Mastering AMC 8 Book

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
How to Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Information about math competitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Free Mastering AMC 8 Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Free AMC 8 Fundamentals Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Free AMC 8 Advanced/MATHCOUNTS Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Combinatorics 11
1 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1 Permutations Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2 Factorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Permutations Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Digit Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Circular Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.6 Practice Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1 Combinations Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Binomial Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3 Tricky Combinations Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3 Word Rearrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1 Word Rearrangments Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Word Rearrangements with Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1 Probability Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2 Distinguishability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3 Casework in Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.4 Probability of Independent Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
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OmegaLearn.org Contents
4.5 Probability of Dependent Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

4.6 Dependent or Independent? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5 Casework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.1 Casework Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 Harder Casework Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6 Complementary Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.1 Complementary Counting Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2 Complementary Counting with Casework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7 Principle of Inclusion Exclusion (PIE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

7.1 PIE Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.2 PIE for 2 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.3 PIE for 3 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.4 PIE for any Number of Events (Optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8 Stars and Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

8.1 Stars and Bars Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.2 Stars and Bars with Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9 Geometric Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

9.1 Geometric Counting Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
9.2 Number of Squares in Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.3 Number of Rectangles in Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9.4 Path Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
10 Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
10.1 Recursion Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
10.2 Recursion with Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
10.3 Probability Recursions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Algebra 140
11 Ratios and Percentages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
11.1 Ratios Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
11.2 Rate and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
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12 Algebraic Manipulations and Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

12.1 System of Equations Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
12.2 Advanced Equation Solving Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
12.3 Word Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
13 Speed, Distance, and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

13.1 Speed, Distance, and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
14 Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

14.1 Arithmetic Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
14.2 Special Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
14.3 Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
14.4 Arithmetico-Geometric Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
15 Mean, Median, Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

15.1 Mean, Median, Mode Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
15.2 Mean Median Mode Conditions Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
16 Telescoping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
16.1 Telescoping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
16.2 Telescoping Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
16.3 Telescoping Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
16.4 Telescoping Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
16.5 Telescoping Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Number Theory 213

17 Primes and Divisibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
17.1 Primes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
17.2 Divisibility Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
17.3 Prime Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
17.4 Legendre’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
18 Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
18.1 Number of Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
18.2 Sum of Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
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18.3 Product of Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

19 GCD and LCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

19.1 GCD and LCM Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
19.2 GCD and LCM Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
19.3 More GCD/LCM Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
19.4 Euclidean Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
20 Modular Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

20.1 Modular Arithmetic Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
20.2 Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
20.3 Exponent Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
20.4 Multiple Modular Congruences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
20.5 Digit Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
21 Diophantine Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

21.1 Quadratic Factorizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
21.2 Simon’s Favorite Factoring Trick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
21.3 Interesting Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
21.4 Cubic Factorizations (Optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
22 Miscellaneous Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

22.1 Palindromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
22.2 Money Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
22.3 Integer Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
22.4 Chicken McNugget Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Geometry 288
23 Angle Chasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
23.1 Angle Chasing Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
23.2 Inscribed Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
23.3 Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
23.4 Advanced Circle Angle Chasing Theorems (Optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
24 Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
24.1 Area of a Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
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24.2 Special Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

24.2.1 Equilateral Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
24.2.2 45-45-90 Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
24.2.3 30-60-90 Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
24.2.4 13-14-15 Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
24.3 Pythagorean Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
24.4 Triangle Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
24.5 Angle Bisector Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
25 Quadrilaterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
25.1 Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
25.2 Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
25.3 Rhombus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
25.4 Parallelogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
25.5 Trapezoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
25.6 Breaking Quadrilaterals into Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
26 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
26.1 Circle Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
26.2 Circular Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
26.3 Length inside Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
27 Similar Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

27.1 Congruent Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
27.2 Similar Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
28 Area and Length of Complex Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

28.1 Hexagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
28.2 Octagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
28.3 Area of Complex Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
28.4 Length of complex shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
29 3D Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
29.1 Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
29.2 Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
29.3 Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
29.4 Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
29.5 Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
29.6 Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
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29.7 Similar Triangles in 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

30 Additional Techniques and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

30.1 Meta-solving Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
30.2 Silly Mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
30.3 Other Strategies To Maximize Your Score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
31 Mastering AMC 10/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
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Preface
Motivation
This book was created to provide a comprehensive overview of the most important concepts
on the AMC 8 math contest. The book includes video lectures for every chapter, formulas for
every topic, and hundreds of examples and practice problems with detailed video solutions.
This book covers the following topics:
• Combinatorics
• Algebra
• Number Theory
• Geometry
How to Use This Book

To get the most out of this book, please give each problem your best effort before checking
out the solution! Even if you don’t solve it, the act of trying will help you gain useful insights
about the problem and will help you develop the intuition needed for the topic.
Each chapter includes relevant formulas for the topic along with instructive Example Prob-
lems that show interesting applications of the concept.
Some of the examples are explained in the video, and some of the examples have detailed
explanations. The explanations provided aim to show not just the final solution, but the
thought process behind finding the solution.
Then, there is a Practice Problems section, which includes problems from AMC 8, AMC
10/12, MATHCOUNTS, BMT, EMCC, and many original problems from Omega Learn.
These problems have detailed video solutions.
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OmegaLearn.org Preface
There is also an Additional Problems section with more problems (on the harder side) for
extra practice.
Hopefully, the curated collection of examples and problems in this book will improve your
problem solving skills and help you perform better on the AMC 8 contest. Good Luck!
Discord Server
Join our Discord Server to discuss problems from the book and for help with math contest
preparation in general.
Feedback Form
If you have any feedback, find any errors, or think of any interesting problems that should
be added here, please fill out this Feedback Form or email us at info@omegalearn.org.
Book Updates
We appreciate your feedback and will update the book regularly by adding new topics and
problems. Please bookmark OmegaLearn.org to get the Latest Version of this book.
Information about math competitions

These videos provide some useful strategies for anyone just starting with math competitions
or working towards specific competitions like the AMC 8.
1. All you need to know about Math Competitions from Elementary to High School
2. How to prepare for AMC 10/12 and qualify for AIME and USA(J)MO
Free Mastering AMC 8 Course

Mastering AMC 8 Course
This is the video course accompanying this book, and includes video lectures for every
chapter. We explain all the important concepts from this book in detail, along with many
useful examples showing the application of those concepts.
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OmegaLearn.org Preface
Free AMC 8 Fundamentals Classes

AMC 8 Fundamentals Classes
This is a crash course covering the most important fundamental concepts on the AMC
8.
Free AMC 8 Advanced/MATHCOUNTS Classes

AMC 8 Advanced/MATHCOUNTS Classes
This is a crash course covering the most important advanced concepts on the AMC 8.
9
Combinatorics
10
Chapter 1
Permutations
Video Lecture
11
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 1. Permutations
1.1 Permutations Definition

Definition 1.1.1. A permutation is a possible arrangement of objects in a set where the
order of objects matter.
Example 1.1
How many 3-digit passwords are possible where each digit is a number from 0 to 9?
Solution 1.1
This is a permutation since the order of the digits matters! Notice that each digit has 10
choices. From this, how do we find the total number of 3-digit passwords?
First, how many 1-digit passwords are there?
This is 10 because the password is simply one of the 10 1-digit numbers.
How can we try and find the number of 2-digit passwords?
Suppose that the first digit is a 3. Then, how many ways are there for the 2nd digit?
This is just the number of 1-digit passwords, so it’s just 10.
Now, what if the first digit is a 1?
Again, there are just 10 ways for the second digit. So for each of the 10 choices for the
first digit, there are 10 choices for the 2nd digit. Doing this for all possible first digits, we
see that there are 10 × 10 = 100 2-digit passwords.
Now, how many 3-digit passwords are there?
Well, there are 10 choices for the first digit, and for each first digit, there are 100 2-digit
passwords, so it’s just
10 × 100 = 1000
Notice, we can also just see that there are 10 choices for the first digit. For each first digit,
there are 10 choices for the 2nd digit. Finally, for each pair of first 2 digit, there are 10
choices for the 3rd digit, so the total number of ways is just
10 × 10 × 10 = 103 = 1000
.
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1.2 Factorials
Definition 1.2.1 (Factorials). A factorial is the product of all positive integers less than or
equal to a given positive integer. In other words n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × 1.
Remark 1.2.2
For math competitions, it is recommended to memorize the following factorials as it will
save you a lot of time:
0! =1
1! =1
2! =2
3! =6
4! = 24
5! = 120
6! = 720
Definition 1.2.3. A permutation is a possible arrangement of objects in a set where the

order of objects matter.
Example 1.2
Sohil has 1 wrapping paper in each of 4 different colors: red, orange, green, or blue. He
needs to wrap all of them around a box in any order. How many ways are there for him
to do this?
Solution 1.2
Notice that in this problem, we can’t use the same wrapping paper twice so it’s slightly more
complicated. Let’s begin this problem by approaching each layer at a time.
Starting with the innermost layer, how many ways are there to choose a color
for this layer?
We can choose any of the 4 colors so there are just 4 ways for this to happen.
How many choices are there for the 2nd layer?
For the 2nd layer, since we only have 1 of each paper, only 3 of the colors are left since
we already used one. Therefore, for the 2nd layer we have 3 choices for the color.
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For the 3rd layer, we have already used 2 of the wrapping papers, so there are only 2
choices left. For the final layer, we have already used 3 of the papers, so we only have 1
choice for the final paper.
Now, how do we find the total number of ways?
We must multiply all of the numbers since all the choices are independent. For example,
let’s say the first wrapping paper chosen was red. Then, the number of ways to order the
wrapping papers is simply the number of ways to arrange wrapping papers of 3 different col-
ors. However, notice that this is also true for all the other color choices of the first wrapping
paper (orange, green, and blue).
Therefore, in total, we must multiply by 4 to the number of ways of arranging 3 wrap-

ping papers of different colors. Using this logic, we get that the total number of ways to
arrange the wrapping papers is
4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24 .
Notice that this is just 4!.
We will see later that we can find a general formula in terms of factorials to solve this
type of problem.
Example 1.3
Find the number of ways to arrange 4 different books on a bookshelf.
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Solution 1.3
This problem is very similar to the previous one. We must consider the number of ways for
each book.
There are 4 choices for the first book on the bookshelf. After that there are 3 books left, so
there are 3 choices for the 2nd book. Continuing on, there are 2 choices for the 3rd book,
and 1 choice for the 4th book.
Therefore, the total number of ways is just
4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4! = 24
Example 1.1
There are 4 different AMC 8 videos. Every student in the class watches the videos in a
different order. What is the maximum number of students in the class?
Video Solution
Theorem 1.2.4
The number of ways of arranging n distinct objects is just
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × 1
1.3 Permutations Fundamentals
Example 1.2
Sam has 5 different stamps and is making a Christmas card where he puts 3 different
stamps in a line. How many different Christmas card designs can he make?
Video Solution
15
Theorem 1.3.1 (Permutations Formula)

The number of ways to order k objects out of n total objects is
n!
n
Pk = = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × (n − (k − 1))
(n − k)!
Example 1.4
Evaluate 7 P3 .
Solution 1.4
If we compare the expression 7 P3 to the formula n Pk , we have n = 7 and k = 3. Substituting
these values in the formula for permutations,
7 7!
P3 =
(7 − 3)!
7!
=
4!
= 7 × (7 − 1) × ... × (7 − (3 − 1))
= 7×6×5
= 210
Remark 1.3.2
Notice how we can use this formula as a shortcut to the previous problem.
Example 1.5
Find the number of ways of selecting a president, vice president, and secretary from a
group of 7 people.
Solution 1.5
This is very similar to the factorials problems, except now we only have to order positions.
How can we approach the problem?
16
Let’s consider the number of ways for each position separately.
There are 7 choices for the president. Now, because there are only 6 people left, there
are 6 choices for the vice president. Then, because 2 of the people are already chosen for the
president and vice president, there are 5 choices for the secretary.
In total, the number of ways is

7 × 6 × 5 = 210
1.4 Digit Permutations
Example 1.6
How many 4 digit numbers have all digits distinct?
Solution 1.6
Let’s consider the number of ways to form this number digit by digit.
For the first digit, how many choices do we have? Remember, the first digit of a num-
ber cannot be 0 so there are 9 choices (any number from 1 to 9).
How do we handle the condition that the numbers must have distinct digits?
However, unlike the first digit, the 2nd digit can be 0. The 2nd digit can be any num-
ber from 0 to 9 except the digit chosen as the first digit, so there are
10 − 1 = 9
choices. For the 3rd digit, again, it can be anything from 0 to 9 except the 2 digits already
chosen, so there are
10 − 2 = 8
choices. For the final digit, there are 10 - 3 = 7 choices.
So, the total number of possible numbers is
9 × 9 × 8 × 7 = 4536
17
Remark 1.4.1
Generally, in these types of problems, we want to consider the most restrictive conditions
first. For example, in this problem, if we started at the units digit, we would have had
issues in calculating the number of options for the thousands digit so we would have
had to do casework, which is a more advanced technique that will be covered in a later
chapter.
Example 1.7
How many 4 digit numbers exist such that the first digit is odd and the other 3 digits
are even and all digits distinct?
Solution 1.7
The first digit has 5 choices (1, 3, 5, 7, or 9). The 2nd digit also has 5 choices (0, 2, 4, 6, 8).
Do we have to subtract any of the choices of the 2nd digit to make sure the
numbers are distinct?
Keep in mind that although the digits have to be distinct, the 2nd digit is even and the
first digit is odd, so there is no overlap.
The 3rd digit can be any even number except the one chosen for the 2nd digit, so it has 4
choices. The 4th digit can be any even number except those chosen for the 2nd and 3rd digit.
In total, the number of 4 digit numbers with these constraints is
5 × 5 × 4 × 3 = 300
Example 1.3
How many 5 digit palindromes are there? A palindrome is a number that reads the
same forward and backward.
Video Solution
18
Example 1.4 (Omega Learn)

How many 6 digit numbers exist such that all the digits are distinct, and it’s first 2 digits
are 6 or more, the last 2 digits are 5 or less, and the 3rd digit is a nonzero multiple of
7?
Video Solution
1.5 Circular Arrangements
Theorem 1.5.1 (Circular Arrangements)

The number of ways of arranging n objects in a circle where rotations of the same
arrangement aren’t considered distinct is (n − 1)!
The number of ways of arranging n objects in a circle where rotations of the same
arrangement aren’t considered distinct and reflections of the same arrangement aren’t
considered distinct is (n−1)!
2
Remark 1.5.2
The reason that this is true is because we can simply fix 1 person to be at the top
and there are (n − 1)! ways to arrange the other people. This accounts for rotations
since rotating an arrangement will result in someone else on top. We divide by 2 for
reflections because of symmetry on both the left and right sides of the person chosen to
be at the top.
19
Example 1.8
How many ways are there to arrange 5 people in a circle if rotations are not counted as
distinct orientations?
Solution 1.8
When things are arranged in a circle, we can fix the position of one person, and look for
arrangements of others.
How many other people are left to arrange?
We can simply apply the formula for 5 people where rotations don’t matter. This is just
(5 − 1)! = 4! = 24

How many ways are there to arrange 5 people around a circle such that 2 of the people,
Alex and Bob, must sit next to each other. Note that rotations are not counted as
distinct orientations.
Video Solution

Gauss, Pauli, Einstein, Newton, Edison, and Faraday are sitting at a circular table.
Einstein, Newton, and Faraday are enemies so they refuse to sit next to each other.
With this condition, how many ways are there for the 6 physicists to sit at the table if
rotations are not counted as distinct orientations?
Solution 1.9
Without the condition, the answer would just be (6 − 1)! = 5! = 120 as we can fix 1 of the 6
people at the top and permute the remaining 5 people.
Where must the enemies sit so that none of them are sitting next to each other?
Since there are only 6 total people, there must be exactly one other person between each of
the enemies as seen in the diagram below where the red X’s represent the enemies.
20
Should we again try to fix someone at the top to deal with rotations?
Yes! By fixing Gauss at the top (arbitrarily), we can now simply order the remaining 5
people without having to worry about the rotation condition.
How many ways to permute the enemies?
Note that the 3 possible locations of the enemies is fixed so there are 3! ways to permute
them.
How many ways to permute the people with no enemies?
We already fixed Gauss (someone without enemies) so there are 2! ways to permute the
other 2 people who don’t have enemies.
In total, our answer is

3! × 2! = 12
21
1.6 Practice Problems

Problem 1.6.1
Evaluate 6 P3 and 7 P2
Video Solution
Problem 1.6.2
How many 3-digit numbers exist with all odd digits?
Video Solution
Problem 1.6.3
How many 3-digit numbers exist with all even digits?
Video Solution
Problem 1.6.4
How many 3-digit odd numbers are there with distinct digits?
Video Solution
Problem 1.6.5
If you have Alice, Betty, and Chase and you need to choose two of them to be the
president and vice president of the math club, how many ways are there to do this?
Video Solution
22
Problem 1.6.6
Find the number of ways of selecting a president, vice president, and secretary from
a group of 8 people.
Video Solution
Problem 1.6.7
Find the number of 3-digit numbers with all of its digits distinct.
Video Solution
Problem 1.6.8
Find the number of ways to arrange 5 different books on a bookshelf.
Video Solution
Problem 1.6.9
How many ways are there to pick your favorite and second favorite book amongst 5
books?
Video Solution
Problem 1.6.10
There are 10 students at a math contest. How many ways are there to select the first,
second, and third place winners?
Video Solution
23
Problem 1.6.11
How many 4 digit numbers are not palindromes? A palindrome is a number that reads
the same forward and backward.
Video Solution
Problem 1.6.12 (AMC 8)
A special type of license plate includes 3 distinct letters at the beginning and 4 sin-
gle digit numbers after. How many such license plates exist?
Video Solution
Problem 1.6.13
There is a school race with 12 students. How many different ways to award the gold,
silver, and bronze medals if no ties are possible?
Video Solution
How many integers between 1000 and 9999 have four distinct digits?
Video Solution
The Dragonvale Middle School chess team consists of two boys and three girls. A pho-
tographer wants to take a picture of the team to appear in the local newspaper. She
decides to have them sit in a row with a boy at each end and the three girls in the middle.
How many such arrangements are possible?
24
Video Solution
Professor Chang has nine different language books lined up on a bookshelf: two Arabic,
three German, and four Spanish. How many ways are there to arrange the nine books
on the shelf keeping the Arabic books together and keeping the Spanish books together?
Video Solution
Problem 1.6.17 (MATHCOUNTS)
How many permutations of the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 have 1 before 3 and 2 before 4? One
such permutation to include is 2134.]
Video Solution
Alice refuses to sit next to either Bob or Carla. Derek refuses to sit next to Eric.
How many ways are there for the five of them to sit in a row of 5 chairs under these
conditions?
Video Solution
Problem 1.6.19 (Omega Learn Math Competition)
Alice, Bob, Claire, Dave, Emma are sitting around a round table. Alice refuses to
sit next to Bob. How many different ways can they sit around the table? (Rotations of
the same arrangement are not considered different).
Video Solution
25
Additional Problems
Problem 1.6.20 (Omega Learn)
7 people are lining up for a photograph. If the 2 tallest people must be at 1st and
7th positions in any order and the shortest person must be in the center, how many
ways are there for them to line up?
Problem 1.6.21 (EMCC 2014)
Five distinct boys and four distinct girls are going to have lunch together around a
table. They decide to sit down one by one under the following conditions: no boy will
sit down when more boys than girls are already seated, and no girl will sit down when
more girls than boys are already seated. How many possible sequences of taking seats
exist?
Answers
1.1 24
1.2 60
1.3 900
1.4 900
1.5 12
1.6.1 120, 42
1.6.2 125
1.6.3 100
1.6.4 320
26
1.6.5 6
1.6.6 336
1.6.7 648
1.6.8 120
1.6.9 20
1.6.10 720
1.6.11 8910
1.6.12 156000000
1.6.13 1320
1.6.14 4536
1.6.15 12
1.6.16 5760
1.6.17 6
1.6.18 28
1.6.19 12
1.6.20 48
1.6.21 46080
27
Chapter 2
Combinations
Video Lecture
28
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 2. Combinations
2.1 Combinations Fundamentals

Definition 2.1.1. A combination is a collection of items where the order of the items does
not matter.
Remark 2.1.2
Usually, the words permute, order does matter, etc. imply a permutation while the
words choose, select, order doesn’t matter, etc. imply a combination
Example 2.1
How many ways can I select 3 pencils from 6 different pencils?
Solution 2.1
Let’s try to approach this similarly to permutations.
There are 6 choices for the first pencil, 5 choices for the 2nd pencil, and 4 choices for the 3rd
pencil.
So the total number of ways is just
6 × 5 × 4 = 120
Is this the number of ways of choosing or arranging?
Remember that we are just selecting 3 pencils, so the order doesn’t matter. Therefore,
we are overcounting many cases. For example, choosing pencil A first and pencil B second
is the same as choosing pencil B first and pencil A second.
So how do we account for this?
Well, to answer that question, we must consider how many ways there are to order the
pencils. Let’s say we have 3 pencils.
How many ways are there to order them?
This is just 3!because we are arranging 3 objects in order. Therefore, we are overcount-
ing by a factor of 3!.
29
So the total number of ways to ”choose” 3 pencils from 6 different pencils is

6×5×4
= 20
3!
Example 2.1
How many ways are there to choose a committee of 3 people from 6 people?
Video Solution
Theorem 2.1.3 (Combinations Formula)

The number of ways to choose k objects out of a total of n objects is
!
n n! n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · · (n − k + 1)
= =
k k!(n − k)! k!
.
Example 2.2
Evaluate !
6
3
Solution 2.2
We can see that n = 6 and k = 3. Substituting these values in the formula, we get
6 × (6 − 1) × · · · × (6 − 3 + 1) 6 × 5 × 4
= = 20
3! 6
Remark 2.1.4
Notice that ! !
n n
=
k n−k
This is true because choosing k objects that are part of your selection (left hand side)
is equivalent to choosing the n − k objects that are not be part of your selection (right
30
hand side). For example, ! !

6 6
=
2 4
.

