Volcano

A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava,
volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. The process that
forms volcanoes is called volcanism.

Sabancaya volcano erupting, Peru in 2017

On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging, and
because most of Earth's plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater.
For example, a mid-ocean ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has volcanoes caused by divergent
tectonic plates whereas the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic
plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, such as
in the East African Rift and the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande rift in North
America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has been postulated to arise from upwelling
diapirs from the core–mantle boundary, 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results
in hotspot volcanism, of which the Hawaiian hotspot is an example. Volcanoes are usually not
created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure
the Sun and cool Earth's troposphere. Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed by
volcanic winters which have caused catastrophic famines.[1]

Other planets besides Earth have volcanoes. For example, volcanoes are very numerous on Venus.[2]
In 2009, a paper was published suggesting a new definition for the word 'volcano' that includes
processes such as cryovolcanism. It suggested that a volcano be defined as 'an opening on a planet
or moon's surface from which magma, as defined for that body, and/or magmatic gas is erupted.'[3]
This article mainly covers volcanoes on Earth. See § Volcanoes on other celestial bodies and
cryovolcano for more information.

Etymology

The word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of
Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology.[4] The study of
volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology.[5]

Plate tectonics

Map showing the divergent plate boundaries (oceanic spreading

ridges) and recent sub-aerial volcanoes (mostly at convergent
boundaries)

According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth's lithosphere, its rigid outer shell, is broken into
sixteen larger and several smaller plates. These are in slow motion, due to convection in the
underlying ductile mantle, and most volcanic activity on Earth takes place along plate boundaries,
where plates are converging (and lithosphere is being destroyed) or are diverging (and new
lithosphere is being created).[6]

During the development of geological theory, certain concepts that allowed the grouping of
volcanoes in time, place, structure and composition have developed that ultimately have had to be
explained in the theory of plate tectonics. For example, some volcanoes are polygenetic with more
than one period of activity during their history; other volcanoes that become extinct after erupting
exactly once are monogenetic (meaning "one life") and such volcanoes are often grouped together
in a geographical region.[7]
Divergent plate boundaries

At the mid-ocean ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as hot mantle rock creeps
upwards beneath the thinned oceanic crust. The decrease of pressure in the rising mantle rock
leads to adiabatic expansion and the partial melting of the rock, causing volcanism and creating
new oceanic crust. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, and so most
volcanic activity on Earth is submarine, forming new seafloor. Black smokers (also known as deep
sea vents) are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea
level, volcanic islands are formed, such as Iceland.[8]

Convergent plate boundaries

Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate,
collide. The oceanic plate subducts (dives beneath the continental plate), forming a deep ocean
trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate
lowers the melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, thus creating magma. This magma
tends to be extremely viscous because of its high silica content, so it often does not reach the
surface but cools and solidifies at depth. When it does reach the surface, however, a volcano is
formed. Thus subduction zones are bordered by chains of volcanoes called volcanic arcs. Typical
examples are the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire, such as the Cascade Volcanoes or the
Japanese Archipelago, or the eastern islands of Indonesia.[9]

Hotspots

Hotspots are volcanic areas thought to be formed by mantle plumes, which are hypothesized to be
columns of hot material rising from the core-mantle boundary. As with mid-ocean ridges, the rising
mantle rock experiences decompression melting which generates large volumes of magma.
Because tectonic plates move across mantle plumes, each volcano becomes inactive as it drifts off
the plume, and new volcanoes are created where the plate advances over the plume. The Hawaiian
Islands are thought to have been formed in such a manner, as has the Snake River Plain, with the
Yellowstone Caldera being the part of the North American plate currently above the Yellowstone
hotspot.[10] However, the mantle plume hypothesis has been questioned.[11]
Continental rifting

Sustained upwelling of hot mantle rock can develop under the interior of a continent and lead to
rifting. Early stages of rifting are characterized by flood basalts and may progress to the point where
a tectonic plate is completely split.[12][13] A divergent plate boundary then develops between the two
halves of the split plate. However, rifting often fails to completely split the continental lithosphere
(such as in an aulacogen), and failed rifts are characterized by volcanoes that erupt unusual alkali
lava or carbonatites. Examples include the volcanoes of the East African Rift.[14]

Volcanic features

Video of lava agitating and bubbling

in the volcano eruption of Litli-Hrútur,
2023

A volcano needs a reservoir of molten magma (e.g. a magma chamber), a conduit to allow magma
to rise through the crust, and a vent to allow the magma to escape above the surface as lava.[15] The
erupted volcanic material (lava and tephra) that is deposited around the vent is known as a volcanic
edifice, typically a volcanic cone or mountain.[15]

The most common perception of a volcano is of a conical mountain, spewing lava and poisonous
gases from a crater at its summit; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano.
The features of volcanoes are varied. The structure and behavior of volcanoes depend on a number
of factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater
while others have landscape features such as massive plateaus. Vents that issue volcanic material
(including lava and ash) and gases (mainly steam and magmatic gases) can develop anywhere on
the landform and may give rise to smaller cones such as Puʻu ʻŌʻō on a flank of Kīlauea in Hawaii.
Volcanic craters are not always at the top of a mountain or hill and may be filled with lakes such as
with Lake Taupō in New Zealand. Some volcanoes can be low relief landform features, with the
potential to be hard to recognise as such, and be obscured by geological processes.

