Slabs, Panels, and Hollow-Core: Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute

JULY–AUGUST 2021
VOLUME 66, NUMBER 4
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
Slabs, Panels, and Hollow-Core
23 43 66
Precast concrete Web-shear Grade 2205
cofferdams capacity of duplex high-
for new lock hollow-core slabs strength stainless
at Kentucky Dam with filled cores steel strand
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Table of Contents
Slabs, Panels, and Hollow-Core

Factors Affecting Web-Shear Capacity 43
of Hollow-Core Slabs with Filled Cores
Scott A. Asperheim and Benjamin Z. Dymond
23 Mechanical and Bond Properties of Grade 2205

Duplex High-Strength Stainless Steel Strand
66
Anwer Al-Kaimakchi and Michelle Rambo-Roddenberry
New Lock at Kentucky Dam: Analysis and Design 23

of Precast Concrete Cofferdams
Jared Spaans and Goran V. Milutinovic
43
Index of advertisers
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cegengineers.com Management (SCIP)..........................41
Endicott ....................................................... 6 optimum.xittna.com
endicott.com Prestress Supply Inc ............................... 4
Hamilton Form ......................Back Cover prestresssupply.com
hamiltonform.com Tucker’s.......................................................16
JVI ....................................................................1 tuckerbilt.com
jvi-inc.com
Nox-Crete ................. Inside Back Cover
nox-crete.com
PCI Journal | July–August 2021

2
JULY–AUGUST 2021 • VOLUME 66, NUMBER 4
JULY–AUGUST 2021
VOLUME 66, NUMBER 4
Departments
On the cover
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
Chairman’s Message 5
The new Academy Museum
of Motion Pictures in Los The Opening
Angeles, Calif., involved the
exterior restoration and Slabs, Panels, and Hollow-Core
President’s Message 7
interior gut renovation of 2021 PCI Convention
a 240,000 ft2 (22,300 m2)
a Hybrid Success
historic landmark structure
23 43 66
and a 60,000 ft2 (5600 m2) Precast concrete
cofferdams
Web-shear
capacity of
Grade 2205
duplex high-
From PCI Headquarters 8

for new lock hollow-core slabs strength stainless
at Kentucky Dam with filled cores steel strand
spherical glass and concrete

structure to house a 1000-
seat theater. Courtesy of Willis Construction Inc. PCI Calendar 15
Our Members 17
In the News 20
Industry Calendar 20
Project Spotlight 21
Discussion 82
PCI Directories 85
Board of Directors and
Technical Activities Council 85
PCI Staff Directory 86
JOURNAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE Millard J. Barney Pinar Okumus Regional Offices 87

Chair Richard Alan Miller Amir Fam Arturo Ernest Schultz
Vice Chair vacant Clay Naito Sri Sritharan Coming Ahead 87
Secretary Collin Moriarty
Staff Liaison Tom Klemens Meet Skip Francies 88
EDITORIAL DESIGN & PRODUCTION

Tom Klemens Editor-in-Chief Lisa Scacco Publications Manager PCI Journal (ISSN 0887-9672) is published bimonthly by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, 8770 W. Bryn Mawr Ave.,
Chicago, IL 60631. Copyright © 2021, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute. The Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute is
K. Michelle Burgess Managing Editor Walt Furie Senior Production Specialist
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PCI Journal | July–August 2021

3
Chairman’s Message
The Opening
T he last month has been an “opening” experience. As the PCI Convention and The Precast
Show unfolded, it was as if we were watching the businesses and venues around us open
up and begin returning to normal behaviors right before our eyes. After I arrived on Monday,
each subsequent day progressed more toward normalcy, culminating with The Precast Show and
100% face-to-face interactions on the show floor. It was invigorating to walk the showroom floor
and see old friends, meet new friends, and take in the new technologies and products offered by
the vendors.
As PCI chair, I had a very busy week at the convention and the show. After more than a year
of seclusion, it was gratifying to gather in person with my PCI family. It really felt like a family
reunion of sorts, hearing individuals’ unique or similar experiences and the tales of how com-
panies dealt with the pandemic both from a business standpoint and from a human relations
perspective. The National Precast Concrete Association (NPCA) and PCI boards were brave
and bold to move forward with our events, and both staffs really made it happen. Thank you so
much! For me personally, it signified the opening of life again, or at least how I expect life to be.
The lights are back on, and the doors are open for business. I look forward to seeing customers
and vendors in person, working together to move our industry forward.
There is no denying that we still face some challenges, but you could literally see a renewed
optimism unveil itself live in person at the PCI convention. We found a way to continue to con-
duct our business and programs virtually, which was a great accomplishment, but now we will be
returning to in-person events and meetings as recommended by our council chairs. The direction
set was heard loud and clear.
The NPCA and PCI executive committees met in person three weeks after The Precast Show
to discuss successes and improvement opportunities for future shows. We also discussed other
areas for potential synergies, such as governmental affairs, leadership training, safety, and educa-
tion. Stay tuned.
Finally, I’d like to say I will be attending as many regional meetings as practical. I hope to see you
there! J
Dennis R. Fink
2021 PCI Board Chair
President
Northeast Prestressed Products LLC
Cressona, Pa.
PCI Journal | July–August 2021 5

President’s Message
2021 PCI Convention

a hybrid success
W e all did it, and it was so great to see people in person again! We held the 2020 PCI
Convention just before COVID-19 shutdowns and successfully conducted the 2021
PCI Convention this May in New Orleans, La. The Precast Show 2021 was one of the first
large equipment shows to be held this year. And thanks to the hard work of the PCI staff and
the dedication of our members, we were able to successfully hold the PCI Convention as a live
hybrid event (members both in person and online), as one of the very first organizations to
do so. Although there were some glitches along the way, generally we received many positive
comments on how well the hybrid equipment and staffing worked. Along the way, we followed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, state, and city safety guidelines for the conven-
tion and Precast Show, bringing the best result of all: after three weeks, not a single case of
COVID-19 from attendance has been reported to either PCI or the National Precast Concrete
Association (NPCA).
Here are some of the numbers. We had 816 participants, down about 8% from 2020 in Ft.
Worth, Tex. Of those, 476 were in person, about 65% of 2020 attendance. Attendance at The
Precast Show was also about 65%. Both were much higher than either organization was planning
when the decision was made to go ahead back in February. I want to commend the boards of
NPCA and PCI for looking at the data and trends and making the decision to go ahead with the
events. It was no sure thing at the time, but it sure paid off.
I also want to compliment PCI members for all their support to the charity we chose in
New Orleans, The Roots of Music. The organization provides music history and theory as well
as instrumental instruction to children ages 9 through 14 from low-income households and
provides students with hot meals and round-trip transportation to reduce common barriers to
participation. Together we raised $5000 for this worthy cause, including a generous matching
challenge from High Concrete Group. Thank you to those who contributed. If you have not
donated yet, please consider helping this organization continue its work in empowering the
youths of New Orleans. You can visit The Roots of Music at TheRootsOfMusic.org, and be sure
to put PCI in the comment section.
Although the PCI staff demonstrated the ability to successfully conduct hybrid committee
and council meetings, the overwhelming feedback is that it just is not the same experience as
being there in person. In response to this feedback and a unanimous recommendation from the
PCI council chairs, the PCI board determined at its summer meeting that all future conventions
and PCI Committee Days meetings will be held in-person only. Committee members will be
required to attend regularly, as before the pandemic. We encourage committees to continue to
use Zoom and other tools to meet between these events. PCI staff members have been asked to
investigate how we might be able to let people who are not committee members listen in remote-
ly without interaction so people who cannot attend physically can see the work of the institute
in action, but our experiment in hybrid meetings is over. As one board member put it, “It got
us through what we needed to get through, but it’s time to get back together.” I could not agree
more. Have a great and safe summer! J
Bob Risser, PE
PCI President and CEO

From PCI Headquarters
2021/22 Daniel P. Jenny Implementing Dapped Ends in Very

Thin UHPC Stems
fellowships awarded University: North Carolina State
University
T he PCI Research and Development Council has award-

ed five Daniel P. Jenny Research Fellowships for the
2020/21 academic year. The fellowship recipients are Mahsa
Faculty advisors: Gregory Lucier and
Giorgio Proestos
Supporting producers: Tindall and
Mortazi, Lily Polster, Mohammad Qambar, Shadi Firouz Metromont Mohammad Qambar
Ranjbar, and Rachel Wagner. Additional support: e.Construct USA, Wiss
The fellowship program connects students and faculty with Janney Elstner Associates Inc., and Georgia/Carolinas PCI
precast concrete producers and industry experts to advance In the application, Mohammad wrote, “The proposed
research in precast concrete, providing a valuable experience research we hope to undertake aims to look at introducing the
to the student, faculty, and the precast concrete industry. PCI dapped ends condition into ultra-high-performance concrete
especially thanks all producers who provide in-kind support (UHPC) members. This project combines the challenge of
for universities proposing research ideas. designing an end condition that involves a complex distribu-
tion of stresses with an exciting material that has made previ-
Thermal Bowing in Partially Composite ously impractical designs a reality.”
Precast Insulated Wall Panels
University: University of Nebraska– Resistance of Hollow-core Slab Floors
Lincoln to Concentrated and Line Loads
Faculty advisor: Marc Maguire University: The University of Texas at San
Supporting producer: Gage Brothers Antonio
Additional support: AltusGroup, Dayton Faculty advisor: Arturo E. Schultz
Superior, HK Composites, and IconX Mahsa Mortazi Supporting producers: Molin Concrete
In the application, Mortazi wrote, Products, Fabcon (formerly Oldcastle
“Understanding thermal bowing is of practical importance to Infrastructure), Gate Precast Co., and Shadi Firouz
the precast concrete industry as it amplifies second-order effects Manco Structures Ranjbar
and generates forces that are currently not considered. The Additional support: Precast Engineering Systems
research products will inform every day design and result in a In the application, Ranjbar wrote, “This proposed study
more rational but simple approach to a complicated problem.” embodies one of my goals to develop new approaches for
advanced structural design of precast concrete systems and
Precast Concrete Yielding Elements for ensuring adequate structural safety. I wish to focus my research
Buckling Restrained Braced Frames work on experimental and analytical research for formulation
University: University of Notre Dame of methods for the design of safe and serviceable precast con-
Faculty advisor: Yahya (Gino) Kurama crete structures in modern buildings.”
Supporting producers: Clark Pacific,
Tindall, and Metromont Immediate Deflection Calculations for
Additional support: Seaboard Services of Class T and C Prestressed Sections in
Virginia Inc., Buehler Engineering, and Lily Polster Flexure
Englekirk Structural Engineers University: The University of Minnesota
In the application, Polster wrote, “I am looking forward to Duluth
the possibility of participating in research on BRBs in seismic Faculty advisor: Andrea Schokker
precast frames. Investigating and developing a new type of Supporting producers: Metromont,
precast element for the design of all-precast BRB frames will be Concrete Technology Corp., Molin Rachel Wagner
innovative and likely prove useful to the industry in terms of Concrete Products, Shockey Precast
efficiency and effectiveness.” In the application, Wagner wrote “Understanding material
behavior fascinates me because I want to know the complex-
ities around how members deform or react to different situa-
tions and how designers can predict these.”
8 PCI Journal | July–August 2021

PCI Ultra-High-Performance prestressed, circumferentially spun concrete piles that support
it. The piles made the project economically possible and over
Concrete Workshop the years have shown exceptional durability in the brackish
waters of the lake.
set for September He earned his doctorate in civil engineering from the
University of Illinois–Urbana in 1962 and spent the next 45
P CI is hosting an Ultra-High-Performance Concrete

Workshop Tuesday, September 21, 2021. This one-day
workshop will gather experts from across the precast concrete
years teaching structural engineering at Tulane, where he held
the Catherine and Henry Boh Chair in Civil Engineering for
20 years. He also served as a Fulbright Research Scholar at
industry to discuss various research and development initia- the Magnel Laboratory at the University of Ghent, Belgium,
tives for the implementation of ultra-high-performance con- in 1954; Fulbright Lecturer at the Rangoon Institute of
crete (UHPC) in precast concrete components. Technology, Burma, in 1979; and Senior Fulbright Fellow at
The workshop will cover design considerations for archi- the Technical University of Budapest, Hungary, in 2000. In
tectural and structural precast UHPC components, such as addition, he was one of five U.S. delegates to the International
UHPC material selection for nonproprietary mixture designs, Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering.
characterization and quality control testing of UHPC, and Bruce was a pioneer in the field of prestressed concrete and
production and fabrication of precast UHPC components. his work had a major impact on the U.S. prestressed concrete
The workshop will be at Loews O’Hare in Rosemont, Ill. industry. He conducted numerous research studies for the
For more information, visit https://www.pci.org/Event.aspx Louisiana Transportation Research Center over a span of 30
?EventKey=PCI210921. years and was instrumental in the adoption of high-strength
and ultra-high-strength prestressed concrete structural ele-
ments in Louisiana. The specifications for high-performance
Bruce recipient of 2021 concrete that he helped write for the Louisiana Department of
Transportation and Development are still in use today.
PCI Medal of Honor In 1955, Bruce was among the attendees of the first PCI
convention in Fort Lauderdale, Fla. Bruce was widely known
R obert N. Bruce Jr. was posthumously

awarded the PCI Medal of Honor.
Bruce, known to many as Bob or
and respected for his numerous technical achievements, his
mentorship of young engineers, and his tireless advocacy for
prestressed concrete and the civil engineering profession. His
Doc, attended Tulane University in New invaluable contributions were recognized by multiple nation-
Orleans, La., for both his bachelor and mas- al and international awards and honors, including PCI’s
ter of science degrees in civil engineering. Martin Korn Award, the T. Y. Lin Award, the Vasarhelyi
After earning his master’s degree, Bruce Medal from the Technical University of Budapest, the
joined the New York firm of Raymond Robert N. Bruce Jr. Society of Tulane Engineers Award for Teaching Excellence,
International Inc. and was involved in projects and the Federal Highway Administration Plaque of
in Venezuela, Mississippi, Florida, and Louisiana. One of these Recognition. In 2001 he was honored as a PCI Fellow and in
projects was the world-famous Lake Pontchartrain Causeway 2016 was presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award by
in Louisiana, where he participated in designing the hollow, the PCI Gulf South chapter.
2022 PCI Design Awards call for entries

The PCI Design Awards program recogniz- special awards categories: the Harry H. Edwards
es design excellence and construction quality Industry Advancement Award, the All–Precast
using precast concrete. Be a part of the search Concrete Solution Award, the Sustainable Design
for excellence and submit your precast concrete Award, and the Building Information Modeling
projects today. (BIM) Award.
The 2022 PCI Design Awards submission site is August 10, 2021, is the submission deadline,
now open. Visit https://www.pci.org/PCI/About and winners will be notified in November. All
/Awards/PCI_Design_Awards/ for complete infor- winning projects will be showcased at the 2022
mation, including this year’s categories and submis- PCI Convention at The Precast Show, March 1–5,
sion guidelines, or to make a submission. 2022, in Kansas City, Mo., and will be included in a
Entries are accepted in two primary catego- supplement to PCI Journal and Aspire and in the
ries: buildings and transportation structures. In spring issue Ascent. For more information, con-
addition to buildings and transportation, there are tact PCIDesignAwards@pci.org.

PCI recognizes 2021 Fellows a member of PCI since 2003 and is a current member and past
chair of the Student Education Committee. He has been closely
at convention in New Orleans involved in the Big Beam competition, first as a student advisor
and later as a judge, and created a student research session at the
T he Board of Directors recently named seven members

PCI Fellows, honoring them for outstanding contribu-
tions to PCI and to the precast concrete structures industry.
PCI Convention. He also has taught and developed materials
for a number of PCI courses. As a member of the Blue Ribbon
Review Committee, Breña made significant contributions to
The new PCI Fellows are Sergio F. Breña, Todd Culp, Mary the eighth edition of the PCI Design Handbook: Precast and
Ann Griggas-Smith, David Larsen, Alexander Mihaylov, Chris Prestressed Concrete. Currently he serves on the ninth edition
Mosley, and Cheryl L. Rishcoff. They were recognized on May Industry Handbook Committee, as well as on the Design
20 at the PCI Annual Membership Meeting and Luncheon Standard Committee and the PCI Academy Advisory Board.
during the 2021 PCI Convention in New Orleans, La. Breña has also served on the PCI Northeast Bridge Technical
Breña is a professor and associate depart- committee since 2012 and actively promotes precast concrete
ment head in Civil and Environmental research and education in the Northeast region. He was awarded
Engineering at the University of Daniel P. Jenny Fellowships in 2009 and 2010, and his edu-
Massachusetts Amherst with more than cational achievements were recognized with the PCI Young
25 years of experience in laboratory- and Educator Award in 2011 and the Distinguished Educator
field-testing of structures and structural sys- Award in 2019.
tems. In addition, he has more than six years Culp is the general manager and
of structural design experience in projects Sergio Breña vice president of Coreslab Structures
such as seismic retrofit of existing buildings and (OMAHA) Inc. in Nebraska, a position he
structural design of underground structures and precast con- has held since 2007. A graduate with honors
crete tunnel liners. His research interests include the design and from the University of Nebraska, Culp’s
behavior of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures, use research and master’s degree thesis, “Full
of fiber-reinforced materials in civil infrastructure applications, Scale Testing of Thermally and Structurally
and field performance of bridges and buildings. Breña has been Efficient Precast Concrete Sandwich Todd Culp
PCI seeking manager–technical activities

PCI is seeking applications for a new technical nical leaders in the institute in coordinating the
position as manager–technical activities. The tech- institute’s technical activities. Working with estab-
nical activities manager is responsible for the pro- lished PCI committees, industry consultants, and
gram and project management of PCI technical volunteers, the technical activities manager will
activities relating to the development and dissem- facilitate the development of PCI publications to
ination of the existing PCI Body of Knowledge. As enhance the PCI Body of Knowledge. The techni-
a member of PCI Technical Services, the technical cal activities manager will also support the devel-
activities manager supports the core purpose of opment of presentations and educational content
maintaining and protecting the technical integrity to support the broader use of precast concrete
of precast concrete by providing guidance and systems. For more information, visit https://www
perspective on major technical issues confronting .pci.org/PCI/News-Events/Precast_Careers/PCI
the industry and working closely with other tech- _HQ.aspx.
2022 Mario J. Bertolini Leadership

and Innovation Award call for nominations
To honor the legacy of Mario J. Bertolini, an Precast Show, March 1–5, 2022, in Kansas City, Mo.
icon of the precast concrete industry, PCI estab- Nominations are being accepted through August
lished the Mario J. Bertolini Leadership and Inno- 11, 2021. The criteria for this award and the nomi-
vation Award. Bertolini was president of a major nation form are available at https://www.pci.org
precast concrete manufacturer for many years /Submission_Center. For more information, con-
and chairman of PCI in 1989. The award will be tact Arelys Schaedler, PCI’s executive assistant, at
presented next at the 2022 PCI Convention at The aschaedler@pci.org.

Panels,” contributed to the THiN-Wall insulated wall panel Total Precast Systems Committee and a consulting member of
system. In addition, Culp was a leader in implementing the the Architectural Certification Subcommittee.
first optimized concrete I-girder for bridge applications, the Griggas-Smith is the director of cor-
NU girder, in the early 1990s. He began his career with the porate engineering at Tindall Corp. in
Wilson Concrete Co. as a design engineer in 1993 while finish- Spartanburg, S.C., where she has spent the
ing his thesis and has remained with the organization through past eight years of her career. Two years
two ownership changes. During this time, he has served as after joining the South Carolina Division,
quality assurance, jobsite coordinator, project manager, estima- Griggas-Smith was asked to develop
tor, salesman, and supervisor of all nonproduction operational Tindall’s Corporate Engineering team to
functions. Culp has been closely involved in the development serve as an in-house engineering resource. Mary Ann
of ultra-high-performance concrete in the United States and Today, she leads a growing team of engineers Griggas-Smith
has worked extensively with state universities and depart- and 3-D designers that provide expert engi-
ments of transportation in Iowa and Nebraska on numerous neering and professional training for all five Tindall divisions.
bridge projects and research programs. Culp was a founding Griggas-Smith currently serves on the Technical Activities
member, president, and board member of the Midwest Precast Council, the ninth edition Industry Handbook Committee,
Association, which later became the PCI Midwest chapter. and the Fire Committee, where she was instrumental in the
He is a past chair and served for more than 10 years on PCI development of the first PCI fire standard. Griggas-Smith also
Midwest’s Executive Committee. Currently he serves on the served as a member of the eighth edition Industry Handbook
chapter’s board of directors and as a regional representative Blue Ribbon Review Committee and has participated on mul-
to the PCI Board of Directors. He is also the vice chair of the tiple advisory committees, including daps and lifting loops.
2022 PCI Fellows call for nominations

The PCI Fellows recognition is awarded to infor PCI Fellows, to be awarded during the 2022
dividuals who embrace the values of the institute, PCI Convention at The Precast Show, March 1–5,
who have provided continuous outstanding con- 2022, in Kansas City, Mo. Nominations are being
tributions to the U.S. precast concrete industry, accepted through August 11, 2021. The criteria for
and who have demonstrated exceptional service this award and the nomination form is available
to PCI. Service to the industry may be consid- online at https://www.pci.org/Submission_Center.
ered in the areas of education, research, design, For more information, contact Arelys Schaedler,
and/or production. PCI is accepting nominations PCI’s executive assistant, at aschaedler@pci.org.
2022 PCI Medal of Honor call for nominations

The PCI Medal of Honor award was estab- will be presented at the 2022 PCI Convention
lished to honor a person who has made extraor- at The Precast Show, March 1–5, 2022, in Kan-
dinary contributions to PCI and the precast sas City, Mo. Visit https://www.pci.org/Submis-
concrete industry. The nominees for the Medal sion_Center for more information and nomina-
of Honor shall have made a highly significant tion criteria. Nominations are being accepted
contribution to the precast concrete structures through by August 11, 2021, and should be sent
industry and shall have demonstrated a sincere to Arelys Schaedler, PCI’s executive assistant, at
continuing interest in the institute. The award aschaedler@pci.org.
2021 Big Beam Contest call for entries

The PCI Engineering Design Competition, or For more information, visit https://www.pci.org
Big Beam Contest, is designed to give graduate /BigBeam. All intending to submit a report must
and undergraduate students real in-plant experi- submit an application online at http://www.pci.org
ence while they design a concrete beam to com- /bigbeamapp. Final reports are due to PCI by July
petition specifications. 15, 2021.

Larsen began his career in the precast con- worked at precast concrete plants in Bulgaria during summer
crete industry in 1996 at Losch Engineering vacations and then for six years after graduating. After emi-
Inc., where he started as a project engineer grating to the United States, he worked for three years at small
after earning his master’s degree in archi- engineering companies until 2000, when he returned to the
tecture from the University of Illinois at precast concrete industry through a job interview with PCI
Urbana–Champaign. His involvement with Fellow Mike LaNier. LaNier encouraged Mihaylov to become
PCI started shortly thereafter when he began a member of PCI in 2003 and sponsored him to attend the
attending PCI conventions to help run the David Larsen inaugural class of the Leadership PCI program. Since then,
Losch Software booth. In 2004, he joined the Mihaylov has been an active member of numerous technical
inaugural class of the Leadership PCI program and started par- committees, including the Journal Advisory Committee,
ticipating in committee work. Since then, he has been a highly the Seismic Committee, the Blast Resistance & Structural
contributing member of several committees, including the Integrity Committee, and the Building Code Committee. He
Professional Member Committee, which he previously chaired; chaired the Total Precast Systems and Professional Member
the Joint and Connection Design Committee; the Industry Committees and was a professional member director on the
Handbook Committee as both member and chapter chair for PCI board for two terms. Mihaylov has contributed signifi-
the seventh through ninth editions; and four years on the PCI cantly to the PCI Design Handbook through his work on the
board as a professional member director. Today Larsen is presi- Blue Ribbon Review Team for the seventh edition and as a
dent of Unity Design Inc. in Buffalo Grove, Ill., which he started voting member of the eighth and ninth edition committees.
with his partner, Boyan Tchobadjiev, in April 2014 to provide He is a recipient of the Leslie Martin Award for his work on
engineering and detailing services to precast concrete manufac- the eighth edition.
turers around the United States. Mosley is the president and CEO of
Mihaylov is a principal with Vector CEG Group, the parent company of The
Structures LLC in Auburn, Wash., a posi- Consulting Engineers Group. He began his
tion he has held for six years. His experi- tenure with the company in 2002 in CEG’s
ence with precast concrete dates back to San Antonio, Tex., office and in 2008 became
his senior year in high school, when he the head of the Albuquerque, N.Mex., office.
trained to become a certified precast con- After a transformative undergraduate course
crete erector and welder. He then went in prestressed concrete with PCI Fellow Chris Mosley
on to five years of engineering school and Alexander Mihaylov Robert Bruce at Tulane University in New
Welcoming students to PCI

Time and again I am struck by so interested in concrete. I initially thought I would
how many students have told me be more interested in steel design, but from that
that their career trajectory has moment I’ve been more interested in concrete and
changed by being involved in the now I work at Clark Pacific.”
precast studio sponsored by the For Anghela Alonzo, the convention gave her a
PCI Foundation. Sometimes it is be- glimpse into the precast concrete industry, and she
cause of the professor teaching the says she liked what she saw. “I was really excit-
course, a mentor who comes into Marty McIntyre ed for the convention,” says Alonzo, a senior at
PCI Foundation
the classroom, or an opportunity Sacramento State who will go on to the graduate
Executive Director
for an internship that comes along program at Berkeley after working at an internship
because of the program we have helped provide. at T. Y. Lin. “It was really a blessing, I feel, because
But lately I have been hearing about fantastic con- that was the start of my experiences with PCI. I
vention experiences students have had. was able to see firsthand how dedicated these
The PCI Convention can change a student’s people are to the students and to see how much
career trajectory. For many of the students, trav- they want us to be part of the industry. I got to go
eling to the convention is a first: the first conven- to the tech talks and then also see all the materials
tion, first time on a plane, or even the first time that are being used in precast.”
out of state. In coming years, the PCI Foundation will be work-
Madison Shell, who recently started a job with ing with PCI to make the PCI Convention a more
Clark Pacific, told us at the PCI Foundation Pro- fun and educational experience for students, but
fessors Seminar that meeting Jim Voss at the PCI nothing can compare to the one-to-one experiences
Convention in Dallas, Tex., changed her career path, that these students had that made them feel like the
“really impacted me. From that moment, I’ve been industry welcomed them and wanted them there.