You are working on the Mastering AMC 8 Book, and you must choose 7 of the 10
combinatorics chapters to work on. How many ways are there to do this?
Video Solution

You are working on the Mastering AMC 8 Book, and you must choose 7 of the 10 com-
binatorics chapters to work on. However, the first 2 chapters are required to understand
the remaining chapters so they must be chosen. How many ways are there to do this?
Video Solution
2.2 Binomial Identity
Theorem 2.2.1 (Binomial Identity)

The binomial identity states that
! ! !
n n n
+ +···+ = 2n
0 1 n
Remark 2.2.2
Both of the above methods can be used for calculating the number of ways of choosing
any # of items from n different items.
31
Example 2.3
Nihir has an apple, orange, banana, pear, and raspberry. He wants to take a fruit basket
to a picnic. How many different types of fruit baskets can he take using the fruits he
has?
Solution 2.3
We can do this by listing the number of ways of choosing all possible combination of fruits.
Is there any easier way to solve this question?
Notice that for each fruit, we have 2 choices. You can either take it, or leave it. We
then have to multiply this for all of the 5 fruits.
Therefore, the number of ways is simply

25 = 32
Note that one of the fruit baskets will have none of the fruits (which is mathematically a
possible type of fruit basket and the problem statement does not explicitly says that it is
not allowed).
Example 2.4
You have 5 different pencils and 3 different erasers and must choose some of them to
take to the AMC 8. How many ways are there to do this?
Video Solution
2.3 Tricky Combinations Examples

There are 6 experienced applicants and 7 inexperienced applicants applying for a job.
Out of the experienced applicants, 2 managers are selected. Out of all of the other
applicants who aren’t selected for a manager (both experienced and inexperienced), 4
other employees are selected. How many ways are there to do this?
32
Solution 2.4
To solve this problem, we will find the number of ways of choosing managers and other
employees separately.
First, how many ways are there to select 2 managers?
Since they must be from the 6 experienced applicants, there are

!
6 6 × 5 30
= = = 15
2 2! 2
Next, how many ways are there to select the 5 other employees?
Since 2 of the experienced applicants were already selected, there are 4 experienced ap-
plicants and 7 inexperienced applicants left.
Therefore, we must select 4 employees out of the 11 remaining people. We can do this
in !
11 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 11 × 10 × 72 72
= = = 11 × 10 × = 11 × 10 × 3 = 330
4 4! 24 24
Therefore, in total, how many ways are there to select the 3 managers and 5
other employees?
Since there are 15 ways to select the managers and 330 ways to select the other employ-
ees, there will be 15 × 330 = 4950 ways to select both the managers and the employees.

You have 12 different energy bars that you need to give to 3 people: Alice, Betty, and
Chase. Alice needs 3 bars, Betty needs 4 bars, and Chase needs 5 bars. How many
ways are there to distribute the 12 bars to satisfy their requirements?
Video Solution
33
Example 2.6 (EMCC)

How many ways are there to place 4 balls into a 4 × 6 grid such that no column or row
has more than one ball in it? (Rotations and reflections are considered distinct.)
Video Solution
Example 2.5 (AIME)

Robert has 4 indistinguishable gold coins and 4 indistinguishable silver coins. Each coin
has an engraving of one face on one side, but not on the other. He wants to stack the
eight coins on a table into a single stack so that no two adjacent coins are face to face.
Find the number of possible distinguishable arrangements of the 8 coins.
Solution 2.5
First, let’s deal with the orderings of the coins.
How many ways to arrange the 4 gold and 4 silver coins?
8!
We can use the word rearrangement formula to get 4!×4! = 70. Now, we will the num-
ber of ways to put the coins face up or face down in the stack
If a coin is face down, what must the coin above it be?
It can be anything and the faces will never meet.
If a coin is face up, what must the coin above it be?
It must also be face up as if it’s face down, then the faces will meet.
The moment the coin first becomes face up, all the remaining coins on top must be face
up as well! If none of the coins are face up, then there is 1 orientation.
How many orientations exist if at least 1 of the coins is face up?
We simply have to pick a coin to be the first face up coin and every other coin’s orien-
tation is fixed. There are 8 ways to do this.

8
In total, we have 9 orientations for the faces of the coins and 4 = 70 ways to order the gold
34
and silver coins giving us an answer of 70 × 9 = 630 .
35

Problem 2.4.1
If you have Alice, Betty, Chase, and Dave and you need to choose two of them to
be the leaders of the math club, how many ways are there to do this?
Video Solution
Problem 2.4.2

8 9
Evaluate 4 and 7
Video Solution
Problem 2.4.3
How many ways are there to select 3 fruits amongst 8 different fruits?
Video Solution
Problem 2.4.4
How many ways are there to choose 4 balls from a bag which contains 9 balls of dif-
ferent color?
Video Solution
Problem 2.4.5

8 9
Evaluate 4 and 7
Video Solution
36
Problem 2.4.6
Mrs. Jones is organizing a potluck and wants to serve 8 different dishes. Each fam-
ily can bring 3 dishes. How many families can Mrs. Jones invite so that no two families
bring the same combination of dishes?
Video Solution
Problem 2.4.7
There are 9 different flavors of ice cream at an ice cream shop. Joe wants to buy 2
or 3 scoops of different ice cream flavors. He doesn’t like 2 of the flavors Mango and
Chocolate together so won’t buy them together . How many ways can he buy ice cream?
Video Solution
A set of 25 square blocks is arranged into a 5 × 5 square. How many different com-
binations of 3 blocks can be selected from that set so that no two are in the same row
or column?
Video Solution
Video Solution
Henry’s Hamburger Haven offers its hamburgers with the following condiments: ketchup,
mustard, mayonnaise, tomato, lettuce, pickles, cheese, and onions. A customer can
choose one, two, or three meat patties and any collection of condiments. How many
different kinds of hamburgers can be ordered?
Video Solution
37
Additional Problems
How many integers between 2020 and 2400 have four distinct digits arranged in in-
creasing order? (For example, 2347 is one integer.)
Problem 2.4.11
How many 5 digit positive integers exist such that the third digit is 8, the first 3 digits
ascending, and last 3 digits are descending?
There are 12 astronauts who applied to go on a mission to explore Mars. 2 differ-

ent rockets will be sent from Earth: one carrying 3 people and another carrying 4. Out
of the 12 astronauts, 4 of them are very experienced so they must go on either rocket.
How many ways are there to place the astronauts in the rockets?
Answers
2.1 20
2.2 120
2.3 56
2.4 256
2.5 27720
2.6 360
2.4.1 6
38
2.4.2 70, 36
2.4.3 56
2.4.4 126
2.4.5 70, 36
2.4.6 56
2.4.7 112
2.4.8 600
2.4.9 768
2.4.10 15
2.4.11 588
2.4.12 1960
39
Chapter 3
Word Rearrangements
Video Lecture
40
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 3. Word Rearrangements
3.1 Word Rearrangments Fundamentals
Example 3.1
How many ways are there to arrange the letters in the word OMEGA?
Solution 3.1
This is just like arranging 5 distinct books on a shelf. Since all the letters are different, there
are just
5! = 120
ways to arrange the 5 letters.
Example 3.2
How many ways are there to arrange the letters in the word SUNNY?
Solution 3.2
This looks similar to the previous example.
Can we use the same factorial formula again?
If that were the case, then our answer would just be 5! = 120. Unfortunately, this prob-
lem is more complicated because now there are 2 N’s. Therefore, some arrangements will be
overcounted. Let us call the two N’s N1 and N2
For example, N1 U SN2 Y and N2 U SN1 Y are the same arrangement, but our factorial formula
will count them as different arrangements.
How can we account for this overcouting?
The valid arrangement N U SN Y is counted twice. Notice that we count each arrangement
twice where the position of two N’s is swapped.
Is this the case for all rearrangements?
Yes, indeed. For any arrangement of the letters in the word SUNNY, we get 2 different
arrangements of the word: N1 on the left and N2 on the right, N2 on the left and N1 on the
right.
41
1
Therefore, the number of valid arrangements is just 2 the original 5! arrangements, which
gives
5!
= 60
2
Remark 3.1.1
Remember that the factorial formula only works if all the letters are different.
Example 3.1
How many ways are there to arrange the letters of the word APPLE?
Video Solution
Theorem 3.1.2 (Word Rearrangements)

The number of ways to order a word is
n!
d1 ! × d2 ! × d3 ! × . . .
where n is the number of letters and d1 , d2 , d3 , . . . are the number of times each of the
duplicate letters that appear in the word.
Remark 3.1.3
This may seem complicated, but it essentially means the number of rearrangements of
an n-letter word is n!. However, since some letters may appear multiple times (let’s say
d times), we must divide by d! for all such letters because there are d! ways to arrange
the duplicate letters that we are overcounting.
42
3.2 Word Rearrangements with Constraints
Example 3.2
How many ways are there to arrange the letters of the word OPOSSUM if the arrange-
ment must end in an M?
Video Solution
Remark 3.2.1
This formula is not only true for words! This formula can also work for the number of
ways of arranging objects where some objects are of same type. In fact, we will use this
later in geometric counting.
Example 3.3
How many ways are there to rearrange the letters in COMPUTER such that the C, O,
M, and P stay together (not necessarily in the same order)?
Solution 3.3
This problem is slightly different from the standard word rearrangement problems because
we now have a constraint.
How should we deal with the condition that the COMP must stay together?
Let’s treat COMP as 1 block. Since the letters anyways have to stay together, let call this
block a COM P . Now, instead, we can find the number of arrangments of COM P UTER.
How many ways are there to arrange COM P UTER?
Notice that this is just 5! since all the letters (or symbols) are different.
Now, are we done, or is there something we forgot to account for?
Remember that letters in the word COMP can appear in any order inside the box, so
we have to also account for rearrangements of these letters within the COM P .
For each unique arrangement of COM P UTER, how many ways are there to
43
arrange the letters in the word COM P ?
There are 4! ways to arrange the 4 letters C O M P.
Therefore, in total, there are 5! × 4! = 120 × 24 = 2880 ways to rearrange COMPUTER

such that the letters COMP remain together.

How many ways are there to arrange the letters in LOLLIPOP if the I must be next to
both an L and O?
Video Solution
44

Problem 3.3.1
How many ways are there to arrange the letters of the word MATH?
Video Solution
Problem 3.3.2
How many ways are there to arrange the letters of the word MISSISSIPPI?
Video Solution
Problem 3.3.3
Find the number of ways to order the letters in PINEAPPLE.
Video Solution
Problem 3.3.4
How many ways are there to misspell the word MISSPELLED?
Video Solution
Problem 3.3.5
How many arrangements of the word BOTTLE are there such that the 2 T’s and O
remain together?
Video Solution
45
A child builds towers using identically shaped cubes of different color. How many differ-
ent towers with a height 8 cubes can the child build with 2 red cubes, 3 blue cubes, and
4 green cubes? (One cube will be left out.)
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 3.3.7
You have 6 apples, 3 pears, and 2 oranges. Assuming the same type of fruits are in-
distinguishable, how many distinct ways are there to place the fruits in a line if the 2
oranges must be next to each other?
How many distinguishable arrangements are there of 1 brown tile, 1 purple tile, 2 green
tiles, and 3 yellow tiles in a row from left to right? (Tiles of the same color are indistin-
guishable.)
Video Solution
Additional Problems
How many distinct four-letter permutations are possible using four of the ten letters
in MATHCOUNTS?
46
In how many ways can the letters in BEEKEEPER be rearranged so that two or
more Es do not appear together?
Problem 3.3.11 (AHSME)
How many distinguishable rearrangements of the letters in CON T EST have both the
vowels first? (For instance, OET CN ST is one such arrangement but OT ET SN C is
not.)
If the letters of the word SMILE are rearranged in all possible ways, and arranged in
alphabetical order like in a dictionary, then what will be the rank of the word SLIME?
Answers
3.1 60
3.2 180
3.3.1 24
3.3.2 34650
3.3.3 30240
3.3.4 453599
3.3.5 72
3.3.6 1260
3.3.7 840
47
3.3.8 420
3.3.9 3360
3.3.10 24
3.3.11 120
3.3.12 112
48
Chapter 4
Probability
Video Lecture
49
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 4. Probability
4.1 Probability Fundamentals

Definition 4.1.1. Probability is the likelihood of something happening. To calculate prob-
ability, you need to know how many possible options or outcomes there are and how many
right combinations there are.
Theorem 4.1.2 (Probability)

Total number of desired outcomes
probability =
Total number of possible outcomes
Example 4.1
What is the probability of rolling a prime number on a 6 sided dice?
Solution 4.1
To calculate probability, we need to find the number of successful and total outcomes.
How many successful outcomes are there?
We can see that there are 3 prime numbers from 1 to 6 (2, 3 and 5).
Next, how many total outcomes are there?
Well this is just 6 because it can be any number from 1 to 6.
Therefore, since the probability is just the number of successful outcomes divided by the
total number of outcomes, the probability is
3 1
=
6 2
50
4.2 Distinguishability
Example 4.2
I have cards numbered from 1 to 10. What is the probability I pick a pair of 2 different
cards that have an odd product?
Solution 4.2
This is a rather simple example however it demonstrates an important point about distin-
guishability in probability problems.
What must happen for the cards to have an odd product?
Both cards must be odd.
How many pairs of cards have both cards odd?

If order does not matter, then there are 52 = 10 combinations. However, if the order
does matter, then there are 5 × 4 = 20 permutations.
How many total pairs of cards can be chosen?

If order does not matter, then there are 10 2 = 45 combinations. However, if the order
does matter, then there are 10 × 9 = 90 permutations.
So does the order matter of the cards in the pair matter or not?
20 2
If the order of the cards in the pair does matter, then the probability is 90 = . If the order
9
10 2
of the cards in the pair does not matter, then the probability is 45 = .
9
Why are the probabilities are the same?
When dealing with ordered pairs, the number of successful and total pairs were multiplied
by 2! so they would cancel out when dividing!
Remark 4.2.1
In probability problems, whether you decide to multiply for order or not is up to you as
both will give the same probability.
51
Example 4.3
The sum of 2 positive integers is 4. Find the probability that one of the integers is a 2.
Solution 4.3
There are 2 cases:
1. Both integers are 2
2. One integer is a 3 and the other is a 1
So is the probability just 12 ?
No! While there are only 2 cases, they both have different chances of happening.
How many ways are there for each case to happen?
There is only 1 way where both integers can be 2 however there are 2 ways one of the
integers is a 1 and the other is a 3 as we can flip them. The 2nd case is more likely.
What is the probability with this knowledge?
1
There are a total of 3 cases of which 1 satisfies the condition so the probability is .
3
Remark 4.2.2
If you decide not to account for order when doing probability problems, make sure the
number of orderings is consistent across all cases. In the first problem, every pair had
2 orderings so it was okay to neglect order. However, in the 2nd problem, the 2 cases
had different number of orderings so this didn’t work.
4.3 Casework in Probability

Concept 4.3.1
Often, when a problem asks for the probability of an event happening, we may have
to do casework to find the number of successful outcomes and divide that by the total
number of outcomes which is usually easy to find.
52
Example 4.1
What is the probability that the product of 4 dice rolls is a multiple of 648?
Video Solution
4.4 Probability of Independent Events
Example 4.4
Sohil randomly picks a number from 1 to 10. Sejal randomly picks a number from 1 to
25. What is the probability that the product of the numbers they choose is odd?
Solution 4.4
For this problem, although it is possible to find the number of successful and total outcomes
amongst both picks of numbers, there is an easier way to solve the problem.
To start, what do we know about 2 numbers whose product is odd?
For the product of 2 numbers to be odd, both numbers must be odd because if any of
the numbers are even, then the product will also have a factor of 2 in it.
Next, how can find the probability that Sohil and Sejal pick odd numbers?
We could find find the number of successful and total outcomes amongst both picks of
numbers as mentioned earlier, but instead, we can simply find the probabilities of each of
them picking an odd number.
5
The probability of Sohil picking an odd number is 10 = 12 .
13
The probability of Sejal picking an odd number is 25 since there are 13 odd numbers from 1
to 25.
Now, how do we find the overall probability of both of them picking an odd
number?
We must multiply the probabilities.
53
Therefore, the overall probability is
1 13 13
× =
2 25 50
.
Remark 4.4.1
Whenever we need to find the probabilities of 2 independent events happening (the
results of the events don’t depend on each other), we can simply find the probability of
each event individually and multiply them together.

Person A rolls a dice with the numbers 1, 1, 2, 6, 15, 30 and Person B rolls a dice
with the numbers 1, 2, 4, 18, 28, 44. What is the probability that the product of the 2
numbers is a multiple of 24?
Video Solution
4.5 Probability of Dependent Events
Example 4.5
Alex, Betty, Chase, Derek, Emma, Fiona, and George are racing in a marathon. If they
finish in a random order, what is the probability that Chase is 1st and George is 6th?
Solution 4.5
Let’s see how to solve this problem with dependent events.
Can we just use the technique above to solve this problem?
That won’t work because this time, Chase’ rank affects George’s rank, such as in the case
where Chase is 6th which would make it impossible for George to be 6th, so the events affect
each other.
Then, how do we approach this question?
To do this, let’s first consider the probability Chase is 1st and then find the probability
54
George is 6th given that Chase is 1st.
What is the probability that Chase is selected first?
Because there are 7 people who can be first and Chase is one of those persons, the probability
is simply 17 since they finish in a random order.
Next, what is the probability that George is selected 6th if Chase is first?
Notice that now out of the 7 original positions, only 6 are left. Therefore, since all posi-
tions are equally likely for George, the probability he is 6th is 16 .
Now, how do we find the overall probability?
Notice that we only need to find the probability that both Chase is first and George is
6th. Therefore, we can just find the probability of Chase being first and multiply that by
the probability that George is 6th.
Therefore, our answer is just

1 1 1
× =
7 6 42
.
Remark 4.5.1
When the events are dependent like in the example above, the probability of both events
happening (say A and B) is the probability of event A happening times the probability
that event B happens given that event A already happened.
Example 4.3
On Saturday, there is a 20% chance of rain. On Sunday, there is a 30% chance of rain if
it rained on Saturday, but only a 10% chance of rain if it didn’t rain on Saturday. What
is the probability that it will rain on both days or neither day?
Video Solution
55
Example 4.4 (AIME)

There is a 40% chance of rain on Saturday and a 30% chance of rain on Sunday. However,
it is twice as likely to rain on Sunday if it rains on Saturday than if it does not rain on
Saturday. The probability that it rains at least one day this weekend is ab , where a and
b are relatively prime positive integers. Find a + b.
Video Solution
4.6 Dependent or Independent?

Mark must choose a seat from 5 x 5 grid of chairs in the classroom. His enemy Steve
does not like Mark so wants to choose a seat that is not in the same row or column
as Mark. However, to his dismay, the teacher randomly assigns seats. What is the
probability that Steve is not sitting in the same row or column as Mark?
Video Solution
56