Other types of volcano include cryovolcanoes (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of
Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune; and mud volcanoes, which are structures often not associated with
known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than
those of igneous volcanoes except when the mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.

Fissure vents

Lakagigar fissure vent in Iceland, the

source of the major world climate
alteration of 1783–84, has a chain of
volcanic cones along its length.

Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear fractures through which lava emerges.

Shield volcanoes

Skjaldbreiður, a shield volcano whose

name means "broad shield"

Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by the eruption of low-
viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent. They generally do not explode
catastrophically, but are characterized by relatively gentle effusive eruptions. Since low-viscosity
magma is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental
settings. The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in Iceland,
as well.
Lava domes

Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are sometimes formed within
the crater of a previous volcanic eruption, as in the case of Mount St. Helens, but can also form
independently, as in the case of Lassen Peak. Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent,
explosive eruptions, but the lava generally does not flow far from the originating vent.

Cryptodomes

Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava is forced upward causing the surface to bulge. The
1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was an example; lava beneath the surface of the mountain
created an upward bulge, which later collapsed down the north side of the mountain.

Cinder cones

Izalco volcano, the youngest volcano

in El Salvador. Izalco erupted almost
continuously from 1770 (when it
formed) to 1958, earning it the
nickname of "Lighthouse of the
Pacific".

Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces of scoria and pyroclastics (both resemble
cinders, hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent. These can be relatively
short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 meters (100 to 1,300 ft)
high. Most cinder cones erupt only once and some may be found in monogenetic volcanic fields
that may include other features that form when magma comes into contact with water such as
maar explosion craters and tuff rings.[16] Cinder cones may form as flank vents on larger volcanoes,
or occur on their own. Parícutin in Mexico and Sunset Crater in Arizona are examples of cinder
cones. In New Mexico, Caja del Rio is a volcanic field of over 60 cinder cones.
Based on satellite images, it has been suggested that cinder cones might occur on other terrestrial
bodies in the Solar system too; on the surface of Mars and the Moon.[17][18][19][20]

Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)

Cross-section through a stratovolcano (vertical scale

is exaggerated):
1. Large magma chamber

2. Bedrock

3. Conduit (pipe)

4. Base

5. Sill

6. Dike

7. Layers of ash emitted by the volcano

8. Flank

9. Layers of lava emitted by the volcano

10. Throat

11. Parasitic cone

12. Lava flow

13. Vent

14. Crater

15. Ash cloud

Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and
tephra in alternate layers, the strata that gives rise to the name. They are also known as composite
volcanoes because they are created from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions.
Classic examples include Mount Fuji in Japan, Mayon Volcano in the Philippines, and Mount
Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy.

Ash produced by the explosive eruption of stratovolcanoes has historically posed the greatest
volcanic hazard to civilizations. The lavas of stratovolcanoes are higher in silica, and therefore much
more viscous, than lavas from shield volcanoes. High-silica lavas also tend to contain more
dissolved gas. The combination is deadly, promoting explosive eruptions that produce great
quantities of ash, as well as pyroclastic surges like the one that destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre in
Martinique in 1902. They are also steeper than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 30–35° compared to
slopes of generally 5–10°, and their loose tephra are material for dangerous lahars.[21] Large pieces
of tephra are called volcanic bombs. Big bombs can measure more than 1.2 meters (4 ft) across
and weigh several tons.[22]

Supervolcanoes

A supervolcano is defined as a volcano that has experienced one or more eruptions that produced
over 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cu mi) of volcanic deposits in a single explosive event.[23] Such
eruptions occur when a very large magma chamber full of gas-rich, silicic magma is emptied in a
catastrophic caldera-forming eruption. Ash flow tuffs emplaced by such eruptions are the only
volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts.[24]

Supervolcano eruptions, while the most dangerous type, are very rare; four are known from the last
million years, and about 60 historical VEI 8 eruptions have been identified in the geologic record
over millions of years. A supervolcano can produce devastation on a continental scale, and severely
cool global temperatures for many years after the eruption due to the huge volumes of sulfur and
ash released into the atmosphere.

