A SCALAR QUANTITY, or scalar, is one that has nothing

to do with spatial direction. Many physical concepts such

as length, time, temperature, mass, density, charge, and Example: An object starts from rest with a constant acceleration
volume are scalars: each has a scale or size, but no of 8.00 m/s2 along a straight line. Find (a) the speed at the end of
associated direction. 5 seconds (b) the average speed for the 5 seconds interval, and
(c) the distance traveled in the 5 seconds.

A VECTOR QUANTITY is one that can be specified

completely only if we provide both its magnitude (size)
and direction. Many physical concepts such as
displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and
momentum are vector quantities.

UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

SPEED is a scalar quantity. If an object takes a time

interval t to travel a distance l, then
Example: A stone is thrown straight upward and it rises to a
height of 20 m. With what speed was it thrown?
total distance traveled
average speed=
time taken

VELOCITY is a vector quantity. If an object undergoes a

vector displace in a time interval, then

vector displacement
average velocity=
time taken
NEWTON’S LAWS
ACCELERATION measures the time rate-of-change of
The MASS of an object is a measure of the inertia of the
velocity:
object. Inertia is the tendency of a body at rest to remain
change∈velocity vector at rest, and of a body in motion to continue moving with
average acceleration=
time taken unchanged velocity.

FORCE, in general, is the agency of change. In

DIRECTION IS IMPORTANT, and a positive direction must be mechanics, it is that which changes the velocity of an
chosen when analyzing motion along a line. Either direction may object. Force is a vector quantity, having magnitude and
be chosen as positive. If a displacement, velocity, or direction. An external force is one whose source lies
acceleration is in the opposite direction, it must be taken as outside the system being considered.
negative.

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW: “An object at rest will remain at

rest; an object in motion will continue in motion with constant
velocity, except insofar as it is acted upon by an external force.”

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW: “The force acting on an object

of mass is not zero, the object accelerates in the direction of
force. The acceleration is proportional to the force and inversely

proportional to the mass of the object.” ∑ F=ma

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW: “For each force exerted on one CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: “Energy can neither be
body, there is an equal, but oppositely directed, force on some created nor destroyed, but only transformed from one kind to
other body interacting with it.” another.”

The WEIGHT of an object is the gravitation force acting KE 1 + PEG 1=KE 2 + PEG 2
downward on the object.
POWER is the time rate of doing work:

Example: Find the weight on Earth of a body whose mass is 3 work done by a force
Power= do this work ¿=force x speed
kg. timetaken ¿

Example: How much work is done against gravity in lifting 3 kg

through a vertical distance of 40 cm? Answer: 12 J

WORK, ENERGY, AND POWER

Example: A 2 kg mass falls 400 cm. How much potential energy
The WORK done by force is defined as the product of that force did it lose? Answer: 78 J
times the parallel distance over which it acts.

ENERGY is a measure of the change imparted to a system. It is

given to an object when a force does work on the object. The
amount of energy transferred to the object equals the work done.
Further, when an object does work, it loses amount of energy
Example: A projectile is shot upward from the earth with a speed
equal to the work it does. An object that is capable of doing work
of 20 m/s. How high is it when its speed is 8 m/s. Ignore air
possesses energy.
friction. Answer: 17 m
KINETIC ENERY (KE) is the energy possessed by an object
because it is in motion.

1 2
KE= m v
2

GRAVITATION POTENTIAL ENERGY (PEG) is the energy

possessed by an object because of the gravitational interaction.

PEG=mgh

THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM: When work is done on Example: A 0.5 kg ball falls past a window that is 1.5 m in
a point mass or a rigid body, and there is no change in vertical length. (a) How much did the KE of the ball increase as it

PE, the energy imparted can only appear as KE. Insofar fell past the window? (b) If its speed was 3 m/s at the top of the
window, what was its speed at the bottom? Answer: 7.4 J, 6.2
as a body that is not totally rigid, however, energy can be
m/s
transferred to its parts and the work done on it will not
precisely equal its change in KE.
Example: Calculate the average horsepower required to raise a IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
150 kg drum to a height of 20 m in a time of 1 min. Answer:
The LINEAR MOMENTUM (p) of a body is the product of mass
0.66 hp
and velocity. Momentum is a vector quantity is a vector quantity
whose direction is that of the velocity.

p=m v

An IMPULSE is the product of force and the time interval (Δt)

over which the force acts:

Impulse = force x length of time the force acts

SIMPLE MACHINES An IMPULSE CAUSES A CHANGE IN MOMENTUM:

The change in momentum produced by an impulse is equal to

THE PRINCIPLE OF WORK that applies to a
the impulse in both magnitude and direction. Thus, if constant
continuously operating machine is as follows:
force acting for a time interval on a body of mass changes its
Work input = useful work output + work to overcome velocity from initial value to a final value, then

friction Impulse = change in momentum

FΔt=m(v f −v i )
THE EFFICIENCY of a machine is
IN COLLISIONS AND EXPLOSIONS, the vector sum of the
work output power output
Efficiency= = momenta just before the vector sum of the momenta just after
work input power input the event. The vector sum of the momenta of the objects
involved does not change during collision or explosion.

Total moment before impact = Total moment after impact

Example: A hoisting machine lifts a 3000-kg load a height of 8 m
in time of 20 s. The power supplied to the engine is 18 hp.
m1 u 1+ m2 u2=m1 v 1 +m2 v 2
Compute the work output, power output, and the efficiency of the
engine and hoist system. Answer: 235 kJ, 13.4 kW, 88%

Example: A 2 kg brick is moving at a speed of 6 m/s. How large

a force is needed to stop the brick in the time of 7 x 10 -4 s?
Answer: –1.7x104 N.