Problem 4.7.1
Two 6-sided dice are rolled. What is the probability that the sum of the numbers
rolled is 2?
Video Solution
Problem 4.7.2
Two 6-sided dice are rolled. What is the probability that the sum of the numbers
rolled is 4?
Video Solution
Problem 4.7.3
Two dice are rolled. What is the probability that the sum of the numbers rolled is
6?
Video Solution
A fair coin is tossed 3 times. What is the probability of at least two consecutive heads?
Video Solution
Problem 4.7.5 (AMC 8 Modified)
A fair 6 sided die is rolled twice. What is the probability that the first number that
comes up is greater than the second number?
57
Video Solution
A box contains five cards, numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Three cards are selected ran-
domly without replacement from the box. What is the probability that 4 is the largest
value selected?
Video Solution
The arrows on the two spinners shown below are spun. Let the number N equal 10
times the number on Spinner A, added to the number on Spinner B. What is the
probability that N is a perfect square number?
5 6 1 2
8 7 4 3
Spinner A Spinner B
A top hat contains 3 red chips and 2 green chips. Chips are drawn randomly, one
at a time without replacement, until all 3 of the reds are drawn or until both green chips
are drawn. What is the probability that the 3 reds are drawn?
Video Solution
Two cards are dealt from a deck of four red cards labeled A, B, C, D and four green
58
cards labeled A, B, C, D. A winning pair is two of the same color or two of the same
letter. What is the probability of drawing a winning pair?
Video Solution
Three fair six-sided dice are rolled. What is the probability that the values shown
on two of the dice sum to the value shown on the remaining die?
Video Solution
From a regular octagon, a triangle is formed by connecting three randomly chosen ver-
tices of the octagon. What is the probability that at least one of the sides of the triangle
is also a side of the octagon?
Video Solution
When 7 fair standard 6-sided dice are thrown, the probability that the sum of the
numbers on the top faces is 10 can be written as
n
,
67
where n is a positive integer. What is n?
59
Video Solution
Bob and Alice each have a bag that contains one ball of each of the colors blue, green,
orange, red, and violet. Alice randomly selects one ball from her bag and puts it into
Bob’s bag. Bob then randomly selects one ball from his bag and puts it into Alice’s
bag. What is the probability that after this process the contents of the two bags are the
same?
Video Solution
On a beach 50 people are wearing sunglasses and 35 people are wearing caps. Some
people are wearing both sunglasses and caps. If one of the people wearing a cap is se-
lected at random, the probability that this person is is also wearing sunglasses is 25 . If
instead, someone wearing sunglasses is selected at random, what is the probability that
this person is also wearing a cap?
Video Solution
Problem 4.7.15 (Omega Learn Math Contest)
John has 9 red apples and 3 green apples. He randomly selects and eats an apple.
Then, 3 of the red apples get rotten and are thrown away. From the remaining apples he
randomly selects and eats another apple. What the probability that both of the selected
apples were red is ab , what is the value of a + b?
Video Solution
Two different numbers are selected at random from {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and multiplied together.
What is the probability that the product is even?
60
Video Solution
A fair tetrahedral die, whose faces are numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4 is rolled three times.
What is the probability that the sum of the numbers rolled is 7? Express your answer
as a common fraction.
Video Solution
Two different numbers are randomly selected from the set {−2, −1, 0, 3, 4, 5} and multi-
plied together. What is the probability that the product is 0?
Video Solution
Joe is standing at the point (0,0) in the infinite coordinate plane. On any given move,
there is a 13 chance of him moving up, 13 chance of him moving right, 61 chance of him
moving down, and 16 chance of him moving left. If the probability he will reach the point
(3,3) in less than or equal to 8 moves can be described as 3ab , then what is the value of
a + b?
Video Solution
The Blazers and Cortzans are playing a series of 7 games. A team wins the series
when they have won 4 games. Both teams have an equal likelihood of winning a game.
If the probability the Cortzans win the series and lose less than 3 games can be expressed
as mn , find the value of m + n?
61
Video Solution
On the dart board shown in the figure below, the outer circle has radius 6 and the
inner circle has radius 3. Three radii divide each circle into three congruent regions,
with point values shown. The probability that a dart will hit a given region is propor-
tional to the area of the region. When two darts hit this board, the score is the sum of
the point values of the regions hit. What is the probability that the score is odd?
2 1
1 2
Video Solution
62
Eric is stacking twenty six Jenga Blocks. For n ≥ 1, the probability that placing the
1
nth block causes the whole tower to topple is 26−n assuming the tower still stands after
placing n − 1 blocks. What is the expected number of blocks placed before the block
that causes the tower to topple?
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Jamal has a drawer containing 6 green socks, 18 purple socks, and 12 orange socks.
After adding more purple socks, Jamal noticed that there is now a 60% chance that a
sock randomly selected from the drawer is purple. How many purple socks did Jamal
add?
A positive integer divisor of 11! is chosen at random. What is the probability that
this divisor is prime? Express your answer as a common fraction.
Consider the regular octahedron as shown. Each edge of the octahedron has a length of
1. An ant starts at the vertex A and crawls a total distance of 3 units along the edges
of the octahedron. Any time the ant reaches a vertex of the octahedron, it randomly
chooses an edge to next crawl on that is different from the edge it just left. One such
path the ant may take is shown. What is the probability that the ant will end up a
distance greater than 1 from its starting point A ? Express your answer as a common
fraction.
63
Answers
5
4.1 1296
1
4.2 6
4.3 78%
4.4 107
2
4.5 3
1
4.7.1 36
1
4.7.2 12
5
4.7.3 36
3
4.7.4 8
5
4.7.5 12
64
3
4.7.6 10
1
4.7.7 8
2
4.7.8 5
4
4.7.9 7
5
4.7.10 24
5
4.7.11 7
4.7.12 84
1
4.7.13 3
7
4.7.14 25
4.7.15 47
4.7.16 0.7
3
4.7.17 16
1
4.7.18 3
4.7.19 468
4.7.20 43
35
4.7.21 72
4.7.22 12
4.7.23 9
1
4.7.24 108
2
4.7.25 9
65
Chapter 5
Casework
Video Lecture
66
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 5. Casework
5.1 Casework Fundamentals
Concept 5.1.1
Casework is solving counting or probability problems by considering the different cases
and adding them together. Many counting or probability problems can be solved by
dividing a problem into several cases and calculating arrangements and probabilities for
each case before summing them together.
You should try casework when there are no other obvious approaches as it is one of the
most common techniques on the AMC 8.
Example 5.1
Two dice are rolled. What is the number of the ways that the sum of the numbers rolled
is 3?
Solution 5.1
To do this, let’s take cases based on the first roll.
How many ways are there for two dice to sum to 3?
Case 1: First roll is a 1
If the first roll is a 1, then the second roll must be 2.
Case 2: First roll is a 2
If the first roll is a 2, then the second roll must be 1.
Case 3: First roll is a 3 or more
If the first roll is anything 3 or more, then the sum will always be at least 4 (since the
2nd roll is at least 1), so this is not possible.
Therefore, in total, there are 2 ways.
67
Example 5.2
Two cards are dealt from a deck of four red cards labeled A, B, C, D and four green
cards labeled A, B, C, D. Winning pair is two of the same color or two of the same
letter. How many ways are there to draw a winning pair?
Solution 5.2
This is a another casework problems. The first step is to identify the different cases.
What are the different ways to draw a winning pair?
We can either have the same color or the same letter. Note that having the same color
and having the same letter are not possible as that would mean drawing the same card twice
which is not possible. We consider the cases separately.
Case 1: The 2 cards are the same color.
For this case, we have 2 choices for which color both cards will be.
How many ways are there to select 2 cards from 4 cards of a given color?

4
Since there are 4 cards of each color, and we must select 2 of them, there are just 2
ways to select 2 cards.
Therefore, the number of ways to pick 2 cards of the same color will just be the number of
colors times the number of ways to select 2 cards from that color, which is
!
4 4×3
2× = 2× = 12
2 2
Case 2: The 2 cards are the same letter.
For this case, we have 4 choices for which letter both cards will have.
Now, how many color choices are possible for the 2 cards?
Remember that order does not matter in our winning pair. For each letter, there are only 2
cards available to draw (red or green). Because we need to draw 2 cards for a winning pair,
we need to draw both of the 2 cards available to form a winning
pair, so there is only 1 way
to do this. Another way to think about this is that there are 22 = 1 way to pick the colors.
68
Therefore, the number of ways to pick 2 cards of the same letter is just 4 × 1 = 4.
In total, the total number of winning pairs is the number of pairs of cards with the same
color plus the number of pairs of cards with the same letter which is
12 + 4 = 16

Sohil has 10 boxes. Each box has a green, orange, red, and blue ball. He randomly
chooses one of the boxes and then uniformly at random picks a ball from that box. He
repeats this process of randomly choosing any box (allowed to choose same box again)
and randomly choosing a ball in that box. What is the probability that the balls are
the same color?
Video Solution
5.2 Harder Casework Examples

There are 3 identical blue boxes, 6 identical green boxes, and 5 distinct items. Each of
the items must be placed into either a green or blue box, and each box can contain a
maximum of 1 item. Assuming all of the boxes are different, how many ways are there
to do this?
Solution 5.3
There are 5 items to be put in some of the 9 green and blue boxes, so we must choose 5 of
these 9 boxes to put the items into.
How can we divide this problem into cases?
We can choose our cases based on the number of green and blue boxes we are selecting.
The cases are
1. 3 blue boxes, 2 green boxes
69
3. 1 blue box, 4 green boxes
Notice that this covers all the cases because it covers all possible number of blue boxes.
Clearly, 6 green boxes is impossible since we only have to select 5 of them to put items into.
Also, make sure to keep in mind that the boxes of the same color are identical.
Case 1: 3 blue boxes, 2 green boxes
For this case, how many ways are there to put 5 items into 3 blue and 2 green
boxes?
We can count this be seeing that we simply have to choose 3 of the items to place into
the blue boxes, and the other items will be put in green boxes. We don’t have to worry
about order of the items in the blue boxes(or the green boxes) because the boxes of the
5
same color are identical. We can do this in 3 ways.
Case 2: 2 blue boxes, 3 green boxes Again, we do this by choosing 2 of the items to
put into
blue boxes, and the remaining 3 items will be put into green boxes. We can do this
5
in 2 ways.
Case 3: 1 blue boxes, 4 green boxes Out of the 5 items, we must choose 1 of them for
a blue box and the remaining 4 will go in green boxes. We can do this in 51 ways.
Case 4: 0 blue boxes, 5 green boxes Because all of the items must go in green boxes,
there is only 1 way to do this.
In total among all the cases, there are

! ! !
5 5 5 5×4×3 5×4 5 60 20 5
+ + +1 = + + +1 = + + + 1 = 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 = 26
3 2 1 3! 2! 1! 6 2 1
Remark 5.2.1
For casework problems, pick one attribute to change and find the number of ways in each
of the cases. In the previous problem, this was the number of blue boxes. Sometimes,
the problem may require subcases.
70
Example 5.2 (AMC 8)

A △ or ⃝ is placed in each of the nine squares in a 3-by-3 grid. Shown below is a
sample configuration with three △s in a line. How many configurations will have three
△s in a line and three ⃝s in a line?
Video Solution
71

How many different combinations of 5 dollar bills and 2 dollar bills can be used to
make a total of 17 dollars if the order of the bills does not matter?
Video Solution
The ”Middle School Eight” basketball conference has 8 teams. Every season, each team
plays every other conference team twice (home and away), and each team also plays 4
games against non-conference opponents. What is the total number of games in a season
involving the ”Middle School Eight” teams?
Video Solution
Problem 5.3.3
How many 3-digit even numbers are there with distinct digits?
Video Solution
Paul owes Paula 35 cents and has a pocket full of 5-cent coins, 10-cent coins, and 25-cent
coins that he can use to pay her. What is the difference between the largest and the
smallest number of coins he can use to pay her?
Video Solution
72
How many pairs of parallel edges does a cube have?
Video Solution
A fair coin is tossed 3 times. What is the probability there will be at least 2 consecutive
heads?
Video Solution
How many 4-digit positive integers have four different digits, where the leading digit
is not zero, the integer is a multiple of 5, and 5 is the largest digit?
Video Solution
Three fair six-sided dice are rolled. What is the probability that the values shown
on two of the dice sum to the value shown on the remaining die?
73
Video Solution
How many rearrangements of abcd are there in which no two adjacent letters are also
adjacent letters in the alphabet? For example, no such rearrangements could include
either ab or ba.
Video Solution
A license plate in a certain state consists of 4 digits, not necessarily distinct, and 2
letters, also not necessarily distinct. These six characters may appear in any order, ex-
cept that the two letters must appear next to each other. How many distinct license
plates are possible?
Video Solution
Given the set 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, how many non-empty subsets of this set are there
such that the sum of the elements are even?
Video Solution
The Beavers, Ducks, Platypuses, and Narwhals are the only four basketball teams re-
maining in a single-elimination tournament. Each round consists of the teams playing
in pairs with the winner of each game continuing to the next round. If the teams are
randomly paired and each has an equal probability of winning any game, what is the
probability that the Ducks and the Beavers will play each other in one of the two rounds?
Express your answer as a common fraction.
74
Video Solution
A farmer’s rectangular field is partitioned into 2 by 2 grid of 4 rectangular sections

as shown in the figure. In each section the farmer will plant one crop: corn, wheat,
soybeans, or potatoes. The farmer does not want to grow corn and wheat in any two
sections that share a border, and the farmer does not want to grow soybeans and pota-
toes in any two sections that share a border. Given these restrictions, in how many ways
can the farmer choose crops to plant in each of the four sections of the field?
Video Solution
How many ways are there to place 3 indistinguishable red chips, 3 indistinguishable
blue chips, and 3 indistinguishable green chips in the squares of a 3 × 3 grid so that
no two chips of the same color are directly adjacent to each other, either vertically or
horizontally?
Video Solution
75
Additional Problems
Abby, Bridget, and four of their classmates will be seated in two rows of three for a
group picture, as shown.
XXX
XXX
If the seating positions are assigned randomly, what is the probability that Abby and
Bridget are adjacent to each other in the same row or the same column?
When three positive integers a, b, and c are multiplied together, their product is 100.
Suppose a < b < c. In how many ways can the numbers be chosen?
A palindrome is a number that has the same value when read from left to right or
from right to left. (For example, 12321 is a palindrome.) Let N be the least three-
digit integer which is not a palindrome but which is the sum of three distinct two-digit
palindromes. What is the sum of the digits of N ?
Problem 5.3.18 (EMCC)
Fred and George have a fair 8-sided die with the numbers 0,1,2,9,2,0,1,1 written on
the sides. If Fred and George each roll the die once, what is the probability that Fred
rolls a larger number than George?
On a standard die one of the dots is removed at random with each dot equally likely to
76
be chosen. The die is then rolled. What is the probability that the top face has an odd
number of dots?
Problem 5.3.20
Three unique fair tetrahedral die, whose faces are numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4 are rolled.
How many ways can the sum of the numbers rolled be 7?
Chad and Jordan independently choose two-digit positive integers. The two numbers
are then multiplied together. What is the probability that the result has a units digit
of zero?
Problem 5.3.22 (BMMT)
At the Berkeley Sandwich Parlor, the famous BMT sandwich consists of up to five
ingredients between the bread slices. These ingredients can be either bacon, mayo, or
tomato, and ingredients of the same type are indistiguishable. If there must be at least
one of each ingredient in the sandwich, and the order in which the ingredients are placed
in the sandwich matters, how many possible ways are there to prepare a BMT sandwich?
How many 4-digit numbers exist such that the 2nd digit is even, the 3rd digit is a
multiple of 3 that is not a multiple of 2, and the 4th digit is a multiple of 4 if all of the
digits are greater than 0 and different?
The number 40,231 is a five-digit positive integer that uses five consecutive digits, al-
though not necessarily in order. How many such five-digit numbers are there?
77
In the grid shown, how many ways are there to spell the word “QUEUE” by moving one
square at a time either horizontally or vertically, and provided squares may be revisited?
TODO
In a tournament there are six teams that play each other twice. A team earns points
for a win, point for a draw, and points for a loss. After all the games have been played
it turns out that the top three teams earned the same number of total points. What is
the greatest possible number of total points for each of the top three teams?
Jasmine rolls a fair 6-sided die, with faces labeled from 1 to 6, and a fair 20-sided
die, with faces labeled from 1 to 20. What is the probability that the product of these
two rolls, added to the sum of these two rolls, is a multiple of 3?
Answers
9
5.1 40
5.2 84
5.3.1 2
5.3.2 88
5.3.3 328
5.3.4 5
5.3.5 18
78
3
5.3.6 8
5.3.7 84
5
5.3.8 24
5.3.9 2
5.3.10 5 × 104 × 262
5.3.11 63
1
5.3.12 2
5.3.13 84
5.3.14 36
7
5.3.15 15
5.3.16 4
5.3.17 2
23
5.3.18 64
11
5.3.19 21
5.3.20 12
5.3.22 192
5.3.23 72
5.3.24 696
13
5.3.27 60
”?
79
Chapter 6
Complementary Counting
Video Lecture
80
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 6. Complementary Counting
6.1 Complementary Counting Fundamentals

Complementary counting is the problem solving technique of counting the opposite of the
problem constraint and subtracting that from the total number of cases. In combinatorics
problems, the keyword “at least” generally indicates that complementary counting may be
helpful.
Example 6.1
I roll 2 fair 6-sided dice. How many ways are there for the sum of the numbers to be 11
or less?
Solution 6.1
We could do this problem by casework by considering the number of ways to roll all of the
numbers from 1 to 11. However, this will take a lot of time and is very tedious. Instead,
let’s try finding the opposite of what we are trying to count.
What is the opposite of rolling a sum of numbers 11 or less?
Notice that the sum of 2 numbers on 2 dice is at most 12 because the maximum roll on
each dice is 6. Therefore, the only possibility for the sum of numbers on 2 dice that results
in it not being 11 or less is for the sum to be 12.
How many ways are there to have a sum of 12 on 2 dice?
The only possibility for this is if both dice roll a 6, so there is only 1 way.
Next, we must find the total number of ways to roll 2 dice. This is just 6 × 6 = 36.
Then, how many rolls of 2 dice result in a sum that is 11 or less?
This is just the number of total possible rolls minus the number of rolls that sum to a
number more than 11, which is
36 − 1 = 35
81

You have 7 slips of paper numbered 1 to 7. How many ways are there to choose any
subset of them so that you have at least 2 odd numbers and 1 even number?
Video Solution
Example 6.2 (AMC 10)

When a certain unfair die is rolled, an even number is 3 times as likely to appear as
an odd number. The die is rolled twice. What is the probability that the sum of the
numbers rolled is even?
Video Solution
Remark 6.1.1
Often we might also have to use the fact that the number of ways to choose any number
of items from n items is 2n in conjunction with complementary counting.
Example 6.2 (AIME)

A positive integer is called ascending if, in its decimal representation, there are at least
two digits and each digit is less than any digit to its right. How many ascending positive
integers are there?
Video Solution
6.2 Complementary Counting with Casework
Example 6.3
I roll 2 fair 6-sided dice. What is the probability that the sum of the numbers is 5 or
more?
82
Solution 6.2
In this problem, we will first find the number of ways to have a sum of 5 or more. We could
do casework, but there is a much faster solution with complementary counting.
What is the opposite of rolling a sum of numbers 5 or more?
Because the minimum sum of 2 dice is 2 (since each dice must roll at least a 1), the dice
rolls must sum to 2, 3, or 4 for the sum to not be 5 or more. We divide this into cases.
Case 1: The 2 dice sum to 2
There is only 1 way for this to happen (both dice are 1).
If the first dice roll is a 1, then the 2nd dice roll must be a 2. If the first dice roll is a
2, then the 2nd dice roll must be a 1. If the first dice roll is 3 or more, then the sum will be
at least 4 or more, so this case doesn’t count.
So, in total there are 2 ways for the sum to be 3.
If the first dice roll is a 1, then the 2nd dice roll must be a 3. If the first dice roll is a
2, then the 2nd dice roll must be a 2. If the first dice roll is a 3, then the 2nd dice roll must
be a 1. If the first dice roll is 4 or more, then the sum will be at least 5 or more, so this case
doesn’t count.
So in total there are 3 ways for this case.
Therefore, amongst all 3 cases, there are a total of 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 ways to not have a sum of 5
or more.
Next, the total number of dice rolls is 6 × 6 = 36. Therefore, the number of rolls result-
ing in a sum of 5 or more is just 36 − 6 = 30.
Therefore, the probability of this happening is
30 5
=
36 6
83
Remark 6.2.1
Often times, we have to use complementary counting in conjunction with other concepts
like casework and probability.
Example 6.4
How many subsets of the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 , 9, 10} have at least 1 even number
and do not contain all of the elements?
Solution 6.3
How can we use complementary counting?
We can find the total number of subsets and subtract the subsets which have no even num-
bers and contain all of the elements. Note that both having no even numbers and containing
all of the elements cannot happen, so we don’t have to worry about overlap between the
subsets that don’t work.
Case 1: Subset contains all of the elements
There is only 1 subset that contains all of the elements (the original set).
Case 2: Subset contains no even elements
If there are no even elements, then we simply have to pick some odd numbers from {1,
3, 5, 7, 9} for our subset.
How many ways are there to do this?
Remember that each element has 2 choices (to be in subset or not in subset), so the number
of ways to form our subset from just odd numbers is 25 = 32.
Therefore in total, 1 + 32 = 33 ways don’t work.
Next, how many total subsets are there?
Since there are 10 elements and each element has 2 choices, there are 210 = 1024 subsets.
Therefore the number of valid subsets is 1024 − 33 = 991
84

There are 3 sections of a dart board. The outermost section is worth 2 point if hit. The
middle section is worth 5 points if hit. The innermost section is worth 10 points if hit.
The probability you hit inner section is 14 , the probability you hit the middle section is
3 2
8 , the probability you hit the outermost section is 8 , and the probability you miss the
dartboard entirely is 18 . You throw 3 darts at the dartboard. What is the probability
you get less than 20 points?
Video Solution
85

Problem 6.3.1
If you toss four coins, in how many ways will there be at least 1 head?
Video Solution
Problem 6.3.2
If you toss four coins, in how many ways will there be at least 2 heads?
Video Solution
Problem 6.3.3
How many three digit numbers contain the digit 5 at least once?
Video Solution
Problem 6.3.4
How many 3 digit numbers have at least 2 digits that are the same?
Video Solution
Problem 6.3.5
How many ways are there to select a group of 3 people from 5 women and 3 men if
there must be at least 1 man in the group?
Video Solution
86
A box contains five cards, numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Three cards are selected ran-
domly without replacement from the box. What is the probability that 4 is the largest
value selected?
Video Solution
Problem 6.3.7
How many 4 digit numbers are not palindromes? A palindrome is a number that reads
the same forward and backward.
Video Solution
Alice, Bob, Claire, Dave, Emma are sitting around a round table. Alice refuses to
sit next to Bob. How many different ways can they sit around the table? (Rotations of
the same arrangement are not considered different).
Video Solution
From a regular octagon, a triangle is formed by connecting three randomly chosen ver-
tices of the octagon. What is the probability that at least one of the sides of the triangle
is also a side of the octagon?
87
Video Solution
How many subsets of {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} contain at least one prime number?
Video Solution
Problem 6.3.11
There are 9 different flavors of ice cream at an ice cream shop. Joe wants to buy 2
or 3 scoops of different ice cream flavors. He doesn’t like 2 of the flavors Mango and
Chocolate together so won’t buy them together. How many ways can he buy ice cream?
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Una rolls 6 standard 6-sided dice simultaneously and calculates the product of the 6
numbers obtained. What is the probability that the product is divisible by 4?
Zara has a collection of 4 marbles: an Aggie, a Bumblebee, a Steelie, and a Tiger.

