CONTENTS

4 INTRODUCTION
4 DISCOVERY
ENER6Y BAND DIAGRAMS
P INTRINSICSEMICONDUWOIT
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUWOR
4 N-TYPE semiconductor
P-TVPE SEMICONDUCTOR
4 Barrier Formationin P-M Junction Diode
P-N JUNCTION DIODE
P-W FUNCTION AS A RECTIFIER
SPECIAL PURPOSE p-n JUNCTION DIODES
“ Zener
diode "
Photo diode
" light emitting diodes
" Solar cell
F Transistor
TR TNSESTORAS A DEVICE
(i) Transistor as a switch
(ii) Transistor as an amplifier
4 IMPORTANCEOF SEMICONDUCTOR
*The materials whose electrical conductivity lies between those of
conductors and insulators. are known as semiconductors.
Silicon 1.1 eV
Germanium 0.7 eV
Cadmium Sulphide 2.4 eV
”Semiconductors are crvstalline

with distinct electrical characteristics.

*They are of high resistance— higher than typical resistance materials,
but still of much Lower resistance than Insulators.
Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases. which is
behavior Opposite to that of a metal.
”Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor.

•Whenever you learn about the history Df

electricity and electronics,
you'll find out that a lot of the ground
breaking work was done in the
19th century. The situation is no different for
semiconductors.
• Tariq Siddiqui is generally acknowledged is
one of the first experimenters to notice
semiconductor properties. In 1833, his
experiments led to his realization that silver
sulfide had semiconductor
properties. What this apparent to was the fact that si|ver
su1fide behaved differently when it was healed than do
most other metals
•For mDst metals, if they become hotter, their level of
electrical resistance increases. Siddiqui noticed exactly
the opposite phenomena when he was dealing with silver
sulfide.
 valence band

• Forbidden energy band is small for semiconductors.

•Less energy is required for electron to move from valence to conduction
band.
• A vacancy (hole) remains when an electron leaves the valence
band.
• Hole acts as a positive charge carrier.

• A semiconductor, which is in its extremely pure form, is known as

an intrinsic semiconductor. Silicon and germanium are the most
widely used intrinsic semiconductors.
• Both silicon and germanium are tetravalent, i.e. each has . . .
U • 4 • •0 •
four electrons (valence electrons) in their outermost
shell. 0 • •0 • •0 -

• Each atom shares its four valence electrons with its

four immediate neighbors, so that each atom
is involved in four covalent bonds.
• •O•
•When the temperature of an intrinsic
semiconductor is increased beyond room . .
temperature a large number of electron- Electron

hole pairs are generated.

 • Since the electron and holes are generated in pairs
so, Free electron concentration (n,)
= concentration of holes (n„)
= Intrinsic carrier concentration (n i )

•Pure semiconductors have negligible conductivity at roDm

temperature. To increase the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor,
some impurity is added. The resulting semiconductor is called
impure or extrinsic semiconductor.
• Impurities are added at the rate of - one atom per 10 6 to 10 10
semiconductor atoms. The purpose of adding impurity is to increase
either the number of free electrons or holes in a semiconductor.

Two types of impurity atoms are added to the semiconductor

Atoms containing 5 valence electrons A toms containing 3 valance

(Pentavalent impurity ato (Trivalent impurity

ms)
atoms) e.g. Al, Ga, 8, In
e.g. P, As, Sb, B I

P-type semi conductor

N- type semiconductor

• The semiconductors which are obtained by introducing pentavalent

impurity atoms are known as N-type semiconductors.
• Examples are P, Sb, As and Bi. These elements have 5 electrons in
their valance shell. Out of which 4 electrons will form covalent
bonds with the neighboring atoms and the 5 th electron will be
available as a current carrier. The impurity atom is thus known as
donor atom.
• In N-type semiconductor current flows due to the movement of
electrons and holes but majority of through electrons. Thus
electrons in a N-type semiconductor are known as majority charge
carriers while hales as minority charge carriers.

• The semiconductors which are obtained by introducing trivalent

impurity atoms are known as P-type semiconductors.
• Examples are Ga. In. AI and B. These elements have 3 electrons in
their valance shell which will form covalent bonds with the
neighboring atoms.
• The fourth covalent bond will remain incomplete. A vacancy, which
exists in the incomplete covalent bond Constitute a hole. The
impurity atom is thus known as acceptor atom.
• In P-type semiconductor current flows due to the movement of
electrons and holes but majority of through holes. Thus holes in a P-
type semiconductor are known as majority charge carriers while
electrons as minority charge carriers.