Example: A 16-g mass is moving in the + x-direction at 30 cm/s

while 4 g mass is moving in the – x-direction at 50 cm/s. They
collide head on and stick together. Find their velocity after the
collision. Answer: +0.14 m/s
 ANGULAR MOTION IN A PLANE
CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION (ac): A point mass
ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT ( θ ) is usually expressed in moving with constant speed around a circle of radius is

radians, degrees, or in revolution. undergoing acceleration. The change in velocity gives rise
to an acceleration of the mass, directed toward the center
1 rev = 360° = 2π rad of the circle.

s=rθ 2 2
tangential speed v
a c= =
where: s = arc length, r = radius, θ = angle in radians
radius of circular path r

CENTRIPETAL FORCE (Fc) is the force that must act on

mass moving in a circular path radius to give it the
ANGULAR SPEED ( ω ) of an object whose axis of rotation
centripetal acceleration.
is fixed is the rate at which the angular coordinate, the
2
angular displacement, changes with time. mv 2
F c= =mr ω
r

Example: The spin-drier of a washing machine revolving at 900

rpm slows down uniformly to 300 rpm while making 50
revolutions. Find the (a) angular acceleration and (b) the time
ANGULAR ACCELERATION ( α ) of an object whose axis
required to turn these 50 revolutions. Answer: -4π rad/s2, 5 s
of rotation is fixed is the rate at which the angular speed
changes with time.

Example: A 200-g object is tied to the end of a cord and whirled

in a horizontal circle of radius 1.2 m at a constant 3 rev/s.
Assume that the cord is horizontal, i.e., that gravity can be
neglected. Determine (a) the acceleration of the objected and (b)
the tension in the chord. Answer: 426 m/s2, 85 N
 F
P=
A

The HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE due to a column of fluid

of height of height and mass density is

P = ρ gh

DENSITY

The MASS DENSITY ( ρ ¿ of a material is its mass per unit PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE: “When the pressure on any part

volume. of a confined liquid is changed, the pressure on every

other part of the fluid is also changed by the same
m amount.”
ρ=
V
F1 F2
The SPECIFIC GRAVITY ( sp gr ¿ of a substance is the =
A1 A2
ratio of the density of the substance to the density of some
standard substance. The standard is usually water for Example: An 80-kg metal cylinder, 2 m long and with each end
of area 25 cm2, stands vertically on one end. What pressure
liquids and solids, while for gases, it is usually air.
does the cylinder exert on the floor? Answer: 3.1 x 105 Pa
ρ
sp gr=
ρstandard

Example: What is the mass of one L (1000 cm3) of cottonseed

oil of density 926 kg/m3? How much does it weigh? Answer:
0.926 kg, 9.08 N
Example: Find the pressure due to fluid at a depth of 76 cm in
still water. Answer: 7.5 kPa

Example: In hydraulic press, the large piston has cross-

Example: The mass of a calibrated flask is 25 g when empty, 75 sectional area A1 = 200 cm2 and the small piston has cross-
g when filled with water and 88 g when filled with glycerin. Find sectional area A2 = 5 cm2. If a force of 250 N is applied to the
the specific gravity of glycerin. Answer: 1.26 small piston, find the force on the large piston. Answer: 10 kN

FLUID AT REST

The AVERAGE PRESSURE on a surface of area is found FLUID IN MOTION

as force divided by area, where it is stipulated that the
force must be perpendicular (normal to the area):
FLUID FLOW OR DISCHARGE (J): When a fluid that fills IDEAL GASES
a pipe flows through the pipe with an average speed, the
An IDEAL (OR PERFECT) GAS is one that obeys the
flow or discharge is
ideal gas law. At low moderate pressures, and at
J = Av temperatures not too low, the following common gasses
can be considered as ideal: air, nitrogen, oxygen, helium,
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY: Suppose an
hydrogen, and neon. Almost any chemically stable gas
incompressible (constant-density) fluid fills with a pipe and
behaves ideally if it is far removed from conditions under
flows through it. Suppose further that the cross-sectional
which it will liquefy or solidify. In other words, a real gas
area of the pipe is A1 at one point and A2 at another. Since
behaves like an ideal gas when its atoms or molecules are
the flow through A1 must equal the flow through A2.
so far apart that they do not appreciably interact with one
A1 v 1= A 2 v 2 another.

PV = mRT

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION for the steady flow continuous

stream of fluid. SPECIAL CASES of the Ideal Gas Law, obtained by
holding all but two of its parameters are constant, are
1 2 1 2
P1 + ρ v 1 + ρg h1=P2 + ρ v 2 + ρg h2
2 2 Boyle’s Law (T constant): PV = constant

V
Example: Oil flows through a pipe 8 cm in diameter, at an
Charles’ Law (P constant): = constant
T
average speed of 4 m/s. What is the flow in m 3/h? Answer: 72
m3/h P
Gay-Lussac’s Law (V constant): = constant
T

GAS-LAW PROBLEMS involving conditions from (P1, V1,

T1) to (P2, V2, T2) are usually easily solved by writing the
gas law as
Example: A horizontal pipe has a constriction in it. At point 1, the
P1V 1 P2V 2
diameter is 6 cm, while at point 2 it is only 2 cm. At point 1, the =
velocity is 2 m/s and the pressure is 180 kPa. Calculate P 2.
T1 T2
Answer: 20 kPa