She wants to display them in a row on a shelf, but does not want to put the Steelie and
the Tiger next to one another. In how many ways can she do this?
Problem 6.3.14
There are 10 slips of paper numbered 1 to 5 in a bag, each equally likely to be drawn.
88
You draw a slip, and then immediately put it back in the bag. What is the least number
of slips you must draw in order to have at least a 12 chance of drawing the number 3?
Problem 6.3.15
You have 6 identical pears and 5 identical apples. You choose 4 fruits at random. What
is the probability of picking at least 1 pear?
Answers
6.1 77
5
6.2 8
6.2 902
6.3 189/256
6.3.1 15
6.3.2 11
6.3.3 252
6.3.4 252
6.3.5 46
3
6.3.6 10
6.3.7 8910
6.3.8 12
5
6.3.9 7
6.3.10 240
89
6.3.11 112
59
6.3.12 64
6.3.13 12
6.3.14 4
65
6.3.15 66
90
Chapter 7
Principle of Inclusion Exclusion (PIE)
Video Lecture
91
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 7. Principle of Inclusion Exclusion (PIE)
7.1 PIE Strategies

Definition 7.1.1. Overcounting is the process of counting more than what you need and
then systematically subtracting the parts which do not belong.
Definition 7.1.2. The principle of inclusion and exclusion (PIE) is a counting technique
that uses overcounting to compute the number of elements that satisfy at least one of sev-
eral properties while guaranteeing that elements satisfying more than one property are not
counted twice.
7.2 PIE for 2 Events
Example 7.1
Find how many numbers from 1 to 100 (inclusive) that are divisible by 2 or 7.
Solution 7.1
To solve this problem, let’s first find how many numbers are divisible by 2 and how many
numbers are divisible by 7
How many numbers from 1 to 100 are divisible by 2?
Every 2nd number is divisible by 2, so all the numbers from 2 × 1 to 2 × 50 work. Therefore,
from 1 to 100 there are 50 numbers divisible by 2.
Every 7th number is divisible by 7, so all of the numbers from 7 × 1 to 7 × 14 work. We

7 is a little more than 14 so 7 × 14 is the largest multiple of 7
calculate this by seeing that 100
less than 100. Therefore, there from 1 to 100 are 14 numbers divisible by 7.
Are there any numbers overcounted between the multiples of 2 and the mul-
tiples of 7?
For a number to be both a multiple of 2 and a multiple of 7, it must be a multiple of

7 × 2 = 14. Therefore, we are overcounting these numbers since we are counting them twice
as part of the multiples of 2 and multiples of 7.
92
Every 14th number is divisible by 14, so all of the numbers from 14 × 1 to 14 × 7 work.
Therefore, from 1 to 100 there are 7 numbers divisible by 14.
Therefore, in total, the number of numbers that are multiple of 2 or 7 are the number
of multiples of 2 plus the number of multiples of 7 minus the multiples of 14.
This gives us an answer of 50 + 14 − 7 = 57 .
Definition 7.2.1 (Union Symbol). |A ∪ B| is the union of elements in both A and B (i.e.
all elements that are in set A or set B, but duplicates are only written once)
Definition 7.2.2 (Intersection Symbol). |A ∩ B| is the intersection of elements in both A

and B (i.e. only those elements which are in both sets)
Theorem 7.2.3 (Principle of Inclusion Exclusion for 2 Sets)

Given two sets, |A1 | and |A2 |
|A1 ∪ A2 | = |A1 | + |A2 | − |A1 ∩ A2 |
Basically, we count the number of possibilities in 2 ”things” and subtract the duplicates.

How many subsets of the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} have at most 4 even numbers
and at most 2 elements that are multiples of 3?
This is another problem we will solve using the principle of inclusion and exclusion and the
subsets formula we learned earlier.
Solution 7.2
How we can apply the Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion to this problem?
Notice how there are 5 even numbers, and we have to find how many subsets have at most 4
even numbers. Similarly, there are 3 multiples of 3, and we have to find how many elements
have at most 2 multiples of 3.
We can see that there are fewer cases that don’t satisfy the condition, so it is better to use
complementary counting. We will first count the number of subsets that have more than 4
93
even numbers and have more than 2 multiple of 3.
First, how many subsets have more than 4 even numbers?
Since there are 5 multiples of 2 from 1 to 10 (2, 4, 6, 8, 10), to have more than 4 mul-
tiples of 2 means having all of the multiples of 2 (only 1 way to choose this). From the
remaining 5 numbers, there are 25 possible subsets. Therefore, in total, there are 1 × 25 = 25
subsets that have more than 4 multiples of 2.
Next, how many subsets have more than 2 multiples of 3?
Since there are 3 multiples of 3 from 1 to 10 (3, 6, 9), to have more than 2 multiples of
3 means having all of the multiples of 3 (only 1 ways to choose this). From the remaining
7 numbers, there are 27 possible subsets. By similar logic, in total, there will be 1 × 27 = 27
possible subsets.
How many subsets are we overcounting that have all of the even numbers and
multiples of 3 from 1 to 10?
For a subset to have all the multiples of 2 and 3, it must contain all the elements from
2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 (only 1 way to choose this). From the remaining 3 numbers, there are
1 × 23 = 23 possible subsets.
Therefore, in total, the number of subsets that don’t satisfy our original condition is 27 +
25 − 23 = 128 + 32 − 8 = 152.
The total number of possible subsets of the original set of 10 numbers is 210 = 1024, so the
number of valid subsets is 1024 − 152 = 872
Remark 7.2.4
When the number of cases that don’t work is much less than the number of cases that
do work, it can often be helpful to use complementary counting along with PIE.
94

Mark and George are playing a guessing game. George randomly chooses 2 numbers
between 1 and 25. Mark then asks George if exactly 1 of the 2 numbers is divisible by
7. George, truthfully, answers yes. Mark then proceeds to guess 1 multiple of 7 and 1
number that is not a multiple of 7. What is the probability that Mark guesses at least
1 number correctly?
Video Solution

How many different ways are there to arrange the letters in the word LOLLIPOP if
each of the L’s must be next to an O?
Video Solution
7.3 PIE for 3 Events
Theorem 7.3.1 (Principle of Inclusion Exclusion for 3 Sets)

Given three sets, |A1 |, |A2 |, |A3 |,
|A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 | = |A1 | + |A2 | + |A3 | − |A1 ∩ A2 | − |A1 ∩ A3 | − |A1 ∩ A3 | + |A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 |
In this formula, we count the number of possibilities in 3 ”things”, subtract the possi-
bilities that are duplicates in all 3 pairs of sets, and add back the number of duplicates
that are in all 3 sets.
Example 7.3
How many numbers less than or equal to 193 are multiples of 2, 3, or 5?
95
Solution 7.3
First, let’s find how many numbers are divisible by 2, how many numbers are divisible by 3,
and how many numbers are divisible by 5.
Every 2nd number is divisible by 2, so all the numbers from 2 × 1 to 2 × 96 work. Therefore,
there are 96 numbers divisible by 2 less than or equal to 193
Every 3rd number is divisible by 3, so all the numbers from 3 × 1 to 3 × 64 work. Therefore,
Every 5th number is divisible by 5, so all the numbers from 5 × 1 to 5 × 38 work. Therefore,
there are 38 numbers divisible by 5 less than or equal to 193.
Next, we must subtract numbers divisible by two of the numbers 2, 3, or 5.
For this to happen, what values must the numbers be divisible by?
Numbers divisible by 2 and 3 or numbers divisible by 2 × 3 = 6 are counted twice. Simi-

larly, numbers divisible by 2 and 5 or 2 × 5 = 10 are counted twice and numbers divisible by
3 and 5 or 3 × 5 = 15 are counted twice. Therefore, we are overcounting multiples of each of
6, 10, and 15, so we must subtract them.
Every 6th number is divisible by 6, so all the numbers from 6 × 1 to 6 × 32 work. Therefore,
Every 10th number is divisible by 10, so all the numbers from 10 × 1 to 10 × 19 work. There-
fore, there are 19 numbers divisible by 10 less than or equal to 193
fore, there are 12 numbers divisible by 15 less than or equal to 193.
If we subtract the overcounted numbers above, did we remove too much?
Next, we look at how many times multiples of 2, 3, and 5, or multiples of 2 × 3 × 5 = 60

were counted. Well, they were originally counted 3 times as part of the multiples of 2, 3, and
5. Then, they were subtracted 3 times as part of the multiples of 6, 10, and 15. Therefore,
they have been counted 0 times! But, we need to count them exactly once, so we must add
back the number of multiples of 2 × 3 × 5 = 60.
fore, there are 3 numbers divisible by 60 less than or equal to 193
In total, to find the number of multiples of 2, 3, or 5 we have to add the number of multiples
96
of 2, the number of multiples of 3, the number of multiples of 5. Then, we have to subtract

the number of multiples of 6, 10, and 15. And finally, we have to add back the number of
multiples of 60.
This gives us an answer of 96 + 64 + 38 − 32 − 19 − 12 + 3 = 138 .
Example 7.3 (AMC 8)

Five different awards are to be given to three students. Each student will receive at
least one award. In how many different ways can the awards be distributed?
Video Solution
7.4 PIE for any Number of Events (Optional)

Concept 7.4.1 (PIE Generalization)
The same principle to applies to more than when counting more than 3 events. For any
n events, to find the total number of ways such that any of the events occur
1. Find number of ways each individual event occurs in.
2. For every pair of 2 events, subtract number of ways where both of them occur
3. For every triplet of 3 events, add back number of ways where all 3 of them occur
.
4. For every quadruplet of 4 events, subtract number of ways where all 4 occur ..
5. For all n events, add (if n is odd) or subtract (if n is even) number of ways where
all of them occur
Alternate between adding the number of ways and subtracting the number of ways
until you reach the case where all n events occur. Whether you add or subtract the
number of ways where all n events occur depends on whether n is odd since we alternate
between adding and subtracting.
97
Theorem 7.4.2 (Principle of Inclusion Exclusion Generalized Formula)

Stated more formally, if (Ai )1≤i≤n are finite sets, then:
[
n X
n X X
Ai = |Ai | − |Ai ∩ Aj | + |Ai ∩ Aj ∩ Ak | − · · · + (−1)n−1 |A1 ∩ · · · ∩ An |
i=1 i=1 i<j i<j<k
.
Remark 7.4.3
Don’t be afraid of the complex notation. There is no need to memorize or understand
this formula if you understand the concept above
98

Problem 7.5.1
How many positive numbers less than or equal to 100 are multiples of 2 or 3?
Video Solution
Problem 7.5.2
How many positive numbers less than or equal to 100 are NOT multiples of 2 or 3?
Video Solution
Problem 7.5.3
Out of 200 students, there are 100 taking Geometry, 70 taking Algebra, and 30 tak-
ing both. How many students are taking neither?
Video Solution
Sets A and B, shown in the Venn diagram, have the same number of elements. Their
union has 2007 elements and their intersection has 1001 elements. Find the number of
elements in A.
A B
1001
99
Problem 7.5.5
In a town of 351 adults, every adult owns a car, motorcycle, or both. If 331 adults
own cars and 45 adults own motorcycles, how many of the car owners do not own a
motorcycle?
Problem 7.5.6
How many positive integers less than or equal to 100 are not multiples of 2 or 3?
At Euler Middle School, 198 students voted on two issues in a school referendum with
the following results: 149 voted in favor of the first issue and 119 voted in favor of the
second issue. If there were exactly 29 students who voted against both issues, how many
students voted in favor of both issues?
Video Solution
Problem 7.5.8
How many positive numbers less than or equal to 200 are multiples of 2 and 3 but
not a multiple of 5?
Video Solution
There are 20 students participating in an after-school program offering classes in yoga,

bridge, and painting. Each student must take at least one of these three classes, but
may take two or all three. There are 10 students taking yoga, 13 taking bridge, and 9
taking painting. There are 9 students taking at least two classes. How many students
are taking all three classes?
100
Mrs. Sanders has three grandchildren, who call her regularly. One calls her every
three days, one calls her every four days, and one calls her every five days. All three
called her on December 31, 2016. On how many days during the next year did she not
receive a phone call from any of her grandchildren?
Video Solution
Alice refuses to sit next to either Bob or Carla. Derek refuses to sit next to Eric.
How many ways are there for the five of them to sit in a row of 5 chairs under these
conditions?
Video Solution
Problem 7.5.12 (AIME)
Many states use a sequence of three letters followed by a sequence of three digits as
their standard license-plate pattern. Given that each three-letter three-digit arrange-
ment is equally likely, the probability that such a license plate will contain at least one
palindrome (a three-letter arrangement or a three-digit arrangement that reads the same
left to right as it does right to left) is m
n , where m and n are relatively prime positive
integers. Find m + n.
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 7.5.13 (BmMT)
Students are being assigned to faculty mentors in the Berkeley Math Department. If
there are 7 distinct students and 3 distinct mentors, and each student has exactly one
101
mentor, in how many ways can students be assigned to mentors such that each mentor
has at least one student?
Call a number prime-looking if it is composite but not divisible by 2, 3, or5. The three
smallest prime-looking numbers are 49, 77, and 91. There are 168 prime numbers less
than 1000. How many prime-looking numbers are there less than 1000?
How many different subsets of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12} contain at least
one element in common with each of the sets {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}, {3, 6, 9, 12} and {2, 3,
5, 7, 11}?
Answers
4
7.1 11
7.2 108
7.3 150
7.5.1 67
7.5.2 33
7.5.3 60
7.5.4 1504
7.5.5 306
7.5.6 33
102
7.5.7 99
7.5.8 27
7.5.10 146
7.5.11 28
7.5.12 059
7.5.14 100
7.5.15 3682
103
Chapter 8
Stars and Bars
Video Lecture
104
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 8. Stars and Bars
8.1 Stars and Bars Fundamentals
Example 8.1
How many ways are there to distribute 8 identical computers amongst 3 students?
Solution 8.1
Make sure to keep in mind that the computers are identical. If the computers were not
identical, then we would just have 3 choices for each computer, so our answer would just be
38 .
However, when the computers are identical, only the number of computers each student
has matters. To start, let’s say we have 8 computers in a line: CCCCCCCC. Therefore, we
must divide these computers amongst 3 students.
How can we represent the 8 computers being divided amongst the 3 students?
We can think about having 3 groups. We can simply let the leftmost group be for stu-
dent one, the middle group for student 2, and the rightmost group for student 3 because
only the number of computers each student has matters, so ordering is irrelevant.
How can we divide the 8 C’s amongst 3 groups?
We can do this by just placing 2 bars somewhere in between the 8 C’s! Everything left
of the first bar goes to student 1, everything in the middle goes to student 2, and everything
to the right of the 2nd bar goes to student 3. Therefore, the number of ways to distribute
the computers is simply the number of ways to insert 2 bars in between 8 C’s. Examples:
CC|CCCCC|C - 2 for student 1, 5 for student 2, 1 for student 3

|CCCC|CCCC - 0 for student 1, 4 for student 2, 4 for student 3
C|CCCCCCC| - 1 for student 1, 7 for student 2, 0 for student 3
CCCCCCCC|| - 8 for student 1, 0 for student 2, 0 for student 3
How do we find the number of ways to insert 2 bars in between 8 C’s?
We can think of having 10 slots (each slot for either a bar or a C). Then, we can choose 2 of
these slots for bars.
Therefore, the numbers of ways to select two slots out of the 10 slots (i.e. choose two
105
slots to put the two bars out of the 10 slots) is

!
10 10 × 9
= = 45
2 2
Example 8.1
How many ways are there to distribute 8 identical pencils amongst 3 people?
Video Solution
Theorem 8.1.1 (Stars and Bars)

The number of ways to place n indistinguishable objects into k distinguishable bins is
!
n+k−1
n
Remark 8.1.2
The reason this is true is because you can consider placing k − 1 bars in between n
objects which would be equivalent to having n + (k − 1) slots and choosing k − 1 slots
from those. This can be written as:
!
n+k−1
k−1
which is equivalent to !
n+k−1
n
This general idea is important to understand because tricky problems will often add
additional conditions.
Remark 8.1.3
Make sure to remember that Stars and Bars only works if the objects that are being
distributed are identical!
8.2 Stars and Bars with Constraints
106
Concept 8.2.1
Stars and bars is extremely useful, and can often be adapted based on situations. For
example, if each bin has to have at least 1 object in it we assign each bin 1 object to
start off with and apply our formula with n − k objects and k distinguishable bins.
Example 8.2
7 astronauts are stranded in space with only 10 identical meals left. Every astronaut
must receive at least 1 meal or else, they will starve. How many ways are there to
distribute meals under this constraint?
Solution 8.2
This problem is very similar to the previous problem, except we now have an additional
constraint, so the formula won’t work. Let’s focus on the constraint, since it’s the most
complicated part of the problem.
How can we deal with the condition that every astronaut must get at least 1
meal?
If every astronaut must receive at least 1 meal and all the meals are identical, we can
simply pre-distribute 7 of the meals and give 1 to each astronaut. Notice that now, no
matter where the remaining meals are distributed, every astronaut will get 1 meal or more.
Now, how can we use stars on bars on the remaining problem?
After 7 meals are distributed, only 3 remain. There is no constraint on who these 3 meals
can go to, so it can go to any of the 7 astronauts. To divide these 3 meals into 7 groups, we
can place 6 bars in between the 3 meals. Then, out of the 3+6=9 slots for meals and bars,
we must choose 6 of them for bars.

9 9 9×8×7 9×8×7
We can do this in 6 = 3 = 3! = 6 = 84 .
Example 8.3
What’s the probability that the sum of the top faces on five regular 6-sided dice is 24?
107
Solution 8.3
Before we begin, note that each dice must be a value from 1 to 6. There is no way to use
stars and bars directly because it will not account for the constraint that the maximum of
each dice roll is a 6.
How can we use stars and bars for this problem?
Let the default for each dice be a 6. Then the maximum score is 30, we must essentially
distribute 6 negatives to the 5 dice (-1, -1, -1, -1, -1, -1).
We can see that to distribute 6 negatives to 5 dice, we must have 4 bars to separate the
negatives into 5 groups for the dice. We then have 9 slots and must choose 4 of them for
bars. We can do this in 94 = 126 ways.
Are there any cases we are overcounting?
Because the minimum value of a dice roll is 1, each dice can only take at most 5 nega-
tives. Therefore, we are overcounting the possibilities where 1 dice receives 6 negatives.
How many ways are there for 1 dice to have 6 negatives?
There are 6 dice, so there are 6 choice for which dice will have all 6 negatives. From here,
we can calculate our final
answer by subtracting the 6 ways that result in 1 dice receiving
9
all 6 negatives from 4 , the number of ways to distribute 6 negatives to 5 dice so that no
dice gets more than 5 negatives.

9
This gives us 5 − 6 = 120
Example 8.2
How many ways are there to choose positive integers a, b, c, and d such that a + b + c +
d < 13
Video Solution
108
Example 8.4
How many ways are there for 7 people to sit in a line if 3 of them are enemies and refuse
to sit next to each other?
We will worry about the ordering about the 3 enemies and remaining 4 people later. For
now, let’s find the number of possible ways to choose 3 locations for the 7 enemies.
Without the condition, how many ways are there to do this?

10
There are 7 possible locations and the enemies must sit at 3 of them so 3 .
What must happen so that the enemies don’t sit next to each other?
There must be at least 1 other person between each of the enemies. Let w be the num-
ber of people left of the 1st enemy, let x be the number of people between the 1st and 2nd
enemies, let y be the number of people between the 2nd and 3rd enemies, and let z be the
number of people right of the 3rd enemy.
What conditions must w, x, y, z satisfy?
Firstly, since there are 4 people who are not enemies, we must have w + x + y + z = 4.
However, by our observation earlier, x and y must be at least 1.
How can we use stars and bars to find the number of solutions to this equa-
tion?

5
We start by assigning 1 star to x and y. Then, there are 3 solutions by stars and bars.
How many orderings of the enemies and non-enemies are possible?
There are
3! ways to order the enemies and 4! ways to order the other people so our an-
swer is 53 × 3! × 4! = 1440
109

You have 11 apples and 5 bananas. You place them into 3 baskets. How many ways
are there to do this if each basket must have more apples than bananas and at least 1
of any fruit?
Video Solution
110

Problem 8.3.1
How many ways are there to distribute 5 identical candies to 3 children?
Video Solution
When 7 fair standard 6-sided dice are thrown, the probability that the sum of the
numbers on the top faces is 10 can be written as
n
,
67
where n is a positive integer. What is n?
Video Solution
Pat is to select six cookies from a tray containing only chocolate chip, oatmeal, and
peanut butter cookies. There are at least six of each of these three kinds of cookies on
the tray. How many different assortments of six cookies can be selected?
Video Solution
Alice has 24 apples. In how many ways can she share them with Becky and Chris
so that each of the three people has at least two apples?
Video Solution
111
Three squirrels have to distribute 19 identical acorns amongst themselves.
• The first squirrel demands to have a positive odd number of acorns.
• The second squirrel is fine with any non-negative even number of acorns.
• The third squirrel insists he must get an even number of acorns greater than or
equal to 4.
How many different ways can they distribute the acorns?
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 8.3.6
How many positive 5 digit integers exist such that each digit is greater than or equal to
the previous digit?
Find the number of solutions to a + b + c + d < 19 where a, b, c, d are positive inte-

gers, a and c must be odd, and b and d must be even.
Answers
8.1 45
8.2 495
8.3 210
112
8.3.1 21
8.3.2 84
8.3.3 28
8.3.4 190
8.3.5 36
8.3.6 126
8.3.7 210
113
Chapter 9
Geometric Counting
Video Lecture
114
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 9. Geometric Counting
115
9.1 Geometric Counting Fundamentals
Example 9.1
How many triangles can be formed by connecting vertices in a regular octagon?
Solution 9.1
You could solve this by casework on what type of triangle you will select. However, there is
a very smart and clever solution.
How many vertices defines a triangle?
This seems like a silly question, obviously 3.
How many ways are there to select 3 vertices from an octagon?