Because of the enormous area they cover, and subsequent concealment under vegetation and
glacial deposits, supervolcanoes can be difficult to identify in the geologic record without careful
geologic mapping.[25] Known examples include Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National Park
and Valles Caldera in New Mexico (both western United States); Lake Taupō in New Zealand; Lake
Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia; and Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania.
Caldera volcanoes

Volcanoes that, though large, are not large enough to be called supervolcanoes, may also form
calderas in the same way; they are often described as "caldera volcanoes".[26]

Submarine volcanoes

Satellite images of the 15 January

2022 eruption of Hunga Tonga-Hunga
Haʻapai

Submarine volcanoes are common features of the ocean floor. Volcanic activity during the Holocene
Epoch has been documented at only 119 submarine volcanoes, but there may be more than one
million geologically young submarine volcanoes on the ocean floor.[27][28] In shallow water, active
volcanoes disclose their presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high above the ocean's
surface. In the deep ocean basins, the tremendous weight of the water prevents the explosive
release of steam and gases; however, submarine eruptions can be detected by hydrophones and by
the discoloration of water because of volcanic gases. Pillow lava is a common eruptive product of
submarine volcanoes and is characterized by thick sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped
masses which form under water. Even large submarine eruptions may not disturb the ocean surface,
due to the rapid cooling effect and increased buoyancy in water (as compared to air), which often
causes volcanic vents to form steep pillars on the ocean floor. Hydrothermal vents are common
near these volcanoes, and some support peculiar ecosystems based on chemotrophs feeding on
dissolved minerals. Over time, the formations created by submarine volcanoes may become so
large that they break the ocean surface as new islands or floating pumice rafts.

In May and June 2018, a multitude of seismic signals were detected by earthquake monitoring
agencies all over the world. They took the form of unusual humming sounds, and some of the
signals detected in November of that year had a duration of up to 20 minutes. An oceanographic
research campaign in May 2019 showed that the previously mysterious humming noises were
caused by the formation of a submarine volcano off the coast of Mayotte.[29]

Subglacial volcanoes

Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath icecaps. They are made up of lava plateaus capping
extensive pillow lavas and palagonite. These volcanoes are also called table mountains, tuyas,[30] or
(in Iceland) mobergs.[31] Very good examples of this type of volcano can be seen in Iceland and in
British Columbia. The origin of the term comes from Tuya Butte, which is one of the several tuyas in
the area of the Tuya River and Tuya Range in northern British Columbia. Tuya Butte was the first
such landform analyzed and so its name has entered the geological literature for this kind of
volcanic formation.[32] The Tuya Mountains Provincial Park was recently established to protect this
unusual landscape, which lies north of Tuya Lake and south of the Jennings River near the boundary
with the Yukon Territory.

Mud volcanoes

Mud volcanoes (mud domes) are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although
there are several processes which may cause such activity.[33] The largest structures are 10
kilometers in diameter and reach 700 meters high.[34]

Erupted material

1:09

Timelapse of San Miguel (volcano)

degassing in 2022. El Salvador is
home to 20 Holocene volcanoes, 3 of
which have erupted in last 100yrs[35]
 Pāhoehoe lava flow on Hawaii. The
picture shows overflows of a main
lava channel.

Litli-Hrútur (Fagradalsfjall) eruption

2023. View from an airplane

The Stromboli stratovolcano off the

coast of Sicily has erupted
continuously for thousands of years,
giving rise to its nickname
"Lighthouse of the Mediterranean".

The material that is expelled in a volcanic eruption can be classified into three types:

1. Volcanic gases, a mixture made mostly of steam, carbon dioxide, and a sulfur compound
(either sulfur dioxide, SO2, or hydrogen sulfide, H2S, depending on the temperature)

2. Lava, the name of magma when it emerges and flows over the surface

3. Tephra, particles of solid material of all shapes and sizes ejected and thrown through the
air[36][37]
Volcanic gases

The concentrations of different volcanic gases can vary considerably from one volcano to the next.
Water vapor is typically the most abundant volcanic gas, followed by carbon dioxide[38] and sulfur
dioxide. Other principal volcanic gases include hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen
fluoride. A large number of minor and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, halocarbons, organic compounds, and volatile metal chlorides.

Lava flows

Mount Rinjani eruption in 1994, in

Lombok, Indonesia

The form and style of eruption of a volcano is largely determined by the composition of the lava it
erupts. The viscosity (how fluid the lava is) and the amount of dissolved gas are the most important
characteristics of magma, and both are largely determined by the amount of silica in the magma.
Magma rich in silica is much more viscous than silica-poor magma, and silica-rich magma also
tends to contain more dissolved gases.

Lava can be broadly classified into four different compositions:[39]

If the erupted magma contains a high percentage (>63%) of silica, the lava is described as felsic.
Felsic lavas (dacites or rhyolites) are highly viscous and are erupted as domes or short, stubby
flows.[40] Lassen Peak in California is an example of a volcano formed from felsic lava and is
actually a large lava dome.[41]
Because felsic magmas are so viscous, they tend to trap volatiles (gases) that are present, which
leads to explosive volcanism. Pyroclastic flows (ignimbrites) are highly hazardous products of
such volcanoes, since they hug the volcano's slopes and travel far from their vents during large
eruptions. Temperatures as high as 850 °C (1,560 °F)[42] are known to occur in pyroclastic flows,
 which will incinerate everything flammable in their path, and thick layers of hot pyroclastic flow
deposits can be laid down, often many meters thick.[43] Alaska's Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes,
formed by the eruption of Novarupta near Katmai in 1912, is an example of a thick pyroclastic
flow or ignimbrite deposit.[44] Volcanic ash that is light enough to be erupted high into the Earth's
atmosphere as an eruption column may travel hundreds of kilometers before it falls back to
ground as a fallout tuff. Volcanic gases may remain in the stratosphere for years.[45]

Felsic magmas are formed within the crust, usually through melting of crust rock from the heat of
underlying mafic magmas. The lighter felsic magma floats on the mafic magma without
significant mixing.[46] Less commonly, felsic magmas are produced by extreme fractional
crystallization of more mafic magmas.[47] This is a process in which mafic minerals crystallize out
of the slowly cooling magma, which enriches the remaining liquid in silica.