Orleans, La., Mosley went on to intern for a bridge girder man- Knowles is the vice president of Walters & Wolf Precast in
ufacturer during his graduate studies at Purdue University in Fremont, Calif. After earning his bachelor’s degree in architec-
West Lafayette, Ind., where he was a research assistant studying tural engineering, he went to work for a structural engineering
the use of fiber-reinforced polymers in concrete. After graduate firm in San Francisco, where he obtained his professional engi-
school, he worked as a project manager for a precast concrete neer’s license.
manufacturer that was constructing an elevated precast concrete In 1979, Knowles joined Lafayette Manufacturing Inc.
guideway in Indianapolis, Ind. Mosley was a member of the as a design engineer and was subsequently promoted to chief
first Leadership PCI class in 2004 and has served on many PCI engineer, operations manager, and ultimately vice president. In
committees, including the Building Code Committee, which he 1994, Walters & Wolf acquired Lafayette Manufacturing and
previously chaired. Mosley was a voting member of the Industry renamed the company Walters & Wolf Precast.
Handbook Committee for the eighth edition of the PCI In the early 1980s, Knowles was closely involved in devel-
Design Handbook and a member of the Blue Ribbon Review oping and promoting glass-fiber-reinforced concrete (GFRC)
Committee for the seventh edition. He currently serves on the panels. He worked on the GFRC panel design technology
Technical Activities Council and is a professional member direc- and helped develop the steel-stud framed panel system. At
tor on PCI’s board. Lafayette Manufacturing, he was involved in the production of
Rishcoff is a consultant and structural the first GFRC steel-stud framed panel in San Francisco, Calif.
engineer with TRC Worldwide Engineering An active PCI member since 1983, Knowles has made
Inc. in Allentown, Pa., where she oversees numerous contributions to the advancement of research, the
projects and a staff of design engineers in PCI body of knowledge, and plant certification. Currently, he
several locations around the world. She chairs the GFRC Committee, a position he has held several
is a graduate of the 2009 Leadership PCI times over the years. He is also a member of the Architectural
class. She has served on the Building Codes Certification Subcommittee, the Plant Certification
and Parking Structures Committees and Cheryl Rishcoff Committee, and the Architectural Precast Concrete
is vice chair of the Professional Members Committee, which he chaired from 2005 to 2009.
Committee. As member and now chair of the Knowles has been a leader and major contributor for a
Fire Committee, she played a crucial part in the development number of PCI publications, including the third edition of
of PCI’s first standard, PCI 124. In addition, she has served on MNL 122, Architectural Precast Concrete; the second and
the PCI Board of Directors as a professional member director fourth editions of MNL 128, Recommended Practice for
and holds a holds a bachelor’s degree in civil and environmen- Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete Panels; the second edition
tal engineering from Lafayette College in Easton, Pa., and is a of MNL 130, Manual for Quality Control for Plants and
licensed professional engineer in eight states. Production of Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete Products; and
ANSI/PCI 128, Specification for Glass-Fiber-Reinforced
Concrete Panels. He received the Leslie D. Martin Award of
Knowles receives Merit for his work on MNL 122 and the Leslie D. Martin
Certificate of Merit Award for ANSI/PCI 128. He also has
2021 Bertolini award authored several articles on GFRC and architectural precast
concrete.
E dward S. Knowles received the Mario

J. Bertolini Leadership and Innovation
Award in recognition of his outstanding
Knowles served as Zone 1 director on the PCI Board of
Directors for four years and is the past president of the PCI
West chapter. His dedication and leadership have directly
character as a precast concrete profes- influenced the development and growth of the precast con-
sional on May 20 at the PCI Annual crete industry in the PCI West region and beyond.
Membership Meeting and Luncheon In 2015, Knowles was honored as a PCI Fellow for his
during the 2021 PCI Convention in New outstanding contributions to the precast concrete industry and
Orleans, La. Edward Knowles service to PCI.
2021 Dennis R. Mertz Bridge Research

Fellowship call for applications
Applications for the 2021 Dennis R. Mertz precast concrete bridge design, materials, or
Bridge Research Fellowship are now being ac- construction. PhD program candidates will also
cepted. This fellowship award of up to $40,000 be considered.
is intended to engage master’s degree–level Applications are due August 20, 2021. Com-
engineering students in the precast concrete plete information is available at https://www.pci
industry while supporting research related to .org/MertzFellowship.

The PCI Foundation’s Studio the next several months, nine meetings were held to devel-
op the new version of the policy and present it to the PCI
Nation now includes Board of Directors.
The updated policy is available at https://www.pci.org
35 universities nationwide /PCI/About/Awards/awards_programs.aspx. Members mak-
ing an award nomination or serving on a selection jury can find
S ix universities have received PCI Foundation grants

expanding precast concrete education and bringing the
Studio Nation program to 35 universities nationwide.
more details about PCI awards in this document. Please send
any comments or suggested revisions to Arelys Schaedler, PCI
executive assistant, at aschaedler@pci.org.
Four universities new to the precast studio grant program
and two extensions for existing programs were approved by
the PCI Foundation Board of Trustees at its recent meet- Research into dapped ends
ing. The University of Delaware, University of Nebraska,
and a joint program between Kansas State University and in newer UHPC members
California State University, Chico, are new. The University
of Minnesota Duluth and the University of Southern wins Mattock Scholarship
California received extensions to continue their precast con-
crete educational programs.
T he PCI Foundation has awarded the
$4000 2021 Alan Mattock Graduate
Scholarship to Mohammad Qambar,
PCI updates awards policy a PhD candidate at North Carolina
State University. His proposal was titled
P CI recently updated its Policy 26, Awards, which was

approved by the PCI Board of Directors at its February
19, 2021, meeting. The most recent revision of Policy 26 had
“Implementing Dapped Ends in Very Thin
UHPC Stems.”
Qambar is a graduate student in the Mohammad Qambar
been in 2016. Department of Civil, Construction, and
In September 2020, the Awards Policy 26 Task Group, Environmental Engineering, Constructed Facilities Laboratory
chaired by Harry Gleich of Metromont, was appointed by in Raleigh, NC. He was one of five graduate students to receive a
the PCI Executive Committee to update the policy. Over 2021/22 PCI Daniel P. Jenny Fellowship.
2022 PCI Convention call for papers

PCI invites abstracts for technical papers, opportunity to discuss topics of interest to the
topics, or sessions to be presented at the 2022 precast concrete industry and present innovative
PCI Convention at The Precast Show, March 1–5, solutions using precast concrete. For more infor-
2022, in Kansas City, Mo. The call for papers mation, visit http://pci.org/PCI/News-Events
offers the exchange of ideas and information on /Call_for_Papers. Email technical@pci.org with
precast concrete design, fabrication, and con- questions or to submit abstracts no later than
struction. The call for presentations provides an August 1, 2021.
PCI personnel training and certification schools

Quality Control School event details are subject to change. If you have any questions about the Quality Control School schedule
or need help completing a registration form, please contact PCI’s continuing education senior manager, Sherrie Nauden, at
snauden@pci.org or (312) 360-3215. Registration forms are available at https://www.pci.org/qc_schools.
August 9–12, 2021 online
Level I/II August 16–18, 2021 Chicago, Ill.
October 11–13, 2021 Orlando, Fla.
July 13–16, 2021 online
Level III
August 18–21, 2021 Chicago, Ill.
CFA
October 13–16 Orlando, Fla.

PCI’s Calendar
Events
PCI event details are subject to change. For the most current information,
visit https://www.pci.org/events.
2021 PCI of Illinois & Wisconsin Summer Membership Meeting
July 13–14, 2021
Lake Geneva, Wis.
Architectural Precast Concrete Best Practices for Specifying
July 22, 2021
Online
Precast Protects Life: Earth, Wind and Fire Webinar
August 10, 2021
Online
Precast Protects Life: Earth, Wind and Fire Webinar
August 12, 2021
Online
PCI Online Academy: Basic Prestressed Concrete Design August 23–
Online September 23, 2021
2021 PCI Central Region Summer Event
August 24–25, 2021
Nashville, Tenn.
2021 PCI Northeast Annual Meeting
September 1–2, 2021
Manchester, Vt.
PCI Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Workshop
September 21, 2021
Rosemont, Ill.
2021 PCI Committee Days
Rosemont, Ill.
PCI Mountain States Fall Meeting
October 7–8, 2021
Boise, Idaho
PCI Midwest Fall Meeting
October 12–13, 2021
TBD, Minn.
2021 Productivity Tour
October 19–21, 2021
Charlotte, N.C.
2022 PCI Convention at The Precast Show
March 1–5, 2022
Kansas City, Mo.
2022 Productivity Tour
May 9-11, 2022
St. Petersburg, Fla.
PCI Board of Directors and Committee Meetings
June 7–10, 2022
New Orleans, La.
2022 PCI Committee Days
Rosemont, Ill.
Compiled by K. Michelle Burgess (mburgess@pci.org) J

Our Members
Smith-Midland welcomes thering the profession of engineering, in this case structural

engineering.
Corbett as the VP of operations A former director of Ferguson Structural Engineering
Laboratory at UT Austin, Bayrak is the founding director of
K evin Corbett is the newest member of

the Smith-Midland Corp. leadership
team. As vice president of operations at the
the Concrete Bridge Engineering Institute, which is dedicated
to advancing concrete bridges through research, teaching, edu-
cation, and training at the University of Texas. He is a member
Virginia plant, Corbett takes responsibility of the PCI Bridges Committee and a contributor to Aspire, the
for the production, delivery, and installa- concrete bridge magazine.
tion of the company’s full line of products
and services.
Corbett joined Oldcastle Building Kevin Corbett Smith-Midland licenses
Envelope in 2015, serving as plant manager
in its Tampa, Fla., and Westbrook, Maine, Jensen to manufacture
facilities. While at Oldcastle, he studied and implemented lean
manufacturing, a continuous improvement methodology. J-J Hooks barrier
A veteran of the U.S. Marine Corps, Corbett has a
master’s degree in business administration and a bachelor’s for California market
degree in history.
—Source: Smith-Midland
S mith-Midland’s licensing subsidiary Easi-Set Worldwide
has signed an agreement with West Coast precasters Jensen
Precast to manufacturer its patented J-J Hooks highway barri-
Bayrak named 2021 er system.
The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans)
Joe J. King Award winner gave full approval for Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware
(MASH)–tested J-J Hooks portable concrete barrier in two
O guzhan Bayrak has been named the

2021 recipient of the Joe J. King
Professional Engineering Achievement
lengths, 12.5 and 20 ft (3.8 and 6.1 m), for all widely used
applications, including freestanding, pinned-for-asphalt surfac-
es; bolted-for-concrete surfaces; and bridge decks. Caltrans has
Award from the University of Texas at advertised more than 10 million ft (3.1 million m) of project
Austin Cockrell School of Engineering bids on highway safety barrier in the past four years.
largely for his contributions to concrete J-J Hooks is currently the only MASH-tested, multifunctional
bridge advancements. The award will be precast concrete safety barrier approved for use in California, the
presented during a faculty meeting this Oguzhan Bayrak second largest highway system in the country. Manufacturing will
fall and recognizes a faculty member who take place in both Northern and Southern California facilities.
has made significant contributions in fur- —Source: Smith-Midland
PCI’s newly certified plants

PCI’s newly certified plants and erectors
PCI recently certified the following plants and erectors. For an explanation of the certification designa-
tions, visit http://www.pci.org/Plant_Certification and http://www.pci.org/Erector_Certification.
• U.S. Crane & Rigging LLC in Ridgewood, N.Y.: A
• Ultimate Precast Inc. in Delran, N.J.: A, S2

Welcome to PCI!
Installers Supplier associates
Ultimate Precast AdvanConn
931 Friendship St. 184 Maple St.
Philadelphia, PA 19111 Harveysburg, OH 45032
(856) 425-5760 TheAdvanConn.com
Primary contact: Erica Arrais (937) 903-7836
ultimateprecastinc@gmail.com Primary contact: Jennifer Whitacre
jennifer@theadvanconn.com
Martin General Contractors
109 N. Main St. Beyel Brothers Crane & Rigging
Eolia, MO 63344 9200 Turner Road
Martin-GC.com Jonesboro, GA 30236
(573) 485-2107 (844) 902-3935
Primary contact: Nick Martin Primary contact: Shannon Duvic
nmartin@martin-gc.com info@beyel.com
Service associates CarbonCure Technologies

AgeWave Solutions Inc. 42 Payzant Ave.
340 Heald Way, Suite 212 Dartmouth, NS, Canada
The Villages, FL 32163 CarbonCure.com
AgeWaveSolutions.com (902) 442-4020
(352) 291-9669 Primary contact: Crystal Vehse
Primary contact: Randall Thompson cvehse@carboncure.com
randy.thompson@agewavesolutions.com
RussTech Inc.
Idencia Inc. 11208 Decimal Drive
461 Boston St., Unit D3 Louisville, KY 40299
Topsfield, MA 01983 (502) 267-7700
Idencia.com Primary contact: Gary Russell
(978) 212-7017 dr.admix@russtechnet.com
Primary contact: Brittany Munroe
bmunroe@idencia.com Surface Tech LLC
888 Prospect St., Suite 200
Smith Emery Laboratories Inc. La Jolla, CA 92037
781 E. Washington Blvd. Surface-Tech.com
Los Angeles, CA 90021 (619) 880-0265
SmithEmery.com Primary contact: John McConahy
(213) 749-4311 john.mcconahy@surface-tech.com
Primary contact: Gregory Partridge
gpartridge@smithemerysf.com Supporting producer
Smithbridge Guam Inc.
300 Chalan Padiron Haya
Yigo, 96929, Guam
SmithbridgeGuam.com
(671) 653-5036
Primary contact: Stuart Hamel
stuart.hamel@smithbridge.net

William J. Clayton
William J. Clayton, former pres- der his direction, the company successfully launched
ident of High Concrete Group in both 12 and 15 ft (3.6 and 4.6 m) wide double tees in
Denver, Pa., and past chair of PCI, the market, ahead of other producers. Soon, other
died April 4, 2021. He was 84. companies also started producing 12 ft wide tees,
Clayton attended Pierce School and eventually several producers were also making
of Business Administration, Temple 15 ft wide double-tee members, which advanced the
University, and LaSalle University, all industry as a whole. Representatives of High Con-
in Philadelphia, Pa. crete’s competitors speak of Clayton’s willingness to
During his career in the precast concrete industry, share knowledge and operate in a spirit of mutual
Clayton was known as an imaginative and dynamic respect and collegiality, even as he aimed to be a
executive who held himself and others accountable trendsetter with a competitive edge. Clayton was
to the highest standards of professionalism. “Do it also an innovator in human resources. He actively
right the first time” is among his favorite sayings. mentored many employees, helping some rise from
Clayton began his career in sales at Giant Portland being laborers in the crew to positions in manage-
Cement, and he never lost his focus on customer ment and even the C-suite.
service as he advanced through the ranks. Clayton Clayton served on the PCI Board of Directors in
worked for Kurtz Precast Corp., which was pur- 1988 and 1989 and from 1992 to 2002 and as PCI
chased in the 1970s by High Industries. chair in 1994. He was named a PCI Fellow in 2002
His former colleagues recall that he routinely and received the Mario J. Bertolini Leadership and
sought feedback from contractors, architects, and Innovation Award in 2020.
engineers about how the company could better Between 1983 and 2002, Clayton served on
serve them and their clients. By listening to and numerous PCI committees, including as chair of the
understanding his customers, Clayton was able to Convention Advisory Committee in 1992 and co-
anticipate market demands and help High Concrete chair of the Program Planning Committee in 1993.
thrive even when the economy suffered downturns. Starting in the 1970s, he also participated in estab-
At High Concrete, Clayton earned a reputation as lishing the Mid-Atlantic Precast Association (MAPA)
someone who would push the conventional envelope to regionally market and facilitate precast concrete
for architectural and structural building systems. Un- opportunities and educate potential customers.
MARK YOUR CALENDAR

for the 2021 PCI Committee Days
on September 22-25, 2021.
Participate in the decisions driving our industry and LOEWS O’HARE, ROSEMONT, IL
impacting your business and get to know our Registration opens July 26, 2021
industry’s leaders and spend time with your peers. VISIT PCI.ORG/COMMITTEEDAYS FOR MORE INFO.
In The News
OSHA rule proposed to clarify updated requirements for slip, trip, and fall hazards. The agen-
cy has received numerous questions asking when handrails are
general industry Walking- required and about the height requirements for handrails on
stairs and stair rail systems.
Working Surfaces standard This proposed rule does not reopen for discussion any
of the regulatory decisions made in the 2016 rulemaking. It
T he U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Safety and

Health Administration (OSHA) is proposing updates in
the handrail and stair rail system requirements for its general
focuses solely on clarifying some of the requirements for hand-
rails and stair rail systems finalized in 2016 and on providing
flexibility in the transition to OSHA’s newer requirements.
industry, Walking-Working Surfaces standard. Comments may be submitted at the Federal eRulemaking
OSHA published a final rule on walking-working surfaces portal at https://www.regulations.gov/ by July 19.
and personal protective equipment in November 2016 that —Source: U.S. Department of Labor
Industry Calendar
Event details are subject to change.

12th International Conference on Concrete Pavements “Making
Waves with Durable, Resilient Concrete Pavements” Late summer 2021
Online
fib International Conference on Concrete Sustainability 2021
Czech Technical University, Prague, Czech Republic
ACI Fall 2021 Convention
October 17–21, 2021
Hilton Atlanta Downtown, Atlanta, Ga.
World of Concrete 2022
January 18–21, 2022
Las Vegas Convention Center, Las Vegas, Nev.
ACI Spring 2022 Convention
March 27–31, 2022
Caribe Royale Orlando, Orlando, Fla.
Post-Tensioning Institute 2022 Convention
April 24–27, 2022
Hilton La Jolla Torrey Pines, La Jolla, Calif.
2022 fib International Congress
June 12–16, 2022
Oslo, Norway
October 23–27, 2022
Hyatt Regency Dallas, Dallas, Tex.
ACI Spring 2023 Convention
April 2–6, 2023
Hilton San Francisco Union Square, San Francisco, Calif.
BEI-2023 “Sustainability in Bridge Engineering”
Summer 2023
National University of Singapore, Singapore
October 29–
Boston Convention Center and Westin Boston Waterfront, Boston,
November 2, 2023
Mass.

Project Spotlight
All–precast concrete design not achievable at this area of the building, and a structurally
coupled wing created a large drag force across dissimilar sec-
gives Stanford student housing tions of the building. “To overcome this issue, we cast over-
sized ribs with PT ducts and anchors and field post-tensioned
traditional campus look the structure,” he says.
In terms of production, floor flatness on a pretopped panel
W hen Stanford University in Palo Alto, Calif., needed

new housing for graduate students, the decision was
made to build four graduate housing buildings, each 10 stories
directly accepting flooring was a challenge. To meet a high
finish level, the lightweight concrete ribbed panels were cast
inverted with the top face cast on the deck. “Custom back tubs
high with wings varying from 6 to 8 stories. The buildings, forming the ribs engaged the panel and flipped the panel to an
called the Escondido Village Graduate Residences, feature a upright configuration at the form,” O’Brien says.
total of 665 two-bedroom apartments, 517 premium studios, Transportation also required some innovative solutions.
and 292 junior studio apartments plus common spaces. “Aesthetics such as bullnoses and cornices drove the panel-
To meet the university’s requirements, the designers had to ized moment frames to panel weights past standard shipping
align their vision with several aesthetic and structural require- capabilities,” he says. In previous projects, the answer had been
ments. For one, the buildings had to conform to campus to use nine-axle trailers and 45-degree easels that required
standards for unit size, dimensions, and layout. In addition, live load/unload and were difficult to maneuver around the
they had to mimic the traditional architecture of the campus. site. For this project, Clark Pacific designed and built custom
Furthermore, they had to use durable, cost-effective, and easy- tri-axle trailers to allow the panels to ship as permit loads and
to-maintain materials. Finally, the buildings needed to be built in a vertical orientation for simplified picking.
while school was in session to accommodate the next round In terms of erection, the key was optimizing the flow
of graduate students that would be arriving. For these reasons, across the structure. The typical flow was to erect the vertical
the architect opted for precast concrete. Clark Pacific of West panels, grout the vertical panels, prestock the structure with
Sacramento, Calif., was selected for the job. materials for the interior, erect the horizontal pretopped
To meet the strict seismic design requirements, the team panels, and concrete the pretopped connections. “This flow
had to address several challenges. One related to design. “The crossed a single structure in less than two weeks per level,”
biggest challenge here related to vertical irregularities between O’Brien says, “however, the buildings were not equal sizes, so
different wings specific to seismic,” says Loehl O’Brien, project time varied.”
executive for Clark Pacific. A seismic joint was aesthetically —William Atkinson
The Escondido Village Graduate Residences at Stanford University in Palo Alto, Calif., comprise four graduate housing buildings. A creative solution
was used to replace the seismic joints and maintain the campus’s traditional architecture look. Courtesy of Bernard Andre.
PCI
C Journal
o |J
July–August
l 2018 2
21
The new Academy Museum of Motion Pictures in Los Angeles, Calif., The jointing on the sphere that makes up the new Academy Museum of
includes a 60,000 ft2 (5600 m2) spherical glass and concrete structure Motion Pictures in Los Angeles, Calif., has parallel slices east/west and
to house a 1000-seat theater. It originally was planned as a cast-in- north/south like an egg slicer, which causes the shapes of the panels
place concrete shell but was converted to precast concrete. Courtesy to become more skewed the farther they get from the sphere midline.
of Willis Construction Inc. Courtesy of Willis Construction Inc.
Precast concrete panels and birdcage scaffolding held the structure in place until the
final piece of glass was installed.
create a spherical theater The project presented other challenges for Willis. “The
shape of the museum theater is a sphere cut by intersecting
for new museum planes,” says Mark Hildebrand, chief engineer for Willis. “The
jointing on the sphere has parallel east-west and north-south
T he new Academy Museum of Motion Pictures in Los

Angeles, Calif., was created to celebrate the art and sci-
ence of movies. The project involved the exterior restoration
slices, like an egg slicer.” This causes the shapes of the panels to
become more skewed the farther they get from the sphere mid-
line. The egg-slicer design also required that each panel have
and interior gut renovation of a 240,000 ft2 (22,300 m2) his- side returns that were parallel with the east-west and north-
toric landmark structure. south directions. This meant that each panel would need to
The project also included a 60,000 ft2 (5600 m2) spherical have its side bulkheads skewed at a slightly different angle for
glass and concrete structure to house a 1000-seat theater. each form change. “To accurately set the form parameters with
A 150 ft (46 m) diameter glass and precast concrete sphere a curved radius panel in two directions with sloping bulkheads
that appears to float above the ground, the theater offers a was very challenging,” he says.
counterbalance to the more sedate renovated historic struc- Installation also posed some challenges. According to
ture. The sphere originally was planned as a cast-in-place Hildebrand, conventional precast concrete panels are typically
concrete shell, but as the design evolved, it became clear that installed, locked off, and welded in place from control lines
cast-in-place concrete would not be a viable solution. For one established on the built structure. “One of the innovative fea-
thing, the spherical formwork would have been prohibitively tures of this project is to use the precast panels as permanent
expensive for carpenters to fabricate and assemble on-site. formwork to support the structural concrete during placement
As a result, precast concrete was chosen to allow for a better operations,” he says. In other words, the architectural finish
and more cost-effective quality finish and tighter tolerances was installed before the structure was built. This required
and geometric control to ensure a perfect sphere. Precast erecting a temporary steel structure upon which to erect the
concrete also allowed for a large, column-free space, providing precast concrete panels.
unobstructed sightlines for the theater in the round, as well as The location and accuracy of the placement of each panel
providing the physical mass necessary for acoustic isolation of was crucial for creating the spherical shape. With no struc-
the high-performance theater. ture reference to place panels, an alternative method was
Willis Construction of San Juan Bautista, Calif., was the required. “The solution was to tag the four exterior corners
precaster. Precast concrete panels were also used as permanent of each panel that corresponded to specific coordinates of the
formwork to support the structural concrete during place- project’s global coordinate system,” Hildebrand says. “The
ment operations. This meant that the precast concrete archi- panels were then set and aligned with positions verified by
tectural spandrels had to be installed on a temporary steel the surveyor.”
structure before the dome could be built. Extensive supports —William Atkinson J

Jared Spaans and Goran V. Milutinovic
New lock at Kentucky Dam:

Analysis and design
of precast concrete cofferdams
C
offerdams are traditionally constructed with steel.
Several projects in the United States, including
bridges where the cofferdam provided dry space
for bridge pier foundation construction1,2 and locks where
the cofferdam provided dry space for placement of mass
■ This paper discusses the structural analysis and concrete, however, have successfully been completed with
design of precast concrete cofferdams through all precast concrete cofferdams. Analysis and design of concrete
construction stages using one example and brings cofferdams, however, are not extensive in the literature. The
attention to the innovative and successful use of pre- goal of this paper is to discuss the structural analysis and de-
cast concrete cofferdams. sign of precast concrete cofferdams through all construction
stages using one example and bring attention to the innova-
■ Design of the precast concrete cofferdam segments tive and successful use of precast concrete cofferdams.
accounted for four different loading conditions: lift-
ing and lowering while suspended from above; being This paper summarizes structural analysis and design for
supported by piles on the four corners; resisting each stage of the concrete cofferdam during the construction
lateral pressure outward from concrete placement of the new lock at the Kentucky Dam on the Tennessee River
around the bottom perimeter; and resisting the water near Paducah, Ky. Also, an adequate crack control approach
pressing inward once the water inside the segment for concrete cofferdams is discussed, reviewing several U.S.
had been pumped out. codes and approaches.
■ A full three-dimensional finite element model built to Overview of the project

capture the behavior of the precast concrete coffer-
dams was analyzed for all construction stages, with The new navigation lock at Kentucky Dam on the Tennessee
approximate hand checks being performed where River near Paducah, Ky., is currently under construction
possible to verify the model. and will reduce the significant bottleneck that the current
183 m (600 ft) long lock causes on this important waterway.
Because of high Tennessee River traffic levels and the cur-
PCI Journal (ISSN 0887-9672) V. 66, No. 4, July–August 2021.
PCI Journal is published bimonthly by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, 8770 W. Bryn Mawr Ave., Suite 1150, Chicago, IL 60631. rent lock’s size, the delay times for commercial tows going
Copyright © 2021, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute. The Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute is not responsible for statements made through Kentucky Lock average from 8 to 10 hours, nearly
by authors of papers in PCI Journal. Original manuscripts and discussion on published papers are accepted on review in accordance with the
the longest delay in the country.3
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute’s peer-review process. No payment is offered.