8
Since an octagon has 8 vertices, this will just be 3 .
Do all combinations of 3 vertices form a triangle?
This is a very important question to ask because it’s not always true. For example, if 3
points are collinear (you can draw a line through all 3 of them) then the answer would ac-
tually be no, and we would have to subtract the extra cases. Luckily, in an octagon, no 3
points are collinear, so all combinations of 3 vertices do indeed form a triangle.
Therefore, our answer is just

!
8 8×7×6 8×7×6
= = = 56
3 3! 6
116
9.2 Number of Squares in Grid
Example 9.2
How many squares of all sizes can be formed from a 4x4 grid of unit squares?
Solution 9.2
Keep in mind that the answer is not 16 because we can’t just count unit squares!
What’s the easiest and most systematic way to count all possible squares?
We can break the problem down into 1x1, 2x2, 3x3, and 4x4 squares.
Case 1: 1x1 squares
For this case, there are just 4 × 4 = 16 squares.
Case 2: 2x2 squares
Notice how there are 3 possible choices of rows and 3 possible choices of columns to form a
2x2 square. In total, there are 3 × 3 = 9 possible 2x2 squares since each choice of two rows
and two columns produces a 2x2 square.
Case 3: 3x3 squares
117
Notice how there are 2 possible choices of rows and 2 possible choices of columns to form a
3x3 square. In total, there are 2 × 2 = 4 possible 3x3 squares since each choice of two rows
and two columns produces a 3x3 square.
Case 4: 4x4 squares
There is just one 4x4 square (the entire square).
In total, the number of squares of all sizes is
16 + 9 + 4 + 1 = 30
Theorem 9.2.1
The number of squares in a n × n grid of squares is
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + · · · + n2 =
6
.
Remark 9.2.2
This comes from the fact that there are n2 1x1 squares, (n − 1)2 2x2 squares, ...., 22 (n
- 1)x(n - 1) squares, and 12 nxn square.
9.3 Number of Rectangles in Grid
Example 9.3
How many rectangles are in a 3x5 grid of rectangles?
Solution 9.3
This is another problem that can be solved by tedious casework but has a very slick solution.
What defines a rectangle in a grid?
4 points? Not quite because 4 points don’t necessarily make a rectangle. 2 vertical lines
and 2 horizontal lines define a rectangle as shown in the picture below. In other words, any
2 vertical lines and horizontal lines in this grid will form a rectangle.
118
How can we count the number of rectangles in a grid based on this?
We simply have to choose 2 vertical lines and 2 horizontal lines!

4
There are 4 horizontal lines, so there are 2 ways to select 2 horizontal lines that define a

6
rectangle. Similarly, there are 6 vertical lines, so there are 2 ways to select 2 vertical lines
that define a rectangle.
Therefore, the number of rectangles is just

! !
4 6 4×3 6×5
× = × = 6 × 15 = 90
2 2 2 2
Theorem 9.3.1
The general formula for the number of rectangles of all sizes in a rectangular grid of size
m × n is ! !
m+1 n+1
×
2 2
.
Remark 9.3.2
Each combination of two horizontal lines and two vertical lines creates a unique rectangle.
119
We have !
m+1
2
ways to choose two horizontal lines and
!
n+1
2
ways to choose two vertical lines.

How many rectangles, which are not squares, are in a 5 × 4 grid of squares?
Video Solution

√
How many squares with side length 5 can be found in a 5 by 5 grid of points?
Video Solution
9.4 Path Counting
Example 9.4
A rabbit is walking in a coordinate plane and has to get from (0,0) to the carrot at the
point (5,5). If the rabbit can only move 1 unit up or 1 unit right on any given move,
how many ways are there for the rabbit to get to the carrot?
Solution 9.4
This is yet another problem that is tedious to solve with casework. Instead, let’s find a
simpler way to solve this problem. Lets denote a right move by R and an up move by U.
How many right and up moves does the rabbit need to get to the carrot?
120
Because it’s going from (0,0) to (5,5), it needs 5 right moves and 5 up moves. Therefore,
we just need to count the number of ways to make 5 right moves and 5 up moves in any order.
How can we represent the number of ways to make 5 right moves and 5 up
moves (in any order)?
This can be thought of as rearrangements of 5 R and 5 U: RRRRRUUUUU. We just need

to find all possible rearrangements of this word. Given the total number of characters is 10,
and counting the duplicates (5 R’s and 5 U’s), we can use the word rearrangement formula:
10!
= 252
5! × 5!
Theorem 9.4.1
The number of ways to get from (0,0) to a point (m,n) moving only up and right is
!
m+n
m
Remark 9.4.2
Imagine any arrangement string of m R’s and n U’s. Each string would correspond to
a unique path, so to count this, we can use the word rearrangement formula.
Example 9.3
How many ways to go from (0, 0) to (5, 6) moving only right or up if you cannot visit
all of (1, 2), (3, 4), and (5, 5) because there is a monster that will eat you if you visit
all 3 locations?
Video Solution
121
Example 9.4 (BMMT)

Sally is inside a pen consisting of points (a, b) such that 0 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ 4. If she is currently
on the point (x, y), she can move to either (x, y + 1), (x, y − 1), or (x + 1, y). Given that
she cannot revisit any point she has visited before, find the number of ways she can
reach (4, 4) from (0, 0).
Video Solution
Example 9.5 (AMC 8)

A game board consists of 64 squares that alternate in color between black and white.
The figure below shows square P in the bottom row and square Q in the top row. A
marker is placed at P. A step consists of moving the marker onto one of the adjoining
white squares in the row above. How many 7-step paths are there from P to Q? (The
figure shows a sample path.)
Video Solution
122

Problem 9.5.1
How many triangles can be formed by connecting 3 points in the figure below?
Video Solution
Problem 9.5.2
How many squares of all sizes can be formed from a 3x3 grid of unit squares?
Video Solution
123
Problem 9.5.3
How many rectangles of any size are in a 4 × 6 grid of squares?
Video Solution
Problem 9.5.4
A mouse is standing on a grid at location (0,0). There is cheese on the grid at (5,5). He
can only move right or up. How many different paths can he take to the cheese?
Cheese
Mouse
Video Solution
Samantha lives 2 blocks west and 1 block south of the southwest corner of City Park.
Her school is 2 blocks east and 2 blocks north of the northeast corner of City Park.
On school days she bikes on streets to the southwest corner of City Park, then takes a
diagonal path through the park to the northeast corner, and then bikes on streets to
school. If her route is as short as possible, how many different routes can she take?
124
Video Solution
How many triangles are in this figure?
Video Solution
Joe is standing at the point (0,0) in the infinite coordinate plane. On any given move,
there is a 13 chance of him moving up, 13 chance of him moving right, 61 chance of him
moving down, and 16 chance of him moving left. If the probability he will reach the point
(3,3) in less than or equal to 8 moves can be described as 3ab , then what is the value of
a + b?
125
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 9.5.8
How many rectangles of any size are in a 4 × 6 grid of squares?
Problem 9.5.9
How many triangles can be formed by connecting 3 points in the figure below?
126
A frog is located at the origin. It makes four hops, each of which moves it either 1
unit to the right or 1 unit to the left. If it also ends at the origin, how many 4-hop paths
can it take?
(-4,0) (0,0) (0,4)
Problem 9.5.11
Josh starts at the point (0,0) and needs to travel to his home at the point (6,7). There
is a fire at the point (2,3) so he cannot travel there. How many ways are there for Josh
to reach his home if he can only move up or right?
Home
Fire
Josh
Problem 9.5.12
Josh starts at the point (0,0) and needs to travel to his home at the point (6,7). There
is a fire at the point (2,3) so he cannot travel there. Also, he needs to pick up a book
from the library at the point (5,5). How many ways are there for Josh to pick up the
book and reach his home if he can only move up or right?
127
Home
Library
Fire
Josh
Problem 9.5.13
Josh is now home at the point (6,7) but realizes he forgot something at school which is
at the point (8,11). Because he is in a rush to get there before it closes, he is now willing
to move diagonally (up-right) in addition to being able to go up and right. How many
ways can he reach his school?
School
Home
128
Toothpicks are used to make a grid that is 60 toothpicks long and 32 toothpicks wide.
How many toothpicks are used altogether?
Problem 9.5.15
How many squares are in a 5x5 grid of squares with 2 diagonally opposite corners miss-
ing?
129
Problem 9.5.16
How many rectangles are in the figure below?
Problem 9.5.17 (BMMT)
Leanne and Jing Jing are walking around the xy plane. In one step, Leanne can move
from any point (x, y) to (x + 1, y) or (x, y + 1) and Jing Jing can move from (x, y) to
(x - 2, y + 5) or (x + 3, y - 1). The number of ways that Leanne can move from (0, 0)
to (20, 20) is equal to the number of ways that Jing Jing can move from (0, 0) to (a, b),
where a and b are positive integers. Compute the minimum possible value of a + b.
Determine the number of enclosed triangles in the figure below.
130
Answers
9.1 110
9.2 8
9.3 408
9.4 625
9.5 28
9.5.1 76
9.5.2 14
9.5.3 210
9.5.4 252
9.5.5 18
9.5.6 23
9.5.7 468
9.5.8 210
9.5.9 520
9.5.10 6
9.5.14 3932
131
Chapter 10
Recursion
Video Lecture
132
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 10. Recursion
10.1 Recursion Fundamentals

Definition 10.1.1. Recursion is the process of finding smaller values and using them to
calculate larger values.
Example 10.1
Jeff is climbing a 6 stair staircase. If he can climb 1 or 2 stairs at a time, in how many
distinct ways can he get to the top?
Solution 10.1
We could do casework, but that would take a long time. Instead, let’s solve this problem for
small values first.
How many ways are there for Jeff to reach the 0th stair (ground)?
Jeff is already there at the start, so there is just 1 way to do that.
How many ways are there for Jeff to reach the 1st stair?
There is only 1 way because he must climb 1 step to reach there from the ground (0th stair).
How many ways are there for Jeff to reach the 2nd stair?
There are 2 ways: 2 single steps or 1 double step from ground (0th stair)
How can Jeff reach the 3rd stair?
Jeff either has to take a single step from the 2nd stair, or a double step from the 1st stair.
Therefore, the number of ways is simply the number of ways to reach the first step plus the
number of ways to reach the 2nd step, which is 1 + 2 = 3.
How can use the same logic to find the number of ways to reach the nth stair?
To reach the nth stair, Jeff must take a 1 step from the (n − 1)th stair or a double step
from the (n − 2)th stair. Therefore, the number of ways of reaching the nth step is the
number of ways of reaching the (n − 1)th plus the number of ways of reaching the (n − 2)th
stair.
Let’s define a function, f(n), such that f(n) represents the number of ways to reach the
133
nth step. Then, we can write the recursion

f (n) = f (n − 1) + f (n − 2)
.
The next step is to just iteratively calculate the values of f (n) for all values of n until we
find f (6), since the staircase has 6 steps. We already calculated f (1) and f (2) so we can use
them as base cases.
f (1) = 1
f (2) = 2
f (3) = f (3 − 1) + f (3 − 2) = f (2) + f (1) = 2 + 1 = 3
f (4) = f (4 − 1) + f (4 − 2) = f (3) + f (2) = 3 + 2 = 5
f (5) = f (5 − 1) + f (5 − 2) = f (4) + f (3) = 5 + 3 = 8
f (6) = f (6 − 1) + f (6 − 2) = f (5) + f (4) = 8 + 5 = 13
Remark 10.1.2
Notice how the numbers follow the Fibonacci sequence. This is because the recursions
for our sequence and the Fibonacci sequence are the same. However, this is not always
the case for all recursion problems.
10.2 Recursion with Constraints
Example 10.1
Jeff is climbing a 7 stair staircase. Jeff can climb 1 or 2 stairs at a time on every step,
but on the last step, he is allowed to climb 3 stairs. In how many distinct ways can he
get to the top?
Video Solution
Concept 10.2.1
To solve a problem with recursion requires a multi-step process:
1. Solve the problem for a few smaller base cases manually
2. In general, you will need as many base cases as the number of terms on the right
hand side of your recursive function
3. For a given f (n), figure out a recursive equation in terms of previous values of the
function by considering different ways to get to that point
134
4. Iteratively calculate values of f (n) until you reach the desired number
Remark 10.2.2
You can also use f(0) = 1 as a base case because to get to the 0th stair, you have to
take no steps and there is only 1 way to do so. This can be a little faster, however it
could be a little confusing, so it won’t be used in the examples. Nevertheless, feel free
to use it in the problems section.
Example 10.2
Mike is climbing a staircase with 10 stairs. He is in a rush, so he will climb 2 or 3 steps
at a time for most of the journey. If he reaches the 9th stair, he is allowed to climb 1
stair to reach the 10th stair. How many ways are there for Mike to reach the top of the
staircase?
Solution 10.2
We can do a similar approach to the previous problem. We first begin by finding the base
cases.
There is no way to reach the 1st stair since he cannot take a 1 step, so f (1) = 0.
There is 1 way to reach the 2nd stair by taking a double step, so f (2) = 1.
There is 1 way to reach the 3rd stair by taking a triple step. If the first step is a double step,
then it’s impossible to reach the 3rd stair since there are no single steps. Therefore, f (3) = 1.
Next, what is the recursive function for this problem?
To get the the nth stair, we must either take a 2 step from the (n − 2)th stair or a 3
step from the (n − 3)th stair. So, the recursion is
f (n) = f (n − 2) + f (n − 3)
Let’s now evaluate the values of f(n)
f (1) = 0
f (2) = 1
f (3) = 1
f (4) = f (4 − 2) + f (4 − 3) = f (2) + f (1) = 1
f (5) = f (5 − 2) + f (5 − 3) = f (3) + f (2) = 2
f (6) = f (6 − 2) + f (6 − 3) = f (4) + f (3) = 2
f (7) = f (7 − 2) + f (7 − 3) = f (5) + f (4) = 3
f (8) = f (8 − 2) + f (8 − 3) = f (6) + f (5) = 4
f (9) = f (9 − 2) + f (9 − 3) = f (7) + f (6) = 5
135
f (10) = f (10 − 2) + f (10 − 3) = f (8) + f (7) = 7
So, is our answer just f (10) = 7?
No, because once he reaches stair 9, he is allowed to take a single step. So, we must add the
number of ways to reach stair 9 to the number of ways to reach stair 8 and the number of
ways to reach stair 7. Therefore, we must find:
f (10) = f (8) + f (7) + f (9) = 12
Remark 10.2.3
In general, it never hurts to find too many base cases. In your recursion, if you run into
any values you are not sure how to calculate (like f(2), f(3)), you can always go back
and evaluate more base cases.
10.3 Probability Recursions

A cricket randomly hops between 4 leaves, on each turn hopping to one of the other 3
leaves with equal probability. After 4 hops what is the probability that the cricket has
returned to the leaf where it started?
Video Solution
Concept 10.3.1
For probability recursions, it can be a good idea to simply make a table and find the
probability of being at each location every time interval. Remember to use the fact that
the total probability at each hop must always be 1.

Problem 10.4.1
Jeff is climbing a 7 step staircase. If he can climb 1 or 2 steps at a time, in how

many ways can he get to the top?
136
Video Solution
Everyday at school, Jo climbs a flight of 6 stairs. Jo can take the stairs 1, 2, or 3

at a time. For example, Jo could climb 3, then 1, then 2. In how many ways can Jo
climb the stairs?
Video Solution
Brandon is trying to reach the top of a 7 step staircase. For each jump except the
last jump, he can either jump 1 or 3 steps forward. On the last jump, he can jump 1, 2,
or 3 steps forward. How many different ways can he reach the top of the staircase?
Video Solution
Call a set of integers spacy if it contains no more than one out of any three consec-
utive integers. How many subsets of 1, 2, 3, . . . , 12, including the empty set, are
spacy?
Video Solution
A collection of 8 cubes consists of one cube with edge-length k for each integer k,
1 ≤ k ≤ 8. A tower is to be built using all 8 cubes according to the following rules:
Any cube may be the bottom cube in the tower. The cube immediately on top of a
cube with edge-length k must have edge-length at most k + 2. How many towers can
be constructed?
137
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 10.4.6
Jeff is climbing a 10 step staircase. However, there are spiders on the 3rd and 9th
steps, and he refuses to step on those stairs. If he can climb 1 or 2 steps at a time, in
how many different ways can he get to the top?
Answers
10.1 26
7
10.2 27
10.4.1 21
10.4.2 24
10.4.3 13
10.4.4 129
10.4.5 458
138
Algebra
139
Chapter 11
Ratios and Percentages
Video Lecture
140
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 11. Ratios and Percentages
141
11.1 Ratios Fundamentals
Example 11.1 (MATHCOUNTS)

The Ten Finger calculator company periodically checks random calculators before ship-
ping crates out to customers. On Wednesday, 12 calculators from each of 64 crates of
144 calculators were tested. Two of the tested calculators were found to be defective.
Based on this rate of defect, how many total calculators are expected to be defective?
Solution 11.1
Let’s approach this problem one step at a time.
What fraction of the total calculators were tested?
1
For each crate, 12 out of 144 calculators were tested, so 12 of them were tested.
From this, how many total calculators are expected to be defective?
1
We can think of dividing the calculators into 12 groups. Each group will make up 12 of
1
the total calculators. As found above, when 12 of the calculators, or 1 group of calculators,
were tested, 2 were defective.
Therefore, amongst all 12 groups, there will be 12 × 2 = 24 defective calculators.

Sohil has a jar with many marbles. 20% of them are small, 40% are medium, and 40%
are large. For each size, 30% of the marbles are red, 20% blue, 40% green, and 10%
yellow. Half of large yellow and small green marbles have a special design on them.
What percentage of the total marbles have a special design?
Solution 11.2
We can approach this problem by finding the percentage of ”large yellow” and ”small green”
marbles.
What percent of marbles are large and yellow?
Since 40% of the marbles are large and 10% of the large marbles are yellow, 10% × 40% =
142
1
10 × 40% = 4% of the marbles are large and yellow.
What percent of marbles are small and green?
Since 20% of the marbles are small and 40% of the small marbles are green, 20% × 40% =
5 × 40% = 8% of the marbles are small and green.
1
From this, what percent of marbles have a special design?
A total of 4% + 8% = 12% of marbles are large and yellow or small and green. Therefore,
since half of them have a special design, 12 × 12% = 6% have a special design.

Two jars each contain the same number of marbles, and every marble is either blue
or green. In Jar 1 the ratio of blue to green marbles is 9 : 1, and the ratio of blue to
green marbles in Jar 2 is 8 : 1. There are 95 green marbles in all. How many more blue
marbles are in Jar 1 than in Jar 2?
Video Solution

There are 994 students in the Omega Middle School. 27 of them are in 6th grade, 27
of them are in 7th grade, and 37 of them are in 8th grade. 14 of the 6th graders are
interested in math, 43 of the 7th graders are interested in math, and 12 of the 8th graders
are interested in math. Of the students who are interested in math, 75 will take the AMC
8 this year. How many students will take the AMC 8 from Omega Middle School?
Video Solution
143

Steph scored 15 baskets out of 20 attempts in the first half of a game, and 10 baskets
out of 10 attempts in the second half. Candace took 12 attempts in the first half and 18
attempts in the second. In each half, Steph scored a higher percentage of baskets than
Candace. Surprisingly they ended with the same overall percentage of baskets scored.
How many more baskets did Candace score in the second half than in the first?
First Half Second Half

15 10
Steph
20 10
Candace
12 18
Video Solution
11.2 Rate and Work
Theorem 11.2.1
Work = Rate × Time
Equivalently,
Work
Rate =
Time
Work
Time =
Rate
144

10 workers from a company each working at a constant rate can build 10 houses in 12
years. However, after 6 years, 5 of them retire. The other workers continue working at
the same original rate. The project is falling behind, so 2 years later, the company hires
10 more workers who each work twice as fast as the original workers. After how many
total years will the 10 houses be complete?
Solution 11.3
To solve this problem, we will have to use ratios to compare the amount of work being done.
After 6 years, what fraction of the 10 houses will be built?
1
Since 6 years is half of the time needed to build 10 houses, 2 of the houses will be com-
pleted by 6 years.
Next, we can see that for 2 years, only 5 of the original workers are working.
In these 2 years, what fraction of the houses will be built?
2 years is 16 of the time needed to build all of the houses. However, only 12 of the origi-
nal workers are working. Therefore, in total, 12 × 16 = 12
1
of the houses will be built in these
2 years.
Next, we must find the rate of building houses when the 10 workers are added.
Compared to the original rate, how fast do the 5 original and 10 new work-
ers work?
Since each of the 10 new workers work 2 times faster than one of the original workers, the 5
original workers that remain and the 10 new workers can do as much work as 5 + 10 × 2 = 25
original workers. Therefore, with the addition of the new workers, they can work 25 10 = 2
5
times faster.
What fraction of the houses are left to be built?
1 1
2 of the houses were built in the first 6 years, and 12 of the houses were built in the next 2
years, so
1 1 12 6 1 5
1− − = − − =
2 12 12 12 12 12
of the houses are left to be built.
145
5
How long would the 10 original workers have taken to build 12 of the houses?
5
Since they could build all of the houses in 12 years, they could build 12 of the houses
5
in 12 × 12 = 5 years.
5
How long will it take the new team of workers to build 12 of the houses?
The new team of workers can work 25 faster than the original team, so they will take 2
5
5
the time. Therefore, they can build 12 of the houses in 25 × 5 = 2 years.
The 10 original workers built 21 of the houses in 6 years, the remaining 5 original work-
1 5
ers built 12 of the houses in 2 years, and the new team of workers built 12 of the houses in
2 years. Therefore, the total number of years it took to build the houses is 6 + 2 + 2 = 10 .
Theorem 11.2.2
The if one person can do something is a amount of time, and someone else can do it in
b amount of time, together they can do it in
ab
a+b
time.
Remark 11.2.3
This not only applies to work. For example, if a problem says 2 faucets take a and b
hours to fill a tub, together they can fill a tub in
ab
a+b
hours.