If the erupted magma contains 52–63% silica, the lava is of intermediate composition or
andesitic. Intermediate magmas are characteristic of stratovolcanoes.[48] They are most
commonly formed at convergent boundaries between tectonic plates, by several processes. One
process is hydration melting of mantle peridotite followed by fractional crystallization. Water from
a subducting slab rises into the overlying mantle, lowering its melting point, particularly for the
more silica-rich minerals. Fractional crystallization further enriches the magma in silica. It has
also been suggested that intermediate magmas are produced by melting of sediments carried
downwards by the subducted slab.[49] Another process is magma mixing between felsic rhyolitic
and mafic basaltic magmas in an intermediate reservoir prior to emplacement or lava flow.[50]

If the erupted magma contains <52% and >45% silica, the lava is called mafic (because it contains
higher percentages of magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe)) or basaltic. These lavas are usually hotter
and much less viscous than felsic lavas. Mafic magmas are formed by partial melting of dry
mantle, with limited fractional crystallization and assimilation of crustal material.[51]
Mafic lavas occur in a wide range of settings. These include mid-ocean ridges; Shield volcanoes
(such the Hawaiian Islands, including Mauna Loa and Kilauea), on both oceanic and continental
crust; and as continental flood basalts.

Some erupted magmas contain ≤45% silica and produce ultramafic lava. Ultramafic flows, also
known as komatiites, are very rare; indeed, very few have been erupted at Earth's surface since the
Proterozoic, when the planet's heat flow was higher. They are (or were) the hottest lavas, and were
probably more fluid than common mafic lavas, with a viscosity less than a tenth that of hot basalt
magma.[52]

Mafic lava flows show two varieties of surface texture: ʻAʻa (pronounced [ˈʔaʔa]) and pāhoehoe
([paːˈho.eˈho.e]), both Hawaiian words. ʻAʻa is characterized by a rough, clinkery surface and is the
typical texture of cooler basalt lava flows. Pāhoehoe is characterized by its smooth and often ropey
or wrinkly surface and is generally formed from more fluid lava flows. Pāhoehoe flows are
sometimes observed to transition to ʻaʻa flows as they move away from the vent, but never the
reverse.[53]

More silicic lava flows take the form of block lava, where the flow is covered with angular, vesicle-
poor blocks. Rhyolitic flows typically consist largely of obsidian.[54]

Tephra

Light-microscope image of tuff as

seen in thin section (long dimension
is several mm): the curved shapes of
altered glass shards (ash fragments)
are well preserved, although the glass
is partly altered. The shapes were
formed around bubbles of expanding,
water-rich gas.

Tephra is made when magma inside the volcano is blown apart by the rapid expansion of hot
volcanic gases. Magma commonly explodes as the gas dissolved in it comes out of solution as the
pressure decreases when it flows to the surface. These violent explosions produce particles of
material that can then fly from the volcano. Solid particles smaller than 2 mm in diameter (sand-
sized or smaller) are called volcanic ash.[36][37]

Tephra and other volcaniclastics (shattered volcanic material) make up more of the volume of many
volcanoes than do lava flows. Volcaniclastics may have contributed as much as a third of all
sedimentation in the geologic record. The production of large volumes of tephra is characteristic of
explosive volcanism.[55]
Types of volcanic eruptions

Schematic of volcano injection of

aerosols and gases

Eruption styles are broadly divided into magmatic, phreatomagmatic, and phreatic eruptions.[56] The
intensity of explosive volcanism is expressed using the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), which
ranges from 0 for Hawaiian-type eruptions to 8 for supervolcanic eruptions.[57]

Magmatic eruptions are driven primarily by gas release due to decompression.[56] Low-viscosity
magma with little dissolved gas produces relatively gentle effusive eruptions. High-viscosity
magma with a high content of dissolved gas produces violent explosive eruptions. The range of
observed eruption styles is expressed from historical examples.

Hawaiian eruptions are typical of volcanoes that erupt mafic lava with a relatively low gas
content. These are almost entirely effusive, producing local lava fountains and highly fluid lava
flows but relatively little tephra. They are named after the Hawaiian volcanoes.

Strombolian eruptions are characterized by moderate viscosities and dissolved gas levels. They
are characterized by frequent but short-lived eruptions that can produce eruptive columns
hundreds of meters high, which can also be seen in a gas slug. Their primary product is scoria.
They are named after Stromboli.