The focus of this paper is the construction of the downstream the ground surface) with approximately level elevation. Once
cofferdam (Fig. 1), which is owned by the U.S. Army Corps the riverbed was cleaned and the rock was exposed, tremie fill
of Engineers. was placed locally to further level the river bedrock elevation.
After the cofferdam was set in the water on the piles, concrete
Ten unsymmetrical concrete cofferdams, approximately 15 inside the cofferdam was placed. Ten cofferdams were placed
× 15 m (50 × 50 ft) wide by 11 m (35 ft) high with 300 mm next to each other, and cast-in-place concrete portions were
(12 in.) thick walls were cast on a casting barge several hun- placed on the top of each cofferdam (Fig. 4).
dred meters away from the cofferdam’s final location in the
river (Fig. 2). When the monolithic wall was completed, cellular steel
cofferdams were continued at the end of the monolithic
The casting barge was towed to the cofferdam’s final location wall. Cellular cofferdams together with the precast concrete
in the river, below the gantry barge (Fig. 3). The concrete cofferdams constituted the downstream cofferdam. The
cofferdam had eight cast-in post-tensioning bars, which were downstream cofferdam then made it possible to excavate and
then connected to the spreader beam system of the gantry then construct the new lock in dry conditions. The mono-
barge. The spreader beam system and the cofferdam were lift- lithic wall made by the precast concrete cofferdams will be
ed by gantry-barge strand jacks, the casting barge was towed part of the permanent wall of the lock. The precast concrete
out, and finally the cofferdam was lowered down onto the riv- cofferdams have cast-in wall armors for the purpose of the
erbed. The riverbed consists of rock (limestone very close to final lock structure.
Figure 1. Layout of the Kentucky Lock addition project. Note: 1´ = 1 ft = 0.305 m.
Figure 2. Casting of the precast concrete cofferdam on the Figure 3. Towing the barge with the precast concrete coffer-
casting barge. Photo courtesy of Johnson Brothers Southland dam to the final location. Reproduced by permission from the
Holdings. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Figure 4. Plan and elevation views of all precast concrete cofferdam segments. Note: The temporary part of the monolithic wall is
hatched. CONC. = concrete; SEG. = segment. 1˝ = 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1´ = 1 ft = 0.305 m.
Construction stages in four corners were dropped down through cast-in steel
of the precast concrete cofferdams pipe sleeves and the load was slowly transferred from the
post-tensioning bars to the piles.
In a structural analysis sense, precast concrete cofferdams had
four different stages during construction: 3. Concrete placement inside the cofferdam: When the
cofferdam was sitting on the piles, the concrete seal was
1. Lifting and lowering the cofferdam: The box had eight plugged around the cofferdam’s bottom perimeter. Once
cast-in debonded post-tensioning bars from the box the concrete plug hardened, the box was sitting on the
bottom elevation up to the spreader beam system above riverbed (Fig. 6) and the first concrete lift was placed as
the box. These post-tensioning bars were connected to the underwater tremie concrete. These concrete placements
spreader beam system, which in turn was carried by two inside the cofferdam created outward lateral pressure on
towers on the gantry barge. The cofferdam was slowly the box.
lifted and lowered into the river (Fig. 5).
4. Water pressure (inward): Once the tremie concrete hard-
2. The cofferdam setup on piles: When the box was approx- ened, the water from the cofferdam was pumped out and
imately 300 mm (12 in.) away from the riverbed and still a dry condition existed in the cofferdam. This stage creat-
hanging on eight post-tensioning bars, steel pipe piles ed large inward lateral pressure from water outside of the
Figure 5. Lifting the precast concrete cofferdam. Reproduced Figure 6. Precast concrete cofferdam placement in the river. Re-
by permission from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. produced by permission from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

box. A special strut-and-wale system inside the precast emphasize crack width itself). After 1999, ACI 318 took a
concrete segment was designed for this stage. different approach and considers crack widths indirectly by
limiting the bar spacings s to be smaller than the following
The focus of this paper is on the structural analysis of precast value:
concrete cofferdams, keeping in mind their constructibility ⎛ 40,000 40,000 ⎞
through all stages. For performing structural analysis of pre- s = min ⎜⎜15× − 2.5× ccl ,12 × ⎟
⎝ fs f s ⎟⎠
cast concrete cofferdams, it is essential to carefully follow the
construction sequence. where
Approach for evaluating the capacity fs = reinforcement steel stress

of the concrete sections
ccl = clear concrete cover
The main goal of the cofferdam design was that the cofferdam
concrete sections would stay impermeable so that once the The previous equation was obtained by fitting a straight line
inside water was pumped out, outside water would not leak in to the Gergely-Lutz equation for a flexural crack width of
and the dry condition inside the cofferdam would exist for the 0.41 mm (0.016 in.).4
placement of the higher-quality concrete.
The AASHTO LRFD specifications also control flexural
The main criterion for the concrete cofferdam impermeability cracking by limiting the spacing of reinforcement s to the
was that the width of through cracks must be less than a cho- following equation (rather than directly calculating the crack
sen maximum. Strictly speaking, the total width (at the level width).
of the reinforcement) of a flexural crack is the difference in
700 × γ e
the elongation of the steel reinforcement and the concrete over s≤ − 2 × dc
a length equal to the crack spacing. The crack spacing and the β s × f ss
variation in the steel and concrete strains are difficult to com- where
pute, and empirical equations are generally used to compute
the crack width. The best known of these are the Euro-Inter- γe = exposure factor
national Concrete Committee procedure and the Gergely-Lutz
equation, derived statistically from a number of tests.4 Crack βs = ratio of flexural strain at the extreme tension face to
width, however, is inherently subject to wide scatter, even in the strain at the centroid of the reinforcement layer
careful laboratory work.5,6 Crack width can vary by an order nearest the tension face = 1 + dc/0.7 × (h – dc)
of magnitude in the constant moment region of one test spec-
imen.7 Therefore, careful attention should be paid to crack dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme
control design, and further review of crack control approaches tension fiber to center of the flexural reinforcement
was performed. located closest thereto
The following U.S. codes and approaches were evaluated and h = overall thickness or depth of the component
are discussed herein in order to determine the most suitable
method for the design of precast concrete cofferdams: fss = calculated tensile stress in nonprestressed reinforce-
ment at the service limit state not to exceed 0.60fy
• Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
(ACI 318-14) and Commentary (ACI 318R-14), fy = yield strength of reinforcing bars
ACI 318-146
This equation, however, is based on a physical model,10 rather
• AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications 8
than the statistically based model used in previous editions of
the AASHTO LRFD specifications, which used an approach
• Code Requirements for Environmental Engineering similar to the pre-1999 ACI 318 approach.
Concrete Structures and Commentary, ACI 350-065
Concrete cofferdam design, however, should have a more
• Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures, direct and stringent approach than the regular-structure ser-
ACI 224R-019 viceability requirements. ACI 350-06 states that crack width
in environmental structures is highly variable but also reports
• Sozen et al.7 that extensive laboratory work has confirmed that crack width
at service loads is proportional to steel reinforcement stress.
Prior to 1999, ACI 318 was based on a form of the Gerge- Further, it is specified that the maximum calculated stress fs,max
ly-Lutz expression corresponding to a limiting crack width in reinforcement closest to the surface in tension at service
of 0.41 and 0.33 mm (0.016 and 0.013 in.) for interior and loads in normal environmental exposure areas must not ex-
exterior exposures, respectively (though the approach did not ceed the limit calculated by the following:

320 After reviewing the current crack control practice, it was
f s,max =
2 considered that the general crack control principles are as
⎛ d ⎞
β × s2 + 4 × ⎜ 2 + b ⎟ follows:
⎝ 2⎠
• It is better to have a larger number of smaller bars at
where smaller spacing than a smaller number of larger bars on
larger distances.
β = ratio of distances to the neutral axis from the
extreme tension fiber and from the centroid of the • Smaller cover usually means smaller crack width.
main reinforcement
• Smaller stress in reinforcement leads to smaller crack
db = nominal bar diameter width.
Further, the maximum calculated stress fs,max shall not exceed a Finally, two capacity checks were chosen to be performed for all
maximum of 248 MPa (36,000 psi) and need not be less than concrete sections in each construction stage in the cofferdam:
138 MPa (20,000 psi) for one-way and 165 MPa (24,000 psi)
for two-way members. • limiting stress in the reinforcement
The same document also reports that many structures de- • evaluating approximate mean crack width
signed by working stress methods and with low steel stress
served their intended functions with very limited flexural The maximum allowable stress in the reinforcement for
cracking. When high-strength reinforcing steels are used at service unfactored load was taken according to the equation
high service load stresses, however, visible cracks must be ex- given by ACI 350-06, but an additional upper stress limit
pected and steps must be taken in detailing the reinforcement of 165 MPa (24,000 psi) was also used. Therefore, the final
to control cracking. expression used to limit the steel stress can be symbolically
expressed as follows:
ACI 224R-01 gives quantitative values as a guide to reason- ⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
able crack widths in reinforced concrete structures under ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟
service loads. For water-retaining structures, a crack width of ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎟
320
0.1 mm (0.004 in.) is recommended. It is further stated that a f s,max = max ⎜ 20ksi,min ⎜ ,24ksi ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎛ d ⎞
2 ⎟⎟
portion of the cracks should be expected to exceed these val- ⎜ ⎜ β × s2 + 4 × ⎜ 2 + b ⎟ ⎟⎟
ues. These quantitative values are given as general guidelines ⎜ ⎜ 2⎠ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠
for design to be used in conjunction with sound engineering
judgment and are based primarily on Nawy,11 who compiled An approximate value of β of 1.2 was used. Concrete cover
information from several sources. was defined by the owner as a minimum of 51 mm (2 in.) for
this project.
Sozen et al.,7 due to high scatter of crack width, recommend a
simple method for estimating the mean crack width based on Further, the approximate average crack width Crw_mean was
test observations, and conclude that the main design parame- estimated by the method proposed by Sozen et al.,7 and it was
ters affecting crack widths are stress in the reinforcement and compared with the recommended value from ACI 224-01:
cover thickness.7 The strain in the steel is assumed constant
along the bar and is calculated first. The mean crack spacing Crw_mean ≤ 0.1 mm (0.004 in.)
was assumed to be two times the cover by referring to the ex-
perimental study by Broms.12 The mean crack width Crw_mean Given the previously mentioned variability of crack widths,
is finally expressed by the following equation: this relatively simple approach seems acceptable for the
⎛ f ⎞ design of precast concrete cofferdams. The two previously
Crw_ mean = smean × ε s = ( 2 × ccl ) ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ described limits (on the stress in the reinforcement and on
⎝ Es ⎠ approximate mean crack width calculated by the simple meth-
where od proposed by Sozen et al.7) proved to be effective during
the construction of the new lock at the Kentucky Dam. The
smean = mean crack spacing construction of the cofferdam and upper cast-in-place portion
is completed. The entire lock, however, is still under construc-
εs = reinforcement steel strain tion as of this paper release date.
Es = reinforcement steel modulus of elasticity Finite element analysis
It was also stated that the maximum crack width is likely to be A full three-dimensional finite element model was built
less than twice the mean crack width. to capture the behavior of the precast concrete cofferdams

(Fig. 7). Analysis was performed for all construction stages
previously described. Approximate hand checks were done
wherever possible to verify the model as the finite element
method, in general, is easily “used and abused.”13
Construction stage 1:
Lifting and lowering
Eight post-tensioning bars were cast in the cofferdam for

lifting and lowering purposes. Several different anchorage
options were considered for this stage, and eventually the one
shown in Fig. 8 was chosen.
Post-tensioning bars were cast along the entire height of the

box, and the anchor plate for post-tensioning bars was located
at the bottom of the box. The end of the post-tensioning bars
was cast flush with the bottom of the box for ease of con-
struction. Because the anchor plate at the end of the post-ten-
sioning bar was at the box bottom elevation, this avoided the Figure 7. Finite element model of precast concrete cofferdam
during the lifting stage (stage 1).
lower part of the cofferdam being in tension during lifting.
Figure 8. Plan and section view of the precast concrete cofferdam. Note: PT = post-tensioning. 1˝ = 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1´ = 1 ft =
0.305 m.

Figure 9. Gantry barge, casting barge, and precast concrete cofferdam. Note: PT = post-tensioning. 1˝ = 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
Therefore, in the chosen configuration, the cofferdam struc- inside post-tensioning bars; thus, a load shift from outside
tural system is similar to a concrete box or walls sitting on to inside bars occurred. As a result, in the final configuration
eight columns. To ensure this structural system where the load specified in the plans, the forces in the post-tensioning bars
from the concrete box was transferred to the post-tension- were almost equalized. Turning the nut off was modeled in
ing bars at the bottom elevation of the cofferdam (at anchor finite element analysis as a spring that activates after an initial
plates), the post-tensioning bars were debonded by a debond- 25.4 mm free displacement. The spring stiffness is equal to
ing layer along the full height. This eliminated any potential the axial stiffness of the post-tensioning bar. Post-tensioning
bond issues. The load path continued from post-tensioning bars in the finite element model were connected to the con-
bars to interior and exterior spreader beams and then to the crete box at the box bottom at the anchor plate location.
main spreader beams. The main spreader beams were lifted
by strand jacks located at the gantry beams and on top of the The second step of stage 1 was to locate the entire box below
gantry towers and built on the gantry barge. Barge stability the gantry beams such that the cofferdam centroid matched
control was performed by changing the water level in the the gantry barge centroid. As a result, the reactions of the
gantry barge chambers before, during, and after picking up spreader beams in the finite element model (representing four
the cofferdam. strand jack reactions) were almost equalized and the strand
jack reactions were measured in the field within 5% of the es-
The cofferdam was centered below the lifting assembly on the timated values. The centroid match should be done with great
barge in two steps. The first step was to ensure the cofferdam precision because the centroid offset will make one box side
weight taken by each post-tensioning bar was distributed or corner tilt up (which may cause construction tolerance and
equally. The outside post-tensioning bars (the ones closer to placement problems) if four strand jack forces are the same.
the gantry barge in Fig. 9) were computed to take significantly The centroids will tend to match, causing the box to rotate.
more load than the inside post-tensioning bars. One of the Due to cubelike geometry, the tilt (uneven displacement) at
reasons is that the tips of inner beams deflect much more than the corner of the box will be of the same order of magnitude
the outer beam tips due to larger overhangs and deflection of as the centroid offset. Calculation of actual densities for
the main beam. In order to make the force distribution among significantly different reinforced concrete elements (instead
post-tensioning bars more equal, the nuts at the top of the out- of the usual 25 kN/m3 [150 lb/ft3] value) is recommended.
side post-tensioning bars (at the connection with the spreader If geometric restraints do not allow the box centroid to be
beams) were turned off 25.4 mm (1 in.) away from the spread- positioned at the gantry barge centroid, an accurate estimate
er beams such that the cofferdam was picked up first with the of the lifting strand jack forces (different in this case, with

jacks closer to the centroid of the box pulling harder) should
be provided to the erector to avoid tilting the box.
1
4 cofferdam weight = 1400 kN
The elastic stress field obtained by finite element analysis exists
only prior to any cracking. Cracking disrupts this stress field,
causing a major reorientation of the internal forces. Therefore,
an approximate hand check of the concrete cofferdam finite
element analysis, in this stage, was done by a strut-and-tie
approximately 6m
ut model (Fig. 10). As clearly seen from Fig. 11, tension ties exist
st ifor m
m str
ru m x
un 0m
t = p 10
between post-tensioning bar anchor plates and compression
0m tic
30
m pri kN
10 a
94 rism 0m
x sm
0m rm 47
fans originate from them. It was assumed that adequate anchor-
7
30 ifo = 9
kN atic
age for steel ties was provided because the steel reinforcement
un rut
at the location of the ties was continuously present around the

st
st
m
structure. Nodal zones were considered properly reinforced by
ru
t
tie = 623 kN special confinement reinforcement, discussed later in this paper
6 no.9 bars (Fig. 12). The contribution of adjacent cofferdam walls was ig-
PT bar PT bar nored and was assumed only to provide lateral stability for the
anchor plate anchor plate wall in question. Strut-and-tie forces corresponded adequately
approximately 11m
to the finite element analysis results.
Special attention was given to the design of the confinement

reinforcement above the post-tensioning bar anchor plate. The
starting point was to provide enough reinforcement to resist
Figure 10. An approximate strut-and-tie model of one cof- bursting forces Tburst, present in both directions perpendicular
ferdam wall. Note: PT = post-tensioning. No. 9 = 29M; 1 mm = to the applied upward concentrated tension post-tensioning
0.0394 in.; 1 m = 3.281 ft; 1 kN = 0.225 kip.
bar force, based on the following equation in ACI 318-14:
Figure 11. Fxx diagram of the finite element model during stage 1. Note: Fxx = axial force in plate elements in horizontal direction;
max = maximum. 1 kip/ft = 14.593 kN/m.

Figure 12. Confinement reinforcement above the post-tensioning bar anchor plate. Note: The main cofferdam reinforcement is
not shown. PT = post-tensioning. No. 4 = 13M; 1˝ = 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1´ = 1 ft = 0.305 m.
Tburst ≅ 0.25× PTbar _ max (ACI 25.9.4.4.2) ly inserted on the casting barge inside the cast-in steel pipe
sleeves in four corners of the cofferdam, were dropped down
where through the pipe sleeves and the load was slowly transferred
from the post-tensioning bars to the piles.
PTbar_max = maximum force in the lifting post-tensioning bars
The load path in this stage went from the box weight to the
This value of 0.25 can also be seen as a Poisson’s ratio for ap- cast-in pipe sleeve through the activation of the shear studs
plied axial compression force. The reinforcement layout was on the pipe sleeve surface. This is very similar to a rein-
then further developed based on successful past practice. In forcement pull-out test from a concrete block. Pipe sleeves
addition, applicable concrete anchor design checks were per- by post-tensioning bars on their tops tend to be pulled out
formed according to ACI 318-14 chapter 17. The controlling from the concrete cofferdam on the top of the box. The slope
limit state was side-face blowout. in the axial (tension) force of the pipe sleeve represented
the bond transfer between the pipe sleeve and concrete. The
Construction stage 2: pipe-sleeve beam elements shared the same nodes with the
Setting up the box on piles concrete plate elements of the cofferdam in the finite ele-
ment model to capture the actual behavior (the pipe pile was
Once the cofferdam was lowered into the river (still hanging not included in the model). Shear studs per unit length need
on eight post-tensioning bars) and the bottom of the box was to be able to transfer a shear force equal to the difference
approximately 300 mm (12 in.) away from the riverbed or between the axial force at the end and beginning of the unit
prepared tremie fill, the steel pipe piles, which were previous- length. Most of the bond was transferred at the top of the
Figure 13. Pipe sleeve with shear studs.

Figure 14. Top pile connection. Note: PT = post tensioning. 1˝ = 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1´ = 1 ft = 0.305 m.
pipe sleeve. Therefore, the shear studs were distributed more 1. bracket, welded onto the pipe sleeve
densely in the upper part of the pipe sleeve (Fig. 13). The
cast-in pipe sleeve was, accordingly, in tension. Through the 2. two post-tensioning bars per connection in tension
connection between the top of the outside pipe sleeve and
the top of the inside pipe pile (Fig. 14), the load was trans- 3. two I-shaped beams transferring the load to the pipe pile
ferred to the pipe piles, which in turn were in compression.
The fact that reduced weight acted on the pipe sleeves and The top pile connection was equipped with strand jacks,
pipe piles because part of the cofferdam was submerged in which served to level the final box elevation to a desired value
the water was neglected due to uncertain water elevation. with the post-tensioning bars. It was specified that in any
moment, the differential elevation of the top pile corners was
The top pile connection consisted of the following elements, within 25.4 mm (1 in.). Therefore, finite element analyses
which are listed in order based on the load path: were performed (Fig. 15) for stages when the box was hung
Stage 2A Stage 2B
Figure 15. Finite-element models.

level on four cofferdam corners (stage 2A) and when one cor- springs were used to represent the fact that if the pipe deformed
ner dropped down 25.4 mm (stage 2B). Unleveled displace- outward, the compression force from concrete would act
ment of one corner was modeled with a spring that allowed inward. The cohesion of concrete (tension for the spring) was
25.4 mm of free movement before a stiff spring was activated neglected. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings14 plate
(with spring stiffness being equal to axial stiffness of the pipe bending design checks were done for the pipe sleeve. Large
pile). The supports and spring in stage 2B represented the top local bending and buckling of the pipe sleeve (Fig. 17) were
pile connections. decreased by introducing the ribs welded onto the pipe sleeve.
Finite element analysis showed that in stage 2B, large bending Construction stage 3:
moments Mx can be created due to twisting of the box when Tremie concrete placement
one corner is dropped down (Fig. 16). Analysis revealed that
stage 2B was one of the controlling construction stages. Concrete sealing of the cofferdams was done by first plac-
ing the tremie curtain seal on the outside perimeter of the
The bracket connection on the pipe sleeve was separately concrete box and then by pouring the tremie concrete under
analyzed with the finite element method. The compression-only water, below the walls of the cofferdam. Once the concrete
Figure 16. Deformed shape and Mx moment diagrams of the model for stage 2B. Note: max = maximum; Mx = bending moment in
plate elements resisted by horizontal reinforcement. 1 kip-ft/ft = 1.365 kN-m/m.
Spring reactions Deformed shape
Figure 17. Spring reactions and deformed shape of the bracket on the outside pipe. Note: All units are in kip. 1 kip = 4.448 kN.

Precast cofferdam
(water inside)
Bracing system
Fresh tremie
hw
Tremie pressure, outwards
w*(hw-ht)
ht
w*hw
w*(hw-ht) + c*ht Tremie seal
Figure 18. Schematic view of stage 3. Note: ht = tremie height; hw = water height; γc = concrete unit weight; γw = specific weight of
the water.
plug hardened, the weight of the concrete box was no longer

supported by the piles and the box then sat on the riverbed.
Therefore, the cofferdam was simply supported at the box Precast cofferdam
bottom elevation.
The next step was underwater placement of the tremie con-

crete. The fresh concrete created lateral (outward) pressure on
the cofferdam and the maximum lift height in one pour was
hw
determined to be 3 m (10 ft) in order to control the structural

flexural demand on the cofferdam walls (Fig. 18).
The total tremie pour height was also controlled by buoyancy

analysis to prevent the cofferdam from moving away from
its location once the water was pumped out (Fig. 19). Two Hardened tremie concrete
options were proposed for the contractor:
• If some type of shear connectors between precast

concrete cofferdam and tremie were provided, the total
tremie height ht would be determined based on the fol-
lowing equation: Figure 19. Buoyancy model of the cofferdam. Note: hw = water
height.
Ag × hw × γw – Wcoff < 0.9 × Wtre
and tremie were not provided, the tremie height ht would
where be determined based on the following equation:
Ag = gross area of the cofferdam Atre × hw × γw < 0.9 × Wtre
hw = elevation difference between top of the water and where

bottom of the cofferdam
Atre = area of tremie concrete
γw = specific weight of the water
Graphs were provided for the required total tremie heights
Wcoff = weight of the cofferdam based on the actual water elevation at the time of construction.
The maximum total tremie height found from the buoyancy
Wtre = weight of the inside tremie concrete analysis was also subject to the previous analysis for struc-
tural capacity of the box. Two tremie lifts were possible, each
• If shear connectors between precast concrete cofferdam smaller than 3 m (10 ft).

Precast cofferdam
(no water inside)
Bracing system
hw
Hardened tremie w*(hw-ht)
concrete
ht
Water pressure, inwards
Figure 20. Schematic view of stage 4. Note: ht = tremie height; hw = water height; γw = specific weight of the water.
Construction stage 4: and two perpendicular HP-section struts connecting the walls
Outside lateral water pressure across from each other (Fig. 21). Based on past experience,
the struts were designed for axial compression force (resisting
Once the tremie concrete hardened, the water from inside the lateral inward water pressure) together with a flexural demand
cofferdam was pumped out and dry conditions existed for the taken as the larger of the following:
placement of higher-quality mass concrete. This stage was the
main purpose of the cofferdam. Large lateral inward water • self-weight moment plus 5% of the compressive force
pressure occurred (Fig. 20), creating large flexural demands in applied vertically in the middle of the strut to account
the concrete box. for any unintended dead load, such as incidental fresh
concrete during casting
To resist the lateral inward water pressure and decrease
flexural demands in the cofferdam, a strut-and-wale bracing • self-weight moment plus eccentricity moment taken as self-
system was designed. It consisted of a W-section ring (a wale) weight midspan deflection times the axial force in the strut
Figure 21. View from underneath the lifted cofferdam. Reproduced by permission from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Figure 22. Mx and My moments in one cofferdam wall for stage 4. Note: max = maximum; Mx = bending moment in plate ele-
ments resisted by horizontal reinforcement; My = bending moment in plate elements resisted by vertical reinforcement.
1 kip-ft/ft = 1.365 kN-m/m.
The first case was the controlling one. for fresh concrete lateral outward pressure (with no water inward
pressure), as well as for inward water pressure alone. Maximum
Even with the strut-and-wale bracing system, this stage concrete pour lifts were limited based on this analysis.
created one of the largest demands in the cofferdam (Fig. 22).
Nevertheless, 305 and 406 mm (12 and 16 in.) thick walls Connection between temporary
were designed following the previously described crack-con- and permanent part
trol approach and were able to resist water-pressure demands. of last three cofferdams
The cofferdams successfully served their purpose during the
construction and no leakage was reported. Only one part of the last three concrete cofferdams will form
the eventual monolithic wall of the lock. The other part will
Once the inside concrete was poured just below the bracing sys- be torn off once the entire downstream cofferdam is built
tem, the bracing was removed (Fig. 23). This stage was analyzed in order to follow the final geometric layout of the lock.

ment was made continuous through the permanent–temporary
connection. Then, the first-pour forms were stripped, the
polystyrene blockout was taken away, and a debonding layer
was placed on the entire permanent–temporary connection.
Finally, the second placement was cast. Once the temporary
concrete is removed along the debonded layer, all protruding
reinforcement will be cut at the depth of the blockout and the
blockouts will be grouted with a minimum 51 mm (2 in.) of
cover.
Assumptions for analysis and design were that sections were

structurally continuous through the debonded layer. Tension
and shear were transferred by continuous reinforcement and
compression by concrete contact. Reinforcement crossing the
debonded layer (minimum 29M at 150 mm [no. 9 at 6 in.]
each face) was checked for shear demand as a structural steel
section (allowable stress equal to 0.6 × Fy divided by the
factor of safety).
Conclusion
An approach for analysis and design for precast concrete

cofferdams is presented using the example of the construction
of the new lock at the Kentucky Dam. It can be concluded
that precast concrete cofferdams represent an innovative and
Figure 23. First three cofferdams in place, partially filled with successful construction method with the following features
inside concrete. Photo courtesy of Johnson Brothers South- and advantages:
land Holdings.
The temporary part of the cofferdam is shown in Fig. 4 as • A wide variety of shapes can be made, as shown in the
the hatched area. A special connection between the tempo- example of the last three cofferdams with temporary and
rary and permanent parts of the cofferdams was designed permanent parts.
(Fig. 24) to make the final concrete tear off more easily and
provide the minimum 51 mm (2 in.) cover throughout the • Concrete can serve as future formwork and part of a
permanent structure. permanent structure (containing mandatory wall armor
elements in this case).
In the first placement, the permanent part of the cofferdam
was cast together with polystyrene blockouts along the entire • Precast concrete is suitable for fast construction in the
height of the cofferdam, except at wall armors. Reinforce- water for situations where rock is close to the surface.
Figure 24. Connection between temporary and permanent part of the structure. Note: 1˝ = 1 in. = 25.4 mm.

The main analysis and design focus for precast concrete cof- 8. AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and
ferdams should include the following: Transportation Officials). 2017. AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications. 8th ed. Washington, DC: AASHTO.
• a crack control approach
9. ACI (American Concrete Institute). 2001. Control of
• confinement reinforcement for the purpose of erecting/ Cracking in Concrete Structures. ACI 224R-01. Farming-
lowering the cofferdam ton Hills, MI: ACI.
• critical construction stages regarding the global demand in 10. Frosch, R. J. 2001. “Flexural Crack Control in Reinforced
the concrete cofferdam, determined in this case to be erec- Concrete.” In Design and Construction Practices to Mitigate
tion (stage 1), temporary uneven settlement on the piles Cracking, SP-204, 135–54. Farmington Hills, MI: ACI.
(stage 2B), and the stage when the inside water is pumped
out and lateral water pressure inward exists (stage 4) 11. Nawy, E. G. 1968. “Crack Control in Reinforced Con-
crete Structures.” Journal of the American Concrete
The solutions to these concerns presented in this paper were Institute 65 (10): 825–836.
proved to be effective in practice. Similar precast concrete
cofferdams, therefore, can be safely used for similar future 12. Broms, B. B. 1965. “Crack Width and Crack Spacing in
endeavors. Reinforced Concrete Members.” Journal of the American
Concrete Institute 62 (10): 1237–1255.
Acknowledgments
13. Barker, R. M., and J. A. Puckett. 2013. Design of High-
Janssen & Spaans Engineering performed this calculation way Bridges: An LRFD Approach. Hoboken, NJ: John
while in a design-build team with the contractor Johnson Wiley & Sons Inc.
Brothers (Southland Holdings). The owner of the project is
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which provided valuable 14. ANSI/AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction)
feedback during the design. 360-10. 2010. Specification for Structural Steel Build-
ings. Chicago, IL: AISC.
References
Notation
1. FHWA (Federal Highway Administration). 2009. Con-
nection Details for Prefabricated Bridge Elements and Ag = gross area of the cofferdam
Systems. McLean, VA: FHWA.
Atre = area of tremie concrete
2. Short Span Steel Bridge Alliance. 2018. “Steel Solutions/
Substructures.” http://www.shortspansteelbridges.org ccl = clear concrete cover
/steel-solutions/substructures.aspx. Accessed October 10,
2018. (publication no longer available on site) Crw_mean = mean crack width
3. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2018. “Heavy Concrete db = nominal bar diameter
Shell Placement at Kentucky Lock Not Taken Lightly.”
https://www.lrn.usace.army.mil/Media/News-Stories dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme
/Article/1598150/heavy-concrete-shell-placement-at tension fiber to center of the flexural reinforcement
-kentucky-lock-not-taken-lightly/. located closest thereto
4. White, J. K., and J. G. MacGregor. 2012. Reinforced Es = reinforcement steel modulus of elasticity
Concrete: Mechanics and Design. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson Education. fs = reinforcement steel stress
5. ACI (American Concrete Institute). 2006. Code Require- fs,max = maximum allowed stress in the steel at service level
ments for Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures
and Commentary. ACI 350-06. Farmington Hills, MI: ACI. fss = calculated tensile stress in nonprestressed reinforce-
ment at the service limit state not to exceed 0.60fy
6. ACI (American Concrete Institute). 2014. Building Code
Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-14) and fy = yield strength of reinforcing bars
Commentary (ACI 318R-14). Farmington Hills, MI: ACI.
Fxx = axial force in plate elements in horizontal direction
7. Sozen, M. A., T. Ichinose, and S. Pujol. 2014. Principles of
Reinforced Concrete Design. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Fy = yield strength of the steel

h = overall thickness or depth of the component
ht = tremie height
hw = elevation difference between top of the water and

bottom of the cofferdam
Mx = bending moment in plate elements resisted by hori-

zontal reinforcement
My = bending moment in plate elements resisted by verti-

cal reinforcement
PTbar_max = maximum force in the lifting post-tensioning bars
s = spacing of deformed bars
smean = mean crack spacing
Tburst = bursting force in concrete as a result of applied

concentrated force
Wcoff = weight of the cofferdam
Wtre = weight of the inside tremie concrete
β = ratio of distances to the neutral axis from the

extreme tension fiber and from the centroid of the
main reinforcement
βs = ratio of flexural strain at the extreme tension face to

the strain at the centroid of the reinforcement layer
nearest the tension face
γc = unit weight of concrete
γe = exposure factor
γw = specific weight of the water
εs = reinforcement steel strain