Alex, using substitution or elimination, can solve 20 two variable equations in 10 minutes.
Bob, who uses the diagonal product method, can solve 20 two variable equations in 2
minutes. How much time will it take both of them working together to solve 60 two
variable equations?
Video Solution
146

All experienced workers work at a constant rate and all new workers work at a different
constant rate. 12 experienced workers and 6 new workers can build a house in 6 months.
6 experienced workers and 12 new workers can build a house in 9 months. How many
months will it take 9 experienced workers and 9 new workers to build a house?
Video Solution

Two rocket scientists Bill Einstein and Albert Nye are building a spaceship, and they
will work 6 hours a day for standard pay. It would take Albert a total of 48 hours to
build the rocket individually, and it would take Bill a total of 36 hours. The manager
can motivate any of them to work extra hours every day by giving them an extra $100
for each hour. The manager only has $1000 to give to Albert and Bill for extra pay.
What is the minimum number of whole days that the rocket can be completed?
Video Solution

If the degree measures of the angles of a triangle are in the ratio 3 : 3 : 4, what is
the degree measure of the largest angle of the triangle?
Video Solution
There are 270 students at Colfax Middle School, where the ratio of boys to girls is
5 : 4. There are 180 students at Winthrop Middle School, where the ratio of boys to girls
is 4 : 5. The two schools hold a dance and all students from both schools attend. What
fraction of the students at the dance are girls?
147
Video Solution
Gilda has a bag of marbles. She gives 20% of them to her friend Pedro. Then Gilda
gives 10% of what is left to another friend, Ebony. Finally, Gilda gives 25% of what
is now left in the bag to her brother Jimmy. What percentage of her original bag of
marbles does Gilda have left for herself?
Video Solution
All of Marcy’s marbles are blue, red, green, or yellow. One third of her marbles are
blue, one fourth of them are red, and six of them are green. What is the smallest
number of yellow marbles Marcy can have?
Video Solution
A number of students from Fibonacci Middle School are taking part in a community
service project. The ratio of 8th -graders to 6th -graders is 5 : 3, and the the ratio of 8th -
graders to 7th -graders is 8 : 5. What is the smallest number of students that could be
participating in the project?
Video Solution
Chloe and Zoe are both students in Ms. Demeanor’s math class. Last night they each
solved half of the problems in their homework assignment alone and then solved the
other half together. Chloe had correct answers to only 80% of the problems she solved
alone, but overall 88% of her answers were correct. Zoe had correct answers to 90% of
the problems she solved alone. What was Zoe’s overall percentage of correct answers?
148
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Suppose 15% of x equals 20% of y. What percentage of x is y?
Suppose A > B > 0 and A is x% greater than B. What is x?

A−B A+B A+B A−B A
(A) 100 B (B) 100 B (C) 100 A (D) 100 A (E) 100 B
On Wednesday, 13 of the students in Mr. Short’s homeroom had drama practice, 14

of his other homeroom students had band practice. If 6 students had band practice, how
many students are in Mr. Short’s homeroom?
The ratio of w to x is 4 : 3, the ratio of y to z is 3 : 2, and the ratio of z to x is

1 : 6. What is the ratio of w to y?
A store increased the original price of a shirt by a certain percent and then decreased the
new price by the same amount. Given that the resulting price was 84% of the original
price, by what percent was the price increased and decreased?
149
Andre can complete 56 of a job in 34 of the time that it takes Michael to do the whole job.
What is the ratio of the rate at which Andre works to the rate at which Michael works?
Express your answer as a common fraction.
When the World Wide Web first became popular in the 1990s, download speeds reached
a maximum of about 56 kilobits per second. Approximately how many minutes would
the download of a 4.2-megabyte song have taken at that speed? (Note that there are
8000 kilobits in a megabyte.)
or green. In Jar 1 the ratio of blue to green marbles is 9:1, and the ratio of blue to green
marbles in Jar 2 is 8:1. There are 95 green marbles in all. How many more blue marbles
are in Jar 1 than in Jar 2?
Grapes are 80% water by weight. When a bushel of grapes dries in the sun for two
weeks, it loses 50% of its total weight. All of the weight loss is due to the loss of water.
After drying for two weeks, what percentage of the grapes is water by weight? Express
your answer to the nearest percent.
Ten thousand marbles are released into the top pipe as shown and roll down the pipe
system. Anytime the pipe forks, the marbles split in proportion to the cross-sectional
areas of the pipes. All pipes have circular cross-sections with diameters as indicated in
the figure. How many marbles exit through the bottom, middle pipe?
150
Brian has earned 65%, 80% and 92% on his three pre-final exams. These exams are
not weighed equally: the lowest counts for only 20% of his overall grade, while the other
two count for 25% each. If the final exam is the remainder of the overall grade and there
are no opportunities for extra credit, what is the highest grade Brian can earn in the
class? Express your answer to the nearest whole percent.
Answers
11.1 5
11.2 355
11.3 9
11.4 5
36
11.5 5
11.6 3
11.3.1 72
151
11.3.2 89
11.3.3 54
11.3.4 4
11.3.5 89
11.3.6 93
11.3.7 75

A−B
11.3.8 100 B
11.3.9 36
11.3.10 16 : 3
11.3.11 40
10
11.3.12 9
11.3.13 10
11.3.14 5
11.3.15 60%
11.3.16 1800
11.3.17 86%
152
Chapter 12
Algebraic Manipulations and

Equations
Video Lecture
153
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 12. Algebraic Manipulations and Equations
154
12.1 System of Equations Basics

Concept 12.1.1 (Factoring a Quadratic)
If we have a quadratic of the form x2 + bx + c, it can be factored into (x + p)(x + q) such
that p + q = b and pq = c. We can generally do this by guess and check.
Then, we just solve the linear equations of the form x + r = 0.
Concept 12.1.2 (Vietas Formulas)

If we have a quadratic of the form x2 + bx + c with 2 roots r and s, then r + s = −b and
rs = c. Sometimes, you may not need to calculate the roots and just find expression in
terms of the roots.
Theorem 12.1.3 (Quadratic Formula)

The solutions to the quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0
are √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
Remark 12.1.4
If you are new to quadratics, I recommend checking out the following links:
Basics of factoring Quadratics
Basics of Quadratic Formula
Remark 12.1.5 (Solving 2 variable equations)

The most common ways of solving equations are substitution and elimination.
Linear Equations Basics
There is an easier way to solve 2 variable equations using the diagonal product method
Diagonal Product Method to Solve 2 Variable Equations
155
12.2 Advanced Equation Solving Techniques

Concept 12.2.1 (Solving General Systems of Equations)
Once you’ve found the system of equations in your word problem and/or the problem
itself gives you a system of equation, you should consider one or more of the following
methods for solving them.
1. Using Symmetry
2. Substituting Variables
3. Elimination
4. Adding/Subtracting/Multiplying Equations
5. Difference of Squares: x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y)
6. Binomial Expansions:
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2
(x − y)2 = x2 − 2xy + y 2
7. Other common factorization tricks (see algebraic number theory chapter for more)
8. Squaring equations if you have square roots
9. Introducing new variables and substituting
10. Graphing equation (Recommend graph paper)
Example 12.1
If
2x + y + z = 36
x + 2y + z = 40
x + y + 2z = 32
Find x + y + z.
156
Solution 12.1
This is a classic equation problem that uses a very powerful technique.
Do you notice anything similar about the equations?
Indeed! All 3 equations have 2 of one of the variables x, y, z and 1 of the other 2 vari-
ables. So, the equations are symmetric!
How can we use the symmetry?
Let’s rewrite the equations as follows:
x + (x + y + z) = 36
y + (x + y + z) = 40
z + (x + y + z) = 32
Notice how each equation simply consists of the sum x + y + z plus an additional x, y, or
z. The sum x + y + z reoccurs in every equation.
How can we make another x + y + z term?
We can add all 3 equations together!. This will give us
(x + y + z) + 3(x + y + z) = 4(x + y + z) = 36 + 40 + 32 = 108
. This simplifies to x + y + z = 27 .
Example 12.1 (EMCC)

Suppose x, y, z are real numbers that satisfy:
x+y−z = 5
y+z −x = 7
z +x−y = 9
Find x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
Video Solution
157
Example 12.2 (EMCC)

Let x, y, and z be real numbers so that (x + y)(y + z) = 36 and (x + z)(x + y) = 4.
Compute y 2 − x2 .
Video Solution
Example 12.3 (BMMT)

Let x and y be real numbers such that xy = 4 and x2 y + xy 2 = 25. Find the value of
x3 y + x2 y 2 + xy 3
Video Solution
12.3 Word Problems

Concept 12.3.1 (System of Equations Word Problems)
This is one of the most common topics on the AMC 8. The trick to solving these types
of problems is to just assign variables to the unknowns in the problem and solve them.

Orangey loves drinking diluted juice. Orangey takes an 8 ounce glass of orange juice
and drinks some fraction of it. Then, he fills the rest with apple juice. After thoroughly
mixing the glass, he drinks two thirds of the mixture. He then fills the rest with water.
Orangey then finishes the whole glass. If he drank 4 times as much orange juice than
apple juice, how much total liquid in ounces did he drink?
Video Solution
158

Rectangles R1 and R2 , and squares S1 , S2 , and S3 , shown below, combine to form a
rectangle that is 3322 units wide and 2020 units high. What is the side length of S2 in
units?
R2
S1
S2
S3
R1
Video Solution
Example 12.6 (AIME)

Jar A contains four liters of a solution that is 45% acid. Jar B contains five liters of a
solution that is 48% acid. Jar C contains one liter of a solution that is k% acid. From
jar C, mn liters of the solution is added to jar A, and the remainder of the solution in
jar C is added to jar B. At the end both jar A and jar B contain solutions that are 50%
acid. Given that m and n are relatively prime positive integers, find k + m + n.
Video Solution
159

Shauna takes five tests, each worth a maximum of 100 points. Her scores on the first
three tests are 76, 94, and 87. In order to average 81 for all five tests, what is the lowest
score she could earn on one of the other two tests?
Video Solution
In a jar of red, green, and blue marbles, all but 6 are red marbles, all but 8 are green,
and all but 4 are blue. How many marbles are in the jar?
Video Solution
Problem 12.4.3 (Omega Learn Math Contest )
If
a×b×c = 4
b×c×d = 6
c × d × e = 12
d × e × f = 18
e×a×b = 9
Find a × b × c × d × e × f
In a mathematics contest with ten problems, a student gains 5 points for a correct
answer and loses 2 points for an incorrect answer. If Olivia answered every problem and
her score was 29, how many correct answers did she have?
160
Video Solution
Problem 12.4.5
I am thinking of 3 integers. Added two at a time their sums are 37, 41, 44. What
is the product of the 3 integers?
Hui is an avid reader. She bought a copy of the best seller Math is Beautiful. On
the first day, Hui read of the pages plus more, and on the second day she read of the
remaining pages plus pages. On the third day she read of the remaining pages plus pages.
She then realized that there were only pages left to read, which she read the next day.
How many pages are in this book?
Video Solution
Before the district play, the Unicorns had won 45% of their basketball games. Dur-
ing district play, they won six more games and lost two, to finish the season having won
half their games. How many games did the Unicorns play in all?
Video Solution
Ralph went to the store and bought 12 pairs of socks for a total of $24. Some of
the socks he bought cost $1 a pair, some of the socks he bought cost $3 a pair, and some
of the socks he bought cost $4 a pair. If he bought at least one pair of each type, how
many pairs of $1 socks did Ralph buy?
Video Solution
161
Suppose that a ∗ b means 3a − b. What is the value of x if
2 ∗ (5 ∗ x) = 1
Video Solution
In an after-school program for juniors and seniors there is a debate team with an equal
number of students from each class on the team. Among the 28 students on the program,
25% of the juniors and 10% of the seniors are on the debate team. How many juniors
are in the program?
Video Solution
Joe has a collection of 23 coins, consisting of 5-cent coins, 10-cent coins, and 25-cent
coins. He has 3 more 10-cent coins than 5-cent coins, and the total value of his collection
is 320 cents. How many more 25-cent coins does Joe have than 5-cent coins?
Video Solution
Pablo, Sofia, and Mia got some candy eggs at a party. Pablo had three times as many
eggs as Sofia, and Sofia had twice as many eggs as Mia. Pablo decides to give some of
his eggs to Sofia and Mia so that all three will have the same number of eggs. What
fraction of his eggs should Pablo give to Sofia?
Video Solution
162
Problem 12.4.13 (AMC 10/12)
The sum of two natural numbers is 17,402. One of the two numbers is divisible by
10. If the units digit of that number is erased, the other number is obtained. What is
the difference of these two numbers?
Video Solution
Let a + 1 = b + 2 = c + 3 = d + 4 = a + b + c + d + 5. What is a + b + c + d?
Video Solution
If y + 4 = (x − 2)2 , x + 4 = (y − 2)2 , and x ̸= y, what is the value of x2 + y 2 ?
Video Solution
Given that
a + 5b + 9c = 1
4a + 2b + 3c = 2
7a + 8b + 6c = 9
What is 741a + 825b + 639c?
163
Additional Problems
The units and tens digits of one two-digit integer are the tens and units digits of another
two-digit integer, respectively. If the product of the two integers is 4930, what is their
sum?
A car passes point A driving at a constant rate of 60 km per hour. A second car,
traveling at a constant rate of 75 km per hour, passes the same point A a while later
and then follows the first car. It catches the first car after traveling a distance of 75 km
past point A. How many minutes after the first car passed point A did the second car
pass point A?
Four numbers are written in a row. The average of the first two is 21, the average
of the middle two is 26, and the average of the last two is 30. What is the average of the
first and last of the numbers?
Ana and Bonita were born on the same date in different years, n years apart. Last
year Ana was 5 times as old as Bonita. This year Ana’s age is the square of Bonita’s
age. What is n?
On the last day of school, Mrs. Awesome gave jelly beans to her class. She gave each
boy as many jelly beans as there were boys in the class. She gave each girl as many
jelly beans as there were girls in the class. She brought 400 jelly beans, and when she
finished, she had six jelly beans left. There were two more boys than girls in her class.
How many students were in her class?
164
At Megapolis Hospital one year, multiple-birth statistics were as follows: Sets of twins,
triplets, and quadruplets accounted for 1000 of the babies born. There were four times
as many sets of triplets as sets of quadruplets, and there was three times as many sets
of twins as sets of triplets. How many of these 1000 babies were in sets of quadruplets?
or green. In Jar 1 the ratio of blue to green marbles is 9 : 1, and the ratio of blue to
green marbles in Jar 2 is 8 : 1. There are 95 green marbles in all. How many more blue
marbles are in Jar 1 than in Jar 2?
The product of three distinct positive integers is 144. If the sum of the three integers is
26, what is the sum of their squares?
If
3 2
+ =1
2−x y−3
and
2 8
+ =2
2−x y−3
find the value of x.
Each of the points A, B, C, D, E, and F in the figure below represents a different digit
from 1 to 6. Each of the five lines shown passes through some of these points. The digits
along each line are added to produce five sums, one for each line. The total of the five
sums is 47. What is the digit represented by B?
165
B
E
D
C
The state income tax where Kristin lives is levied at the rate of p% of the first $28000
of annual income plus (p + 2)% of any amount above $28000. Kristin noticed that the
state income tax she paid amounted to (p + 0.25)% of her annual income. What was her
annual income?
Problem 12.4.28 (AMC 10/12)
Paula the painter and her two helpers each paint at constant, but different, rates. They
always start at 8:00 AM, and all three always take the same amount of time to eat lunch.
On Monday the three of them painted 50% of a house, quitting at 4:00 PM. On Tuesday,
when Paula wasn’t there, the two helpers painted only 24% of the house and quit at 2:12
PM. On Wednesday Paula worked by herself and finished the house by working until
7:12 P.M. How long, in minutes, was each day’s lunch break?
A group of 12 pirates agree to divide a treasure chest of gold coins among themselves as
follows. The k th pirate to take a share takes 12
k
of the coins that remain in the chest. The
number of coins initially in the chest is the smallest number for which this arrangement
will allow each pirate to receive a positive whole number of coins. How many coins does
the 12th pirate receive?
166
Answers
12.1 149
12.2 32
561
12.3 4
46
12.4 3
12.5 651
12.6 85
12.4.1 48
12.4.2 9
12.4.3 72
12.4.4 7
12.4.5 8160
12.4.6 240
12.4.7 48
12.4.8 7
12.4.9 10
12.4.10 8
12.4.11 2
12.4.12 1/6
12.4.13 14, 238
167
−10
12.4.14 3
12.4.15 15
12.4.16 921
12.4.17 143
12.4.18 15
12.4.19 25
12.4.20 12
12.4.21 28
12.4.22 100
12.4.23 5
12.4.24 338
12.4.25 −3
12.4.26 5
12.4.27 32000
12.4.28 48
12.4.29 1925
168
Chapter 13
Speed, Distance, and Time
169
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 13. Speed, Distance, and Time
13.1 Speed, Distance, and Time
Video Lectures
Speed, Distance, and Time
Theorem 13.1.1
Distance = Speed × Time
Equivalently,
Distance
Speed =
Time
Distance
Time =
Speed
Example 13.1
Joe needs to get to his office 40 miles away. If he drives at 60 miles per hour, how many
minutes will it take him to get to work?
Solution 13.1
This problem is just a direct application of the speed, distance, and time formula.
What information do we know?
The distance is 40 miles. The speed is 60 miles per hour.
How can we calculate the number of minutes?
The number of minutes, a measure of time, can be calculated by dividing distance by speed
40miles 2
which is 60miles per hour = 3 hours.
How many minutes will it take?
The time we calculated was in hours because the speed was given in miles per hour, so
we multiply by 60 to 23 to get 60 · 32 = 40
170
Theorem 13.1.2
Total Distance
Average Speed =
Total Time
Remark 13.1.3
A common mistake is to assume that average speed is the averages of all speeds (es-
pecially when the distance you are traveling at each of those speeds are the same).
Remember, that’s not true unless you are traveling at those speeds for the same amount
of time!
Remark 13.1.4
Often, we may have to form equations with distance, speed, and time and use them to
solve our problem.

Sohil is running along a 2 mile path at 8 miles per hour and back on the same path. On
the way back he is tired so for after every 1 mile he runs on the way back, his speed is
instantly reduced by 1 mile per hour. What is his average speed throughout the whole
trip?
Video Solution

Each day for four days, Linda traveled for one hour at a speed that resulted in her
traveling one mile in an integer number of minutes. Each day after the first, her speed
decreased so that the number of minutes to travel one mile increased by 5 minutes over
the preceding day. Each of the four days, her distance traveled was also an integer
number of miles. What was the total number of miles for the four trips?
Video Solution
171

A bus takes 2 minutes to drive from one stop to the next, and waits 1 minute at each
stop to let passengers board. Zia takes 5 minutes to walk from one bus stop to the
next. As Zia reaches a bus stop, if the bus is at the previous stop or has already left the
previous stop, then she will wait for the bus. Otherwise she will start walking toward
the next stop. Suppose the bus and Zia start at the same time toward the library, with
the bus 3 stops behind. After how many minutes will Zia board the bus?
Video Solution
Example 13.4 (AIME)

Points A, B, and C lie in that order along a straight path where the distance from A
to C is 1800 meters. Ina runs twice as fast as Eve, and Paul runs twice as fast as Ina.
The three runners start running at the same time with Ina starting at A and running
toward C, Paul starting at B and running toward C, and Eve starting at C and running
toward A. When Paul meets Eve, he turns around and runs toward A. Paul and Ina
both arrive at B at the same time. Find the number of meters from A to B.
Video Solution

Qiang drives 15 miles at an average speed of 30 miles per hour. How many additional
miles will he have to drive at 55 miles per hour to average 50 miles per hour for the
entire trip?
Video Solution
Chantal and Jean start hiking from a trailhead toward a fire tower. Jean is wearing a
172
heavy backpack and walks slower. Chantal starts walking at 4 miles per hour. Halfway
to the tower, the trail becomes really steep, and Chantal slows down to 2 miles per hour.
After reaching the tower, she immediately turns around and descends the steep part of
the trail at 3 miles per hour. She meets Jean at the halfway point. What was Jean’s
average speed, in miles per hour, until they meet?
Video Solution
Bella begins to walk from her house toward her friend Ella’s house. At the same time,
Ella begins to ride her bicycle toward Bella’s house. They each maintain a constant
speed, and Ella rides 5 times as fast as Bella walks. The distance between their houses
is 2 miles, which is 10, 560 feet, and Bella covers 2 21 feet with each step. How many steps
will Bella take by the time she meets Ella?
Video Solution
Jeff is driving 250 miles to Orlando at a constant speed of 50 miles per hour. He
needs to reach in exactly 5 hours. After driving 100 miles, he takes a 30 minute break.
He then continues driving at a new constant speed that would allow him to arrive at the
same time. How much faster did he drive after his break compared to before the break
in miles per hour?
Video Solution
Jeremy’s father drives him to school in rush hour traffic in 20 minutes. One day there
is no traffic, so his father can drive him 18 miles per hour faster and gets him to school
in 12 minutes. How far in miles is it to school?
Video Solution
173
George walks 1 mile to school. He leaves home at the same time each day, walks at
a steady speed of 3 miles per hour, and arrives just as school begins. Today he was
distracted by the pleasant weather and walked the first 12 mile at a speed of only 2 miles
per hour. At how many miles per hour must George run the last 12 mile in order to
arrive just as school begins today?
Video Solution
Each day for four days, Linda traveled for one hour at a speed that resulted in her
traveling one mile in an integer number of minutes. Each day after the first, her speed
decreased so that the number of minutes to travel one mile increased by minutes over the
preceding day. Each of the four days, her distance traveled was also an integer number
of miles. What was the total number of miles for the four trips?
Video Solution
Al walks down to the bottom of an escalator that is moving up and he counts 150
steps. His friend, Bob, walks up to the top of the escalator and counts 75 steps. If Al’s
speed of walking (in steps per unit time) is three times Bob’s walking speed, how many
steps are visible on the escalator at a given time? (Assume that this value is constant.)
Video Solution
Al walks down to the bottom of an escalator that is moving up and he counts 150
steps. His friend, Bob, walks up to the top of the escalator and counts 75 steps. If Al’s
speed of walking (in steps per unit time) is three times Bob’s walking speed, how many
steps are visible on the escalator at a given time? (Assume that this value is constant.)
174
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 13.2.10
Joe drives at a speed of 30 miles per hour for 60 miles. He also drives at 45 miles
per hour for 15 miles. Find the average speed of his car.
Jones is chasing a car 800 meters ahead of him. He is on a horse moving at 50 km/h. If
Jones catches up to the car in 4 minutes, how fast was the car moving?
After school, Maya and Naomi headed to the beach, 6 miles away. Maya decided to
bike while Naomi took a bus. The graph below shows their journeys, indicating the time
and distance traveled. What was the difference, in miles per hour, between Naomi’s and
Maya’s average speeds?
175
6
Naomi
4
Maya
Distance (miles)
3
5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (minutes)
David drives from his home to the airport to catch a flight. He drives 35 miles in
the first hour, but realizes that he will be 1 hour late if he continues at this speed. He
increases his speed by 15 miles per hour for the rest of the way to the airport and arrives
30 minutes early. How many miles is the airport from his home?
Jacob and Alexander are walking up an escalator in the airport. Jacob walks twice
as fast as Alexander, who takes 18 steps to arrive at the top. Jacob, however, takes 27
steps to arrive at the top. How many of the upward moving escalator steps are visible
at any point in time?
Emily sees a ship traveling at a constant speed along a straight section of a river. She
walks parallel to the riverbank at a uniform rate faster than the ship. She counts 210
equal steps walking from the back of the ship to the front. Walking in the opposite
direction, she counts 42 steps of the same size from the front of the ship to the back. In
176
terms of Emily’s equal steps, what is the length of the ship?
Points A, B, and C lie in that order along a straight path where the distance from
A to C is 1800 meters. Ina runs twice as fast as Eve, and Paul runs twice as fast as Ina.
The three runners start running at the same time with Ina starting at A and running
toward C, Paul starting at B and running toward C, and Eve starting at C and running
toward A. When Paul meets Eve, he turns around and runs toward A. Paul and Ina
both arrive at B at the same time. Find the number of meters from A to B.
Butch and Sundance need to get out of Dodge. To travel as quickly as possible, each
alternates walking and riding their only horse, Sparky, as follows. Butch begins by walk-
ing while Sundance rides. When Sundance reaches the first of the hitching posts that are
conveniently located at one-mile intervals along their route, he ties Sparky to the post
and begins walking. When Butch reaches Sparky, he rides until he passes Sundance,
then leaves Sparky at the next hitching post and resumes walking, and they continue
in this manner. Sparky, Butch, and Sundance walk at 6, 4, and 2.5 miles per hour,
respectively. The first time Butch and Sundance meet at a milepost, they are n miles
from Dodge, and they have been traveling for t minutes. Find n + t.
Answers
13.1 40
224
13.1 29
13.2 25
13.3 17
13.4 800
13.2.1 110
177
12
13.2.2 13
13.2.3 704
13.2.4 10
13.2.5 9
13.2.6 6
13.2.7 25
13.2.8 120
13.2.9 120
225
13.2.10 7
13.2.11 38
13.2.12 24
13.2.13 210
13.2.14 54
13.2.15 70
13.2.16 800
13.2.17 279
178
Chapter 14
Sequences and Series
179
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 14. Sequences and Series
180
14.1 Arithmetic Sequences

