Shield Volcanoes

Shield volcanoes
Main article: Shield volcano

Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by
the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent.
They generally do not explode catastrophically, but are characterized by
relatively gentle effusive eruptions. Since low-viscosity magma is typically low
in silica, shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental
settings. The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they
are common in Iceland, as well.
Lava domes
Main article: Lava dome
Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are
sometimes formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption, as in the
case of Mount St. Helens, but can also form independently, as in the case
of Lassen Peak. Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosive
eruptions, but the lava generally does not flow far from the originating vent.
Cryptodomes
Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava is forced upward causing the
surface to bulge. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was an example;
lava beneath the surface of the mountain created an upward bulge, which
later collapsed down the north side of the mountain.
Cinder cones
Main articles: volcanic cone and Cinder cone
Izalco volcano, the youngest volcano in El

Salvador. Izalco erupted almost continuously from 1770 (when it formed) to
1958, earning it the nickname of "Lighthouse of the Pacific".
Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces
of scoria and pyroclastics (both resemble cinders, hence the name of this
volcano type) that build up around the vent. These can be relatively short-
lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 meters
(100 to 1,300 ft) high. Most cinder cones erupt only once and some may be
found in monogenetic volcanic fields that may include other features that form
when magma comes into contact with water such as maar explosion craters
and tuff rings.[15] Cinder cones may form as flank vents on larger volcanoes, or
occur on their own. Parícutin in Mexico and Sunset Crater in Arizona are
examples of cinder cones. In New Mexico, Caja del Rio is a volcanic field of
over 60 cinder cones.
Based on satellite images, it was suggested that cinder cones might occur on
other terrestrial bodies in the Solar system too; on the surface of Mars and
the Moon.[16][17][18][19]
Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)
Cross-section through
a stratovolcano (vertical scale is exaggerated):
1. Large magma chamber

2. Bedrock
3. Conduit (pipe)
4. Base
5. Sill
6. Dike
7. Layers of ash emitted by the volcano
8. Flank
9. Layers of lava emitted by the volcano
10. Throat
11. Parasitic cone
12. Lava flow
13. Vent
14. Crater
15. Ash cloud
Main article: Stratovolcano
Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) are tall conical mountains composed
of lava flows and tephra in alternate layers, the strata that gives rise to the
name. They are also known as composite volcanoes because they are
created from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions. Classic
examples include Mount Fuji in Japan, Mayon Volcano in the Philippines,
and Mount Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy.
Ash produced by the explosive eruption of stratovolcanoes

has historically posed the greatest volcanic hazard to civilizations. The lavas
of stratovolcanoes are higher in silica, and therefore much more viscous, than
lavas from shield volcanoes. High-silica lavas also tend to contain more
dissolved gas. The combination is deadly, promoting explosive eruptions that
produce great quantities of ash, as well as pyroclastic surges like the one that
destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre in Martinique in 1902. They are also steeper
than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 30–35° compared to slopes of generally
5–10°, and their loose tephra are material for dangerous lahars.[20] Large
pieces of tephra are called volcanic bombs. Big bombs can measure more
than 4 feet (1.2 meters) across and weigh several tons.[21]
Supervolcanoes
Main article: Supervolcano
See also: List of largest volcanic eruptions
A supervolcano is a volcano that has experienced one or more eruptions that
produced over 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cu mi) of volcanic deposits in a
single explosive event.[22] Such eruptions occur when a very large magma
chamber full of gas-rich, silicic magma is emptied in a catastrophic caldera-
forming eruption. Ash flow tuffs emplaced by such eruptions are the only
volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts.[23]
A supervolcano can produce devastation on a continental scale. Such
volcanoes are able to severely cool global temperatures for many years after
the eruption due to the huge volumes of sulfur and ash released into the
atmosphere. They are the most dangerous type of volcano. Examples
include Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National Park and Valles
Caldera in New Mexico (both western United States); Lake Taupō in New
Zealand; Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia; and Ngorongoro Crater in
Tanzania. Fortunately, supervolcano eruptions are very rare events, though
because of the enormous area they cover, and subsequent concealment
under vegetation and glacial deposits, supervolcanoes can be difficult to
identify in the geologic record without careful geologic mapping.[24]
Submarine volcanoes
Main article: Submarine volcano
See also: Subaqueous volcano
Satellite images of the 15 January 2022 eruption

of Hunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai
Submarine volcanoes are common features of the ocean floor. Volcanic
activity during the Holocene Epoch has been documented at only 119
submarine volcanoes, but there may be more than one million geologically
young submarine volcanoes on the ocean floor.[25][26] In shallow water, active
volcanoes disclose their presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high
above the ocean's surface. In the deep ocean basins, the tremendous weight
of the water prevents the explosive release of steam and gases; however,
submarine eruptions can be detected by hydrophones and by the
discoloration of water because of volcanic gases. Pillow lava is a common
eruptive product of submarine volcanoes and is characterized by thick
sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped masses which form under water.
Even large submarine eruptions may not disturb the ocean surface, due to
the rapid cooling effect and increased buoyancy in water (as compared to
air), which often causes volcanic vents to form steep pillars on the ocean
floor. Hydrothermal vents are common near these volcanoes, and some
support peculiar ecosystems based on chemotrophs feeding on dissolved
minerals. Over time, the formations created by submarine volcanoes may
become so large that they break the ocean surface as new islands or
floating pumice rafts.
In May and June 2018, a multitude of seismic signals were detected

by earthquake monitoring agencies all over the world. They took the form of
unusual humming sounds, and some of the signals detected in November of
that year had a duration of up to 20 minutes. An oceanographic research
campaign in May 2019 showed that the previously mysterious humming
noises were caused by the formation of a submarine volcano off the coast
of Mayotte.[27]
Subglacial volcanoes
Main article: Subglacial volcano
Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath icecaps. They are made up of lava
plateaus capping extensive pillow lavas and palagonite. These volcanoes are
also called table mountains, tuyas,[28] or (in Iceland) mobergs.[29] Very good
examples of this type of volcano can be seen in Iceland and in British
Columbia. The origin of the term comes from Tuya Butte, which is one of the
several tuyas in the area of the Tuya River and Tuya Range in northern
British Columbia. Tuya Butte was the first such landform analyzed and so its
name has entered the geological literature for this kind of volcanic
formation.[30] The Tuya Mountains Provincial Park was recently established to
protect this unusual landscape, which lies north of Tuya Lake and south of
the Jennings River near the boundary with the Yukon Territory.
Mud volcanoes
Main article: Mud volcano
Mud volcanoes (mud domes) are formations created by geo-excreted liquids
and gases, although there are several processes which may cause such
activity.[31] The largest structures are 10 kilometers in diameter and reach 700
meters high.[32]
Erupted material
Duration: 1 minute and 9 seconds.1:09Timelapse of San Miguel
(volcano) degassing in 2022. El Salvador is home to 20 Holocene volcanoes,

Shield Volcanoes

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Shield volcanoes

Main article: Shield volcano

Izalco volcano, the youngest volcano in El

Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)

1. Large magma chamber

Ash produced by the explosive eruption of stratovolcanoes

Satellite images of the 15 January 2022 eruption

In May and June 2018, a multitude of seismic signals were detected

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