Vulcanian eruptions are characterized by yet higher viscosities and partial crystallization of
magma, which is often intermediate in composition. Eruptions take the form of short-lived
explosions over the course of several hours, which destroy a central dome and eject large lava
blocks and bombs. This is followed by an effusive phase that rebuilds the central dome.
Vulcanian eruptions are named after Vulcano.

Peléan eruptions are more violent still, being characterized by dome growth and collapse that
produces various kinds of pyroclastic flows. They are named after Mount Pelée.

Plinian eruptions are the most violent of all volcanic eruptions. They are characterized by
sustained huge eruption columns whose collapse produces catastrophic pyroclastic flows. They
 are named after Pliny the Younger, who chronicled the Plinian eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79
AD.

Phreatomagmatic eruptions are characterized by interaction of rising magma with groundwater.

They are driven by the resulting rapid buildup of pressure in the superheated groundwater.

Phreatic eruptions are characterized by superheating of groundwater that comes in contact with
hot rock or magma. They are distinguished from phreatomagmatic eruptions because the erupted
material is all country rock; no magma is erupted.

Volcanic activity

Fresco with Mount Vesuvius

behind Bacchus and
Agathodaemon, as seen in
Pompeii's House of the
Centenary

As of December 2022, the Smithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism Program database of volcanic
eruptions in the Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years) lists 9,901 confirmed eruptions from 859
volcanoes. The database also lists 1,113 uncertain eruptions and 168 discredited eruptions for the
same time interval.[58][59]

Volcanoes vary greatly in their level of activity, with individual volcanic systems having an eruption
recurrence ranging from several times a year to once in tens of thousands of years.[60] Volcanoes
are informally described as erupting, active, dormant, or extinct, but the definitions of these terms
are not entirely uniform amongst volcanologists. The level of activity of most volcanoes falls upon a
graduated spectrum, with much overlap between categories, and does not always fit neatly into only
one of these three separate categories.[61]
Erupting

The USGS defines a volcano as "erupting" whenever the ejection of magma from any point on the
volcano is visible, including visible magma still contained within the walls of the summit crater.

Active

While there is no international consensus among volcanologists on how to define an "active"

volcano, the USGS defines a volcano as "active" whenever subterranean indicators, such as
earthquake swarms, ground inflation, or unusually high levels of carbon dioxide and/or sulfur
dioxide are present.[62][63]

Dormant and reactivated

Narcondam Island, India, is classified

as a dormant volcano by the
Geological Survey of India.

The USGS defines a dormant volcano as any volcano that is not showing any signs of unrest such
as earthquake swarms, ground swelling, or excessive noxious gas emissions, but which shows
signs that it could yet become active again.[63] Many dormant volcanoes have not erupted for
thousands of years, but have still shown signs that they may be likely to erupt again in the
future.[64][65]

In an article justifying the re-classification of Alaska's Mount Edgecumbe volcano from "dormant" to
"active", volcanologists at the Alaska Volcano Observatory pointed out that the term "dormant" in
reference to volcanoes has been deprecated over the past few decades and that "[t]he term
"dormant volcano" is so little used and undefined in modern volcanology that the Encyclopedia of
Volcanoes (2000) does not contain it in the glossaries or index",[66] however the USGS still widely
employs the term.
Previously a volcano was often considered to be extinct if there were no written records of its
activity. Such a generalisation is inconsistent with observation and deeper study, as has occurred
recently with the unexpected eruption of the Chaitén volcano in 2008.[67] Modern volcanic activity
monitoring techniques, and improvements in the modelling of the factors that produce eruptions,
have helped the understanding of why volcanoes may remain dormant for a long period of time, and
then become unexpectedly active again. The potential for eruptions, and their style, depend mainly
upon the state of the magma storage system under the volcano, the eruption trigger mechanism
and its timescale.[68]: 95 For example, the Yellowstone volcano has a repose/recharge period of
around 700,000 years, and Toba of around 380,000 years.[69] Vesuvius was described by Roman
writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards before its unexpected eruption of 79 CE,
which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii.

Accordingly, it can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between an extinct volcano and a dormant
(inactive) one. Long volcano dormancy is known to decrease awareness.[68]: 96 Pinatubo was an
inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in the surrounding areas, and initially not
seismically monitored before its unanticipated and catastrophic eruption of 1991. Two other
examples of volcanoes which were once thought to be extinct, before springing back into eruptive
activity were the long-dormant Soufrière Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat, thought to be
extinct until activity resumed in 1995 (turning its capital Plymouth into a ghost town) and
Fourpeaked Mountain in Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted since
before 8000 BCE.