About the authors Abstract
Jared Spaans, PE, SE, is a project This paper presents a methodology for analysis and de-
manager with Janssen and Spaans sign of precast concrete cofferdams using the example
Engineering in Indianapolis, Ind. of the successful addition of a new lock at the Ken-
tucky Dam on the Tennessee River near Paducah, Ky.
Cofferdams are traditionally made from steel; however,
several projects in the United States were successful-
ly done in the past with precast concrete cofferdams.
Goran V. Milutinovic, PE (Califor- Nevertheless, analysis and design of precast concrete
nia), is a bridge engineer with DB cofferdams are not extensively covered in the literature.
Engineering in Belgrade, Serbia, For construction of the new lock at Kentucky Dam,
and a PhD student at University of finite element analyses and adequate capacity checks,
Belgrade. During the project including crack control, were performed for precast
discussed in this paper, he was a concrete cofferdams in all construction stages. Ten
project engineer with Janssen and unsymmetrical, approximately 15 × 15 m (50 × 50 ft)
Spaans Engineering in Indianapo- wide by 11 m (35 ft) high cofferdams with 300 mm
lis, Ind. (12 in.) thick walls were placed next to each other in
the river from a river barge. These precast concrete
boxes will eventually create one monolithic wall (the
future wall of the lock). It was concluded that precast
concrete cofferdams represent an innovative and ad-
vantageous solution for future similar projects.
Keywords
Cofferdam, construction engineering, crack control,

dam, lock.
Reader comments
Please address any reader comments to PCI Journal

editor-in-chief Tom Klemens at tklemens@pci.org or
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, c/o PCI Jour-
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Factors affecting web-shear capacity
of hollow-core slabs with filled cores
Scott A. Asperheim and Benjamin Z. Dymond
P
recast, prestressed concrete extruded hollow-core
slabs are cast with longitudinal voids along the
length of the slab, which reduces both material
quantities and member self-weight while maintaining the
■ Forty tests were performed on 20 prestressed con- internal moment arm that results in high flexure capacities
crete hollow-core slabs fabricated with either no core and the ability to span longer distances. However, because
fill, cores filled with concrete or grout, or one void of the manufacturing process, shear reinforcement cannot be
omitted during fabrication to investigate how core fill included when extruded hollow-core slabs are cast, which
affects the web-shear capacity of hollow-core slabs. can result in limited shear capacities. To address this issue,
extruded hollow-core manufacturers commonly fill one or
■ The test results were compared with predicted more of the voids with concrete or grout at shear-critical
capacities calculated using the American Concrete areas; alternatively, they may reconfigure the extrusion
Institute’s Building Code Requirements for Structural machine to omit one or more of the voids completely as a
Concrete (ACI 318-14) and Commentary (ACI 318R-14) means to increase the cross-sectional area that resists shear
and the European Committee for Standardization’s and therefore presumably increase the shear capacity of
Precast Concrete Products—Hollow Core Slabs, hollow-core slabs.1
EN 1168.
Background
■ The results indicated that adequate composite action
between the core-fill material and extruded slab Manufacturers have been filling one or more voids of a
was necessary to realize web-shear capacity gains, hollow-core slab with concrete to increase the shear ca-
and the prestressing strand jacking stress, concrete pacity since as early as the 1970s,2 but limited research has
compressive strength at transfer, transfer length, and been performed to validate the efficacy of filling cores or to
moment demand can have a large effect on the web- quantify the capacity gained from the addition of core-fill
shear capacity of a hollow-core slab. concrete. In 1987, Anderson3 proposed an equation to predict
the increase in shear capacity from filling voids with concrete
and attempted, but was unable, to verify this increase exper-
PCI Journal is published bimonthly by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, 8770 W. Bryn Mawr Ave., Suite 1150, Chicago, IL 60631. imentally. In 2010, the Spancrete Manufacturers Association
Copyright © 2021, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute. The Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute is not responsible for statements made (SMA) released a research note4 that proposed an equation to
predict the increase in shear capacity gained by filling voids

of Spancrete hollow-core slabs with grout. SMA verified the postcracking strength or ductility for all tests where no core-
increased shear capacity by testing 40 in. (1020 mm) wide, 8 in. fill concrete was present; enhanced strength and ductility for
(200 mm) deep standard Spancrete slabs, but the test results core-filled slabs with depths of 15.7 in. after initial cracking
used to verify an increased shear capacity from the use of core- occurred; and enhanced ductility but marginal strength gains
fill grout were not available for review. for slabs with depths of 19.7 in. following initial cracking.
Lee and colleagues concluded that a simple summation of the
The European Committee for Standardization’s (CEN’s) core-fill concrete shear capacity and the web-shear capacity of
Precast Concrete Products—Hollow Core Slabs, EN 1168,5 the extruded slab overestimated the total shear capacity of the
provides shear capacity equations specifically for prestressed member, and they proposed a method to predict the total shear
concrete hollow-core slabs, as well as an equation to calculate capacity of hollow-core slabs that contained core-fill concrete.
the capacity that is gained from the use of core-fill concrete.
EN 1168 is largely based on previous research by Yang6 and Experimental program
Pajari,7,8 and it incorporates additional factors not considered
when using the 2014 edition of the American Concrete Insti- The first objective of this experimental program was to
tute’s Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete quantify the amount of additional shear capacity that could
(ACI 318-14) and Commentary (ACI 318R-14).9 These addi- potentially be gained by adding core-fill grout to one or more
tional factors include moment demand, shear stress from the voids of a hollow-core slab, adding core-fill concrete to one
prestressing strands, and variation in cross-sectional geome- or more voids of a hollow-core slab, or omitting a void when
tries (for example, circular voids or noncircular voids). the extruded (dry-cast) hollow-core slabs were produced. The
second objective of this program was to evaluate differences
While investigating the findings of Hawkins and Ghosh,10 between ACI 318-149 and EN 11685 methodologies and pre-
Palmer and Schultz11 performed two tests on a 48 in. dictions when calculating the shear capacity of hollow-core
(1220 mm) wide, 16 in. (400 mm) deep hollow-core slab (one slabs with both circular and noncircular voids.
test on each end) where core-fill concrete was used in one of
the four voids. Palmer and Schultz were unable to directly Hollow-core slab properties
compare the experimentally determined shear capacities of
the core-filled hollow-core slabs to empty slabs due to varia- The 20 extruded (dry-cast) hollow-core slabs tested as part of
tion in testing variables (for example, concrete strength and this program and described herein were provided by two dif-
the shear span–to–depth ratio a/dp), but they concluded that ferent suppliers. Each hollow-core slab was tested twice, once
the core fill “appear[ed] to provide a measurable increase” in at each end (sides A and B), to maximize the amount of data
the web-shear capacity. gathered. Figure 1 presents the different supplier-specific cross
sections that were tested as part of this research program. Cross
McDermott and Dymond12 investigated the effect that core-fill sections with both noncircular voids (supplier A) and circular
concrete had on the web-shear capacity of 48 in. (1220 mm) voids (supplier B) were tested to evaluate how variations in
wide, 12 in. (300 mm) deep hollow-core slabs by testing each cross-sectional geometry may affect the shear capacity of hol-
end of eight slabs (16 tests). Core-fill material was added low-core slabs as proposed by Yang,6 Pajari,7,8 and EN 1168.5
immediately following extrusion or following detensioning to
consider how core-fill timing affected web-shear capacity. In Supplier A provided eight heavy-duty 48 in. (1220 mm) wide,
addition, several core-fill enhancement strategies were imple- 12 in. (300 mm) deep hollow-core slabs that were 20 ft (6.1 m)
mented and tested to investigate practical methods that may long. The hollow-core slabs were cast with five noncircular
result in increased core-fill web-shear capacity. McDermott voids and had thick webs. The nominal web thicknesses at the
and Dymond concluded that the bond between the core-fill centroidal axis for exterior and interior webs were approxi-
concrete and the extruded slab seemed to be the most import- mately 3 and 3.4 in. (75 and 86 mm), respectively. Four of the
ant factor in obtaining additional web-shear capacity from the eight slabs provided by supplier A had core-fill concrete placed
use of core-fill concrete. in two of the five voids; filling more than two of the voids was
not considered as it was predicted that this would result in
Lee and colleagues13 tested each end of three 47.2 in. flexure-shear or flexural failures when testing was performed.
(1200 mm) wide, 15.7 in. (400 mm) deep hollow-core slabs Variations in the prestressing strand profiles and core-filling
and each end of three 47.2 in. wide, 19.7 in. (500 mm) deep methods were also investigated for supplier A slabs and are
hollow-core slabs (12 tests). In these slabs, no core-fill concrete discussed in more detail in the following sections.
was present in one end and various types of core-fill concrete
were placed in two of the four voids on the opposite end of Supplier B provided 12 standard 48 in. (1220 mm) wide,
each slab. The different types of core fill consisted of conven- 12 in. (300 mm) deep hollow-core slabs that were 23 ft
tional cast-in-place concrete, steel-fiber-reinforced concrete, (7.0 m) long. The slabs were cast with four circular voids
and core fill that included wire mesh. All core-fill material and had tapering webs. The nominal web thicknesses at
was added one week after the slabs were extruded, and all the centroidal axis for exterior and interior webs were ap-
slabs were tested four weeks after the core-fill concrete was proximately 1.8 and 1.9 in. (46 and 48 mm), respectively.
added. The investigators observed very brittle failures with no Within this set, supplier B modified its extrusion machine

2.99 in. 3.38 in. 1.63 in.
typical typical Core-fill concrete typical
12 in.
5.94 in.
2.13 in. 1.50 in.

Centroidal axis
typical typical
48 in.
Slabs provided by supplier A with core-fill concrete
1.77 in. 1.88 in. 1.34 in. Core-fill grout 1.75 in.
typical typical typical typical Centroidal axis
12 in.
5.90 in.
1.75 in. 3.00 in. 1.34 in.

typical typical typical
48 in.
Slabs provided by supplier B with core-fill grout
1.77 in. 1.34 in. 13.06 in.

typical typical 1.75 in.
1.88 in. typical Centroidal axis
12 in.
5.92 in.
1.75 in. 3.00 in. 1.34 in.

typical typical typical
48 in.
Slabs provided by supplier B with one void omitted
Figure 1. Cross-sectional geometries of hollow-core slabs. Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
by removing one of the four void forms (Fig. 2) and cast

four slabs with one of the four voids omitted. It was not
possible to test slabs that had more than one of the four
voids omitted due to the increased member weight that
would be associated with the omission of additional voids.
To allow for a direct comparison with slabs cast with a
void omitted, supplier B also cast slabs that had core-fill
grout placed in one of the four circular voids and slabs
that did not omit voids and did not contain any core-fill
grout (that is, slabs that had the typical cross section ob-
tained when using the unmodified extrusion machine).
Table 1 presents a slab designation system for the different

supplier-specific cross sections, prestressing strand patterns, Figure 2. Extrusion machine that was used by supplier B to
and core-filling methods. Slab designations are presented cast slabs with a void omitted (slab type B-3-1E). The silver
in the format of S-#-#F, where S represents the supplier, # auger is visible after removing a void form.
represents the strand type designation, and #F represents
the number of cores that were filled and the type of core-fill Prestressing strand properties
material that was used. For example, A-1-NF is used to desig-
nate that the slab was provided by supplier A, was cast using All hollow-core slabs were manufactured using seven-wire,
strand pattern type 1, and no core-fill concrete was present. 270 ksi (1860 MPa) low-relaxation prestressing strands. The

Table 1. Slab designation system for the tested hollow-core slabs based on the supplier, prestressing strand pat-
tern type, and core-filling method
Strand
Core fill Number of cores filled
Supplier pattern Strand pattern description
designation and core-fill material type
number
Two 0.5 in. diameter strands and eight

1 0.6 in. diameter strands, all tensioned to NF No core fill
0.7fpu and ys of 2.125 in.
Supplier A 2 concrete-filled cores, a length of 48 in.

Six 0.5 in. diameter strands and four 2C
on each end
2 0.6 in. diameter strands, all tensioned to
0.7fpu and ys of 2.125 in. 2 roughened concrete-filled cores, a
2R
length of 48 in. on each end
NF No core fill
Eight 0.5 in. diameter strands tensioned
to 0.75fpu and ys of 1.75 in., three 0.5 in. 1 extruded solid core over the entire
diameter strands tensioned to 0.75fpu 1E length of the slab (that is, extrusion
Supplier B 3
and ys of 3 in., and two 0.5 in. diameter machine modified to omit one void)
strands tensioned to 0.5fpu and ys of
1 grout-filled core, a length of 66 in. on
10.25 in. 1G
each end
Note: Example designation system: A-1-NF designates that the slab was provided by supplier A, was cast using strand pattern type 1, and that no
core-fill concrete was present. All strands were seven-wire, low-relaxation strands with an ultimate tensile strength. fpu = 270 ksi; ys = the centroid of the
strand layer with respect to the slab bottom. 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa.
manufacturer’s typical strand pattern that provided the maxi- moved to contain the core-fill concrete on each end of the
mum flexural capacity (Table 1) was selected for most slabs to area to be filled.
help ensure that shear failure occurred during testing; howev-
er, two slabs provided by supplier A were cast with a strand 3. Add a more workable concrete (obtained by adding water
profile that resulted in a slightly lower total prestressing force and a superplasticizer to the same no-slump concrete that
to investigate the findings of Truderung and associates,14 was used to cast the slabs during the extrusion process) to
who found that high total prestressing forces could result in the void area to be filled.
reduced web-shear capacities when compared with identical
slabs that were cast with lower total prestressing forces. In ad- 4. Finish the top flange by hand, cover the core-filled slab,
dition, the cross-sectional geometries tested by Truderung and and cure the slab on a heated casting bed.
associates were almost identical to the supplier B slabs that
were tested as part of this program. The strand pattern for sup- 5. Transfer the prestressing force to the continuous slab by
plier B slabs had a jacking stress (ratio of jacking force Fj to uniformly detensioning all the strands at one end of the
cross-sectional area Ac) of approximately 1.20 ksi (8.27 MPa) continuous slab. The individual slabs were cut to length
at the neutral axis. This stress fell between the medium jack- from the continuous slab.
ing stress of 1.00 ksi (6.89 MPa) and the high jacking stress of
1.48 ksi (10.20 MPa) investigated by Truderung’s team, which Supplier B added core-fill grout (which had 0.375 in.
provided an opportunity to examine their finding of reduced [9.53 mm] coarse aggregate) in the following manner:
web-shear capacity with high total prestressing force.
1. Immediately following slab extrusion, remove approxi-
Slab and core-fill manufacturing methods mately 12 in. (300 mm) long sections of the top flange,
leaving sections of top the flange intact to prevent the
Each hollow-core supplier used its typical core-filling method narrow webs from collapsing.
when manufacturing the test slabs to determine whether web-
shear capacity gains from the addition of core-fill concrete or 2. Insert foam plugs into the voids at each end of the area to
grout were being realized. Supplier A added core-fill concrete be filled to contain the grout.
in the following manner:
3. Pump the core-fill grout mixture into the void area to be
1. Completely remove the top flange above the void area to filled.
be filled immediately following slab extrusion.
4. Finish the top surface by hand, cover the core-filled slab,
2. Form plugs using the top-flange material that was re- and cure the slab on a heated casting bed.

5. Transfer the prestressing force to the continuous slab by
individually flame cutting each strand at one end of the
continuous slab. The individual slabs were cut to length
from the continuous slab.
Supplier A also cast two slabs where the void walls were me-
chanically roughened prior to placing the core-fill concrete.
The sidewalls of the voids were roughened using stiff bristles
that were attached to two of the five void forms (Fig. 3). The
bristles raked the sides of the voids as the extrusion machine
traveled down the casting bed. After removing the top flange
above the void area to be filled, the bottom of the void was
also hand raked using a stiff-bristle brush formed to fit the
tapering portion of the webs of the void. After roughening the
slab concrete, supplier A proceeded with its typical core-fill-
ing procedure.
Hardened material properties Figure 3. The bottom of an extrusion machine used by sup-
plier A to roughen the sidewalls of the voids. Two void forms
were fitted with stiff bristle attachments.
Hardened concrete and grout properties were determined
using 4 in. (100 mm) diameter, 8 in. (200 mm) tall cylinders Test setup
that were cast when the test slabs were extruded and when the
core-fill concrete or grout was placed in the void or voids, if During each test on a slab, the load was applied 30 in.
present. Three cylinders of extruded concrete and three cyl- (760 mm) from the centerline of the nearest roller support
inders of core-fill material, if present, were typically cast for and 162 in. (4.11 m) from the centerline of the far, pinned
each end of each slab to be tested. The compressive strengths support. The supports were constructed using neoprene
of the slab cylinders f c′ and core-fill cylinders f cfʹ were deter- bearing pads, steel plates, steel cylinders, and additional steel
mined in accordance with ASTM C39 Standard Test Method channels where necessary. The testing geometry was selected
for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens15 to achieve a shear span a–to–depth dp ratio of 3.0 to avoid
on the date that the slab shear test was performed. Both arching action. This value corresponded with a shear span a–
hollow-core suppliers cast cylinders of extruded hollow-core to–height h ratio of 2.5 considering the entire section depth.
slab concrete and provided the concrete compressive strength This was selected because the hollow-core slabs were not
at transfer f c,transfer
ʹ when the prestressing force was transferred expected to have flexural cracking before web-shear failure.
to the continuous slab. Hardened material properties for each Load was distributed across the width of the slab using a
of the slabs manufactured by supplier A and supplier B are grout pad and neoprene bearing pad. The test setup is shown
shown in Tables 2 and 3. in Fig. 4.
Figure 4. Elevation view of the test setup. Note: L = length of hollow-core section = 240 and 276 in. for slabs provided by suppli-
ers A and B, respectively. 1 in. = 25.4 mm.

Table 2. Experimental results for all slabs provided by supplier A
Loading Failure Peak applied

Slab type Test number Test age, days fc,transfer , psi fc , psi fcf , psi
method mode load, kip
1A LF WS 72 4510 12,540* n/a 99.0
1B LF WS 73 4510 12,540* n/a 84.0

A-1-NF
2A LF WS 77 4510 12,540* n/a 91.8
2B LF WS/FS 80 4510 12,540* n/a 89.2
Average 76 4510 12,540* n/a 91.0
17A LF WS 42 6640 12,050 n/a 117.9

A-1-NF
17B LF WS 43 6640 11,950 n/a 116.0
16A LF WS 40 5880 12,050 n/a 122.8

A-2-NF
16B LF WS 41 5880 12,120 n/a 120.5
Average 42 6260 12,043 n/a 119.3
3A LF WS 22 3600 9430 7180 83.9
3B LF WS/FS 23 3600 n.d.† n.d.† 101.5

A-1-2C
4A LF WS 28 4340 10,880 7110 83.4
4B LF WS 29 4340 11,010 7160 102.6
Average 26 3970 10,440 7150 92.8
5A LF WS 23 4130 11,850 6920 92.4

A-1-2R
5B LF WS 25 4130 11,230 7160 113.5
6A LF WS 30 4130 11,210 7020 98.3

A-2-2R
6B LF WS 30 4130 11,210 7020 111.2
Average 27 4130 11,375 7030 103.9
Note: See Table 1 for slab type descriptions. fc′ = nominal compressive strength of hollow-core slab concrete when tested; fcf′ = average compressive
strength of core-fill material on slab test day; fc,transfer = concrete compressive strength at prestressing transfer; FS = flexure shear; LF = load frame (rather
than spreader beam); n/a = not applicable; n.d. = no data; WS = web shear. 1 psi = 6.895 kPa; 1 kip = 4.448 kN.
*Average compressive strength determined using three cylinders tested over a range of six days.
†Cylinder testing machine was inoperable when test 3B was performed.
Load application times greater than the tension applied by the actuator, with a
coefficient of determination equal to 1.00 based on 32 data
A 110 kip (489 kN) hydraulic actuator was used to test the pairs. Using this structural steel frame, a wide flange steel
hollow-core slabs in this program. Web-shear capacity predic- cross member applied load to the top of the hollow-core slabs.
tions showed that this magnitude of applied load would be in- Alternatively, a stiffened steel spreader beam was directly
sufficient to obtain web-shear failures in the heavy-duty slabs attached to the hydraulic actuator (without the structural steel
with large web widths provided by supplier A. To address frame) and used for four of the eight tests performed on slab
this, a structural steel frame was fabricated to act as a lever type B-3-1E and four of the eight tests performed on slab type
mechanism and allow for the load applied to the hollow-core B-3-NF as a secondary means of verifying the load applied by
slabs to be increased without exceeding the 110 kip rating of the structural steel frame. Figure 5 shows both the structural
the hydraulic actuator. The structural steel frame had a 2-to-1 steel frame and the stiffened spreader beam. Load was typi-
ratio between the fulcrum points so that the compressive load cally applied to the slabs at a displacement-controlled rate of
applied to hollow-core slabs was approximately double the 0.0003 in./sec (0.0076 mm/sec) for all tests.
tensile force recorded by the internal load cell on the hydrau-
lic actuator. The frame assembly was independently calibrated This magnitude of applied load is representative of the line
using a portable load cell to verify the multiplication factor, and point loads often encountered in a podium structure.
which showed that the load applied to a specimen was 1.97 The procedure for distributing point and line loads used in

Table 3. Experimental results for all slabs provided by supplier B
Test Loading Failure Test age, Peak applied

Slab type fc,transfer , psi fc , psi fcf , psi
number method mode days load, kip
B-3-1E 7A LF WS 28 3630 9630 n/a 64.3
7B LF WS 29 3630 10,370 n/a 58.5
8A LF WS 29 3850 9640 n/a 59.0
8B LF WS/FS/BF 32 3850 9310 n/a 47.6
9A SB WS 29 3670 10,270 n/a 56.7
9B SB WS 35 3670 10,100 n/a 49.6
10A SB FS 41 4050 10,460 n/a 57.6
10B SB WS 44 4050 10,900 n/a 57.2
Average 33 3800 10,090 n/a 56.3
B-3-1G 11A SB WS 48 4050 9960 8520 62.3
11B SB WS 49 4050 10,030 8720 61.7
12A SB WS 50 4310 11,800 9750 47.7
12B SB WS 51 4310 11,620 9530 57.0
13A SB WS 61 4310 11,030 9330 55.5
13B SB WS 63 4310 10,970 9370 59.8
14A SB WS 69 4090 11,520 8750 63.5
14B SB WS 70 4090 11,630 9070 57.8
Average* 59 4170 10,970 9040 59.7
B-3-NF 15A SB WS 73 4090 11,610 n/a 60.1
15B SB WS 74 4090 11,190 n/a 60.6
18A LF WS 87 3850 11,250 n/a 59.5
18B LF WS 88 3850 11,420 n/a 66.8
19A LF WS 85 3920 10,440 n/a 54.2
19B LF WS 86 3920 10,350 n/a 49.3
20A SB WS 91 3850 11,030 n/a 55.0
20B SB WS 92 3850 11,390 n/a 64.8
Average 85 3930 11,090 n/a 58.8
Note: See Table 1 for slab type descriptions. BF = bond failure; fc′ = nominal compressive strength of hollow-core slab concrete when tested; f ′ = aver-
cf
age compressive strength of core-fill material on slab test day; f = concrete compressive strength at prestressing transfer; FS = flexure shear; LF =
c,transfer
load frame; n/a = not applicable; SB = spreader beam; WS = web shear. 1 psi = 6.895 kPa; 1 kip = 4.448 kN.
*Test 12A was excluded from the averages because premature failure occurred during the test near the applied load due to nonuniform bearing at the
near support.
practice1 is not intended to represent the actual load path the support. This means that flexural resistance is obtained
through the hollow-core slab; rather, it is a model based from multiple hollow-core slabs, but shear resistance is only
on testing to provide values for design. This procedure is obtained from a single hollow-core slab. This methodology
generally considered conservative. The method defines an can yield a high shear demand at the support and may result
effective resisting width equal to half of the span length at in hollow-core sections with very wide webs and filled cores
midspan, but the effective width is only 4.0 ft (1.2 m) at as tested herein.

Structural steel frame Stiffened spreader beam
Figure 5. The structural steel frame straddling a hollow-core slab and a stiffened spreader beam attached to a hydraulic actuator
used to apply load to a hollow-core slab with one grout-filled core.
Instrumentation and documentation where
An internal linear variable displacement transducer (LVDT) fpc = compressive stress in concrete, after allowance
and 100 kip (445 kN) capacity load cell were used to mea- for all prestress losses, at centroid of cross section
sure actuator displacement and applied force, respectively. In resisting externally applied loads
addition, three pairs of external LVDTs were used to measure
slab displacement on each side of the slab at the near support, bw = width of web(s)
the load point, and the far support. Data from these LVDTs
were used to evaluate the extent of any torsional stresses Vp = vertical component of effective prestressing force at
due to nonuniform bearing or loading that may have been section
induced during testing, which would be indicated by differ-
ential displacement between the paired LVDTs and between All prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs tested as part of
the different LVDT sets. Pre- and posttest strand slip mea- this program had horizontal prestressing strand profiles and,
surements were also recorded for all strands using a digital accordingly, Vp was equal to zero for all web-shear capacity
tire-tread-depth gauge. The second end of each slab (side B) predictions. The compressive stress in the concrete fpc is a
was dismantled after diagonal web-shear failure occurred to function of the transfer length of prestressed reinforcement ltr,
expose the failure plane, and a three-dimensional (3-D) model which was assumed to be equal to 50db (where db is the nom-
of the crack face was generated using an Artec 3-D scanner. inal strand diameter of the prestressing strand) in accordance
The 3-D models were used to measure the crack angles of the with section 22.5.9.1 of ACI 318-14. Prestress losses were
failure planes and allowed for a comparison of test data even calculated using the simplified method provided in ACI’s
after broken slabs were discarded. Guide to Estimating Prestress Loss, ACI 423.10R.16
Shear prediction methods It was assumed that core-fill material acted as nonpre-
stressed concrete when calculating the additional shear
ACI 318-14 capacity that was gained due to the presence of fill ma-
terial for ACI 318-14 predictions. The shear capacity of
The web-shear capacity Vcw of prestressed concrete members nonprestressed concrete Vc is predicted using ACI 318-14
is predicted by ACI 318-149 Eq. (22.5.8.3.2). Eq. (1) is ACI Eq. (22.5.5.1). Eq. (2) is ACI 318-14 Eq. (22.5.5.1) convert-
318-149 Eq. (22.5.8.3.2) converted for SI units. ed for SI units.
( )
Vcw = 3.5 f cʹ + 0.3 f pc bw d p +V p (ACI 318-14 22.5.8.3.2) Vc = 2 f cʹbw d (ACI 318-14 22.5.5.1)
( )
Vcw = 0.29 f cʹ + 0.3 f pc bw d p +V p (1) Vc = 0.17 f cʹbw d (2)