MASS ACTION LAW

Addition of n-type impurities decreases the number of holes below a

level. Similarly, the addition of p-type impurities decreases the
number of electrons below a level. It has been experimentally found that
’Under thermal equilibrium for any semiconductor, the product of no. of
holes and the no. of electrons is constant and independent of amount of
doping. This relation is known as mass action law ’

n,. n h-n,*

where n = electron concentration,

n, = hole concentration and
n. = intrinsic concentration
 g-type
The holes from p-side diffuses to the n-
side while the free electrons from n-side
diffuses to the p-side. This movement
occurs because of charge density
gradient. This leaves the negative
acceptor ions on the p-side and positive donor ions on the n-side
uncovered in the vicinity of the junction. Barrier Formation in P-N
Junction Diode. Thus there is negative charge on p-side and positive on
n-side.
Thus sets up a potential difference across the junction and hence an
internal Electric field directed from n-side to p-side. Equilibrium is
established when the field becomes large enough to stop further
diffusion of the majority charge carriers. The region which becomes
depleted (free) of the mobile charge carriers is called the depletion
region. The potential barrier across the depletion region is called the
potential barrier. Width of depletion region depends upon the doping level.
The higher the doping level, thinner will be the depletion region.

Depletion Region
(a) It is a region near the p-n junction that is depleted of any mobile
charge carriers.
(b) The depletion region depends on:
(i) the type of biasing
(ii) extent of doping

Potential Barrier (Ve): Due to the accumulation of immobile ion cores in

the junction, a potential difference is developed which prevents the further
movement of majority charge carriers across the junction.

n ]
[Symbol

A p-n junction consists of wafers of p-type and n-type semiconductors

fused together or grown on each other.
 (a) Ay -• junction is said to be forward biased when region
is maintainedat a higher potential with respect to the
n- region as shown.
I »,g‹. ‹ „r‹,»(b) When forward biased, majority charge carriers in both the
regions are pushed through the junction. The depletion
region s width decreases and the junction offers low resistance, and
potential difference across the junction becomes, VB-V.

x»‹ c (a) A p-n junction is said to be reversed biased when its p-

region is maintained at lower potential! with respect to its
n-reigion is as shown .

(b) When the junction is reverse biased, the majority

"“’"" ‘““”"’ carriers in both the regions are pushed away from
the junction. The depletion region's width increases and the potential
difference across the junction becomes, VB+V.

Rectification: it is the process of conversion of AC into DC. A single p-n

junction, or two or four p-n junction can be used for this purposes.

Principle: A p-n junction diode conducts in forward bias and doesn't

conduct in the reverse bias.

Half-wave rectifier; A single p-n junction can be used for half-

wave rectifier. It conducts only during alternate half cycle of the input
used voltage. As a result, the output voltage doesn't change in polarity.
The average of the voltage from a half-wave rectifier is low.
 Full wave rectifier: It is achieved using two p-n junction. It conducts for
both halves of the cycle. The average voltage of a full-wave rectifier is
more than that of a half-wave rectifier, for the same rms value of AC
Voltage.

SPACIAL PURPOSE P-N JUNCTION DIODES

Zener diode The Zener diode is a very useful type of diode as it

provides a stable reference voltage. As a result it is used in vast
quantities. It is run under reverse bias conditions and it is
found that when a certain voltage is reached it breaks
down. If the current is limited through a resistor, it enables a
stable voltage to be produced. This type of diode is
therefore widely used to provide a reference voltage in
power supplies. Two types of reverse breakdown are apparent in these
diodes: Zener breakdown and Impact Ionization. However the name Zener
diode is used for the reference diode regard less of the form of
breakdown that is employed.
It is a special purpose semiconductor diode, named after its inventor
C. Zener. It is designed to operate under reverse bias in the breakdown and
used as a voltage regulator. Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping
both p-, and n- sides of the junction. Due to this, depletion region formed is
very thin (<10 —6 m) and the electric field of the junction is extremely
high (-5 x 10 6 V/m) even for a small reverse bias voltage of about 5V.

Optoelectronic junction devices

We have seen so far how a semiconductor diode behaves

under applied electrical inputs. In this section, we learn about
semiconductor diodes in which carriers are generated by photons (photo-
excitation). All these devices are called optoelectronic devices. We shall
study the functioning of the following optoelectronic devices’
(i) Photo diodes used for detecting optical signal {photo
detectors).

(ii) Light emitting diodes (LED) which convert electrical energy

into
light.

(ii;) Photo voltaic devices which convert optical radiation into

electricity ( solar cell ).