Extinct

Capulin Volcano National Monument

in New Mexico, US

Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again because the volcano no
longer has a magma supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on the Hawaiian–
Emperor seamount chain in the Pacific Ocean (although some volcanoes at the eastern end of the
chain are active), Hohentwiel in Germany, Shiprock in New Mexico, US, Capulin in New Mexico, US,
Zuidwal volcano in the Netherlands, and many volcanoes in Italy such as Monte Vulture. Edinburgh
Castle in Scotland is located atop an extinct volcano, which forms Castle Rock. Whether a volcano
is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano" calderas can have eruptive
lifespans sometimes measured in millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption in
tens of thousands of years may be considered dormant instead of extinct. An individual volcano in a
monogenetic volcanic field can be extinct but that does not mean a completely new volcano might
not erupt close by with little or no warning as its field may have an active magma supply.

Volcanic-alert level

The three common popular classifications of volcanoes can be subjective and some volcanoes
thought to have been extinct have erupted again. To help prevent people from falsely believing they
are not at risk when living on or near a volcano, countries have adopted new classifications to
describe the various levels and stages of volcanic activity.[70] Some alert systems use different
numbers or colors to designate the different stages. Other systems use colors and words. Some
systems use a combination of both.

Decade volcanoes

Koryaksky volcano towering over

Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky on
Kamchatka Peninsula, Far Eastern
Russia

The Decade Volcanoes are 16 volcanoes identified by the International Association of Volcanology
and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their
history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. They are named Decade
Volcanoes because the project was initiated as part of the United Nations-sponsored International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (the 1990s). The 16 current Decade Volcanoes are:
 Avachinsky-Koryaksky (grouped together), Mount Rainier, Washington, US
Kamchatka, Russia
Sakurajima, Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan
Nevado de Colima, Jalisco and Colima,
Santa Maria/Santiaguito, Guatemala
Mexico
Santorini, Cyclades, Greece
Mount Etna, Sicily, Italy
Taal Volcano, Luzon, Philippines
Galeras, Nariño, Colombia
Teide, Canary Islands, Spain
Mauna Loa, Hawaii, US
Ulawun, New Britain, Papua New Guinea
Mount Merapi, Central Java, Indonesia
Mount Unzen, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan
Mount Nyiragongo, Democratic Republic of
the Congo Vesuvius, Naples, Italy

The Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project, an initiative of the Deep Carbon Observatory, monitors
nine volcanoes, two of which are Decade volcanoes. The focus of the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing
Project is to use Multi-Component Gas Analyzer System instruments to measure CO2/SO2 ratios in
real-time and in high-resolution to allow detection of the pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas,
improving prediction of volcanic activity.[71]

Volcanoes and humans

Solar radiation graph 1958–2008,

showing how the radiation is reduced
after major volcanic eruptions
 Sulfur dioxide concentration over the
Sierra Negra Volcano, Galapagos
Islands, during an eruption in October
2005

Volcanic eruptions pose a significant threat to human civilization. However, volcanic activity has
also provided humans with important resources.

Hazards

There are many different types of volcanic eruptions and associated activity: phreatic eruptions
(steam-generated eruptions), explosive eruption of high-silica lava (e.g., rhyolite), effusive eruption
of low-silica lava (e.g., basalt), sector collapses, pyroclastic flows, lahars (debris flow) and carbon
dioxide emission. All of these activities can pose a hazard to humans. Earthquakes, hot springs,
fumaroles, mud pots and geysers often accompany volcanic activity.

Volcanic gases can reach the stratosphere, where they form sulfuric acid aerosols that can reflect
solar radiation and lower surface temperatures significantly.[72] Sulfur dioxide from the eruption of
Huaynaputina may have caused the Russian famine of 1601–1603.[73] Chemical reactions of sulfate
aerosols in the stratosphere can also damage the ozone layer, and acids such as hydrogen chloride
(HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) can fall to the ground as acid rain. Excessive fluoride salts from
eruptions have poisoned livestock in Iceland on multiple occasions.[74]: 39–58 Explosive volcanic
eruptions release the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and thus provide a deep source of carbon for
biogeochemical cycles.[75]

Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft, especially jet aircraft where the
particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the
turbine blades and alter their shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. This can cause major
disruptions to air travel.
 Comparison of major United States prehistoric
eruptions (VEI 7 and 8) with major historical
volcanic eruptions in the 19th and 20th century
(VEI 5, 6 and 7). From left to right: Yellowstone 2.1
Ma, Yellowstone 1.3 Ma, Long Valley 6.26 Ma,
Yellowstone 0.64 Ma . 19th century eruptions:
Tambora 1815, Krakatoa 1883. 20th century
eruptions: Novarupta 1912, St. Helens 1980,
Pinatubo 1991.