where y = height of critical point on the line of failure
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid Sc(y) = first moment of the area above height y and about
of longitudinal tension reinforcement the centroidal axis
When predicting the combined shear capacity of the ex- fct = actual tensile strength of concrete
truded hollow-core slab and core-fill material, the total area
of the core-fill material proposed by Anderson3 was used. σcp(y) = full concrete compressive stress at height y and
Accordingly, all ACI 318-14 shear capacity predictions were distance lx
calculated using Eq. (3). Eq. (4) is Eq. (3) converted for SI
units. τcp(y) = concrete shear stress due to transmission of pre-
stress at height y and distance lx
( )
Vcw = 3.5 f cʹ + 0.3 f pc bw d p + 2 f cfʹ A f n f (3)
lx = distance of section considered from the starting
( )
Vcw = 0.29 f cʹ + 0.3 f pc bw d p + 0.17 f cfʹ A f n f (4) point of the transmission length
where A = fictive cross-section surface
Af = cross-sectional area of filled core Yc = height of the centroidal axis
nf = number of filled cores YPt = height of the position of considered tendon layer
For test slabs where no core-fill material was present, the Pt(lx) = prestressing force in the considered tendon layer at
number of filled cores nf was equal to zero and the predicted a distance lx
web-shear capacity was equivalent to that calculated using
ACI 318-149 Eq. (22.5.8.3.2). MEd = bending moment due to the vertical load
EN 1168 Ac(y) = area above height y
The general method of EN 11685 was also used to predict Cpt(y) = factor taking into account the position of the con-
the shear capacity of hollow-core slabs tested as part of this sidered tendon layer
program. The general method of predicting the shear capacity dPt ( lx )
of the hollow-core slabs is presented as Eq. (5). = gradient of the prestressing force in the considered
dx
VRdc =
I × bw y ⎛ ( ) (f ) 2
( ) ⎞
( )
+ σ cp y × f ct − τ cp y ⎟ (5)
tendon layer at a distance lx
⎜
Sc y ⎝ ( ) ct
⎠ The variable σcp(y) represents the axial precompression of the
where concrete due to the prestressing strands, less the tensile stress
⎧⎡ due to the applied moment, at the height of the assumed failure
n ⎪ 1
σ cp ( y ) = ∑t=1 ⎨⎢ + c
(Y − y ) (Yc − YPt ) ⎤⎥ × P l ⎫⎪⎬
t ( x)
location (and assuming the height of the assumed failure location
⎪⎩⎢⎣ A I ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ is below the neutral axis). The tensile stress due to the applied
moment MEd contributes to a loss of shear capacity because it
M Ed
− × (Yc − y ) (6) is subtracted at the end of Eq. (6) and therefore subtracted from
I shear resistance in regions uncracked by bending for prestressed
and concrete hollow-core slabs VRdc. The variable τcp(y) represents
τ cp ( y ) =
1 ⎧
n ⎪⎡ A y
× ∑ t=1 ⎨ ⎢ c
( )
S y × Yc − YPt
− c
⎤
+ Cpt y ⎥
( ) ( ) ( )
the shear stresses due to the prestressing strands at the height of
the assumed failure location and exists only within the transmis-
( )
bw y ⎩⎪ ⎢⎣
A I ⎥⎦ sion (transfer) length. This variable contributes to a loss of shear
dP ( l ) ⎫⎪
t x
capacity because it is subtracted from shear resistance in regions
× ⎬ (7) uncracked by bending for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs
dx ⎪⎭ VRdc in Eq. (5). The general method of EN 1168 requires iterative
where calculations along a line of failure, which extends 35 degrees
from the inner face of the near support (but not within a horizon-
VRdc = shear resistance in regions uncracked by bending tal distance of one-half the member height h from the inner face
for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs of the support). The minimum value of the shear capacity found
along this line is used for design. The assumption of a 35-degree
I = second moment of area of the cross section crack angle was proposed by Yang6 and based on finite element
analysis. Eq. (5) was used to calculate the capacity for all slabs in
bw(y) = web width at the height y this research program, even those with circular voids, which have

a minimum web width at the centroidal axis and may fail along a shear and flexure-shear failure, one test (test 8B) resulted in
shear plane other than 35 degrees. combined web-shear and flexure-shear cracking followed by
strand slip when loading was continued, and one test (test
In Eq. (5), fct is a function of the concrete compressive 10A) resulted in a flexure-shear failure. The experimental
strength and is approximately equivalent to a diagonal tension results for all tests of supplier A and supplier B slabs are pre-
strength of concrete f t of 3.5 f cʹ psi, which is the ACI diag- sented in Tables 2 and 3.
onal tension strength of concrete.17,18 For design purposes, fct is
designated as fctd and calculated as 70% of the mean value of Slab displacement during testing
the 28-day axial tensile strength of concrete using Eq. (3.16)
from Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures—Part 1-1: Displacement readings between the paired LVDTs at the near
General Rules and Rules for Buildings, EN 1992-1-1.19 How- support, load point, and far support should be equal for a test
ever, for validation testing of hollow-core slabs, annex J.5 of where a symmetric slab is uniformly supported and loaded.
EN 1168 requires that the actual tensile strength of concrete fct Differences in displacement between one side of a test slab
be calculated as 80% of the axial tensile strength of concrete compared with the other (that is, differential displacement
on the day that the hollow-core slab test is performed. The ac- readings between the paired LVDTs) could indicate unintend-
tual tensile strength of concrete fct requirements for validation ed torsional stresses or stress concentrations. Table 4 presents
testing were used in this research program. the differential displacement recorded between the three
LVDT pairs, along with the method of loading (load frame
Transmission lengths used in EN 1168 capacity predictions assembly or stiffened spreader beam) and peak applied load
were calculated in accordance with section 8.10.2.2 (2) of EN at failure for each test in this program. Various methods—
1992-1-1; however, EN 1992-1-1 section 8.10.2.2 (3) requires such as the use of a grout pad or neoprene pad, shimming of
that the transmission length be taken as 120% of the basic the load frame, and shimming at the supports—were used to
value of transmission length for shear design, which results in eliminate as much differential displacement between LVDT
more-conservative capacity predictions. To analyze laboratory pairs as possible during testing.
results in this research program, all capacity predictions were
calculated using the basic value of the transmission length lpt, Slabs with an extruded solid core
and not 1.2 × lpt. Time-dependent prestress losses were calcu-
lated in accordance with EN 1992-1-1. Slabs cast with an extruded solid core (that is, with one of the
voids omitted), denoted as slab type B-3-1E, performed poor-
Appendix F.3 of EN 1168 provides an equation to calculate ly compared with both of the evaluated prediction methods.
the total shear tension capacity of a hollow-core slab with a On average, slab type B-3-1E failed at approximately 59%
number of filled cores VRdt, shown here as Eq. (8). and 70% of the capacities predicted using ACI 318-149 and
the general method of EN 1168,5 respectively. (This paper
2
VRdt = VRdc + × n f × bc × d × f ctd , f (8) does not provide a comparison of the experimental results
3 to predicted values for slab type B-3-1E because of the slab
where type’s poor performance, but the data can be found in Asper-
heim.20) A lack of symmetry may have contributed to the poor
bc = width of the cores performance where the poorly compacted solid section at-
tracted greater load than the other internal webs; shear failure
fctd,f = design tensile strength of core-fill material in hollow-core slabs with different web widths is governed by
the thinnest web width. Furthermore, it was concluded that
EN 1168 Fig. F.1, which shows core-fill concrete in hollow-core the extruded concrete was not sufficiently compacted due to
slabs with circular voids, implies that bc should be taken as the the void form being removed, and that resulted in a poor bond
maximum width of the core. This assumption was made for between the prestressing strands and extruded slab. This con-
calculations performed as part of this program. It is not clear clusion was supported by two findings: strand slip values up
whether the 2⁄3 constant factor in Eq. (8) represents a shape factor to 0.3 in. (7.6 mm) were recorded for prestressing strands near
that reduces the rectangular area obtained from the width of the the omitted void, and low compressive and splitting tensile
cores bc multiplied by the distance from the extreme compression strength values were obtained from concrete cylinders that
fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement d to were removed from the extruded solid core section of slab
account for the nonrectangular core fill or whether it is a reduc- 10 using a coring rig. The data supporting these findings can
tion factor that accounts for the potential of noncomposite action be found in Asperheim.20 Figure 6 presents pre- and posttest
between the core-fill material and the extruded slab. strand slip measurements for all tests.
Experimental results and comparisons ACI 318-14

with predicted web-shear capacity
Table 5 presents ACI 318-149 predicted failure locations,
Of the 40 tests performed, 36 web-shear failures occurred, corresponding unfactored shear demand from self-weight and
two tests (tests 2B and 3B) resulted in a combined web- applied load Vsw+app, predicted slab and core-fill shear capacity

Table 4. Peak applied load and difference in displacement readings for paired linear variable displacement
transducers located on each side of the slab at the near support, the load point, and at the far suppor
Slab Test Loading Peak applied LVDT pair location and difference between the pair*
type number method load, kip Near support, in. Load point, in. Far support, in.
1A LF 99.0 0.08 0.05 0.01
1B LF 84.0 0.09 0.06 0.04
2A LF 91.8 0.10 0.05 0.03
A-1-NF
2B LF 89.2 0.10 0.06 0.05
17A LF 117.9 n/a n/a n/a
17B LF 116.0 0.01 0.02 0.00
3A LF 83.9 0.09 0.06 0.03
3B LF 101.5 0.07 0.04 0.02
A-1-2C
4A LF 83.4 0.12 0.11 0.06
4B LF 102.6 0.12 0.11 0.06
5A LF 92.4 0.04 0.06 0.04
A-1-2R
5B LF 113.5 0.02 0.02 0.02
16A LF 122.8 –0.01 –0.01 –0.01
A-2-NF
16B LF 120.5 0.02 0.01 –0.01
6A LF 98.3 0.01 0.02 0.03
A-2-2R
6B LF 111.2 –0.02 –0.01 0.00
7A LF 64.3 0.06 0.05 0.02
7B LF 58.5 0.08 0.08 0.05
8A LF 59.0 0.07 0.06 0.04
8B LF 47.6 0.04 0.02 0.01
B-4-1E
9A SB 56.7 0.07 0.07 -0.03
9B SB 49.6 0.06 0.14 -0.14
10A SB 57.6 0.08 0.07 -0.03
10B SB 57.2 0.05 0.07 -0.03
11A SB 62.3 0.08 0.08 0.03
11B SB 61.7 0.12 0.07 -0.06
12A SB 47.7 0.05 0.16 0.00
12B SB 57.0 0.09 0.06 -0.05
B-4-1G
13A SB 55.5 0.00 0.09 0.05
13B SB 59.8 0.01 –0.08 –0.06
14A SB 63.5 0.01 –0.03 –0.02
14B SB 57.8 0.00 –0.09 –0.07
15A SB 60.1 0.01 0.05 0.03
15B SB 60.6 0.00 –0.01 –0.01
18A LF 59.5 –0.01 0.00 –0.01
18B LF 66.8 –0.01 –0.01 –0.01
B-4-NF
19A LF 54.2 –0.01 –0.01 –0.02
19B LF 49.3 0.03 0.03 0.02
20A SB 55.0 –0.07 –0.11 –0.06
20B SB 64.8 –0.04 –0.03 –0.02
Note: See Table 1 for slab type descriptions. LF = load frame; LVDT = linear variable displacement transducer; n/a = not available (due to LVDT failure
early in the test); SB = spreader beam. 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.448 kN.
*Negative values indicate larger displacement in the south LVDT.

0.30
0.28
0.26 Pretest
0.24 Posttest
0.22
0.20
Strand slip, in.
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
1A
1B
2A
2B
17A
17B
16A
16B
3A
3B
4A
4B
5A
5B
6A
6B
7A
7B
8A
8B
9A
9B
10A
10B
11A
11B
12A
12B
13A
13B
14A
14B
15A
15B
18A
18B
19A
19B
20A
20B
Test number
Figure 6. Average of pre- and posttest strand slip measurements for all tests. Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
Vn,slab plus unfactored nominal shear capacity of core-fill con- occurred. Alternatively, low failure loads could be due to
crete or grout Vn,fill, and ratios of shear demand–to–capacity unintended eccentricities generated from nonuniform bearing
for all slabs (excluding slab type B-3-1E). In addition, the ta- at the supports, nonuniformly distributed demand at the load
ble presents the ratio of the moment demand from self-weight point, or core-fill concrete that did not act uniformly compos-
and applied load to the unfactored ACI 318-14 predicted ite in all of the filled voids. Testing an individual hollow-core
moment capacity to show the contrast in loading demands slab with a single point load near the end of the span (which
between slabs provided by suppliers A and B. also generates high moment demand) likely does not accurate-
ly reflect the real-life load demand applied to a hollow-core
Results in Table 5 show that average failures occurred at slab floor system, where multiple hollow-core slabs placed
shear demands that were lower than the slab shear capacities side-by-side with grouted shear keys likely distribute moment
predicted using ACI 318-14 for nine of the 16 tests performed demand and loading eccentricities.
on supplier A slabs. Slabs that had lower values of concrete
compressive strength at transfer (Table 2) and no core-fill Results in Table 5 also show that average failures occurred
concrete (tests 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B) failed in shear at an aver- at shear demands that were higher than the slab shear capac-
age of 83% (±6%) of capacity Vn,slab. Slabs with lower values ities predicted using ACI 318-14 for all but one of the tests
of concrete compressive strength at transfer and core-fill performed on supplier B slabs (excluding slab type B-3-1E).
concrete placed in unroughened voids (tests 3A, 3B, 4A, and Supplier B slabs with core-fill grout in one void (slab type
4B) failed in shear at an average of 93% (±11%) of capac- B-3-1G) failed in shear at an average of 113% (±9%) of ca-
ity Vn,slab. Slabs with lower values of concrete compressive pacity Vn,slab, and supplier B slabs with no core-fill grout (slab
strength at transfer and core-fill concrete placed in roughened type B-3-NF) failed in shear at an average of 111% (±14%) of
voids (tests 5A, 5B, 6A, and 6B) failed in shear at an average capacity Vn,slab. The concrete compressive strength at transfer
of 99% (±11%) of capacity Vn,slab. Slabs with higher values (Table 3) was approximately equal for all supplier B slabs.
of concrete compressive strength at transfer and no core-fill
concrete (tests 17A, 17B, 16A, and 16B) failed in shear at an EN 1168
average of 111% (±2%) of capacity Vn,slab. The larger varia-
tion in the ratio of shear demand Vsw+app to capacity Vn,slab for Table 6 presents the failure location predicted using the gen-
slabs with core-fill concrete present was attributed to the fill eral method of EN 11685 (with the horizontal distance from
material providing additional shear capacity for some, but the slab end to the predicted failure location xcrit and height
not all, of the slabs that were tested. Failures occurring below of critical point on the line of failure y) and a comparison of
the ACI 318-14 predicted shear capacity could be attributed the experimentally determined shear demand to the predicted
to the large moment demand that was present when failures shear capacity at this location. Results in Table 6 show that

Table 5. Comparison of ACI 318-14 predictions to experimental test results
Test xcrit,* dp, Vsw+app, Vn,slab, Vsw+app/ Vn,fill, Vsw+app/

Slab type bw, in. Msw+app/Mn
number in. in. kip kip Vn,slab kip (Vn,slab + Vn,fill)
1A 0.90 86.04 95.10 0.90 n/a n/a

1B 0.77 73.63 95.10 0.77 n/a n/a
A-1-NF 11.00 19.49 9.88
2A 0.83 79.94 95.10 0.84 n/a n/a
2B 0.81 77.74 95.10 0.82 n/a n/a
Average 11.00 19.49 9.88 0.83 79.34 95.10 0.83 n/a n/a
17A 1.07 101.99 93.59 1.09 n/a n/a
A-1-NF
17B 1.05 100.35 93.29 1.08 n/a n/a
11.00 19.49 9.88
16A 1.26 106.12 93.31 1.14 n/a n/a
A-2-NF
16B 1.24 104.19 93.52 1.11 n/a n/a
Average 11.00 19.49 9.88 1.16 103.16 93.43 1.11 n/a n/a
3A 0.78 73.28 84.82 0.86 14.80 0.74
3B 0.94 88.17 84.82 1.04 14.80 0.89
A-1-2C 11.00 19.49 9.88
4A 0.77 72.83 89.82 0.81 14.73 0.70
4B 0.94 89.09 90.24 0.99 14.78 0.85
Average 11.00 19.49 9.88 0.86 80.84 87.43 0.93 14.78 0.80
5A 0.84 80.49 92.96 0.87 14.53 0.75
A-1-2R
5B 1.03 98.28 89.98 1.09 14.78 0.93
11.00 19.49 9.88
6A 1.02 85.48 90.63 0.94 14.63 0.81
A-2-2R
6B 1.15 96.35 90.63 1.06 14.63 0.92
Average 11.00 19.49 9.88 1.01 90.15 91.05 0.99 14.64 0.85
11A 0.56 54.33 44.46 1.22 12.57 0.95
11B 0.55 53.83 44.57 1.21 12.72 0.94
12A 0.43 42.01 47.22 0.89 12.40 0.70
12B 0.51 49.87 46.96 1.06 13.30 0.83
B-3-1G 11.00 9.13 9.91†
13A 0.50 48.61 46.09 1.05 13.16 0.82
13B 0.53 52.21 46.01 1.13 13.19 0.88
14A 0.56 55.31 46.81 1.18 12.74 0.93
14B 0.56 54.33 44.46 1.08 12.97 0.84
Average‡ 11.00 9.13 9.91 0.54 52.64 45.62 1.13 12.95 0.88
15A 0.53 52.47 46.94 1.12 n/a n/a
15B 0.54 52.86 46.32 1.14 n/a n/a
18A 0.53 51.97 46.42 1.12 n/a n/a
18B 0.59 58.22 46.67 1.25 n/a n/a
B-3-NF 11.00 9.13 9.91†
19A 0.49 47.51 45.20 1.05 n/a n/a
19B 0.45 43.39 45.07 0.96 n/a n/a
20A 0.43 48.22 46.10 1.05 n/a n/a
20B 0.58 56.48 46.62 1.21 n/a n/a
Average 11.00 9.13 9.91 0.52 51.39 46.17 1.11 n/a n/a
Note: See Table 1 for slab type descriptions. bw = total web width at the centroidal axis of the slab; dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to
centroid of prestressing reinforcement; Mn = unfactored nominal moment capacity; Msw+app = moment demand due to applied load and self-weight; n/a =
not applicable; Vn,fill = unfactored nominal shear capacity of core-fill concrete or grout; Vn,slab = unfactored nominal shear capacity of slab; Vsw+app = shear
demand due to self-weight and applied load; xcrit = horizontal distance from slab end to the predicted failure point. 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.448 kN.
*xcrit located h/2 from the inner face of support.
†Neglects top strands.
‡Test 12A was excluded from the averages because premature failure occurred during the test near the applied load due to nonuniform bearing at the
near support.

Table 6. Comparison of EN 1168 general method predictions to experimental test results
Slab Test I/Sc(y),

xcrit, in. bw(y), in. y, in. Vsw+app, kip VRdc, kip Vsw+app/VRdc Vn,fill, kip Vsw+app/VRdt
type number in.
1A 86.04 74.63 1.15 n/a n/a

1B 73.63 74.62 0.99 n/a n/a
A-1-NF 11.00 19.67 9.35 4.20
2A 79.94 74.56 1.07 n/a n/a
2B 77.74 74.55 1.04 n/a n/a
Average 11.00 19.67 9.35 4.20 79.34 74.59 1.06 n/a n/a
17A 101.99 77.52 1.32 n/a n/a
A-1-NF
17B 100.35 77.31 1.30 n/a n/a
11.00 19.67 9.35 4.20
16A 106.12 76.95 1.38 n/a n/a
A-2-NF
16B 104.19 77.04 1.35 n/a n/a
Average 11.00 19.67 9.35 4.20 103.16 77.21 1.34 n/a n/a
3A 73.28 71.33 1.03 22.42 0.78
3B 88.17 71.29 1.24 22.42 0.94
A-1-2C 11.00 19.67 9.35 4.20
4A 72.83 74.21 0.98 22.33 0.75
4B 89.09 74.43 1.20 22.39 0.92
Average 11.00 19.67 9.35 4.20 80.84 72.81 1.11 22.39 0.85
5A 80.49 73.49 1.10 22.10 0.84
A-1-2R
5B 98.28 72.27 1.36 22.39 1.04
11.00 19.67 9.35 4.20
6A 85.48 71.47 1.20 22.22 0.91
A-2-2R
6B 96.35 71.47 1.35 22.22 1.03
Average 11.00 19.67 9.35 4.20 90.15 72.17 1.25 22.24 0.96
11A 54.29 40.62 1.34 21.26 0.88
11B 53.79 40.70 1.32 21.45 0.87
12A 41.96 43.06 0.97 22.35 0.64
12B 49.83 42.86 1.16 22.16 0.77
B-3-1G 12.68 9.56 9.22 5.38
13A 48.57 42.10 1.15 22.00 0.76
13B 52.16 42.03 1.24 22.03 0.81
14A 55.27 42.30 1.31 21.47 0.87
14B 50.49 42.41 1.19 21.76 0.79
Average* 12.68 9.56 9.22 5.38 52.06 41.86 1.24 21.73 0.82
15A 52.42 42.36 1.24 n/a n/a
15B 52.82 41.90 1.26 n/a n/a
18A 51.93 41.55 1.25 n/a n/a
18B 58.09 41.73 1.39 n/a n/a
B-3-NF 12.68 9.56 9.22 5.38
19A 47.47 40.73 1.17 n/a n/a
19B 43.35 40.62 1.07 n/a n/a
20A 48.17 41.29 1.17 n/a n/a
20B 56.44 43.73 1.29 n/a n/a
Average 12.68 9.56 9.22 5.38 51.34 41.74 1.23 n/a n/a
Note: See Table 1 for slab type descriptions. bw(y) = web width at height y along the line of failure; I/Sc(y) = ratio of the second moment of area and the
first moment of area for height y; n/a = not applicable; Vn,fill = predicted shear capacity of core fill; VRdc = shear resistance in regions uncracked by bend-
ing for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs; VRdt = shear resistance in regions uncracked by bending for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs with
filled cores; Vsw+app = shear demand due to self-weight and applied load; xcrit = horizontal distance from slab end to the predicted failure point; y = height
of critical point on the line of failure. 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.448 kN.
*Test 12A was excluded from the averages because premature failure occurred near the applied load due to nonuniform bearing at the near support.

average failures for all tests performed on supplier A slabs not be realistic for in situ loading conditions experienced
occurred at shear demands that were approximately equal to by hollow-core slab systems. A 1962 report by ACI-ASCE
or higher than the slab shear capacities predicted using EN (American Society of Civil Engineers) Committee 326,17
1168. Slabs that had lower values of concrete compressive which is the basis for ACI 318-14, found that the diagonal
strength at transfer (Table 2) and no core-fill concrete (tests tensile strength of concrete could vary from approximately
1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B) failed in shear at an average of 106% 1.9 f cʹ to 3.5 f cʹ psi depending on several factors, including
(±8%) of shear resistance in regions uncracked by bending the longitudinal reinforcement ratio and moment demand. The
for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs VRdc. Slabs with ACI 318-14 web-shear capacity equation assumes the diago-
lower values of concrete compressive strength at transfer and nal tensile strength of concrete is equal to 3.5 f cʹ ,17,18 based
core-fill concrete placed in unroughened voids (tests 3A, 3B, on the assumption that the moment demand M is negligible
4A, and 4B) failed in shear at an average of 111% (±13%) of (M ≈ 0).17 This assumption was justifiable for supplier B slabs,
shear resistance in regions uncracked by bending for pre- where web-shear failure was the controlling failure mode due
stressed concrete hollow-core slabs VRdc. Slabs with lower to the narrow web widths being located at or near the cen-
values of concrete compressive strength at transfer and core- troidal axis of the circular void; however, having a negligible
fill concrete placed in roughened voids (tests 5A, 5B, 6A, and moment demand was not the case when failures occurred in
6B) failed in shear at an average of 125% (±13%) of shear slabs provided by supplier A.
resistance in regions uncracked by bending for prestressed
concrete hollow-core slabs VRdc. Slabs with higher values of Results in Table 6 show that EN 11685 provided conservative
concrete compressive strength at transfer and no core-fill con- predictions for slabs provided by supplier B (excluding slab
crete (tests 17A, 17B, 16A, and 16B) failed in shear at an av- type B-3-1E) with an average shear demand from self-weight
erage of 134% (±4%) of shear resistance in regions uncracked and applied load Vsw+app to shear resistance in regions un-
by bending for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs VRdc. cracked by bending for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs
VRdc ratio of 1.24. An average shear demand from self-weight
Data in Table 6 show that average failures for all tests per- and applied load Vsw+app to shear resistance in regions un-
formed on supplier B slabs (excluding slab type B-3-1E) also cracked by bending for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs
occurred at shear demands that were higher than the slab VRdc ratio of 1.06 was found for slabs provided by supplier A
shear capacities predicted using EN 1168. Supplier B slabs that were cast without core-fill concrete (excluding the slabs
with core-fill grout in one void (slab type B-3-1G) failed with the highest f c,transfer
ʹ values, which had higher shear de-
in shear at an average of 124% (±9%) of shear resistance mand–to–capacity ratios); the shear demand from self-weight
in regions uncracked by bending for prestressed concrete and applied load Vsw+app to shear resistance in regions un-
hollow-core slabs VRdc, and supplier B slabs with no core- cracked by bending for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs
fill grout (slab type B-3-NF) failed in shear at an average of VRdc ratios for some of the slabs cast with core-fill concrete
123% (±16%) of shear resistance in regions uncracked by (tests 3A, 4A, and 5A) were also of the same magnitude.
bending for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs VRdc.
For supplier B, the ratios of shear demand from self-weight
Discussion and applied load Vsw+app to capacity Vn,slab (Table 5) and shear
demand from self-weight and applied load Vsw+app to shear
Predicted values and core-fill gain as- resistance in regions uncracked by bending for prestressed
sumptions concrete hollow-core slabs VRdc (Table 6) were nearly equal
for slabs with and without core-fill grout for ACI 318-14
Results in Table 5 show that ACI 318-149 provided conser- (113% with grout and 111% without grout) and EN 1168
vative capacity predictions for unfilled and grout-filled slabs (124% with grout and 123% without grout). This suggests that
provided by supplier B (excluding slab type B31E) with an the core-fill grout did not provide additional web-shear capac-
average shear demand from self-weight and applied load ity. Although the core-fill grout was added immediately after
Vsw+app to Vn,slab ratio of 1.12, where Vn,slab is the unfactored slab extrusion and prior to transfer, an evaluation of the failure
nominal shear capacity of extruded slab. However, an average planes for tests 11B, 12B (Fig. 7), 13B, and 14B showed that
shear demand from self-weight and applied load Vsw+app to the core-fill grout material failed separately from the webs of
capacity Vn,slab ratio of 0.83 was found for some slabs pro- the extruded slab and did not act compositely with the slab.
vided by supplier A that were cast without core-fill concrete
(excluding the slabs with the highest concrete compressive Whereas minimal additional web-shear capacity was gained
strength at prestressing transfer f c,transfer
ʹ values, which had from the use of core-fill grout in supplier B slabs, shear
shear demand–to–capacity ratios greater than 1.0). The shear capacity gains from the addition of core-fill concrete were
demand from self-weight and applied load Vsw+app to capacity realized for some of the supplier A slabs. Results in Tables
Vn,slab ratios for some of the slabs cast with core-fill concrete 5 and 6 show that the shear demand–to–capacity ratio of the
(tests 3A, 4A, and 5A) were also of the same magnitude. slab (shear demand from self-weight and applied load Vsw+app
Failures occurring below capacities predicted by ACI 318-14 to capacity Vn,slab and shear demand from self-weight and
for supplier A slabs could be attributed to the high moment applied load Vsw+app to shear resistance in regions uncracked
demand that was present when failures occurred, which may by bending for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs VRdc

Failure plane for test 12B showing sloped web-
shear failures in the extruded slab and the vertical
failure plane of core-fill grout
Test 3B failure plane showing composite action Test 4B failure plane showing continuous shear
between one of two core-fill concrete sections plane for one of two voids filled with concrete
and interior web of extruded slab
Fully composite action between the core-fill con- Continuous shear plane for test 6B
crete and interior webs for test 5B
Figure 7. Evaluation of failure planes from testing
for ACI 318-14 and EN 1168, respectively) for tests 3A, 4A, in one of the two filled voids acted compositely with a web
and 5A were nearly equal to those for tests 1A, 1B, 2A, and of the extruded hollow-core slab. The failure planes for tests
2B. However, the shear demand from self-weight and applied 5B and 6B (Fig. 7) show that core-fill concrete in both voids
load Vsw+app to capacity Vn,slab (ACI 318-14) and shear demand acted compositely with the webs of the extruded hollow-core
from self-weight and applied load Vsw+app to shear resistance slab. The walls and bottom surface of the core-filled voids
in regions uncracked by bending for prestressed concrete were roughened in slabs 5 and 6, designated A-1-2R and
hollow-core slabs VRdc (EN 1168) ratios were greater for tests A-2-2R. ACI 318-14 considers intentional surface roughen-
3B, 4B, 5B, 6A, and 6B compared with tests 1A, 1B, 2A, ing to an amplitude of 0.25 in. (6.35 mm) in section 16.4.4.2
and 2B. This suggests that additional web-shear capacity was when calculating horizontal shear strength; this amplitude
obtained from the core-fill concrete for these tests. The failure of roughening, which was based on work by Hanson,21 Kaar
planes for tests 3B and 4B (Fig. 7) show that core-fill concrete et al.,22 and Saemann and Washa,23 may promote composite

action when core-filling hollow-core slabs to realize gains in occurring closer to the support (where the moment demand was
web-shear capacity. lower), but failure in typical slabs from supplier A occurred
closer to the point of applied load (Fig. 8).
Effects of concrete compressive
strength at transfer According to EN 1168,5 a reduction in the transmission
length will result in a higher loss of shear capacity due to
The shear demand at failure Vsw+app for tests 16A, 16B, 17A, shear stresses within the transmission length region (that is,
and 17B exceeded that of all other slabs provided by supplier more concrete shear stress τcp(y) to subtract). However, a
A, including those where core-fill concrete was present in two shorter transmission length can also remove shear stresses
of the five voids. The concrete compressive strength at transfer from the region near the maximum moment demand (point
f c,transfer
ʹ for tests 16A, 16B, 17A, and 17B (Table 2) was ap- of applied load in this test setup), where the combination
proximately 2 ksi (14 MPa) greater than that of any other slab of shear stress and moment demand can generate a larger
tested. The higher value for f c,transfer
ʹ likely resulted in an im- loss in web-shear capacity. For slab 17A, given the 6640 psi
proved bond between the prestressing strands and hollow-core (45.8 MPa) concrete compressive strength at transfer and
slab, which reduced the transfer (transmission) length for the the low 0.03 in. (0.8 mm) initial strand slip that was record-
prestressing strands and resulted in the prestressing force being ed prior to testing, calculations were performed assuming
transferred to the extruded slab more effectively. The reduc- a shorter transmission length of lpt of 14.6 in. (370 mm)
tion in transfer length resulted in failures for slabs 16 and 17 based on EN 1168 failure location assumptions. Figure 9
Test 17A web-shear crack at failure closer to support
Test 1A web-shear crack at failure closer to point of applied load
Figure 8. Differences in web-shear failure location due to the concrete compressive strength at transfer.