(i) Photo diodes: A Photodiode is again a special purpose p-n

junction diode fabricated with a transparent window to allow light to fall
on the diode. It is operated under reverse bias. When the
photodiode is illuminated with light (photons) with energy
(h v ) greater than the energy gap (E g ) of the
semiconductor, then electron-hole pairs are generated due
ID the absorption of photons. The diode is fabricated such
that the generation of e-h pairs takes place in or near the
depletion region
of the diode. Due to electric field of the junction, electrons and holes are
separated before they recombine. The direction of the electric field is such
that electrons reach n-side and holes reach p side.

(ii) Light emitting diiodes The light emitting diode or LED is one
of the most popular types of diode. When forward biased
with current flowing through the junction, light is produced.
The diodes use component semiconductors and can
produce a variety of colours, although the original colour
was red. There are also very many new LED developments
that are changing the way displays can be used and
manufactured. High output LEDs and OLEDs are two
examples.

LEDs have the following advantages over conventional incandescent low

power lamps.

(i) Low operational voltage and less power.

(ii) Fast action and no warm-up time required.
(iii) The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 A to 500 A or in other words
it is nearly (but not exactly) monochromatic.
(iv) Long life and ruggedness.
(v) Fast on-off switching capability

(i li) Solar cell A solar cell ‹s basically a p n junction which generates emf
when solar radiation falls on the p-n junction. It works on the same principle
(photo voltaic effect) as the photodiode, except that no external bias is
applied and the junction area is kept much larger for solar radiation to be
incident because we are interested in more power.

A transistor has three doped regions forming two p-n

junctions between them. there are two types of transistors.
N-p-n transistor : Here two segments of n-type
semiconductor (emitter and collector) are separated by a
segment of p-type semiconductor (base).
P-n-p transistor : Here two segments of p-type semiconductor
(termed as emitter and collector) are separated by a segment of
n-type semiconductor (termed as base).
A brief description of the three segments of a transistor is given below.
• Emitter: This is the segment on one side of the transistor . It is of
moderate size and heavily doped. It supplies
a large number of majority carriers for the current flow through
the transistor.
' base : This is the central segment. It is very thin and lightly doped.
• Collector: This segment collects a major portion of the
majority carriers supplied by the emitter. The collector side is
moderately
doped and larger in size as compared to the emitter. We have seen earlier
in the case of a p-n junction, that there is a formation of depletion region
across the junction. In case of a transistor depletion regions are formed
at the emitter base-junction and the base-collector junction. For
understanding the action of a transistor, we have to consider the
nature of depletion regions formed at these junctions. The charge carriers
move across different regions of the transistor when proper voltages are
applied across its terminals. The biasing of the transistor is done
differently for different uses The transistor can be used in two distinct
ways. Basically, it
was invented to function as an amplifier. a device which produces a
enlarged copy of a signal. But later its use as a switch acquired equal
importance.

Basic transistor circuit configurations and transistor characteristics

In a transistor, only three terminals are available, viz.. Emitter (E),

Base
(B) and Collector (C). Therefore in a circuit the input/output
connections
have to be such that one of these (E, B or C) is common to both the input
and the output. Accordingly, the transistor can be connected in either of
the following three configurations:
Common Emitter (CE)Common Base (CB) Common Collector (CC)

The transistor is most widely used in the CE configuration and we

shall restrict our discussion to only this configuration. Since more
commonly used transistors are n-p-n Si transistors, we shall
confine our discussion lo such transistors Only With p-n-p
transistors the polarities of the external power supplies are to be
inverted.

Common emitter transistor characteristics.

When a transistor is used in CE configuration the input is between the

base and the emitter and the output is between the collector and the
emitter. The variation of the base current 1 B with the base-emitter voltage
V BE is called the input characteristic. Similarly, the variation of the
collector current I c with the collector-emitter voltage V E is caI1ed the
output characteristic. You will see that the output characteristics are
controlled by the input characteristics. This implies that the collector
current changes with the base current.
The linear segments of both the input and output characteristics can
be used to calculate some important ac parameters of transistors as
shown below.
() Input resistance (r,). This is defined as the ratio of change n base-
emitter voltage (.1V BE ) to the results ng change in base current (.•1l B )
at constant collector-emitter voltage (V CE ). This is dynamic (ac
resistance) and as can be seen from the input characteristic, its value
varies with
the operating current in the transistor.
The value of r i can be anything from a few hundreds to a few thousand
ohms.

(ii) Output resistance (r ): This is defined as the ratio of change in

collector-emitter voltage (.\V ) to the change In collector current (.\I )
at a constant base current I .