Definition 14.1.1 (Arithmetic Sequence). An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers
with the same difference between consecutive terms.
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, . . . , 40
is an arithmetic sequence because there is always a difference of 3 between consecutive terms.
Remark 14.1.2
Note that an arithmetic sequence can also have a negative common difference. For
example, in the arithmetic sequence
40, 37, 34, . . . , 4, 1
the common difference is −3.
Definition 14.1.3 (Arithmetic Sequence Notation). In general, the terms of an arithmetic

sequence can be represented as:
a1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 , . . . , a n
where
• d is the common difference between consecutive terms
• n is the number of terms
Theorem 14.1.4 (nth term in an Arithmetic Sequence)
an = a1 + (n − 1)d
which basically means the nth term of an arithmetic sequence is equal to
first term + (number of terms − 1)(common difference)
We also have that

an = am + (n − m)d
which means
the nth term = mth term + (number of terms − m)(common difference)
181
Theorem 14.1.5 (Number of Terms in an Arithmetic Sequence)

an − a1
n= +1
d
Essentially,
Last Term − First Term
Number of Terms = +1
Common Difference
Theorem 14.1.6 (Average of Terms in an Arithmetic Sequence)

a1 + an
Average of Terms =
2
a1 + a2 + · · · + an
Average of Terms =
n
which essentially means
First Term + Last Term

Average of Terms =
2
Sum of all Terms

Average of Terms =
Number of Terms
If the number of terms is even, x = average of middle 2 terms

.
If number of terms is odd, x = middle term
182
Theorem 14.1.7 (Sum of all Terms in an Arithmetic Sequence)

a1 + an
Sn = ×n
2
Sum of All Terms = Average of Terms × Number of Terms
We can also substitute

an = a1 + (n − 1)d
to get
2a1 + (n − 1)d
Sn = ×n
2
Example 14.1 (AIME)

Find the value of a2 + a4 + a6 + a8 + . . . + a98 if a1 , a2 , a3 . . . is an arithmetic progression
with common difference 1, and a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . + a98 = 137.
Video Solution
Example 14.2
The sum of the first 5 terms of an arithmetic sequence is 65 and the sum of the first 10
terms of the same sequence is 255. Find the sum of the first 15 terms of the sequence.
Video Solution
183
14.2 Special Series
Theorem 14.2.1 (Sum of Numbers Formula)

(n)(n + 1)
1+2+3+···+n =
2
Theorem 14.2.2 (Sum of Odd Numbers Formula)
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
In simple terms, the
Sum of first n odd numbers = n2
Theorem 14.2.3 (Sum of Even Numbers Formula)
2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 2n = n(n + 1)
To intuitively think about it, just take 2 common from each term
(n)(n + 1)
2(1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n) = 2 = n(n + 1)
2
In simple terms, the
Sum of first n even numbers = 2 × sum of first n numbers
Theorem 14.2.4 (Sum of Squares Formula)

(n)(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + · · · + n2 =
6
Theorem 14.2.5 (Sum of Cubes Formula)

!2
(n)(n + 1)
1 +2 +···+n =
3 3 3
2
184
14.3 Geometric Sequences

Definition 14.3.1 (Geometric Sequence). A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers
with the same ratio between consecutive terms.
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 . . . , 1024
is a geometric sequence because there is always a ratio of 2 between consecutive terms.
Definition 14.3.2 (Geometric Sequence Notation). In general, the terms of a geometric

sequence can be represented as:
g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 , . . . , g n
where
• r is the common ratio between consecutive terms
• n is the number of terms
Remark 14.3.3
Note that a geometric sequence can also have a negative common ratio. For example
the sequence 1, −2, 4, −8, . . . , 512, −1024 has a common ratio of −2.
Theorem 14.3.4 (nth term in a Geometric Sequence)
gn = g1 · rn−1
which basically means
the nth term of a geometric sequence = first term × (common ratio)number of terms−1
A general form for calculating the nth term
gn = gm · r(n−m)
the nth term = mth term × common ratio(n−m)
185
Theorem 14.3.5 (Number of Terms in a Finite Geometric Sequence)

!
gn
n = logr +1
g1
Essentially,
Number of Terms = 1 more than the number of times we needed to multiplyr by g1 to get gn
Theorem 14.3.6 (Sum of all Terms in a Finite Geometric Sequence)

(1 − rn )
Sn = g1
1−r
1 − common ration
Sum of All Terms = First Term ×
1 − common ratio
Theorem 14.3.7 (Sum of all Terms in an Infinite Geometric Sequence)

For −1 < r < 1,
g1
S∞ =
1−r
Remark 14.3.8
The reason the formula only works for |r| < 1 is because if |r| ≥ 1 the sum will diverge
or essentially be infinite. We can only find the sum of a converging geometric sequence
for which the sum approaches a constant value. Some Examples:
1 1 1 1
1+ + + +··· = =2
2 4 8 1 − 12
1 1 1 1 3
1+ + + +··· = =
3 9 27 1− 3
1 2
186

Call a 3-digit number geometric if it has 3 distinct digits which, when read from left to
right, form a geometric sequence. Find the difference between the largest and smallest
geometric numbers.
Video Solution
Example 14.4 (AIME)

Suppose n is a positive integer and d is a single digit in base 10. Find n if
n
810 = 0.d25d25d25 . . .
Video Solution
14.4 Arithmetico-Geometric Sequence
Example 14.5
1
Evaluate 2 + 24 + 38 + 16
4 5
+ 32 +...
Video Solution
Concept 14.4.1
The strategy for these problems is just to break the sequence into multiple geometric
sequences. Another strategy is to let the expression be S. Then, divide S by some
number such that when you subtract it from S, most of the terms cancel. This strategy
is faster, but harder to figure out.
187
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence in which each term after the first is obtained
by adding a constant to the previous term. For example, 2, 5, 8, 11, 14 is an arithmetic
sequence with five terms, in which the first term is 2 and the constant added is 3. Each
row and each column in this 5 × 5 array is an arithmetic sequence with five terms. The
square in the center is labelled X as shown. What is the value of X?
1 25
17 81
Video Solution
There are 4 positive integers A, B, C, and D. The first 3 numbers form an arithmetic
sequence in that order. The last 3 numbers form a geometric sequence in that order.
The value of C is 3 times the value of A. What is the smallest possible value of D?
Video Solution
Suppose that {an } is an arithmetic sequence with
a1 + a2 + · · · + a100 = 100 and a101 + a102 + · · · + a200 = 200.
What is the value of a2 − a1 ?
Video Solution
188
Problem 14.5.4 (AMC 10/12)
A sequence of three real numbers forms an arithmetic progression with a first term
of 9. If 2 is added to the second term and 20 is added to the third term, the three
resulting numbers form a geometric progression. What is the smallest possible value for
the third term in the geometric progression?
Video Solution
In the five-sided star shown, the letters A, B, C, D, and E are replaced by the numbers
3, 5, 6, 7, and 9, although not necessarily in this order. The sums of the numbers at
the ends of the line segments AB, BC, CD, DE, and EA form an arithmetic sequence,
although not necessarily in this order. What is the middle term of the sequence?
C D
E B
Video Solution
The terms of an arithmetic sequence add to 715. The first term of the sequence is
increased by 1, the second term is increased by 3, the third term is increased by 5, and
in general, the kth term is increased by the kth odd positive integer. The terms of the
new sequence add to 836. Find the sum of the first, last, and middle terms of the original
sequence.
189
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 14.5.7 (AHSME)
What is the 100th number in the arithmetic sequence 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, . . .
The non-negative integers a, b, c, d, and e form an arithmetic sequence. If their sum is

440, what is the largest possible value for e?
The sum of 25 consecutive even integers is 10, 000. What is the largest of these 25
consecutive integers?
Problem 14.5.10 (AMC 10/12)
A grocer makes a display of cans in which the top row has one can and each lower
row has two more cans than the row above it. If the display contains 100 cans, how
many rows does it contain?
The terms of an arithmetic sequence add to 715. The first term of the sequence is
increased by 1, the second term is increased by 3, the third term is increased by 5, and
in general, the kth term is increased by the kth odd positive integer. The terms of the
new sequence add to 836. Find the sum of the first, last, and middle terms of the original
sequence.
190
Video Solution
Answers
14.1 93
14.2 570
14.3 840
14.4 750
14.5 2
14.5.1 31
14.5.2 9
14.5.3 0.01
14.5.4 1
14.5.5 12
14.5.6 195
14.5.7 397
14.5.8 176
14.5.9 424
14.5.10 10
14.5.11 195
191
Chapter 15
Mean, Median, Mode
Video Lecture
192
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 15. Mean, Median, Mode
15.1 Mean, Median, Mode Fundamentals

Definition 15.1.1 (Mean/Average).
sum of all terms

Mean = average of all terms =
number of terms
Remark 15.1.2
Often, in these types of problems, we can simply consider the difference between each
value and the mean and make sure that value sums to 0.
Definition 15.1.3 (Mode).
Mode = Most common term(s)
Remark 15.1.4
There could be multiple modes. If the problem says “unique mode”, it means that there
is only one mode.
Definition 15.1.5 (Median). After arranging the numbers in increasing or decreasing order:
If number of terms is odd,
Median = middle number
If number of terms is even,
Median = average of middle two numbers
Definition 15.1.6 (Range).
Range = Largest number − Smallest Number
Example 15.1
Find the sum of the mean, median, mode, and range of 1, 9, 7, 1, 3, 5, 2.
193
Solution 15.1
To solve this, we will apply the formulas above.
What is the first step we should do to make analyzing the numbers easier?
We should order them! Doing so, we end up with 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9.
What is the mean?
The mean is the sum of the numbers divided by the count of numbers. The sum of numbers
is 1 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 28. There are 7 numbers. Therefore, the mean is 28
7 = 4.
What is the median?
There are 7 numbers, so the median will just be the middle, or 4th number when the
numbers are arranged in increasing order. The 4th number is 3, so the median is also 3.
What is the mode?
The only number that appears more than once is 1, so 1 is the mode.
What is the range?
The range will be the largest number, 9, minus the smallest number, 1, which is equal
to 9 − 1 = 8.
Therefore, the sum of the mean, median, mode, and range is 1 + 3 + 4 + 8 = 16 .
Example 15.1 (AIME)

Let S be a list of positive integers–not necessarily distinct–in which the number 68
appears. The average (arithmetic mean) of the numbers in S is 56. However, if 68 is
removed, the average of the remaining numbers drops to 55. What is the largest number
that can appear in S?
Video Solution
194

What is the median of the following list of 4040 numbers?
1, 2, 3, . . . , 2020, 12 , 22 , 32 , . . . , 20202
Video Solution
15.2 Mean Median Mode Conditions Examples

A list of 6 distinct positive integers has a mean of 7, a median of 6, and a range of 9.
Find the sum of the 2nd and 5th smallest numbers.
Solution 15.2
This problem may seem a little tricky because of how many possibilities there are. Let’s first
focus on the median, as there only a few cases which work.
What are the possibilities for the middle 2 numbers, or the 3rd and 4th smallest
numbers?
The average of these 2 numbers must be 6, or the sum must be 2 × 6 = 12.
What must be the sum of the remaining 4 numbers?
The mean of all 6 numbers is 7, so their sum is 6 × 7 = 42. The sum of the middle 2
numbers is 12, so the sum of the remaining 4 numbers must be 42 − 12 = 30.
Next, let’s consider the cases for the 2 middle numbers that result in a sum of 12. The
following possibilities exist:
Case 1: 3rd smallest number: 6, 4th smallest number 6
This is not possible because the numbers are distinct.
195
Case 2: 3rd smallest number: 4, 4th smallest number 8
In this case, there are very few possibilities for the lowest 2 numbers. Since they must
be positive, less than 4, and distinct, the only possibilities are (1,2), (1,3), and (2, 3). In
addition, the range must also be 9. Therefore, the largest number will be the lowest number
plus the range, which can be 1 + 9 = 10 or 2 + 9 = 11. We can consider each of the cases for
the largest and smallest numbers, however, we should first check if this case is even possible.
Is it possible for the sum of the 1st, 2nd, 5th, and 6th smallest numbers to
be 30 in this case?
We can consider each of the cases for the largest and smallest numbers, however, we should
first check if having a mean of 7 is even possible. The largest number can be at most 11, and
the 2nd largest number can be at most 10 since it can’t be the same as the largest number.
This means the sum of these 4 numbers can be at most 2 + 3 + 10 + 11 = 26, which isn’t large
enough to be 30. Therefore, this case doesn’t work.
Case 3: 3rd smallest number 3, 4th smallest number 9
The smallest 2 numbers must be 1 and 2, since all of the numbers must be positive and
less than 3. Then, by similar logic to the previous case, the largest value is 1 + 9 = 10. The
2nd largest value can be at most 9. This means the sum is at most 1 + 2 + 9 + 10 = 22, which
is again, not large enough.
Case 4: 3rd smallest number 2 or 1, 4th smallest number 10 or 11, respectively
For the other cases, the 3rd smallest number will be less than 3. However, we must have 2
distinct positive values less than the 3rd smallest number (the 1st and 2nd smallest numbers).
We can see that if the 3rd smallest value is less than 3 and is 1 or 2, then there are 0 or 1
distinct positive values less than this number. Therefore, these cases don’t work. Case 5:
3rd smallest number: 5, 4th smallest number 7
Is it possible for the smallest number to be 2?
Let’s see if it’s possible for the sum of smallest 2 numbers and largest 2 numbers to be
30 in this case. The largest possible value for the 2nd smallest number is 4, since it has
to be less than 5. The largest number must be the smallest number plus the range, which
is 2 + 9 = 11, and the 2nd largest number can be at most 10. Therefore, sum of smallest
2 numbers and largest 2 numbers is at most 2 + 4 + 10 + 11 = 27. Therefore, the smallest
number cannot be 2.
If the smallest number is 1, the sum will be even lower since the largest will be 10, and
the 2nd largest number will be at most 9. This would result in a sum even lower than in the
196
previous possibility.
Therefore, the smallest number must be 3, and since the 2nd smallest number has to be
greater than the smallest number (3) and less than the 3rd smallest number (5), it must be
4. In addition, the largest number will be 3 + 9 = 12. Then, let the 2nd largest number be x.
What value of x will result in the sum smallest 2 numbers and largest 2 numbers
being 30?
Adding all of these numbers, we get that this sum is 3 + 4 + 12 + x = 30. This means that the
2nd largest number is 11. This case works because this number is smaller than the largest
number (12), and larger than the 4th smallest number (7).
The 6 numbers (in increasing order) are 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12 satisfy all 3 conditions. The sum
of the 2nd and 5th smallest numbers are 4 + 9 = 13 .

The mean, median, unique mode, and range of a collection of eight integers are all equal
to 8. The largest integer that can be an element of this collection is what?
Video Solution

Four students take an exam. Three of their scores are 70, 80, and 90. If the average
of their four scores is 70, then what is the remaining score?
Video Solution
The following bar graph represents the length (in letters) of the names of 19 people.
What is the median length of these names?
197
frequency
0
3 4 5 6 7
name length
Video Solution
Mr. Garcia asked the members of his health class how many days last week they exer-
cised for at least 30 minutes. The results are summarized in the following bar graph,
where the heights of the bars represent the number of students.
198
8
7
6
5
Number of Students
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of Days of Exercise
What was the mean number of days of exercise last week, rounded to the nearest hun-
dredth, reported by the students in Mr. Garcia’s class?
Video Solution
Hammie is in the grade and weighs 106 pounds. Her quadruplet sisters are tiny ba-
bies and weigh 5, 5, 6, and 8 pounds. Which is greater, the average (mean) weight of
these five children or the median weight, and by how many pounds?
Video Solution
What is the sum of the mean, median, and mode of the numbers 2, 3, 0, 3, 1, 4, 0,
3?
Video Solution
The mean, median, and unique mode of the positive integers 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, and x
are all equal. What is the value of x?
199
Video Solution
The diagram shows the number of students at soccer practice each weekday during last
week. After computing the mean and median values, Coach discovers that there were
actually 21 participants on Wednesday. Which of the following statements describes the
change in the mean and median after the correction is made?
Number of students at soccer practice

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
(A) The mean increases by 1 and the median does not change.
(B) The mean increases by 1 and the median increases by 1.
(C) The mean increases by 1 and the median increases by 5.
(D) The mean increases by 5 and the median increases by 1.
(E) The mean increases by 5 and the median increases by 5.
Video Solution
The mean of a set of five different positive integers is 15. The median is 18. What
is the maximum possible value of the largest of these five integers?
Video Solution
200
One day the Beverage Barn sold 252 cans of soda to 100 customers, and every cus-
tomer bought at least one can of soda. What is the maximum possible median number
of cans of soda bought per customer on that day?
Video Solution
The harmonic mean of a set of non-zero numbers is the reciprocal of the average of
the reciprocals of the numbers. What is the harmonic mean of 1, 2, and 4?
Video Solution
How many subsets of two elements can be removed from the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
so that the mean (average) of the remaining numbers is 6?
Video Solution
When the mean, median, and mode of the list
10, 2, 5, 2, 4, 2, x
are arranged in increasing order, they form a non-constant arithmetic progression. What
is the sum of all possible real values of x?
Video Solution
201
Suppose that S is a finite set of positive integers. If the greatest integer in S is re-
moved from S, then the average value (arithmetic mean) of the integers remaining is 32.
If the least integer in S is also removed, then the average value of the integers remaining
is 35. If the greatest integer is then returned to the set, the average value of the integers
rises to 40. The greatest integer in the original set S is 72 greater than the least integer
in S. What is the average value of all the integers in the set S?
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 15.3.14 (AMC 8 Modified)
Here is a list of the numbers of fish that Tyler caught in nine outings last summer:
2, 0, 1, 3, 0, 3, 3, 1, 2.
What is the ordering of the mean, median, and mode of the number of fish caught?
The mean of the numbers 2, 0, 1, 5, and x is an integer. Find the smallest possible
positive integer value for x.
Mr. Ramos gave a test to his class of 20 students. The dot plot below shows the
distribution of test scores.
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
202
Later Mr. Ramos discovered that there was a scoring error on one of the questions. He
regraded the tests, awarding some of the students 5 extra points, which increased the
median test score to 85. What is the minimum number of students who received extra
points?
(Note that the median test score equals the average of the 2 scores in the middle if the
20 test scores are arranged in increasing order.)
The mean, median, and mode of the 7 data values 60, 100, x, 40, 50, 200, 90 are all equal
to x. What is the value of x?
When 15 is appended to a list of integers, the mean is increased by 2. When 1 is

appended to the enlarged list, the mean of the enlarged list is decreased by 1. How
many integers were in the original list?
Problem 15.3.19 (AMC 10/12)
The mean, median, unique mode, and range of a collection of eight integers are all
equal to 8. The largest integer that can be an element of this collection is what?
Melanie computes the mean µ, the median M , and the modes of the 365 values that are
the dates in the months of 2019. Thus her data consist of 12 1s, 12 2s, . . . , 12 28s,
11 29s, 11 30s, and 7 31s. Let d be the median of the modes. Which of the following
statements is true?
(A) µ < d < M (B) M < d < µ (C) d = M = µ (D) d < M < µ (E) d <
µ<M
The mean of a list of nine numbers is 17, and the modes are a, b and c. If a + 4,
203
1 + b and c - 8 are distinct numbers in the list, and none of them are modes of the list,
then what is the value of 3(a + b + c)?
6 positive integers have a median of 5.5, two distinct modes, a range of 5, and a mean
of 35
6 . Find the sum of all possible values for the 2nd largest integer.
Answers
15.1 649
15.2 1976.5
15.3 14
15.3.1 40
15.3.2 4
15.3.3 4.36
15.3.4 extAverage, by20
15.3.5 7.5
15.3.6 11
15.3.7 T hemeanincreasesby1andthemedianincreasesby1
15.3.8 35
15.3.9 3.5
12
15.3.10 7
15.3.11 5
204
15.3.12 20
15.3.13 36.8
15.3.14 extmedian < extmean < extmode
15.3.15 2
15.3.16 4
15.3.17 90
15.3.18 4
15.3.19 14
15.3.20 d < µ < M
15.3.21 156
15.3.22 <>
205
Chapter 16
Telescoping
Video Lecture
206
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 16. Telescoping
16.1 Telescoping
16.2 Telescoping Basics