Capacity losses due to MEd and 70
60
50
τcp(y), kip
40
30
20
Assumed lpt and moment
10 EN 1992-1-1 lpt and moment
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Length from slab end, in.
Shear capacity loss along transmission length
160
140
120
Vsw+app and VRdc, kip
100
80
60 h/2 from support
Demand
40
Capacity for assumed lpt
20
Capacity for EN 1992-1-1 lpt
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Length from slab end, in.
Comparison of shear capacity and demand
Figure 9. Shear capacity loss along transmission length and comparison of shear capacity and demand for slab 17A.
Note: Shear capacity loss is the sum of the EN 1168 losses due to applied moment from the actual load at failure and shear
stresses within the transmission length. The comparison of shear capacity and demand shows the demand at failure Vsw+app and
both the EN 1168–predicted capacity VRdc for the assumed lpt and the EN 1168–predicted capacity VRdc for the EN 1992-1-1–pre-
dicted lpt. h = height of hollow-core slab; lpt = prestressing strand transmission length; MEd = bending moment due to the vertical
load; VRdc = shear resistance in regions uncracked by bending for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs; Vsw+app = shear demand
due to self-weight of extruded slab and applied load; τcp(y) = concrete shear stress due to transmission of prestress at height y
and distance lx. 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.448 kN.
shows the sum of the EN 1168 losses in shear capacity due member height from the face of the support, but differences
to applied moment from the actual load at failure (117.9 kip in capacity become more pronounced and dependent on the
[524.4 kN]) and due to shear stresses within the transmis- transfer length as the location of interest moves toward the
sion length (for both the lpt of 22.3 in. [566 mm] predicted point of applied load.
by EN 1992-1-119 and the assumed lpt of 14.6 in.) for slab
17A. The data series show that there may be up to 50 to The increase in web-shear capacity closer to the support (as-
60 kip (220 to 270 kN) of shear capacity lost within the suming a shorter transmission length) would also explain the
transmission length; however, shear capacity losses are only very consistent failure loads for tests 16A and 16B (failures at
due to the applied moment after the transmission length. 121 ± 1 kip [538 ± 4 kN]) and for tests 17A and 17B (failures
Figure 9 shows the shear demand and the corresponding at 117 ± 1 kip [520 ± 4 kN]). In these cases, the failure mode
EN 1168 capacity predictions for slab 17A due to the actual was more predictable because it likely occurred outside of the
applied load at failure. There is relatively little difference transmission length where shear stresses act but away from
in the capacity predictions if failures had occurred near the the location with the highest moment demand.

Effects of total prestressing force increased, the transmission length, the magnitude of the shear
stresses, or a combination of the two will also increase. High-
Truderung and associates14 noted that ACI 318-149 predicted er jacking stresses at the neutral axis may result in greater
increased web-shear capacities as the total prestressing force reduction of web-shear capacity near the point of applied load
increased, but the predictions were not upheld when they due to combined shear stresses and moment demand, and that
tested slabs that were almost identical to those provided by reduced capacity may result in failures that occur farther away
supplier B in this research program. Truderung and associates from the support; this was observed for most tests on supplier
found that slabs with prestressing strands tensioned with a A slabs in this program.
jacking stress at the neutral axis of 1.00 ksi (6.90 MPa) failed
at 146% of the predicted shear capacity, and slabs cast with Conclusion
a jacking stress at the neutral axis of 1.48 ksi (10.20 MPa)
failed at 90% of the predicted shear capacity. In this research The following conclusions were formed based on the results
program, supplier B slabs with prestressing strands tensioned of this research program:
with a jacking stress at the neutral axis of 1.20 ksi (8.27 MPa)
failed at 112% of the shear capacity predicted by ACI 318-14. • Composite action between the core-fill material (concrete
The shear demand–to–capacity ratio for supplier B slabs at or grout) and the hollow-core slab is necessary where core-
failure corresponded well with the findings of Truderung et al. fill material is expected to increase the web-shear capacity.
Those investigators also found that shear capacity predictions
using EN 1168 were more accurate for the slabs tested as part • Design methodologies should account for shear stresses
of their program and noted that the traditional North Ameri- within the transmission (transfer) length when predicting
can approach to hollow-core design fails to incorporate vari- the shear capacity of hollow-core slabs. The magnitude of
ables that affect capacity, such as the cross-sectional geometry the shear stress will increase if the transmission (transfer)
and the shear stresses that are induced by the prestressing length is held constant and the jacking stress is increased.
strands (such as those calculated with Eq. [7]). These findings This may result in failures occurring farther from the sup-
suggest two concepts: there may exist an optimal jacking port (closer to the load application point) if the critical loca-
stress at the neutral axis that maximizes the shear capacity tion for failure is within the transmission (transfer) length.
of a hollow-core slab (that is, that a hollow-core slab can be
overstressed, resulting in reduced shear capacity), and ACI • An optimal jacking stress may exist that maximizes the
318-14 may not incorporate one or more important variables web-shear capacity of extruded hollow-core slabs. The
when predicting web-shear capacity of hollow-core slabs (for general method of EN 11685 suggests that, depending on
example, moment demand or shear stresses from the pre- the moment demand and the transmission (transfer) length
stressing strands, or both). of the prestressing strands, an increase in jacking stress may
result in a loss of shear capacity at a failure location near
The first concept is supported by test results for slabs pro- the load point. Increasing the amount of prestressing force
vided by supplier A. Tests 16A and 16B were performed may not necessarily result in increased web-shear capacity.
on a slab fabricated with strand pattern type 2, which had
a jacking stress at the neutral axis of 0.99 ksi (6.83 MPa), • Moment demand from applied load and self-weight
and tests 17A and 17B were performed on a slab fabricated affects the web-shear capacity of hollow-core slabs
with strand pattern type 1, which had a jacking stress at the with noncircular voids loaded similarly to those in this
neutral axis of 1.13 ksi (7.79 MPa). The shear demand at research program. Web-shear capacity will potential-
failure for tests 16A and 16B slightly exceeded those for ly increase with reduced moment demand. Slabs with
tests 17A and 17B. Average failures occurred at 112.5% of noncircular voids and thick webs had both high shear and
capacity predicted by ACI 318-14 during tests 16A and 16B, high moment demands at failure relative to the respective
compared with 108.5% during tests 17A and 17B. Aver- capacity. These slabs failed at shear demand–to–capacity
age failures occurred at 136.5% of capacity predicted by ratios that were lower than slabs with circular voids, nar-
EN 11685 during tests 16A and 16B, compared with 131% row webs, and moment demands that were approximately
during tests 17A and 17B. These average failure results were half of the predicted capacity.
achieved even though the concrete compressive strengths
when the slabs were tested were approximately equal and • Increasing the concrete compressive strength at transfer
concrete compressive strengths at transfer were higher for and therefore reducing the transfer length may result in
slab tests 17A and 17B. higher web-shear capacity gains compared with those ex-
pected from filling cores with concrete or grout. Although
Truderung and associates14 also found that the actual failure this relationship between transfer length and shear capac-
location shifted away from the support and toward the load ity has always been assumed in conventional shear design
application point as the jacking stress at the neutral axis was (ACI 318-149 and EN 1992-1-119), it becomes more
increased, which was the case for most slabs tested as part apparent for hollow-core slabs with noncircular voids that
of this program. The general method of EN 1168 explains are subject to high moment demands when considering
this phenomenon. As the jacking stress at the neutral axis is shear stresses as proposed by EN 1168.

Recommendations Acknowledgments
The following recommendations are based on the results of The authors are sincerely grateful for the generous donations
this research program: of time and material from the hollow-core suppliers, without
which this research would not have been possible. Assistance
• Future research on the shear capacity of hollow-core slabs from many students in the structures laboratory at the Univer-
should include uniform loading during testing to eliminate sity of Minnesota Duluth was also invaluable.
the potential for premature failures occurring due to unin-
tended torsional stresses or stress concentrations. This ob- References
jective might be accomplished by using a rotating (self-ad-
justing) support system, like that described by Pajari.7 1. PCI Hollow Core Slab Producers Committee. 2015. PCI
Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls.
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ed slab should be established if shear capacity gains from 2. Anderson, A. R. 1978. Shear Strength of Hollow Core
the use of core-fill concrete or grout are assumed. These Members. Technical bulletin 78-B1. Tacoma, WA: Con-
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3. Anderson, R. G. 1987. Web Shear Strength of Prestressed
• Novel core-filling techniques, such as those investigated Concrete Members. Technical bulletin 85B1. Tacoma,
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been roughened to promote composite action. 4. SMA (Spancrete Manufacturers Association). 2010.
Shear Strength with Filled Cores. Research note 1007.
• Research should be performed to investigate the ideal Waukesha, WI: SMA.
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1168:2005+A3:2011. Brussels, Belgium: CEN.
• The optimal cross-sectional location of core-fill con-
crete or grout should be investigated. Shear capacity in 6. Yang, L. 1994. “Design of Prestressed Hollow-core Slabs
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implied by the ACI-ASCE Committee 316 report.17 The
research should also consider that, at some point, increased 9. ACI (American Concrete Institute) Committee 318. 2014.
prestressing force may no longer provide additional web- Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
shear capacity and, in fact, may result in a reduction of (ACI 318-14) and Commentary (ACI 318R-14). Farming-
web-shear capacity due to shear stresses that are induced. ton Hills, MI: ACI.
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low-core slabs placed side by side with grouted shear of Hollow-Core Slabs.” PCI Journal 51 (1): 110–114.
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within the system may affect the shear capacity of one or 11. Palmer, K. D., and A. E. Schultz. 2011. “Experimental
more hollow-core slabs. Testing an individual slab may Investigation of the Web-Shear Strength of Deep Hol-
not accurately reflect the shear capacity of a hollow-core low-Core Units.” PCI Journal 56 (4): 83-104. https://doi.
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loading eccentricities are distributed within the system.

12. McDermott, M. R., and B. Z. Dymond. 2020. “Shear Ca- Notation
pacity of Hollow-Core Slabs with Concrete-Filled Cores.”
PCI Journal 65 (2): 59–74. https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij a = shear span
65.2-03.
A = fictive cross-section surface
13. Lee, D., M. Park, H. Joo, S. Han, and K. S. Kim. 2020.
“Strengths of Thick Prestressed Precast Hollow Core Ac = cross-sectional area of hollow-core slab
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Precast, Prestressed Concrete Hollow-Core Slabs.” PCI bc = width of the cores
Journal 64 (4): 71-83. https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij64
.4-01. bw = width of web(s)
15. ASTM International. 2017. Standard Test Method for bw(y) = web width at the height y
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.
ASTM C39/C39M-17b. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM Cpt(y) = factor taking into account the position of the con-
International. sidered tendon layer
16. ACI and ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineering) d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid
Joint Committee 423. 2016. Guide to Estimating Pre- of longitudinal tension reinforcement
stress Loss. ACI 423.10R-16. Farmington Hills, MI: ACI.
db = nominal strand diameter of the prestressing strand
17. ACI-ASCE Committee 326. 1962. “Shear and Diago-
nal Tension.” ACI Journal 59 (2): 277-333. https://doi. dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid
org/10.14359/7920. of prestressing reinforcement
dPt ( lx )
18. Macgregor, J. G., and J. M. Hanson. 1969. “Proposed = gradient of the prestressing force in the considered
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https://doi.org/10.14359/7360. f cʹ = nominal compressive strength of hollow-core slab
concrete when tested
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Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings. EN f cfʹ = average compressive strength of core-fill material
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ity of Hollow-Core Slabs with Filled Cores.” MS thesis,
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21. Hanson, N. W. 1960. “Precast-Prestressed Concrete fctd = design tensile strength of concrete
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f c,transfer
ʹ = concrete compressive strength at prestressing trans-
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cast-Prestressed Concrete Bridges: (1) Pilot Tests of
Continuous Girders.” Journal of the PCA Research and fpc = compressive stress in concrete, after allowance
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Shear Connections between Precast Beams and Cast-in- fpu = ultimate tensile strength of prestressing strands
Place Slabs.” Journal of the American Concrete Institute
61 (11): 1383–1409.https://doi.org/10.14359/7832. ft = diagonal tension strength of concrete defined by the
American Concrete Institute

Fj = prestressing strand jacking force xcrit = horizontal distance from the slab end to the predict-
ed failure location
h = height of hollow-core slab
y = height of critical point on the line of failure
I = second moment of area of the cross section
Yc = height of the centroidal axis
lpt = prestressing strand transmission length
YPt = height of the position of considered tendon layer
ltr = prestressing strand transfer length
σcp(y) = full concrete compressive stress at height y and
lx = distance of section considered from the starting distance lx
point of the transmission length
τcp(y) = concrete shear stress due to transmission of pre-
L = length of hollow-core section stress at height y and distance lx
M = moment demand
MEd = bending moment due to the vertical load
Mn = unfactored nominal moment capacity of extruded

slab
Msw+app = moment demand due to self-weight of extruded slab

and applied load
nf = number of filled cores
Pt(lx) = prestressing force in the considered tendon layer at

a distance lx
Sc(y) = first moment of the area above height y and about

the centroidal axis
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete
Vcw = nominal shear capacity provided by concrete where

diagonal cracking results from high principal tensile
stress in web
Vn,fill = unfactored nominal shear capacity of core-fill con-

crete or grout
Vn,slab = unfactored nominal shear capacity of extruded slab
Vp = vertical component of effective prestressing force at

section
VRdc = shear resistance in regions uncracked by bending

for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs
VRdt = shear resistance in regions uncracked by bending

for prestressed concrete hollow-core slabs with
filled cores
Vsw+app = shear demand due to self-weight of extruded slab

and applied load

Scott Asperheim is a technical Since the 1970s, hollow-core slab manufacturers have
sergeant in the U.S. Air Force. He filled voids with concrete to increase shear capacity,
received his BS and MS in civil but limited research into the efficacy of this practice
engineering from the University of has been completed. Forty tests were performed on 20
Minnesota Duluth, having focused hollow-core slabs that were 12 in. (300 mm) deep to
on structural engineering. quantify the variation in web-shear capacity that can be
gained. The 20 slabs had either no core fill, cores filled
Benjamin Dymond, PhD, is an with concrete or grout, or one void omitted during fab-
associate professor in the Civil rication. Two different cross sections were investigated,
Engineering Department and the a heavy-duty slab with thick webs and noncircular
director of the Resilient Precast voids and a slab with narrow webs and circular voids.
Concrete Certificate Program at The results indicated that adequate composite action
the University of Minnesota between the core-fill material and extruded slab was
Duluth. His research interests necessary to realize web-shear capacity gains. In ad-
include design and analysis of concrete structural dition, the prestressing strand jacking stress, concrete
systems and their components, experimental investiga- compressive strength at transfer, transfer length, and
tions, and long-term structural monitoring. moment demand can have a large effect on the web-
shear capacity of a hollow-core slab.
Keywords
ACI 318, bond, core fill, EN 1168, hollow-core slab,

moment demand, roughened surface, shear capacity,
shear stress, web shear.
Review policy
This paper was reviewed in accordance with the

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute’s peer-review
process.
Reader comments

60631. J

Mechanical and bond properties
of Grade 2205 duplex high-strength
stainless steel strand
Anwer Al-Kaimakchi and Michelle Rambo-Roddenberry
S
tainless steel prestressing strands are a recently
developed type of prestressing strand with high cor-
rosion-resistance properties. For the construction of
durable, low-maintenance concrete structures in extremely
aggressive environments, they are being promoted as an al-
ternative to carbon steel strands. Stainless steel strands’ high
corrosion-resistance properties are due to the high content
of nickel, chromium, and molybdenum and low content of
carbon in their chemical composition.1 In addition to corro-
sion resistance, the chemical composition of the strand also
■ This paper describes experimental testing to deter- affects its mechanical properties. The manufacturing process
mine the mechanical and bond properties of Grade is another factor that influences the strand’s mechanical
2205 duplex high-strength stainless steel strand. properties and the shape of the stress-strain curve,2 which
can be determined from tensile tests.
■ In addition to a review of existing research, tensile
testing of 25 strand specimens and pullout testing of In pretensioned concrete members, the prestressing force is
six strand specimens was conducted. transferred from strand to concrete through bonding. The
strand is bonded to the concrete through mechanical bond
■ Results indicate that the high-strength stainless steel and chemical adhesion on the surface of the strand.3 After
strands meet the minimum mechanical properties slippage occurs, the bonding is controlled by friction as well
outlined in the recently published ASTM A1114 stan- as mechanical bond. Bonding depends on many parameters,
dard and the minimum pullout strength criteria rec- such as concrete strength, surface condition of the strand,
ommended by the PCI Strand Bond Task Group and and type and size of the strand. For the surface condition of
can be tensioned with typical chuck devices without the strand, any lubricant residue left from the manufacturing
adversely affecting strand strength. process can affect both the chemical adhesion and friction
of the strand.4 Because the surface of stainless steel strands
does not rust as carbon steel strands do, they can be classi-
PCI Journal is published bimonthly by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, 8770 W. Bryn Mawr Ave., Suite 1150, Chicago, IL 60631. fied as smooth compared with carbon steel strands. Consid-
Copyright © 2021, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute. The Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute is not responsible for statements made ering the differences between stainless steel and carbon steel
strands, the same bond properties cannot be assumed to be

applicable for both. There is little information available for mechanical properties of duplex Grades 2205 and 2304
the bond properties of stainless steel strands; therefore, the prestressing strands.
bond of stainless steel strands needs to be evaluated.
Results from previous studies have revealed that all tested
As with all new products, the lack of information on the stainless steel strands, regardless of their type, had rounded
mechanical and bond properties of Grade 2205 duplex stress-strain curves after the elastic modulus was deviated.
high-strength stainless steel (HSSS) strands will delay their The degree of roundedness, ultimate stress, ultimate strain,
implementation in civil engineering applications despite their and corrosion resistance varied among strand types. Although
desirable corrosion resistance properties. Also, the mechanical Moser et al.10 did not report directly on the differences in
properties and stress-strain behavior of the HSSS strands need roundedness of the stress-strain curves for the six types of
to be known. stainless steel strands that were studied, the degree of the
roundedness can be identified in the report. The mechanical
This paper presents the mechanical properties of 0.6 in. properties and stress-strain behavior of strands depend on
(15.2 mm) diameter HSSS strands. Twenty-five 0.6 in. many factors, such as chemical composition, heat treatment,
diameter HSSS strands from two spools were tensile tested. and level of cold work.13 The cold-drawing process is essen-
A stress-strain equation was developed for the HSSS strands. tial to achieve high tensile strength.14 The early nonlinear
The proposed equation satisfies the Standard Specification stress-strain behavior of stainless steel strands is likely due to
for Low-Relaxation, Seven-Wire, Grade 240 [1655], Stain- the presence of residual stress from the cold-drawing process.2
less Steel Strand for Prestressed Concrete (ASTM A1114)5 Heat treatment reduces residual stresses, which increases the
requirements and results in a stress-strain curve similar to tensile strength and improves the stress-strain relationship
the experimental data. This paper also evaluates the bond of below yield;2 however, heat treatment reduces ultimate strain.
0.6 in. diameter HSSS strands determined by testing six HSSS Thus, unlike carbon steel strands, stainless steel strands have
strands following the Standard Test Method for Evaluat- low ultimate strain and stress and have a rounded stress-
ing Bond of Seven-Wire Steel Prestressing Strand (ASTM strain curve with early nonlinearity. All previous research has
A1081).6 Experimental bond values of 0.6 in. diameter HSSS concluded that Grade 2205 duplex HSSS is the best option for
strands were compared with values calculated using the strands compared with other types of stainless steel because
proposed acceptance criteria by the PCI Strand Bond Task of its high mechanical and corrosion resistance properties,
Group.7 This study is part of a larger research project where which can potentially improve long-term performance of
0.6 in. diameter HSSS strands were used in the fabrication bridge structures in extremely aggressive environments.
of several American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Type II girders; design, Comparison of carbon steel
construction, and flexural behavior of the girders as well as and stainless steel strands
transfer length of HSSS strands are discussed in detail in
other publications.8,9 The mechanical properties of stainless steel strands are differ-
ent from those of carbon steel strands. The minimum required
A brief background on stainless steel mechanical properties of carbon steel strands are specified by
strands Standard Specification for Low-Relaxation, Seven-Wire Steel
Strand for Prestressed Concrete (ASTM A416)15 for both
Multiple types of stainless steel strands have been devel- Grade 250 and Grade 270 strands. The mechanical properties
oped, and researchers have experimentally evaluated their specified by ASTM A41615 cannot be used for stainless steel
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance performance. strands because stainless steel strands are made from different
Moser et al.2,10 conducted a preliminary investigation to eval- alloys than carbon steel strands. Stainless steel strands are
uate the mechanical properties of six different HSSS wires relatively new, and the need for a standard specification led
and their corrosion resistance performance in alkaline and to the development of ASTM A1114,5 which was recently
carbonated concrete solutions. The six stainless steel wires published. The new ASTM A11145 specifies the minimum
were austenitic Grades 304 and 316; martensitic Grade 17-7; acceptable mechanical properties of Grade 240 stainless steel
and duplex Grades 2101, 2304 and 2205. Moser2 proved strands. The decrease in the grade from 270 in ASTM A41615
that it is possible to obtain mechanical properties of carbon to 240 in ASTM A11145 is attributed to the chemical com-
steel strand by tensile testing a single wire taken from the position of the strand and the manufacturing process.2 Some
strand. Thus, Moser et al.2,10 performed the tensile tests on alloying elements used to make stainless steel strands control
a single wire for all six specimens and engineering stress- the ultimate tensile strength.
strain curves were plotted. The diameter of a single wire was
0.16 in. (4.1 mm), which is comparable to a single wire from Table 1 lists the minimum requirements for ASTM A1114
a 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) diameter carbon steel strand. Mullins et Grade 240 strands and comparably sized ASTM A416
al.11 evaluated the mechanical and corrosion resistance prop- Grade 270 strands. ASTM A1114 provides mechanical prop-
erties of three different stainless steel strands (Grade 316, erties for only two sizes of stainless steel strands, 0.52 and
Grade XM29, and duplex Grade 2205) with Grade 270 0.62 in. (13.2 and 15.7 mm) diameter. The area and weight of
carbon steel strand as the control. Schuetz12 evaluated the Grade 240 stainless steel strands are equal to their counterpart

Table 1. Minimum required mechanical properties of strands
Parameter ASTM A416 Grade 270 ASTM A1114 Grade 240
Nominal diameter, in. 0.52 0.62 0.52 0.62
Area, in.2 0.167 0.231 0.167 0.231
Load at 1% extension, kip 40.5 56.52 36.1 49.86
Breaking strength, kip 45.0 62.8 40.1 55.4
Elongation, % 3.5 3.5 1.4 1.4
Weight of strand, lb/1000 ft 570 780 570 780
Note: ASTM A416 = Standard Specification for Low-Relaxation, Seven-Wire Steel Strand for Prestressed Concrete; ASTM A1114 = Standard Specification
for Low-Relaxation, Seven-Wire, Grade 240 [1655], Stainless Steel Strand for Prestressed Concrete. 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.305 m; 1 in.2 = 645.2 mm2;
1 lb = 0.454 kg; 1 kip = 4.448 kN.
Grade 270 carbon steel strands. Stainless steel strands have any visible defects. They were stored at the Florida Depart-
lower load at 1% extension, breaking strength, and elonga- ment of Transportation (FDOT) Structures Research Center
tion compared with carbon steel strands. The most significant and protected from oil, excessive bending, and any physical
difference between carbon steel and stainless steel strands is damage. A mill test certificate for each spool was provided by
elongation. The guaranteed elongation for stainless steel strands the manufacturer, specifying the mechanical properties and
is only 40% of that for carbon steel strands. stress-strain relationship of the HSSS strands. The mechanical
behavior of HSSS strands might vary from spool to spool for
The shape of the stress-strain curve for stainless steel strands multiple reasons, such as the wire rod used to make prestress-
is different from that for carbon steel strands. Carbon steel ing strands not being perfectly identical from heat to heat,
strands exhibit a linear plateau, whereas stainless steel strands chemistry variances of the elements alloyed, and processing
exhibit almost no strain hardening and have rounded behavior variances. Therefore, multiple samples from the two spools
in the plastic region (Fig. 1). The limited ductility in stainless were tensile tested. Both spools were produced by the same
steel strands significantly affects the design philosophy for manufacturer. The samples from the two spools are referred to
concrete members prestressed with stainless steel strands. as first spool and second spool throughout this paper.
Tensile tests Fifteen HSSS strand specimens were taken from the first
spool. Ten specimens were taken from the beginning of the
Specimen preparation spool. Then the strand in the spool was used to fabricate
several pretensioned concrete beams. Information regard-
Two new 0.6 in. (15.2 mm) diameter HSSS strand spools were ing fabrication and testing of those beams can be found in
received at different times in ideal condition: free of rust and another report.8 The other five specimens were taken from the
300
2000 300
2000
1750 275
250
250 1750
Tensile stress, MPa
1500
Tensile stress, MPa
225
Tensile stress, ksi
1500
Tensile stress, ksi
200
1250 200
175 1250
150 1000 150 1000
750 125
100 750
Carbon steel strands (ASTM A416) 100
Stainless steel strands (ASTM A1114) 500
75 Stainless steel strands (ASTM A1114) 500
Yield stress requirement (ASTM A1114)
50
Ultimate stress requirement (ASTM A1114) 250 50 Yield stress requirement (ASTM A1114)
250
25 Ultimate stress requirement (ASTM A1114)
0 0 0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Strain, % Strain, %
Figure 1. Comparison of stress-strain curves of stainless steel strands and carbon steel strands. Note: ASTM A416 = Standard
Specification for Low-Relaxation, Seven-Wire Steel Strand for Prestressed Concrete; ASTM A1114 = Standard Specification for
Low-Relaxation, Seven-Wire, Grade 240 [1655], Stainless Steel Strand for Prestressed Concrete.

additional length of strand in the precasting bed remaining er leaves it to the tester to decide which method is more suit-
after fabrication of the beams. Ten HSSS strand specimens able. However, it does not allow the use of chuck devices as
were taken from the second spool. Five specimens were taken a primary gripping device in the tensile tests. HSSS strands
directly from the spool, and the other five specimens were exhibit grip slippage and complications with the gripping
taken from the strands in the precasting bed that remained media, such as stress concentration and premature failure.
after beam fabrication. All specimens were sent to the FDOT Therefore, the ends of most of the strands were coated with
State Materials Office (SMO) for tensile testing. high-modulus epoxy and 80 grit silicon carbide to create a
friction grip and prevent grip slippage (Fig. 2). This coating
Several methods can be used to grip the strands for the approach seems to be one of the best available methods to
tensile test. The type of strand and tensile testing machine transfer force from the grips to HSSS strands because it typ-
determine which gripping method to use. Standard Test ically eliminates failure at the strands’ ends. All specimens
Methods for Testing Multi-Wire Steel Prestressing Strand were tensile tested using the grout coating approach except
(ASTM A1061)16 does not specify a single gripping method for five specimens, which were taken directly from the first
for all types of strands and tensile testing machines but rath- spool. Those specimens were tensile tested using chuck
Epoxy coating applied at Specimens prepared Seating the end of the

the end of a specimen for tensile testing specimen in the grip
Strand preloaded to be aligned Extensometer attached Strand at failure

and seated in the grips to a strand to measure strain
up to 1% elongation
Figure 2. Preparation and testing of stainless steel specimens in tension. Note: Tensile tests were performed to determine the
mechanical properties and stress-strain behavior of the stainless steel strands. Tensile tests were performed at the Florida De-
partment of Transportation State Materials Office in Gainesville, Fla.