A volcanic winter is thought to have taken place around 70,000 years ago after the supereruption of
Lake Toba on Sumatra island in Indonesia.[76] This may have created a population bottleneck that
affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today.[77] Volcanic eruptions may have contributed to
major extinction events, such as the End-Ordovician, Permian-Triassic, and Late Devonian mass
extinctions.[78]

The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora created global climate anomalies that became known as the
"Year Without a Summer" because of the effect on North American and European weather.[79] The
freezing winter of 1740–41, which led to widespread famine in northern Europe, may also owe its
origins to a volcanic eruption.[80]

Benefits

Although volcanic eruptions pose considerable hazards to humans, past volcanic activity has
created important economic resources. Tuff formed from volcanic ash is a relatively soft rock, and it
has been used for construction since ancient times.[81][82] The Romans often used tuff, which is
abundant in Italy, for construction.[83] The Rapa Nui people used tuff to make most of the moai
statues in Easter Island.[84]
Volcanic ash and weathered basalt produce some of the most fertile soil in the world, rich in
nutrients such as iron, magnesium, potassium, calcium, and phosphorus.[85] Volcanic activity is
responsible for emplacing valuable mineral resources, such as metal ores.[85] It is accompanied by
high rates of heat flow from Earth's interior. These can be tapped as geothermal power.[85]

Tourism associated with volcanoes is also a worldwide industry.[86]

Safety considerations

Many volcanoes near human settlements are heavily monitored with the aim of providing adequate
advance warnings of imminent eruptions to nearby populations. Also, a better modern-day
understanding of volcanology has led to some better informed governmental and public responses
to unanticipated volcanic activities. While the science of volcanology may not yet be capable of
predicting the exact times and dates of eruptions far into the future, on suitably monitored
volcanoes the monitoring of ongoing volcanic indicators is often capable of predicting imminent
eruptions with advance warnings minimally of hours, and usually of days prior to any eruptions.[87]
The diversity of volcanoes and their complexities mean that eruption forecasts for the foreseeable
future will be based on probability, and the application of risk management. Even then, some
eruptions will have no useful warning. An example of this occurred in March 2017, when a tourist
group was witnessing an apparently predictable Mount Etna eruption and the flowing lava came in
contact with a snow accumulation causing a situational phreatic explosion causing injury to ten
persons.[86] But other types of significant eruptions are known to give useful warnings of only hours
at the most by seismic monitoring.[67] The recent demonstration of a magma chamber with repose
times of tens of thousands of years, with potental for rapid recharge so potentially decreasing
warning times, under the youngest volcano in central Europe,[68] does not tell us if more careful
monitoring will be useful.

Scientists are known to perceive risk, with its social elements, differently to local populations and
those that undertake social risk assessments on their behalf, so that both disruptive false alarms
and retrospective blame when disasters occur will continue to happen.[88]: 1–3

Thus in many cases, while volcanic eruptions may still cause major property destruction, the
periodic large-scale loss of human life that was once associated with many volcanic eruptions, has
recently been significantly reduced in areas where volcanoes are adequately monitored. This life-
saving ability is derived via such volcanic-activity monitoring programs, through the greater abilities
of local officials to facilitate timely evacuations based upon the greater modern-day knowledge of
volcanism that is now available, and upon improved communications technologies such as cell
phones. Such operations tend to provide enough time for humans to escape at least with their lives
prior to a pending eruption. One example of such a recent successful volcanic evacuation was the
Mount Pinatubo evacuation of 1991. This evacuation is believed to have saved 20,000 lives.[89] In
the case of Mount Etna, a 2021 review found 77 deaths due to eruptions since 1536 but none since
1987.[86]

Citizens who may be concerned about their own exposure to risk from nearby volcanic activity
should familiarize themselves with the types of, and quality of, volcano monitoring and public
notification procedures being employed by governmental authorities in their areas.[90]

Volcanoes on other celestial bodies

The Tvashtar volcano erupts a plume

330 km (205 mi) above the surface of
Jupiter's moon Io.

Earth's Moon has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity, although recent evidence
suggests it may still possess a partially molten core.[91] However, the Moon does have many
volcanic features such as maria[92] (the darker patches seen on the Moon), rilles[93] and domes.[94]

The planet Venus has a surface that is 90% basalt, indicating that volcanism played a major role in
shaping its surface. The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million
years ago,[95] from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface. Lava
flows are widespread and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the
planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning have been attributed to ongoing volcanic
eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanically active.
However, radar sounding by the Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic
activity at Venus's highest volcano Maat Mons, in the form of ash flows near the summit and on the
northern flank.[96] However, the interpretation of the flows as ash flows has been questioned.[97]
 Olympus Mons (Latin,
"Mount Olympus"), located
on the planet Mars, is the
tallest known mountain in the
Solar System.

There are several extinct volcanoes on Mars, four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than
any on Earth. They include Arsia Mons, Ascraeus Mons, Hecates Tholus, Olympus Mons, and
Pavonis Mons. These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years,[98] but the European
Mars Express spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in
the recent past as well.[98]

Jupiter's moon Io is the most volcanically active object in the Solar System because of tidal
interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt sulfur, sulfur dioxide and silicate
rock, and as a result, Io is constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in
the Solar System, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 °C). In February 2001, the largest
recorded volcanic eruptions in the Solar System occurred on Io.[99] Europa, the smallest of Jupiter's
Galilean moons, also appears to have an active volcanic system, except that its volcanic activity is
entirely in the form of water, which freezes into ice on the frigid surface. This process is known as
cryovolcanism, and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of the Solar
System.[100]

In 1989, the Voyager 2 spacecraft observed cryovolcanoes (ice volcanoes) on Triton, a moon of
Neptune, and in 2005 the Cassini–Huygens probe photographed fountains of frozen particles
erupting from Enceladus, a moon of Saturn.[101][102] The ejecta may be composed of water, liquid
nitrogen, ammonia, dust, or methane compounds. Cassini–Huygens also found evidence of a
methane-spewing cryovolcano on the Saturnian moon Titan, which is believed to be a significant
source of the methane found in its atmosphere.[103] It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be
present on the Kuiper Belt Object Quaoar.

