV [BX],AX
0410 HLT

INPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
0700 18
0701 08
0800 40
0801 10

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OUTPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
0900 D8
0901 F7

Pgm.No.25

MULTIPLICATION-16 BIT
AIM

Write a program to perform multiplication of two 16 bit numbers

PROGRAM

ADDRESS MNEMONICS

2000 MOV AX, [3000]

2004 MOV BX, [3002]

2008 MUL BX

200A MOV [3004], AX

200E MOV AX, DX

2010 MOV [3006], AX

2014 HLT

2000 MOV AX, [3000]

INPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
3003 07
3002 08
3001 04
3000 03

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OUTPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
3007 00
3006 1C
3005 35
3004 18

Pgm.No.26
SORTING-ASCENDING (check descending from the maual)
AIM

Write a program to perform sorting

PROGRAM

ADDRESS MNEMONICS
400 MOV SI, 500
403 MOV CL, [SI]
405 DEC CL
407 MOV SI, 500
40A MOV CH, [SI]
40C DEC CH
40E INC SI
40F MOV AL, [SI]
411 INC SI
412 CMP AL, [SI]
414 JC 41C
416 XCHG AL, [SI]
418 DEC SI
419 XCHG AL, [SI]
41B INC SI
41C DEC CH
41E JNZ 40F
420 DEC CL
422 JNZ 407
424 HLT

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INPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
500 04
501 F9
502 F2
503 39
504 05

OUTPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
501 05
502 39
503 F2
504 F9

Pgm.No.26
BCD TO HEXADECIMAL

AIM

Write a program to perform conversion of 8 bit BCD number into hexadecimal number

PROGRAM

ADDRESS MNEMONICS
400 MOV SI, 500
403 MOV DI, 600
406 MOV BL, [SI]
408 AND BL, 0F
040A MOV AL, [SI]
040C AND AL, F0
040E MOV CL, 04
410 ROR AL, CL
412 MOV DL, 0A
414 MUL DL
416 ADD AL, BL
418 MOV [DI], AL
041A HLT

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INPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
500 25

OUTPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
600 19

Pgm.No.27
ASCII TO BCD

AIM

Write a program to perform conversion of ASCII(in hex) value of number to its BCD(decimal) number

ASCII (in Hex) 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

BCD 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09

PROGRAM

MOV AL,[2050]
AND AL,0F
MOV [3050],AL
HLT

INPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
2050 39

OUTPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
3050 09

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Pgm.No.28
BCD TO ASCII

AIM

Write a program to perform conversion of 8 bit BCD number to ASCII code

PROGRAM

ADDRESS MNEMONICS

400 MOV AL, [2000]

404 MOV AH, AL

406 AND AL, 0F

408 MOV CL, 04

40A SHR AH, CL

40C OR AX, 3030

40F MOV [3000], AX

413 HLT

INPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
2000 98

OUTPUT

ADDRESS VALUE
3000 38
3001 39

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