Table 2. Test matrix of the tensile test up to about 1% extension with an accuracy of 0.01%, and then
it was removed to prevent possible damage, as Grade 2205
Number of specimens
HSSS strands have low ultimate strain. After the extensometer
Source of Beginning Remaining was removed, data collection was switched from the exten-
strand of spool in bed someter to the UTM and the specimen was reloaded. The
UTM calculates strain by measuring displacement between
Testing Grout Chuck Grout the machine’s crossheads.
method coating devices coating
First spool 5 5 5 Using chuck devices Chuck devices (wedges) are usually
used in the field for normal strand tensioning procedures; how-
Second spool 5 n/a 5 ever, ASTM A106116 clearly states that chuck devices shall not
Note: n/a = not applicable. be used in the tensile test as a primary gripping device. Because
stainless steel strands are relatively new to the construction
devices as a primary gripping device to determine whether industry and to ensure that regular chuck devices can be used
chuck devices can be used in the casting yard to tension to tension the HSSS strands in the casting yard, five 50 in.
HSSS strands. Table 2 shows the test matrix of the tensile (1270 mm) HSSS strands were tensile tested using chuck de-
tests in this experimental program. vices as the primary gripping devices. The chuck devices were
attached to the ends of the strands and neither epoxy nor 80-grit
Setup silicon carbide was used to coat the ends of the strands. The
tensile tests were performed using a UTM. The strand was pre-
Using grout coating approach A universal testing ma- loaded to 10% of breaking strength, and then an extensometer
chine (UTM) was used for the tensile tests. The length of was attached. The UTM was unloaded at 1% extension to avoid
each specimen was 50 in. (1270 mm), and the strand length damage when removing the extensometer. After the extensom-
inserted in each grip was 8 in. (203 mm) (Fig. 2). This eter was removed, the data collection was switched to the UTM
embedded length allowed for a full transfer of the load from and the strand was reloaded again until failure.
the grips to the strand. A preload of about 10% of breaking
strength was applied to align the strand and seat the ends in Results
the grips (Fig. 2). After the strand was aligned and tight, a
24 in. (610 mm) extensometer was attached to the strand, Using grout coating approach Tensile tests were performed
leaving 5 in. (127 mm) clear distance between the jaws and on twenty 0.6 in. (15.2 mm) diameter HSSS strands, 10 from
the extensometer (Fig. 2). The extensometer measured strain each spool. All specimens were tensioned until breakage, which
Table 3. Statistical summary of test results for specimens from the first spool
Yield strength Yield Elastic

Specimen Specimen Breaking Ultimate Yield strength
,% Elongation,
(load at 1% ex- stress Specified modulus,
type number load, kip stress fpu, ksi breaking strength %
tension), kip fpy, ksi ksi
1 52.52 228.34 60.25 261.93 94.80 1.87 24,100
2 52.61 228.72 60.35 262.40 94.96 1.85 24,500

Beginning
3 52.50 228.27 60.12 261.40 94.76 1.83 24,600
of spool
4 51.72 224.86 60.31 262.22 93.36 1.89 23,900
5 52.47 228.11 60.07 261.16 94.71 1.86 24,400
6 53.41 232.23 60.14 261.47 96.41 1.76 25,200
7 53.88 234.27 59.99 260.81 97.26 1.69 25,900

Remaining
8 53.43 232.32 60.36 262.43 96.44 1.80 25,200
in bed
9 53.42 232.25 60.01 260.89 96.43 1.75 25,600
10 53.41 232.23 60.11 261.35 96.41 1.78 25,800
Average 52.94 230.16 60.17 261.61 95.55 1.81 24,920
Standard deviation 0.667 2.900 0.139 0.602 1.14 0.064 716
Note: 1 kip = 4.448 kN; 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa.

Table 4. Statistical summary of test results for specimens from the second spool
Yield strength Yield Ultimate Elastic

Specimen Specimen Breaking Yield strength
,% Elongation,
(load at 1% ex- stress stress fpu, Specified modulus,
type number load, kip breaking strength %
tension), kip fpy, ksi ksi ksi
1 51.06 223.96 56.87 249.42 92.12 1.62 24,500
Beginning 2 50.62 222.02 56.66 248.51 91.37 1.63 24,200

of spool 3 50.18 220.10 56.77 248.97 90.58 1.71 24,200
4 50.58 221.83 56.41 247.42 91.30 1.59 24,600
5 51.40 225.44 56.95 249.80 92.78 1.63 25,300
Remaining 6 52.06 228.33 57.12 250.52 93.97 1.59 25,300

in bed 7 51.21 224.61 57.02 250.10 92.44 1.64 24,800
8 51.84 227.37 57.22 250.97 93.57 1.66 25,400
Average 51.12 224.21 56.88 249.46 92.27 1.63 24,788
Standard deviation 0.645 2.831 0.262 1.150 1.09 0.036 494
Note: 1 kip = 4.448 kN; 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa.
is defined as the failure state. Failure of all strands happened Figure 3 shows stress-strain plots of the tested HSSS
at one end, close to the jaw (Fig. 2). The failure of all strands strands. Note that the stress-strain behavior is different
was categorized as pure rupture. Statistical summaries of tested between specimens from the first spool and second spool.
strands are presented in Tables 3 and 4 for specimens from These differences can likely be attributed to multiple rea-
the first and second spools, respectively. Experimental results sons, such as chemistry variances of the elements alloyed,
of two strands from the second spool were excluded from the processing variances, and the wire rod used to make the
summary in Table 4. The first specimen was excluded because prestressing strands not being perfectly identical from heat
the length of the specimen was shorter than the required length to heat. Tensile test results showed that the HSSS strands
and the extensometer could not be installed to measure elonga- exhibit early nonlinearity compared with carbon steel and a
tion. The second specimen was excluded because the specimen rounded stress-strain curve after the elastic modulus slope
was not seated perfectly in the grips, which significantly affect- is deviated. Figure 3 shows a small drop in stress at about
ed the experimental results. The measured area for the strand 1% strain. This drop occurred due to unloading the strand to
from the first spool was 0.230 in.2 (148 mm2), and the measured remove the extensometer. It should be noted that this drop
area from the second spool was 0.228 in.2 (147 mm2). was inevitable, but it could have been minimized by more
quickly removing the extensometer and reloading the UTM.
After the drop, the strains were measured based on the
crosshead displacement.
300
2000
250 1750 Table 5 gives the mechanical properties for 0.6 in. diame-
1500
ter high-strength stainless steel strands according to ASTM
Tensile stress, MPa
Tensile stress, ksi
200 A11145 requirements, FDOT specification requirements,17

1250
mill certificates provided by the manufacturer for each spool,
150 1000 and average experimental results. All specimens from the
100
750 first and second spools satisfied ASTM A11145 and FDOT re-
500
quirements,17 except for the area requirements. The measured
50 Specimens from first spool
average area of the specimens from both spools was slightly
250
Specimens from second spool lower than the required value; the difference is insignificant.
0 0 Note that the specified diameter of the tested specimens from
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00
Strain, %
both spools was 0.6 in. (15.2 mm), whereas ASTM A11145
provides minimum required mechanical properties for 0.62 in.
(15.7 mm) diameter strands. The two spools used in the study
Figure 3. Stress-strain curves of the stainless steel strands were manufactured before the publication of ASTM A1114.5
from the tensile tests. Note: This figure can be used to de- Specimens from the first spool had higher yield and breaking
termine mechanical properties of the tested stainless steel strengths, elongation, and elastic modulus than those from the
strands. second spool.

Table 5. Mechanical properties for 0.6 in. diameter high-strength stainless steel strands
Load at 1% Elastic
Breaking Ultimate Elongation,
Area, in.2 extension, modulus,
strength, kip stress fpu, ksi %
kip ksi
Standard ASTM A1114 0.2310 ≥ 49.86 ≥ 55.40 ≥ 240 ≥ 1.4 n/a

requirements FDOT 0.2310 ≥ 49.86 ≥ 55.40 ≥ 240 ≥ 1.4 n/a
Manufacturer’s
0.2328 52.92 59.76 256.65 1.90 24,300
data
First spool
Average
0.2300 52.94 60.14 261.61 1.81 24,950
tensile tests
Manufacturer’s
0.2306 50.59 55.47 240.56 1.60 23,900
data
Second spool
Average
0.2280 51.12 56.88 249.46 1.63 24,750
tensile tests
Note: ASTM A1114 = Standard Specification for Low-Relaxation, Seven-Wire, Grade 240 [1655], Stainless Steel Strand for Prestressed Concrete; FDOT =
Florida Department of Transportation; n/a = not applicable. 1 in.2 = 645.2 mm2; 1 kip = 4.448 kN; 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa.
Tensile test of a specimen Failure of the specimen Notching effect of grips on

using chuck devices at the chuck the stainless steel strands
Figure 4. Preparation and testing of stainless steel strands in tension using chuck devices. Note: Tests were performed at the
Florida Department of Transportation State Materials Office in Gainesville, Fla.
Using chuck devices Tensile tests were performed on five sion, ultimate strain, and modulus of elasticity) when strands
0.6 in. (15.2 mm) diameter HSSS strands from the first spool. were tensile tested with chuck devices. This is clear evidence
Figure 4 shows a stainless steel strand being tensile tested that using chuck devices for tensile tests does not produce the
using chucks as the primary gripping devices. Failure of all five full capacity of strands and should not be done, as stated by
specimens happened at one end at the point where the chucks ASTM A1061.16 The behavior of the strands before yielding
gripped the strands. Figure 4 also shows the notching effect was not significantly affected by using the chuck devices com-
of the grips, which resulted in failure of the strand. Figure 5 pared with the behavior after yielding (Fig. 5). Usually strands
shows the stress-strain curves of specimens tensile tested using in the casting bed are tensioned within their elastic limit, below
grout coating and chuck devices. Table 6 reports the average yield strength. Therefore, chuck devices (wedges) can be used
mechanical properties of tested strands. A reduction in all to initially tension Grade 2205 HSSS strands for prestressed
parameters was observed (breaking strength, load at 1% exten- concrete member fabrication.

Table 6. Mechanical properties of high-strength
300 stainless steel strands tested using grout coating and
2000
chuck devices
250 1750
Using grout Using chuck Reduction,
1500 Parameters
Tensile stress, MPa

coating devices %
Tensile stress, ksi
200
1250
150 1000 Area, in.2 0.2328 0.2328 0
750 Load at 1%
100
52.94 51.92 1.92
500 extension, kip
50 Grout coating
250
Chuck devices Breaking
0 0
60.17 57.79 3.95
strength, kip
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00
Strain, %
Elongation, % 1.81 1.60 11.60
Elastic
Figure 5. Stress-strain curves of stainless steel strands tested 24,950 23,900 4.09
modulus, ksi
in tension using grout coating and chuck devices. Note: This
figure shows the influence of using chuck devices on the me-
Note: 1 in.2 = 645.2 mm2; 1 kip = 4.448 kN; 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa.
chanical properties of stainless steel strands.
Yield strength There are multiple methods to determine • The HSSS strands kept their shape as bent on the spool,
the yield strength of prestressing strands. The most com- which resulted in difficulties seating both ends of the
mon methods are the extension under load (EUL) and offset specimen in the top and bottom grips.
methods.18 ASTM A41615 and ASTM A11145 propose the
EUL method for seven-wire prestressing strand. Those ASTM • The location of the break of the HSSS specimens was
standards define the yield strength as the load when the total close to the grip in all specimens tested using the coating
strain reaches 1%, and the yield strength must be at least approach, while the carbon steel strands broke at random
90% of the specified breaking strength, which is equal to locations.
55.4 kip (246 kN) for 0.62 in. (15.7 mm) diameter stainless
steel strands. Tables 3 and 4 show that all specimens from the • The epoxy coating (Fig. 2) peeled from the HSSS speci-
first spool and the second spool adequately met the 90% yield mens.
strength requirement. Specimens from the first spool had an
average yield strength of 95.55% of the specified breaking • The HSSS specimens failed more quickly than the carbon
strength and standard deviation of 1.14% (Table 3). Table 4 steel strands, and the plastic strain was much smaller than
shows that specimens from the second spool had an average that of the carbon steel strands.
yield strength of 92.27% of the specified breaking strength
and standard deviation of 1.09%. • Special attention was needed when removing the exten-
someter after reaching 1% extension because the HSSS
The offset method defines the yield stress as the intersection specimens might break while removing the extensometer
of the stress-strain curve with a line that starts at a specified due to its short plastic strain.
strain value and runs parallel to the linear region of the stress-
strain curve. Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures: Part Stress-strain model
1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings19 specifies the
initial strain value as 0.1%. This method is called the 0.1% Background
offset method. The 0.2% offset method is recommended by
the Korea Concrete Institute,20 which specifies the initial The stress-strain behavior of stainless steel strands is dif-
strain value as 0.2%. Schuetz12 suggests using the 1.2% ex- ferent from that of carbon steel strands. Therefore, a new
tension method or 0.2% offset method to determine the yield stress-strain equation needs to be developed. The stress-
strength of Grade 2205 stainless steel strands. In this research, strain formula is necessary for strength design and numer-
yield strengths calculated using the 1.2% extension method or ical analysis of prestressed concrete members. A widely
the 0.2% offset method were higher than 90% of the breaking accepted method for describing the stress-strain behavior
strength, which satisfies the 90% yield strength requirement of a material is the Ramberg-Osgood model.21 The original
of ASTM A1114.5 model was developed for aluminum alloys and was not valid
for materials with highly nonlinear stress-strain relation-
Differences in tensile testing between carbon steel ships. Since the development of the original model, many
and HSSS strands The professional technician who per- researchers have modified the model either for different
formed the tensile tests at FDOT SMO reported multiple materials or to better fit experimental tests. One of the
differences between tensile testing of carbon steel strands and most widely used analytical formulas, known as the power
HSSS strands. The differences are as follows: formula, was derived from the modified Ramberg-Osgood

function. The power formula was proposed by Mattock22 Devalapura and Tadros24 studied 56 stress-strain curves for
and has been proved suitable for highly nonlinear materials. low-relaxation Grade 270 carbon steel strand. Half of the
It includes four curve-fitting constants, as shown in Eq. (1). stress-strain curves were obtained from the manufacturers,
The methodology behind this formula is to divide the stress- whereas the other half were obtained from testing by Deva-
strain curve into two straight lines connected by a curve. The lapura and Tadros.24 The specimens were made from different
first line is for the elastic region, and the second line is for types of steel and were tested by different machines. A statis-
the inelastic region. As long as the actual stress-strain curve tical lower-bound curve was derived from the 56 curves. The
is available, the four curve-fitting variables can be calcu- outcome of the study was proposed curve-fitting constants
lated. The elastic modulus E is determined from the elastic for the power formula for 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) diameter low-re-
region of the strand stress-strain curve. A detailed procedure laxation carbon steel strands.24 The proposed power formula
for calculating curve-fitting constants for the power formula curve was as close as possible to the experimental low-
is given in Collins and Mitchell.23 er-bound curve and satisfied the yield strength requirements
of ASTM A416.15 Collins and Mitchell23 proposed curve-fit-
⎧ ⎫
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪ ting constants for the power formula for 0.6 in. (15.2 mm)
1− A
σ = E × ε ⎨A+ 1/C ⎬
(1) diameter Grade 270 carbon steel strand.
⎪
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ (
⎡1+ B × ε C ⎤ ⎪
⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ )
The power formula is not limited to specific strand diame-
where ters. Morcous et al.25 recently proposed a power formula for
0.7 in. (17.8 mm) diameter Grade 270 carbon steel strand.
σ = stress in strand The curve-fitting constants for the proposed power formula
in the Morcous et al.25 study were calculated after testing 40
ε = strain in strand strands from two different producers and using two differ-
ent machines.
A = curve-fitting constant
All proposed power formulas result in a conservative curve
B = curve-fitting constant that lies below the actual stress-strain curves. This is mainly
because the proposed power formulas were developed to fit the
C = curve-fitting constant lower-bound curve of tested strands. The PCI Design Hand-
book: Precast and Prestressed Concrete26 provides approximate
Researchers have developed power formulas for all available stress-strain equations for seven-wire low-relaxation strands.
low-relaxation carbon steel strand sizes. Table 7 shows power The PCI equations are divided into two parts: the first part is for
formulas for three sizes of Grade 270 carbon steel strand. the elastic region, and the second one is for the plastic region.
Table 7. Stress-strain equations for low-relaxation Grade 270 carbon steel strands
Author Diameter, in. Modulus of elasticity, ksi Proposed stress-strain equation
⎧ ⎫
Devalapura and ⎪⎪ 0.969 ⎪⎪
0.5 28,500 σ = E × ε ⎨0.031+ 1/7.36 ⎬
Tadros (1992)
⎡1+ 112.4 × ε( ) ⎤
7.36
⎪ ⎪
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ ⎪⎭
⎧ ⎫
Collins and Mitch- ⎪⎪ 0.975 ⎪⎪
0.6 29,000 σ = E × ε ⎨0.025 + 1/10 ⎬
ell (1991)
⎡1+ 118 × ε ( ) ⎤ ⎪
10
⎪
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
Morcous et al. ⎪ 0.98 ⎪
0.7 28,500 σ = E × ε ⎨0.02 + 1/7.33 ⎬
(2011)
⎪ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
7.33
⎪
⎪ ⎢1+ ⎜ E × ε ⎟ ⎥ ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 1.03× f py ⎠ ⎥ ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎭
Note: E = modulus of elasticity of strand; fpy = specified yield stress of strand; ε = strain in strand; σ = stress in strand. 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa.

Proposed stress-strain model
300
2000
The format of the modified Ramberg-Osgood function, given
in Eq. (1), was used to develop the stress-strain models of the 250 1750
two HSSS spools. 1500
Tensile stress, MPa

200
Tensile stress, ksi

1250
Tensile tests As mentioned, ten 50 in. (1270 mm) long 150 1000
specimens from each spool were tested in direct tension. The
750
elastic modulus E was determined from the experimental data 100 Specimen from first spool
Specimen from second spool 500
following ASTM A1061,16 and the three coefficients (A, B, 50
Proposed equation
and C) in Eq. (1) were calculated to obtain a best fit with the Yield stress requirement (ASTM A1114)
Ultimate stress requirement (ASTM A1114)
250
lower-bound curve of the tested strands. Table 8 summarizes 0 0

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
the proposed coefficients. Strain, %
Stress-strain equation for design ASTM A11145 require-

ments represent the minimum guaranteed mechanical properties Figure 6. Comparison of the proposed equation for a stress-
strain model with experimental stress-strain behavior of stain-
for stainless steel strands. Thus, the proposed stress-strain equa-
less steel strands. Note: ASTM A1114 = Standard Specification
tion for design purposes should represent the ASTM A11145 for Low-Relaxation, Seven-Wire, Grade 240 [1655], Stainless
minimum requirements and have the same shape as the curve for Steel Strand for Prestressed Concrete.
the tested specimens. This means that for 1% strain and 1.4%
strain, the proposed equation should result in a stress of 216 stainless steel strands that have mechanical properties greater
and 240 ksi (1490 and 1650 MPa), respectively. The curve-fit- than the minimum requirements of ASTM A1114.5
ting constants in Eq. (1) were derived to adequately match the
ASTM A11145 requirements and have the same stress-strain Strand bond tests
curve as the tested specimens. The proposed stress-strain equa-
tion for 0.6 in. (15.2 mm) diameter HSSS strands is given in A test procedure to measure the bond of prestressing strand
Eq. (2). is provided by ASTM A1081,6 which was adopted from
the North American Strand Producers,27 where the strand
⎧ ⎫
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪ is pulled out from a sand-cement mortar. In this study, the
0.94
σ = 24,000 × ε ⎨0.06 + 1/6.45 ⎬
(2) ASTM A10816 test method was used to evaluate the bond of
⎪
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢
(
⎡1+ 101× ε 6.45 ⎤
⎦⎥
) ⎪
⎪⎭
0.6 in. (15.2 mm) diameter HSSS strands in mortar.
Figure 6 provides a visual representation of the proposed Specimen preparation

equation along with two stress-strain sample curves from
the experimental results, one from each spool. The proposed The strand bond test was performed according to
equation fits the lower-bound curve of the tested strands in the ASTM A1081 protocol.6 The test requires a minimum of six
elastic region. This was achieved by taking the elastic modu- strands and 15 mortar cubes. Six HSSS strands were taken
lus equal to 24,000 ksi (165,500 MPa). The proposed equation from the first spool in as-received condition and protected
in the plastic region is parallel to the shape of the curves for from foreign substances. Six specimens were prepared by
the two spools in the plastic region. The proposed equation casting sand-cement mortar in a steel pipe around a single 0.6
is conservative and underestimates the strand behavior of the
two spools. It is conservative compared with the actual behav-
ior of the HSSS strands because manufacturers will produce
Table 8. Coefficients of modified Ramberg-Osgood

function for tested high-strength stainless steel
strands
Coefficients
Specimen
A B C
identification
First spool 0.065 100 6.5
Second spool 0.050 102 7.0
Note: A = curve-fitting constant for stress-strain power formula; B =

curve-fitting constant for stress-strain power formula; C = curve-fitting
constant for stress-strain power formula. Figure 7. Stainless steel specimens prepared for bond test.

LVDT
Dead end LVDT

2.5 in. (64 mm)
Dead end
Magnets to
hold LVDT
Magnets to
Steel tube hold LVDT
Steel tube
Steel plate
Strand 18 in. (450 mm) Neoprene
pad
Mortar
Bond breaker
Live end
Steel plate
2 in. (50 mm)
Chuck
Neoprene pad
Crosshead apply
downward force
to chuck
Figure 9. Specimen setup for standard test for strand bond.

Note: LVDT = linear variable displacement transducer.
nected to the gripping device where the force was applied. A

linear variable displacement transducer was mounted at the
Chuck
dead end to measure displacement. The applied displacement
Live end
rate of the gripping device was 0.1 in./min (2.5 mm/min),
and the loading rate did not exceed 8500 lb/min (38 kN/min).
Figure 9 shows the testing apparatus used for the standard test
for strand bond.
Figure 8. Test setup for the bond strength test following Results
ASTM A1081. Note: Bond strength tests were performed to
determine the bond strength of stainless steel strands. Bond
strength tests were performed at the Florida Department
Strand bond is defined as the pullout force at the live end
of Transportation State Materials Office in Gainesville, Fla. that displaces the dead end of the strand by 0.1 in. (2.5 mm)
ASTM A1081 = Standard Test Method for Evaluating Bond of (Fig. 9). Per ASTM A1081,6 three mortar cubes shall be tested
Seven-Wire Steel Prestressing Strand; LVDT = linear variable each hour at 22 to 26 hours after casting until they reach
displacement transducer. 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
an average compressive strength of 4500 to 5000 psi (31 to
in. (15.2 mm) diameter HSSS strand (Fig. 7). The steel tube 34 MPa), after which strand bond tests can be performed. Mor-
was 5 in. (127 mm) in diameter and 24 in. (610 mm) tall. A 2 tar mixture proportions were validated before the experiment,
in. (50 mm) long steel breaker was placed around the strand at and the mortar was expected to have a compressive strength of
the bottom of the steel tube immediately above the steel plate 4500 to 5000 psi at 24 hours. Mortar strength has an influ-
(Fig. 8). This steel breaker was used to debond the strand and ence on the bond of the strand. Figure 10 shows the average
reduce the confinement pressure acting on the strand. The compressive strength results of three mortar cubes and shows
specimens were cured in an environmental chamber until test- that the average hourly compressive strength of the mortar
ing. The dimensions of the mortar cube were 2 × 2 × 2 in. (50 cube sets increased over time. The average hourly compressive
× 50 × 50 mm). Bond tests of strands were performed by pro- strength of three mortar cubes for each group did not pass the
fessional technicians at the FDOT SMO in Gainesville, Fla. minimum required compressive strength of ASTM A1081,6
which is 4500 psi (31 MPa). The average compressive strength
Setup 26 hours after casting was 4452 psi (30.7 MPa), which was
98.93% of the minimum required strength. A mean mortar
Figure 8 shows the schematic test setup used for the strength less than 4500 psi is acceptable by ASTM A10816 if
ASTM A1081 bond test. The live end of the strand was con- the bond test result exceeds a minimum threshold value. Thus,

5500
Displacement, mm
5000 35
0 2 4
Required 24000
4500 100
30
Compressive strength, MPa

4401 4402 4452
Compressive strength, psi
4000 4121 4195 20000

25 80
3500
Pull-out force, kN
Pull-out force, lbf
16000
3000 20 60
2500 12000
15 First strand
2000 40
8000 Seond strand
1500 Third strand
10
Fourth strand 20
4000
1000 Fifth strand
5 Sixth strand
500 0 0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
0 0
22 23 24 25 26 Displacement, in.
Time after casting concrete, hours
Figure 10. Compressive strength of concrete mortar cubes for Figure 11. Pullout test results of 0.6 in. diameter high-strength
bond strength tests of stainless steel strands. stainless steel strands. Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
the strand bond test was continued despite the minor under- six strands be 14.00 kip (62.3 kN), with no strand having a
strength of the mortar. pullout value less than 12.00 kip (53.4 kN) at 0.1 in. (2.5 mm)
displacement at the dead end. The second criterion is that the
The bond tests of strands were started 26 hours after mortar ultimate (high bond) recommended average pullout value
casting, and six HSSS strands were tested. Each test was from six strands be 18.00 kip (80.1 kN), with no strand having
terminated after the strand slip exceeded 0.1 in. (2.5 mm) a pullout value less than 16.00 kip (71.2 kN). Note that those
at the dead end, in accordance with ASTM A1081,6 and the acceptance bond threshold values are for 0.5 in. (12.7 mm)
strand bond was taken as the average pullout force of the six diameter Grade 270 carbon steel prestressing strand conform-
strand specimens. Force-slip displacements were measured ing to ASTM A416.15 For strands with either larger diameter
during the test. The pullout force at the chuck at the live end or different grades, the PCI task group proposed an equation,
was measured concurrently with the movement of the strand which is given in Eq. (3).
at the dead end. Figure 11 illustrates the force-displacement
results for the six strands. The minimum and average pull- (Pullout value)other sizes and grades =
out force at 0.1 in. displacement were 15.80 and 17.88 kip f pu
(70.3 and 79.5 kN), respectively. The peak tensile force was (Pullout value)0.5 in. × 2 × db × (3)
reached when the slip displacement at the dead end was about 270
0.0223 in. (0.566 mm) (Fig. 11). The minimum and average where
peak forces were 16.30 and 18.63 kip (72.5 and 82.9 kN),
which were about 3% and 4% greater than the minimum and db = diameter of strand
average pullout forces at 0.1 in. (2.5 mm) displacement at the
dead end, respectively. fpu = specified ultimate tensile stress of strand
ASTM A10816 does not specify a minimum threshold value Even though the recommended bond values were proposed for
for the bond of strand. In 2020, the PCI Strand Bond Task carbon steel strands conforming to ASTM A416,15 they were
Group7 recommended two acceptance bond threshold criteria used here for HSSS strand conforming to ASTM A1114.5
for ASTM A1081.6 The first criterion is that the minimum In this study, the diameter and specified tensile strength for
recommended average ASTM A10816 pullout value from HSSS strand are 0.6 and 240 ksi (15.2 and 1650 MPa), re-
Table 9. Comparison of experimental results with values recommended by PCI Strand Bond Task Group
Pullout force at 0.1 in. Ultimate pullout force

displacement, kip Experiment (high bond), kip Experiment
PCI PCI
Experiment PCI Experiment PCI
Minimum 15.80 12.80 1.23 16.30 17.07 0.96
Average 17.88 14.93 1.20 18.63 19.20 0.97
Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.448 kN.