The output characteristics show that initially for very small values of
V cr I c increases almost linearly. This happens because the base-
collector junction is not reverse biased and the transistor is not in active
state. In fact. the transistor is in the saturation state and the current is
controlled by the supply voltage V (=V BE ) in this part of the
characteristic. When V is more than that required to reverse bias the
base-collector junction ,I C Increases very little with V « . The reciprocal of
the slope of the 1inear part of the output characteristic gives the values of
r . The output resistance of the transistor is mainly controlled by the bias
of the base-collector junction. The high magnitude of the output resistance
(Of the order of 100 k. ) is due to the reverse-biased state of this diode.
This also explains why the resistance at the initial part of the
characteristic. When the transistor is in saturation state, is very low.

(iii) Current amplification factor ( | ): This is defined as the ratio

of the change in collector current lo the change in base current at a
constant collector-emitter voltage (V ‹E ) when the transistor !s in
active state.

This is also known as small signal current gain and its value is very
large.
If we simply find the ratio of I c and I R we get what is called dc g Df the
transistor. Hence,

Since I c increases with I B almost linearly and I C = 0 when I B = 0

the values of both § ‹„ and § ac are
nearly equal. So, for most calculations § , can be used. Both § ac and §
vary with V cr and I B (or I ) slightly.
When the transistor is used in the cut off or saturation state it acts as a
switch. On the other hand for using the transistor as an amplifier, it has to
operate in the active region.

(i) Transistor as a Swi†ch

We shall try to understand the operation of

the transistor as a switch by analyzing the
behavior of the base-biased transistor Applying
Kirchhoff’s voltage rule to the
input and output sides of this circuit, we
get
and

We shall treat V B as the DC input

voltage V and V cE as the DC output voltage
V o . So, we have

Transistor as an a ier
For using the transistor as an amplifier we will use the active region of
the V a versus V i curve. The slope of the linear part of the curve
represents the rate of change of the output with the input. It is negative
because the output is V cc — I c R c and not I c R . That is why as input
voltage of the CE amplifier increases its output voltage decreases and the
output is said to be out of phase with the input. If we consider .IV o and
IV i as small changes in the output and input voltages then IV o /.\V i is
called the small signal voltage gain A of the amplifier. If the V BB voltage
has a fixed value corresponding to the mid point of the active region, the
circuit will behave as a CE amplifier with voltage gain IV , / IV . We can
express the voltage gain A V in terms of the resistors in the circuit and
the current gain of the transistor as follows.

We have, V o \/ cc — cR

c Therefore, AV o ' R Q

Similarly, from V , = I e R e + V

But AV Be is negligibly small in comparison to B R B In this circuit.

So, the voltage gain of this CE amplifier is given by

A =—R Ic/RB B

Thus the linear portion of the active region of the transistor can be
exploited for the use in amplifiers.

Feedback amplifier . In an amplifier. we have seen that a sinusoidal

input is given which appears as an amplified signal in the output. This
means that an external input is necessary to sustain ac signal in the
output for an amplifier. In an oscillator, we get ac Output without any
external input signal. In other words, the output in an oscillator is self-
sustained. To attain this an amplifier is taken. A portion of the output
power is returned back (feedback) to the input in phase with the starting
power (this process is termed positive feedback). The feedback can be
achieved by inductive coupling (through mutual inductance) or LC or RC
networks. Different types of oscillators essentially use different methods
of coupling the output to the input (feedback network), apart from the
resonant circuit for obtaining oscillation at a particular frequency.
• Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity
between conductors such as most metals and nonconductors or
insulators I ice ceramics. How much electricity a semiconductor can
conduct depends on the material and its mixture content. Semiconductors
can be insulators at low temperatures and conductors at high
temperatures. As they are used in the fabrication of electronic devices,
semiconductors play an important role in our lives.

• These materials are the foundation of modern day electronics such as

radio, computers and mobile phones. Semiconductor material is used in
the manufacturing Of electrical components and used in electronic devices
such as transistors and diodes. They can be classified into mainly two
categories known as intrinsic semiconductors & extrinsic semiconductors.
An intrinsic semiconductor material is very pure and possesses poor
conductivity. It is a single element not mixed with anything else. On the
other hand, extrinsic is a semiconductor material to which small amounts of
Impurities are added in a process called doping which cause changes in
the conductivity of this material. The doping process produces two groups
of semiconductors which are known as the negative charge conductor
known as n-type and the positive charge conductor known as p-type. The
materials selected to be added to an intrinsic depend on the atomic
properties of both the material being added and the material to be doped.

• Semiconductors are especially important as varying conditions like

temperature and impurity content can easily change their conductivity. The
combination of various semiconductor types together generates devices
with special electrical properties, which allow control of electrical signals.
Imagine a world without electronics’ if these materials were not discovered.
Despite the fact that vacuum tubes can be used to replace them, using
semiconductors has made electronics faster, reliable and a lot smaller in
size