A 2010 study of the exoplanet COROT-7b, which was detected by transit in 2009, suggested that
tidal heating from the host star very close to the planet and neighboring planets could generate
intense volcanic activity similar to that found on Io.[104]

History of volcano understanding

Volcanoes are not distributed evenly over Earth's surface but active ones with significant impact
were encountered early in human history, evidenced by footprints of hominina found in East Africian
volcanic ash dated at 3.66 million years old.[105]: 104 The association of volcanoes with fire and
disaster is found in many oral traditions and had religious and thus social significance before the
first written record of concepts related to volcanoes. Examples are: (1) the stories in the
Athabascan subcultures about humans living inside mountains and a woman who uses fire to
escape from a mountain,[106]: 135 (2) Pele's migration through the Hawarian island chain, ability to
destroy forests and manifestations of the god's temper,[107] and (3) the association in Javanese
folklore of a king resident in Mount Merapi volcano and a queen resident at a beach 50 km (31 mi)
away on what is now known to be an earthquake fault that interacts with that volcano.[108]

Many ancient accounts ascribe volcanic eruptions to supernatural causes, such as the actions of
gods or demigods. The earliest known such example is a neolithic goddess at Çatalhöyük.[109]: 203
The Ancient Greek god Hephaistos and the concepts of the underworld are aligned to volcanoes in
that Greek culture.[86]

However, others proposed more natural (but still incorrect) causes of volcanic activity. In the fifth
century BC, Anaxagoras proposed eruptions were caused by a great wind.[110] By 65 CE, Seneca the
Younger proposed combustion as the cause,[110] an idea also adopted by the Jesuit Athanasius
Kircher (1602–1680), who witnessed eruptions of Mount Etna and Stromboli, then visited the crater
of Vesuvius and published his view of an Earth in Mundus Subterraneus with a central fire
connected to numerous others depicting volcanoes as a type of safety valve.[111] Edward Jorden, in
his work on mineral waters challenged this view; in 1632 he proposed sulfur "fermentation" as a
heat source within Earth,[110] Astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) believed volcanoes were
ducts for Earth's tears.[112] In 1650, René Descartes proposed the core of Earth was incandescent
and, by 1785, the works of Decartes and others were synthesised into geology by James Hutton in
his writings about igneous intrusions of magma.[110] Lazzaro Spallanzani had demonstrated by
1794 that steam explosions could cause explosive eruptions and many geologists held this as the
universal cause of explosive eruptions up to the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera which allowed in
one event differentiation of the concurrent phreatomagmatic and hydrothermal eruptions from dry
explosive eruption, of, as it turned out, a basalt dyke.[113]: 16–18 [114]: 4 Alfred Lacroix built upon his
other knowledge with his studies on the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée,[110] and by 1928 Arthur
Holmes work had brought together the concepts of radioactive generation of heat, Earth's mantle
structure, partial decompression melting of magma, and magma convection.[110] This eventually led
to the acceptance of plate tectonics.[115]

See also

List of extraterrestrial volcanoes

Volcanoes portal
List of volcanic eruptions by death toll

List of volcanic landforms

Maritime impacts of volcanic eruptions

Prediction of volcanic activity – Research to predict volcanic activity

Timeline of volcanism on Earth

Volcano Number – System for uniquely identifying volcanic features on

Earth

Volcano observatory – Institution that monitors volcano activity

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Further reading

Macdonald, Gordon; Abbott, Agatin (1970). Volcanoes in the Sea: The Geology of Hawaii (https://archive.org/
details/volcanoesinseage00macd) . University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-870-22495-9.

Marti, Joan & Ernst, Gerald. (2005). Volcanoes and the Environment. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-
0-521-59254-3.

Ollier, Cliff (1969). Volcanoes. Australian National University Press. ISBN 978-0-7081-0532-0.

Sigurðsson, Haraldur, ed. (2015). The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (2 ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-
385938-9. This is a reference aimed at geologists, but many articles are accessible to non-professionals.

External links

Volcanoes (https://curlie.org/Science/Earth_Sciences/Geolog Wikimedia Commons has

y/Volcanoes) at Curlie media related to
Volcanoes.
U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency Volcano advice
Wikivoyage has a travel
(https://www.disasterassistance.gov/information/disaster-typ guide for Volcanoes.
es/volcano)
Library resources about
Volcano
Volcano World (http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/)
Resources in your library (https://
ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp
&su=Volcano)
Resources in other libraries (http
s://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st
=wp&su=Volcano&library=0CHOO
SE0)