spectively. Using Eq. (3), the minimum recommended average • The stress-strain relationship of HSSS strands is fun-
pullout value for 0.6 in. diameter Grade 240 HSSS strand is damentally different from that of carbon steel strands.
14.93 kip (66.4 kN), with no strand having a pullout value The HSSS strands have early nonlinearity with a round-
less than 12.80 kip (56.9 kN), and the ultimate (high bond) ed stress-strain curve in the plastic region. The HSSS
recommended average pullout value for 0.6 in. diameter strands exhibit almost no strain hardening compared
Grade 240 HSSS strand is 19.20 kip (85.4 kN), with no strand with carbon steel strands. Compared with carbon steel
having a pullout value less than 17.07 kip (75.9 kN). strands, the currently available HSSS strands have lower
ultimate strain and stress and elastic modulus. The most
Table 9 reports the pullout values obtained experimentally significant difference is in the elongation. The minimum
and those calculated using the approach proposed by the required elongation of the HSSS strands is only 40% of
PCI Strand Bond Task Group.7 The minimum and average that of the carbon steel strands.
experimental ASTM 10816 pullout values were 23.4% and
19.8% greater than the recommended values calculated using • The stress-strain equation for prestressing strand is
the PCI Strand Bond Task Group recommendations. Another essential for the strength design and numerical analysis of
comparison can be made with the ultimate (high bond) pullout prestressed concrete members. A stress-strain equation is
values measured experimentally. The minimum and average proposed for the 0.6 in. diameter HSSS strands. The pro-
peak forces (high bond ASTM A1081 value) were 95.5% and posed equation satisfies the ASTM A11145 requirements,
97.0%, respectively, of the recommended values calculated fits lower-bound curves of the tested strands in the elastic
using the PCI Strand Bond Task Group recommendations. region, and has a stress-strain shape similar to those of
Note that the PCI Strand Bond Task Group specified that the tested strands in the plastic region.
either the minimum ASTM A1081 value or the high bond
ASTM A1081 shall be satisfied. Therefore, it can be conclud- • Five 0.6 in. HSSS strands were tensile tested using chuck
ed that the 0.6 in. (15.2 mm) HSSS strand used in this study devices as the primary gripping devices. The objective
has an acceptable bond with concrete. of these tests was to verify that regular chuck devices
can be used to tension HSSS strands in the casting yard.
Conclusion Experimental results showed that the mechanical proper-
ties of the HSSS strands are not significantly affected in
The use of stainless steel strands may enhance the durability the elastic region when chuck devices were used in the
of prestressed concrete members due to their high corrosion tensile tests. Thus, regular chuck devices can be used in
resistance. Many types of stainless steel strands have been the casting yard to tension HSSS strands. This conclusion
developed, but researchers have found that Grade 2205 du- is limited to straight strands; harped strands or multi-
plex HSSS strand is the best option due to its high mechan- ple-strand tendons need further study.
ical and corrosion-resistance properties. This paper presents
the experimental results of tensile and pullout testing to • Bond of the 0.6 in. diameter HSSS strands was evaluated
determine the mechanical and bond properties of 0.6 in. following ASTM A1081.6 The minimum and average
(15.2 mm) diameter Grade 2205 HSSS strands. The follow- pullout forces at 0.1 in. (2.5 mm) end slip of six strands
ing conclusions were made: were 15.80 and 17.88 kip (70.3 and 79.5 kN), respec-
tively. The minimum and average peak pullout forces of
• Twenty 0.6 in. diameter HSSS strands from two spools six strands were 16.30 and 18.63 kip (72.5 and 82.9 kN),
were tensile tested to determine the mechanical proper- respectively, which were about 3% and 4% greater than
ties of the strand. The stress-strain behavior of specimens the minimum and average pullout forces at 0.1 in. end
from the two spools was different. The difference can be slip displacement, respectively. The peak pullout forces
attributed to multiple factors, such as the wire rod used occurred when end slip displacement at the dead end was
to make prestressing strands not being perfectly identical about 0.0223 in. (0.566 mm).
from heat to heat, chemistry variances of the elements
alloyed, and processing variances. • Minimum threshold values for strand bond are not specified
in ASTM A1081.6 In 2020, two acceptance bond threshold
• The most recent ASTM A11145 specifies the minimum criteria were recommended by the PCI Strand Bond Task
mechanical requirements of Grade 240 stainless steel Group7 for ASTM A1081.6 Experimental pullout forces
strands. Specimens from both spools tested satisfied the of 0.6 in. diameter HSSS strands at 0.1 in. end slip were
minimum requirements specified by ASTM A1114,5 except greater than the recommended values calculated using the
for the area requirement. The measured areas of the tested PCI Strand Bond Task Group equation; however, experi-
specimens were slightly lower than the value required mental peak pullout forces of 0.6 in. diameter HSSS strands
by ASTM A11145 because the diameter of the tested were less than the recommended values calculated using the
specimens was 0.6 in., whereas ASTM A11145 provides PCI Strand Bond Task Group equation. The 0.6 in. diameter
minimum required mechanical properties for 0.62 in. HSSS strand used in this study has an acceptable bond with
(15.7 mm) diameter strands. Note that the tested strands concrete because it satisfied one of the two acceptance bond
were produced before the publication of ASTM A1114.5 threshold criteria from the PCI Strand Bond Task Group.7

Acknowledgments Pretensioned Concrete Girders. Tallahassee, FL: Florida
Department of Transportation.
The authors wish to express their gratitude and sincere
appreciation to the Florida Department of Transportation 9. Al-Kaimakchi, A., and M. Rambo-Roddenberry. 2021.
for funding this study. The authors would like to thank Sam “Measured Transfer Length of 15.2-mm (0.6-in.) Duplex
Fallaha, Will Potter, and Vickie Young for their continuous High-Strength Stainless Steel Strands in Pretensioned
support and guidance. Special thanks are extended to Rich- Girders.” Engineering Structures 237: 112178. https://
ard DeLorenzo, Juan Coz Sanchez, and Andrew Pinkham doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.112178.
at the Florida Department of Transportation State Materials
Office for performing the experimental tests. The opinions, 10. Moser, R. D., L. F. Kahn, P. M. Singh, and K. E. Kurtis.
findings, and conclusions expressed in this publication are 2013. “Preliminary Studies of High-Strength Stainless
those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Florida Prestressing Steels.” ACI Special Publication 291: 1–10.
Department of Transportation or the U.S. Department of
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Construction of Precast Piles with Stainless Reinforcing
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Notation
A = curve-fitting constant for stress-strain power formula
B = curve-fitting constant for stress-strain power formula
C = curve-fitting constant for stress-strain power formula
db = diameter of strand
E = modulus of elasticity of strand
fpu = specified ultimate tensile stress of strand
fpy = specified yield stress of strand
ε = strain in strand
σ = stress in strand

Anwer Al-Kaimakchi, PhD, EIT, The sustainability of concrete structures can be en-
is a bridge designer at Corven hanced by using duplex high-strength stainless steel
Engineering, a Hardesty & (HSSS) strands, due to their high corrosion resistance,
Hanover company, in Tallahassee, in place of conventional carbon steel strands. This
Fla., and a former graduate paper experimentally evaluates mechanical and bond
research assistant at the Florida properties of 0.6 in. (15.2 mm) diameter HSSS strands.
A&M University–Florida State Ten strands each from two spools were tensile tested to
University (FAMU-FSU) College failure. The strands had lower yield and ultimate stress-
of Engineering in Tallahassee. He received his BS in es, ultimate strain, and elastic modulus than carbon steel
civil engineering from Al-Nahrain University in strands, and they met the minimum mechanical prop-
Baghdad, Iraq, and his MS and PhD in civil engineer- erties specified in the recently published ASTM A1114
ing from Florida State University in Tallahassee, Fla. Standard Specification for Low-Relaxation, Seven-Wire,
His research interests include behavior of prestressed Grade 240 [1655], Stainless Steel Strand for Prestressed
concrete structures. Concrete. HSSS strands exhibit nonlinear behavior
beyond the elastic modulus. A stress-strain equation is
Michelle Rambo-Roddenberry, proposed for 0.6 in. diameter HSSS strands, satisfying
PhD, PE, is an associate professor ASTM A1114 and in good agreement with experimental
of civil engineering at the FAMU- results. Five 0.6 in. diameter HSSS strands were tensile
FSU College of Engineering. She tested using standard chuck devices. The mechanical
also serves as associate dean for properties within the elastic region were not significant-
Student Services and Undergrad- ly affected by the use of chuck devices; therefore, chuck
uate Affairs. She received her BS devices were deemed acceptable for use in the casting
and MS in civil engineering from yard. The study was limited to straight strands. Six
Florida State University and her PhD in civil engi- 0.6 in. diameter HSSS strands were tested for bond fol-
neering from Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Va. Her lowing ASTM A1081 Standard Test Method for Evalu-
research interests include bridge engineering, particu- ating Bond of Seven-Wire Steel Prestressing Strand. The
larly analysis, design, and testing of prestressed minimum and average experimental pullout values were
concrete bridges. 15.80 kip (70.3 kN) and 17.88 kip (79.5 kN), respective-
ly, which were 23.4% and 19.8%, respectively, greater
than the minimum recommended values calculated
using the PCI Strand Bond Task Group equation.
Keywords
Bond test, corrosion-resistant strand, stainless steel

strand, stress-strain equation, tensile test.
Review policy
This paper was reviewed in accordance with the Precast/

Prestressed Concrete Institute’s peer-review process.
Reader comments

60631. J

Discussion
Experimental Investigation
of 0.6 in. Diameter Lifting Loops
“E xperimental Investigation of 0.6 in Diameter Lifting Loops”1 by Sandip Chhetri, Rachel Chicchi,
and Andrew Osborn, which appeared in the March–April 2021 issue of PCI Journal, is an
important research document that addresses a practical safety issue, the common practice of the han-
dling of very heavy precast concrete girders using 0.6 in. (15.2 mm) scrap strand available in the preten-
sioned concrete plants producing such girders. Such scrap strand is fashioned into various shapes and
configurations by the production bending shop in such plants. This paper formalizes the types of shapes
and addresses their safe capacities through well-documented pullout tests from test blocks cast in a pre-
tensioned concrete girder production facility.
One of the variables addressed in the paper is the Mohs hardness of the coarse aggregate used
in the casting of the test blocks from which the strand pullout capacities were recorded. The reader
is cautioned that a comment in the paper regarding the Mohs hardness issue on page 73 refers to
research conducted by Russell and Paulsgrove,2 which is not appropriate because that paper does not
address Mohs hardness. Instead the reader should review the appendix, “Concrete Toughness,” which
I wrote and which addresses the Mohs hardness issue in depth.1
The pullout test values recorded in this paper apply to 0.6 in (15.2 mm) strand with an A1081
test value of 18.2 K and coarse aggregate in the test block with a Mohs hardness value of 3.8. They are
conservative for cases where such test values exceed those indicated.
Typically, the Mohs hardness for common coarse aggregates in most parts of the country exceeds
3.8. Even the Mohs hardness of the lightweight coarse aggregates recently tested by Robert J.
Peterman was 4.1, which is greater than 3.8.
The important message to pretensioned concrete producers is that samples of your hard rock and
lightweight concrete coarse aggregates should be tested by a research laboratory that is experienced in
conducting the Mohs hardness test so you can compare the research test results to probable perfor-
mance using your coarse aggregates. The Mohs hardness tests, as well as the A10813 strand bond tests
for this research program, were conducted by Peterman.
Donald R. Logan
President, Logan Structural Research Foundation
Colorado Springs, Colo.
References
1. Chhetri, Sandip, Rachel Chicchi, and Andrew Osborn. 2021. “Experimental Investigation of
0.6 in Diameter Lifting Loops.” PCI Journal 66 (2): 71–87. https://doi.org/10.15554
/pcij66.2-03.
2. Russell, B. W., and G. A. Paulsgrove. 1999. NASP Strand Bond Testing Round One Pull-
Out Tests and Friction Bond Tests of Untensioned Strand. Final report 99-03. Norman, OK:
University of Oklahoma Fears Structural Engineering Laboratory.
3. ASTM International. 2015. Standard Test Method for Evaluating Bond of Seven-Wire
Steel Prestressing Strand. ASTM A1081/A1081M-15. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM
International. https://doi.org/10.1520/A1081_A1081M-15.

Authors’ response
First of all, thank you to Don Logan for recognizing the value of this research,1 as well as his many
contributions to the project. Logan’s discussion focuses on possible issues regarding Mohs hardness
literature references and a desire to make clear the implications of Mohs hardness on pullout capaci-
ties based on some research Mohs hardness tests.
There is very little in the literature regarding Mohs hardness, which is in large part why Logan’s
appendix was welcomed. It provided an opportunity to bring this topic to light and give it more
focus than would have otherwise been possible in the body of the paper. The authors determined
that the Russell and Paulsgrove report2 presents significant strand bond research data and should be
included. Although Mohs hardness is not specifically noted in that work, it demonstrated that lower
pullout values could be associated with softer aggregates found in Florida. The NCHRP 6213 report
by Osborn et al., which is also referenced in regard to Mohs hardness, includes a brief commentary on
Mohs hardness in appendix A. Appendix A reads: “The use of this test has been observed by Logan
at numerous facilities, and test results similar to Stresscon were reproduced as long as the aggregates
used were relatively hard aggregates with Moh’s hardness exceeding 6.0 similar to aggregates used
originally by Moustafa in the Pacific Northwest. Concrete with relatively soft limestone aggregates
consistently produced lower pullout capacities than concrete with the harder aggregates.” Since there
are no other known references for this topic, the authors determined that both of these references are
appropriate and no modifications should be made.
The second main issue was about emphasizing the importance of Mohs hardness on pullout
capacities. The authors think the appendix provided by Logan that was published along with the
paper already does a fine job of pointing out the issues associated with using softer aggregate. The
appendix reads: “The test results from the Mertz Fellowship project may not be sufficiently con-
servative for use by Florida girder producers or for products with sanded lightweight concrete.
Therefore, the testing program should be expanded to include pullout testing of concrete with lower
Mohs hardness values.”
While the authors are not opposed to a reader comment that stresses these points, it does not
appear that the new reader comment provides any type of new information that isn’t already stated in
the appendix.
Rachel Chicchi
Assistant professor of structural engineering, Department of Civil & Architectural Engineering and
Construction Management, University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio
Sandip Chhetri
Structural engineering PhD candidate, Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering and
Construction Management, University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio
Andrew E. N. Osborn
Senior principal, Wiss Janney Elstner Associates Inc.
Boston, Mass.
References
1. Chhetri, Sandip, Rachel Chicchi, and Andrew Osborn. 2021. “Experimental Investigation of
0.6 in Diameter Lifting Loops.” PCI Journal 66 (2): 71–87. https://doi.org/10.15554
/pcij66.2-03.
2. Russell, B. W., and G. A. Paulsgrove. 1999. NASP Strand Bond Testing Round One Pull-
Out Tests and Friction Bond Tests of Untensioned Strand. Final report 99-03. Norman, OK:
University of Oklahoma Fears Structural Engineering Laboratory.
3. Osborn, A. E. N., J. S. Lawler, and J. D. Connolly. 2008. Acceptance Tests for Surface
Characteristics of Steel Strands in Prestressed Concrete. National Cooperative Highway
Research Program report 621. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board. https://
doi.org/10.17226/14206

Comments?
The editors welcome discussion of the technical content of PCI Journal papers. Comments must be confined to the
scope of the paper to which they respond and should make a reasonable and substantial contribution to the discus-
sion of the topic. Discussion not meeting this requirement will be returned or referred to the authors for private reply.
Discussion should include the writer’s name, title, company, city, and email address or phone number and may be
sent to the respective authors for closure. All discussion becomes the property of PCI Journal and may be edited for
space and style. Discussion is generally limited to 1800 words with each table or illustration counting as 300 words.
Follow the style of the original paper, and use references wherever possible without repeating available information.
The opinions expressed are those of the writers and do not necessarily reflect those of PCI or its committees or
councils.
All discussion of papers in this issue must be received by October 1, 2021. Please address reader discussion to PCI
Journal at journal@pci.org. J
SPECIFY PCI CERTIFICATION

THERE IS NO EQUIVALENT
The Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute’s (PCI) certification is the industry’s

most proven, comprehensive, trusted, and specified certification program. The
PCI Plant Certification program is now accredited by the International Accreditation
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To learn more about PCI Certification, please visit
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Photo courtesy of
USC/Gus Ruelas.

Directories
Board of Directors
Dennis Fink, Chair, Northeast Harry Gleich, Institute Program Phillip Miller, Producer Member
Prestressed Products LLC Director, Technical Activities, Director, PCI Gulf South
J. Matt DeVoss, Vice Chair, Jackson Metromont Corp. Alfred Miller Contracting
Precast Inc. Matt Graf, Producer Member Director, Chris Mosley, Professional Member
Matt Ballain, Secretary-Treasurer, PCI Illinois/Wisconsin, International Director, The Consulting Engineers
Coreslab Structures Concrete Products Inc. Group Inc.
(INDIANAPOLIS) Inc. Shelley Hartnett, Producer Member Patty Peterson, Institute Program
J. Seroky, Immediate Past Chair, Director, PCI Mountain States, Director, Business Performance
High Concrete Group LLC EnCon United Tindall Corp.
Bob Risser, President and CEO, PCI Lloyd Kennedy, Institute Program Jim Renda, Associate Member
Director, Educational Activities, Director, Supplier, Cresset Chemical
Dusty Andrews, Producer Member Finfrock Industries LLC Co.
Director, PCI Washington/Oregon, Brent Koch, Producer Member Cheryl Rishcoff, Professional
Knife River Corp.–Northwest Director, PCI West, Con-Fab Member Director, TRC Worldwide
Dennis Cilley, Associate Member California LLC Engineering Inc.
Director, Erector, American Steel & AJ Krick, Producer Member Director, Lenny Salvo, Producer Member
Precast Erectors Mid-Atlantic, Smith-Midland Corp. Director, Florida Chapter, Coreslab
Todd Culp, Producer Member Matt Mahonski, Producer Member Structures (ORLANDO) Inc.
Director, PCI Midwest, Coreslab Director, PCI Central, High Concrete Bob Sheehan, Associate Member
Structures (OMAHA) Inc. Group Director, Supplier, BASF Corp.
Jim Fabinski, Institute Program Bill Mako, Producer Member Director, Peter Simoneau, Producer Member
Director, Transportation Activities, Georgia/Carolinas PCI, Atlanta Director, PCI Northeast, Dailey
EnCon Colorado Structural Concrete Co. Precast
Greg Force, Institute Program David Malaer, Producer Member Gary Wildung, Institute Program
Director, Research and Director, Texas, Oklahoma, New Director, Quality Activities, FDG Inc.
Development, Tindall Corp. Mexico, Valley Prestress Products Inc. Daniel Eckenrode, Regional Council
Ashley Fortenberry, Associate Member Jane Martin, Institute Program Director, Representative, Nonvoting, PCI Gulf
Director, Erector, Tindall Corp. Marketing, Gate Precast Co. South
Technical Activities Council

Chair Harry Gleich Dusty Andrews John Lawler
Vice Chair Rich Miller Suzanne Aultman Barry McKinley
Secretary Jared Brewe Ned M. Cleland Christopher Mosley
Ex-officio, fib Representative Mary Ann Griggas-Smith Pinar Okumus
Larbi Sennour David Jablonsky Timothy Salmons
Ex-officio, Code Representatives Wayne Kassian Stephen J. Seguirant
S. K. Ghosh and Stephen V. Skalko Yahya Kurama Venkatesh Seshappa

PCI staff
Tom Bagsarian (312) 428-4945 tbagsarian@pci.org Editorial content manager
Laura Bedolla (312) 360-3218 lbedolla@pci.org Technical activities program manager
Jared Brewe (312) 360-3213 jbrewe@pci.org Technical services vice president
Trina Brown (312) 360-3590 tbrown@pci.org Transportation systems program manager
K. Michelle Burgess (312) 282-8160 mburgess@pci.org PCI Journal managing editor
Nikole Clow (312) 360-3202 nclow@pci.org Marketing coordinator
Royce Covington (312) 428-4946 rcovington@pci.org Member services manager
Cher Doherty (312) 583-6781 cdoherty@pci.org Manager, events
Walter Furie (312) 583-6772 wfurie@pci.org Production senior specialist
Christopher Hurst (312) 360-3203 churst@pci.org Membership project manager
Cody Kauhl (312) 583-6778 ckauhl@pci.org Web developer
Michael Kesselmayer (312) 583-6770 mkesselmayer@pci.org Quality programs managing director

Market development and education
Becky King (312) 360-3201 bking@pci.org
managing director
Tom Klemens (312) 583-6773 tklemens@pci.org Publications director
Ken Kwilinski (312) 428-4944 kkwilinski@pci.org Quality systems manager
Carolina Lopez (312) 583-6774 clopez@pci.org Certification programs coordinator
John McConvill (312) 360-3208 jmcconvill@pci.org Controller
Sherrie Nauden (312) 360-3215 snauden@pci.org Continuing education manager
William Nickas (312) 583-6776 wnickas@pci.org Transportation systems managing director
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Arelys Schaedler (312) 583-6783 aschaedler@pci.org Executive assistant
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Beth Taylor (312) 583-6780 btaylor@pci.org Chief financial and administrative officer
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Data quality and office administrative
Cindi Ward (312) 360-3214 cward@pci.org
services coordinator
Randy Wilson (312) 428-4940 rwilson@pci.org Architectural precast systems director

Regional offices
Florida Prestressed Concrete PCI of Illinois & Wisconsin PCI Northeast
Association Joe Lombard Rita Seraderian
Diep Tu Phone: (312) 505-1858 Phone: (617) 484-0506
Phone: (407) 758-9966 Email: joe@pci-iw.org Email: contact@pcine.org
Email: diep@myfpca.org PCI-IW.org PCINE.org
MyFPCA.org
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Ray Clark Phone: (717) 682-1215 Phone: (949) 420-3638
Phone: (678) 402-7727 Email: dawn@pci-ma.org Email: info@pciwest.org
Email: ray.clark@gcpci.org PCI-MA.org PCIWest.org
GCPCI.org
PCI Midwest Precast Concrete Manufacturers’
PCI Central Region Mike Johnsrud Association
Phil Wiedemann Phone: (952) 806-9997 Chris Lechner
Phone: (937) 833-3900 Email: mike@pcimidwest.org Phone: (866) 944-7262
Email: phil@pci-central.org PCIMidwest.org Email: chris@precastcma.org
PCI-Central.org PrecastCMA.org
PCI Mountain States
PCI Gulf South Jim Schneider
Dan Eckenrode Phone: (303) 562-8685
Phone: (228) 239-3409 Email: jschneider@pcims.org
Email: pcigulfsouth1@att.net PCIMS.org
PCIGulfSouth.org
Coming ahead
Parking Structures
• Seismic design and analysis of precast concrete
buckling-restrained braced frames
• Influence of hollow-core wall panels on the cyclic
behavior of different types of steel framing systems
• The effect of the bridge deck on live-load
distribution of an adjacent box beam bridge

Meet Skip Francies
Engineering innovator
Sarah Fister Gale
G rowing up in Sacramento, Calif., Skip

Francies imagined that one day he
would become a math teacher or an archi-
listening to what the guys didn’t like or what could be done
better,” he says. “When we found something they needed that
didn’t exist, we tried to invent something new, a solution.”
tect, but fate had other plans. That led him to create a precast, prestressed concrete dou-
Francies enlisted in the Navy during ble tee lift anchor, a stronger forged lift anchor for precast
the Vietnam War, just after graduating concrete, a post installed corbel system, and a flange-to-flange
high school. He was stationed on the USS double tee connector.
Lexington (CV-16), an aircraft carrier where Navy and Marine In the early 1980s, Francies joined PCI and immediately
pilots were trained for combat. While onboard, he received the looked for opportunities to be active in the organization. “I always
Award of Excellence for creating a program illustrating ways to told my sales reps, ‘When you join PCI, you don’t just show up to
conserve water. chapter meetings. You have to get involved,’” he says. He encour-
After being honorably disharged in 1967, he thought he aged them to join committees and to contribute to efforts to
would go back to school to get a teaching or architecture advance the industry. “We were all part of a big family.”
degree, but he also needed money. He applied for a job as an
engineering technician at Burke Concrete Accessories (now “I was always in the precast yard listening
part of Leviat), a concrete accessories and engineered products
company. He knew that he was very good at calculus, trigo- to what the guys didn’t like or what could
nometry, and drafting, so he figured he would give it a shot. be done better. When we found something
Francies met with the chief engineer, Mr. Holt, and the
head of the Sacramento engineering office, who told him about they needed that didn’t exist, we tried to
the company and asked him some questions about bending invent something new, a solution.”
moments. He didn’t know exactly what bending moments
were, but he gave common sense answers, and they offered him As a member of PCI, he left a legacy as one of the industry’s
the job. experts in lifting and handling. He delivered many lifting and
He started work the next day. handling safety presentations for precasters and association
Francies, who was just 21, was the first engineering tech training courses over the years. He also twice held roles on
hired by the company, and he was mentored by Dave Kelly, who PCI’s board of directors, chaired the Precast Sandwich Wall
was 26. “At the time, there were no computers, so drafting and Panels Committee, was a member of the Parking Structures
calculations were done by hand,” he says. He became the lead Committee, and continues to participate on the Erectors
technician for forming, lifting, and bracing, and got to work Committee and Marketing Council Parking Structures
on several precast concrete projects. “I love precast,” he says. “I Committee, even though he retired five years ago.
loved figuring out the center of gravity on the most complex Francies says one of his greatest career accomplishments
shapes and determining how to lift and handle them safely.” was being named a PCI Fellow in 2011. “It was one of my
Francies spent much of his career at Burke, inventing better proudest and most humbling moments, especially having it
solutions and detailing projects. In the early 1980s Burke asked presented to me by Donna Reuter, who was PCI’s chairman of
him to be the West Coast salesperson for the new Precast the board at that time.”
Products Division. “I had never been in sales before, but I Although Francies may have transformed the way precast
knew the products, I knew precast, and I knew the customers,” concrete pieces are lifted, moved, and handled safely, he says
he says. He spent 48 weeks on the road his first year in sales. that there are many more innovations needed to be developed
His passion for precast concrete led Francies to become by current and future PCI members. “Some precasters are
one of the most innovative inventors in the industry. Over his always looking for ways to innovate,” he says. “And even if you
career, he received 30 patents, many of them for inventing new can’t always invent something new, it’s still important to con-
ways to safely lift and move massive precast concrete elements tribute. Get involved, listen, join a committee,” he says. “That
without damaging the face. “I was always in the precast yard is how we make the industry better.”

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JULY–AUGUST 2021

VOLUME 66, NUMBER 4

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute

Slabs, Panels, and Hollow-Core

Your Connection Connection

Slabs, Panels, and Hollow-Core

23 Mechanical and Bond Properties of Grade 2205

Anwer Al-Kaimakchi and Michelle Rambo-Roddenberry

New Lock at Kentucky Dam: Analysis and Design 23

PCI Journal | July–August 2021

From PCI Headquarters 8

spherical glass and concrete

PCI Staff Directory 86

JOURNAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE Millard J. Barney Pinar Okumus Regional Offices 87

EDITORIAL DESIGN & PRODUCTION

This paper is milled from a 3rd-party certified source

PCI Journal | July–August 2021

PCI Journal | July–August 2021 5

2021 PCI Convention

PCI Journal | July–August 2021 7

2021/22 Daniel P. Jenny Implementing Dapped Ends in Very

T he PCI Research and Development Council has award-

8 PCI Journal | July–August 2021

P CI is hosting an Ultra-High-Performance Concrete

R obert N. Bruce Jr. was posthumously

2022 PCI Design Awards call for entries

PCI Journal | July–August 2021 9

T he Board of Directors recently named seven members

PCI seeking manager–technical activities

2022 Mario J. Bertolini Leadership

10 PCI Journal | July–August 2021

2022 PCI Fellows call for nominations

2022 PCI Medal of Honor call for nominations

2021 Big Beam Contest call for entries

PCI Journal | July–August 2021 11

Welcoming students to PCI

12 PCI Journal | July–August 2021

E dward S. Knowles received the Mario

2021 Dennis R. Mertz Bridge Research

PCI Journal | July–August 2021 13

S ix universities have received PCI Foundation grants

P CI recently updated its Policy 26, Awards, which was

2022 PCI Convention call for papers

PCI personnel training and certification schools

14 PCI Journal | July–August 2021

Compiled by K. Michelle Burgess (mburgess@pci.org) J

PCI Journal | July–August 2021 15

Smith-Midland welcomes thering the profession of engineering, in this case structural

K evin Corbett is the newest member of

O guzhan Bayrak has been named the

PCI’s newly certified plants

PCI Journal | July–August 2021 17

Service associates CarbonCure Technologies

18 PCI Journal | July–August 2021

Compiled by K. Michelle Burgess (mburgess@pci.org) J

MARK YOUR CALENDAR

T he U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Safety and

Event details are subject to change.

Compiled by K. Michelle Burgess (mburgess@pci.org) J

w(hw-ht) + cht Tremie seal