Concept 16.2.1 (Telescoping)
Expand the first few and last few terms, and cancel out any terms you see.
Remark 16.2.2
Generally, whenever you have long expressions that seem to be hard or impossible to
compute manually, telescoping is probably at play.
16.3 Telescoping Sums
Example 16.1 (EMCC)

Evaluate (12 − 32 + 52 − 72 + 92 − · · · + 20092 ) − (22 − 42 + 62 − 82 + 102 − · · · + 20102 )
Video Solution
Example 16.2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Find 6 + 12 + 20 + 30 + 42 + 56 + 72
Video Solution
16.4 Telescoping Products

What is the value of 34 × 46 × 58 × · · · × 10
18 ? (For each fraction, the denominator is twice
the numerator minus 2)
Video Solution
207
16.5 Telescoping Equation
Example 16.4 (BmMT)

Suppose x1 , x2 , ..., x2022 is a sequence of real numbers such that:
x 1 + x2 = 1
x 2 + x3 = 2
..
.
x2021 + x2022 = 2021
If x1 + x499 + x999 + x1501 = 222, then what is the value of x2022 ?
Video Solution

What is the value of 4 · (−1 + 2 − 3 + 4 − 5 + 6 − 7 + · · · + 1000)?
Video Solution
1·2·3·4·5·6·7·8
What is the value of the expression 1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8 ?
Video Solution
Problem 16.6.3
208
[AMC 8] What is the value of the product

1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ · 1+ · 1+ · 1+ · 1+ · 1+ ?
1 2 3 4 5 6
Video Solution
Find the value of the expression
100 − 98 + 96 − 94 + 92 − 90 + · · · + 8 − 6 + 4 − 2.
Video Solution
What is the value of the product

1·3 2·4 3·5 97 · 99 98 · 100
··· ?
2·2 3·3 4·4 98 · 98 99 · 99
Video Solution
Additional Problems
What is the value of
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2017 + 2019 − 2 − 4 − 6 − · · · − 2016 − 2018?
209
What is the product of 3

2 × 43 × 54 × · · · × 2005
2006
?
What is the value of

1 2 3 18 19 20
· · ··· · · ?
3 4 5 20 21 22
If
n = 102020 102019 + 102018 102017 + · · · + 102 101
what is the sum of digits of the integer n?
Problem 16.6.10
Evaluate
1 1 1
+ +···+
2×3 3×4 10 × 11
Evaluate 1 − 2 − 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 − 7 − 8 − 9 − 10 · · · + 90 + 91 (1 positive consecutive value, 2

negative consecutive values, 3 positive consecutive values, …)
Let the sequence an be defined as an = 31+2+3+···+n for all positive integers n. Sohil
is trying to evaluate the following sequence: 12 × 23 × 43 × . . . . Due to his bad handwriting,
in the expression above, he accidentally writes each multiplication sign before all frac-
210
31 (1+2)
tions of the form ana+1
n
(for example, , 3
31 +1 3(1+2) +1
, etc.) with a plus sign. What is the
value of the new expression?
Answers
16.1 −2011
7
16.2 18
5
16.3 256
16.4 1330
16.6.1 2000
16.6.2 1120
16.6.3 7
16.6.4 50
50
16.6.5 99
16.6.6 1010
16.6.7 1003
1
16.6.8 231
16.6.9 9090
9
16.6.10 22
211
Number Theory
212
Chapter 17
Primes and Divisibility
Video Lecture
213
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 17. Primes and Divisibility
17.1 Primes
Definition 17.1.1 (Primes). Primes are numbers that have exactly two factors: 1 and the
number itself.
Example: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23 are all primes
Note: 1 is not a prime and 2 is the only even prime.
Remark 17.1.2
It’s highly recommended to memorize first few primes as this can save some time during
the contest: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37
Remark 17.1.3
In order to check whether a number n is prime, we need √ to check whether it can be
divided by all the primes that are less than or equal to n
17.2 Divisibility Rules

Here are some important rules to figure out whether a number is divisible by another num-
ber.
Divisibility rule for 2: Last digit is even
Example: 362
The last digit is even, so 362 is divisible by 2.
Divisibility rule for 3: Sum of digits is divisible by 3
Example: 972
The sum of digits is 9 + 7 + 2 = 18, which is a multiple of 3
Divisibility rule for 4: The number formed by the last 2 digits is divisible by 4
Example: 172947
The number formed by last two digits is 47 which is not divisible by 4, so 172947 is also not
divisible by 4
Example: 10764
The number formed by last two digits is 64 which is divisible by 4, so 10764 is divisible by
4
214
Divisibility rule for 5 - Last digit is 0 or 5
Example: 375
The last digit is 5, so 375 is divisible by 5.
Example: 140
Divisibility rule for 6: The number is divisible by both 2 and 3
Example: 196
The last digit is 2, so 196 is divisible by 2. The sum of digits is 1 + 9 + 6 = 16, which is
not a multiple of 3, so 196 is not a multiple of 3. Therefore, 196 is also not a multiple of 6.
Example: 252
The last digit is 2, so 252 is divisible by 2. The sum of digits is 2 + 5 + 2 = 9, which is a
multiple of 3, so 196 is a multiple of 3. Therefore, 196 is also a multiple of 6.
Divisibility rule for 7: Take out factors of 7 until you reach a small number
that is either divisible or not divisible by 7
Example: 2240
We subtract 2100, which is divisible by 7 (7 × 300) to get 2240 - 2100 = 140. Then, we see
that 140 is also divisible by 7 as it is 7 × 20. Therefore, 2240 is also divisible by 7.
Example: 28146
We subtract 28000, which is divisible by 7 (7 × 4000) to get 28146 - 28000 = 146. Then, we
subtract 140 as it is also divisible by 7 to get 6. 6 is clearly not divisible by 7, so 28146 is
also not divisible by 7.
Divisibility rule for 8: The number formed by the last 3 digits is divisible by 8
Example: 423824
The number formed by the last 3 digits is 824 which is divisible by 8 (8 × 103), so 423824 is
also divisible by 8.
Example: 4827676 The last 3 digits are 676. Using the same technique that we used
to find numbers divisible by 7, we can subtract off numbers divisible by 8. Clearly, 640 is
divisible by 8 (8 × 80), so subtracting that off, we get 676 − 640 = 36. Then, we can subtract
off 8 × 4 = 32 to get 4. We know that 4 is not divisible by 8. Therefore, 4827676 is also not
divisible by 8.
215
Divisibility rule for 9: Sum of digits is divisible by 9
Example: 63198
The sum of digits is 6+3+1+9+8 = 27, which is divisible by 9, so 63198 is also divisible by 9.
Example: 815419 The sum of digits is 8 + 1 + 5 + 4 + 1 + 9 = 28, which is not divisible

by 9, so 63198 is not divisible by 9.
10 - Last digit is 0
Example: 331960
Divisibility rule for 11: Calculate the sum of odd positioned digits (O) and
even positioned digits (E). If O - E is divisible by 11, then the number is also
divisible by 11. Don’t forget that O - E can be negative.
Example: 1331 First, we calculate the sum of the odd positioned digits, or the sum of
the 1st and 3rd digits from the left. We find O = 1 + 3 = 4.
Next, we calculate the sum of the even positioned digits, or the sum of the 2nd and 4th
digits from the left. We find E = 3 + 1 = 4.
The difference of numbers, O − E = 4 − 4 = 0, and 0 is a multiple of 11, so 1331 is divis-

ible by 11.
Example: 629321
First, we calculate the sum of the odd positioned digits, or the sum of the 1st, 3rd, and 5th
digits from the left. We find O = 6 + 9 + 2 = 17. Next, we calculate the sum of the even
positioned digits, or the sum of the 2nd, 4th, and 6th digits. We find E = 2 + 3 + 1 = 6.
The difference O − E = 17 − 6 = 11, which is clearly a multiple of 11, so 629321 is divisi-

ble by 11.
Divisibility rule for 12: Divisible by 3 and 4
Example: 1584
First, we check if 1584 is divisible by 3. The sum of digits is 1 + 5 + 8 + 4 = 18, which is
divisible by 3, so 1584 is divisible by 3.
Next, we check if 1584 is divisible by 4. The last 2 digits, 84, is divisible by 4, so 1584
is also divisible by 4.
216
Therefore, 1584 is divisible by 12 since it is divisible by both 3 and 4.
Example: 230792
First, we check if 230792 is divisible by 3. The sum of digits is 2 + 3 + 0 + 7 + 9 + 2 = 23,
which is not divisible by 3, so 1584 is not divisible by 3.
Next, we check if 230792 is divisible by 4. The last 2 digits, 92, is divisible by 4, so 230792
is divisible by 4.
Although 230792 is divisible by 4, it is not divisible by 3, so therefore cannot be divisi-

ble by 12.
Divisibility rule for 15: Divisible by 3 and 5
Example: 352305
which is divisible by 3, so 352305 is not divisible by 3.
Next, we check if 352305 is divisible by 5. The last digits, 5, is divisible by 5, so 235305 is

also divisible by 5.
Therefore, 352305 is divisible by 15 since it is divisible by both 3 and 5.
Example: 374740
which is not divisible by 3, so 374740 is not divisible by 3.
Next, we check if 374740 is divisible by 5. The last digit, 0, is divisible by 5, so 374740

is also divisible by 5.
Although 374740 is divisible by 5, it is not divisible by 3, so it cannot be divisible by 15.

Here is a summary of all the divisibility rules:
Concept 17.2.1 (Divisibility Rules)
217
2 Last digit is even

3 Sum of digits is divisible by 3
4 Last 2 digits divisible by 4
5 Last digit is 0 or 5
6 Divisible by 2 and 3
7 Take out factors of 7 until you reach a small number that is either
divisible or not divisible by 7
8 Last 3 digits are divisible by 8
9 Sum of digits is divisible by 9
10 Last digit is 0
11 Calculate the sum of odd digits (O) and even digits (E). If |O − E|
is divisible by 11, then the number is also divisible by 11
Remark 17.2.2
In general, if a number is divisible by 2 prime numbers or prime powers (numbers that
are powers of a prime number like 35 or 24 ), then it will also be divisible by their product.
For example, to find whether a number is divisible by 30 = 2 × 3 × 5, we just need

to check whether it’s divisible by each of 2, 3, and 5 using the divisibility rules.
17.3 Prime Factorization

Prime factorization is a way to express each number as a product of primes.
Examples:
The prime factorization of 21 is 3 × 7
The prime factorization of 60 is 22 × 3 × 5
218
Example 17.1
Find the prime factorization of 117.
Solution 17.1
First, let’s check if 117 is divisible by any small primes. Clearly, 117 is odd and not divisible
by 2.
Is 117 divisible by 3?
We can see that since the sum of digits is 9, a multiple of 3, the number is divisible by
3. In fact, since 9 is also a multiple of 9, the number is also divisible by 9 or 32 .
117
Dividing by 32 we get 9 = 13. Clearly, 13 is prime.
Therefore, our prime factorization is 32 × 13.

Let Z be a 6-digit positive integer, such as 247247, whose first three digits are the same
as its last three digits taken in the same order. Which of the following numbers must
also be a factor of Z?
(A) 11 (B) 19 (C) 101 (D) 111 (E) 1111
Video Solution

What four-digit number has tens digit 2 and units digit 8, is a multiple of 16, and when
its digits are reversed the result is also a multiple of 16?
Video Solution
219

A number is called flippy if its digits alternate between two distinct digits. For example,
2020 and 37373 are flippy, but 3883 and 123123 are not. How many five-digit flippy
numbers are divisible by 15?
Video Solution

The 3 digit number A3B is divisible by 15. What is the sum of all such possible
numbers?
Solution 17.2
We can use our knowledge of divisibility rules to solve this.
For a number to be divisible by 15, what other numbers must it be divisible

by?
We can see that 15 = 3 × 5, so for a number to be divisible by 15, it must also be divisi-
ble by 3 and 5. In order to solve this problem, we will look at the divisibility rule for 3 and
5.
Which divisibility rule should we look at first?
If we look at the divisibility rule for 3 first, we will end with many possibilities for A and B.
On the other hand, what does the divisibility rule for 5 tell us?
The divisibility rule for 5 tells us that B must be 0 or 5. This is much easier to use than
the divisibility rule for 3 as now, we only have 2 possibilities to consider. Because we have
already checked for the divisibility of 5, we must now check if the number is divisible by 3.
Case 1: B = 0
If B = 0, then the number will be A30. For this number to be divisible by 3, A + 3 + 0 = A + 3

must be divisible by 3. Because 3 is a multiple of 3, A must also be a multiple of 3. Therefore,
A has 3 possibilities and can be 3, 6, or 9. The digit A can’t be 0 since it has to be a 3 digit
220
number. This gives the following possible numbers: 330, 630, 930.
Case 1: B = 5
If B = 5, then the number will be A35. For this number to be divisible by 3, A + 3 + 5 = A + 8

must be divisible by 3. Because 8 leaves a remainder of 2 when divided by 3, A must leave
a remainder of 1 when divided by 3 for the sum to be a multiple of 3. Therefore, A has
3 possibilities and can be 1, 4, or 7. This gives the following possible numbers: 135, 435, 735.
Summing all numbers, we get
330 + 630 + 930 + 135 + 435 + 735 = 3195

The number 3AB76 is divisible by 264, where A and B are digits. Find A + B.
Solution 17.3
Let’s see how we can approach this problem.
For A number to be divisible by 264, what other numbers must it be divisible by?
To figure this out, we first find the prime factorization of 264.
First, we divide out by powers of 2. Doing this repeatedly we get 264 = 2 × 132 = 22 × 66 =
23 × 33
Then, we can notice that the sum of digits of 33 is 3 + 3 = 6, which is a multiple of 3, so

33 is a multiple of 3. Dividing by 3, we are then left with 11, which is clearly a prime number.
Therefore, the prime factorization is 23 × 3 × 11. Therefore, for the number to be divisi-
ble by 264, it must be divisible by 23 (= 8), 3, and 11.
First, what information does 3AB76 being divisible by 8 give us?
By the divisibility rule for 8, the last 3 digits, or B76, must be divisible by 8. Notice
that 76 leaves a remainder of 4 when divided by 8. Therefore, B = 0 doesn’t work.
When B is 1, then we are adding 100 to the last 3 digits. 100 also leaves a remainder
of 4 when divided by 8. So 176 = 176 + 100 will leave a remainder of 4 + 4 = 8 or 0 when
divided by 8, so 176 is divisible by 8.
221
Next, we can see that when B is 2, our number will be 276, which is equal to 100 + 176.
Since 176 is divisible by 8 and 100 leaves A remainder of 4 when divided by 8, 276 will leave
A remainder of 0 + 4 = 4 when divided by 8.
Do you notice A pattern with the remainders here?
Whenever B is even, it appears that B76 leaves a remainder of 4 when divided by 8, and
whenever B is odd, B76 is divisible by 8. This is because 176 is divisible by 8, adding 100
will make the remainder 4 when divided by 8. Therefore, by adding 200, the remainder will
become 4 + 4 = 8 or 0. Therefore, only odd values of B work.
Next, what does 3AB76 being divisible by 11 tell us?
Using the divisibility rule for 11, we have that the sum of the odd positioned digits, O =
3 + B + 6 = 9 + B and the sum of the even positioned digits, E = A + 7. Therefore, O − E =
2 + B − A must be divisible by 11.
What are the possible values for O - E = 2 + B - A?
Let’s suppose it is equal to -11. Then 2 + B − A = −11 which means A − B = 13. Since
A and B are digits from 0 to 9, this is clearly impossible. Any other negative multiple of 11
such as -22, -33, etc. will also mean that A − B equals something larger than 9.
Next, let’s suppose it is equal to 0. Then 2 + B − A = 0 which means A − B = 2. Since

we have that B is odd from it being a multiple of 8, the only possibilities are:
1. A = 3, B = 1
2. A = 5, B = 3
3. A = 7, B = 5
4. A = 9, B = 7.
If B = 9, then A = 11, which is not possible as A needs to be 1 digit.
Finally, let’s suppose O - E is equal to 11. Then 2 + B − A = 11 which means B − A = 9.

Because A and B are digits from 0 to 9, the only possibility is when A = 0 and B = 9. Any
other positive multiple of 11 such as 22, 33, etc. will mean that B − A equals something
larger than 9.
How do we use the fact that 3AB76 is a multiple of 3 to finish the problem?
222
Notice how we only have 5 cases, so we can easily manually check if each one is a mul-
tiple of 3 by using its divisibility rule.
Case 1: A = 3, B = 1
For this case, the number is 33176. The sum of digits is 3 + 3 + 1 + 7 + 6 = 20, which is
not a multiple of 3, so this case does not work.
Case 2: A = 5, B = 3
a multiple of 3, so this case does work.
Case 3: A = 7, B = 5
Case 4: A = 9, B = 7
Case 5: A = 0, B = 9
Therefore, A = 5 and B = 3 is the only case that works, so our answer is 5 + 3 = 8 .

Remark 17.3.1
In these types of problems, it’s almost always best to first find the prime factorization
of the number, and then use the divisibility rules for each of the primes or prime powers
in the prime factorization.
223
17.4 Legendre’s Formula
Theorem 17.4.1 (Legendre’s Theorem)

$ % $ %
n n
vp (n!) = Number of powers of p in n! = + 2 +...
p p
Remark 17.4.2
This formula seems complicated, but it much easier to apply than it may seem. This
basically means
number of factors of p in n! =
the number of multiples of p ≤ n + the number of multiples of p2 ≤ n + . . .
. See the video above for an easier explanation.
Example 17.4
Find the number of 0’s at the end of 100!.
Video Solution

Which of the following numbers has the smallest prime factor?

(A) 55 (B) 57 (C) 58 (D) 59 (E) 61
Video Solution
What is the sum of the two smallest prime factors of 250?
224
Video Solution
How many three-digit numbers are divisible by 13?
Video Solution
The sum of two prime numbers is 85. What is the product of these two prime num-
bers?
Video Solution
Problem 17.5.5
The 7-digit numbers 74A52B1 and 326AB4C are each multiples of 3. Which of the
following could be the value of C?
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 5 (E) 8
Video Solution
The 5-digit number 2 0 1 8 U is divisible by 9. What is the remainder when this

number is divided by 8?
Video Solution
What is the smallest positive integer that is neither prime nor square and that has
no prime factor less than 50?
225
Video Solution
If 3p + 34 = 90, 2r + 44 = 76, and 53 + 6s = 1421, what is the product of p, r, and s?
Video Solution
For any positive integer M , the notation M ! denotes the product of the integers 1 through
M . What is the largest integer n for which 5n is a factor of the sum 98! + 99! + 100! ?
Video Solution
Three members of the Euclid Middle School girls’ softball team had the following con-
versation.
Ashley: I just realized that our uniform numbers are all -digit primes.
Brittany : And the sum of your two uniform numbers is the date of my birthday earlier
this month.
Caitlin: That’s funny. The sum of your two uniform numbers is the date of my birthday
later this month.
Ashley: And the sum of your two uniform numbers is today’s date. What number does
Caitlin wear?
Video Solution
The number AB962C is divisible by 792 where A, B, C are digits. What is the value of
A?
226
Video Solution
The digits 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are each used once to write a five-digit number PQRST.
The three-digit number PQR is divisible by 4, the three-digit number QRS is divisible
by 5, and the three-digit number RST is divisible by 3. What is P?
Video Solution
The base-ten representation for 19! is 121, 6T 5, 100, 40M, 832, H00, where T , M , and
H denote digits that are not given. What is T + M + H?
Video Solution
Call a positive integer an uphill integer if every digit is strictly greater than the pre-
vious digit. For example, 1357, 89, and 5 are all uphill integers, but 32, 1240, and 466
are not. How many uphill integers are divisible by 15?
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 17.5.15
What is the prime factorization of 420?
227
Problem 17.5.16
What is the prime factorization of 1001?
The number 64 has the property that it is divisible by its units digit. How many whole
numbers between 10 and 50 have this property?
The number 8173ABC is divisible by 165. What is the average of all such 3 digit
numbers ABC that satisfy this condition?
Ayasha, Beshkno, and Chenoa were all born after 2000. Each of them was born in
a year after 2000 that is divisible by exactly one of the prime numbers 2, 3 or 5. Each
of these primes is a divisor of one of the birth years. What is the least possible sum of
their birth years?
Sohil is thinking of a 5 digit number such that the first 3 digits are divisible by 63,
the middle 3 digits and divisible by 8, and the last 3 digits are divisible by 11. What is
the largest possible number he can be thinking of?
How many permutations of 123456 are divisible by their last digit? For instance, 123456
is divisible by 6, but 561234 is not divisible by 4.
228
Answers
17.1 11
17.2 6528
17.3 4
17.4 24
17.5.1 58
17.5.2 7
17.5.3 69
17.5.4 166
17.5.5 1
17.5.6 3
17.5.7 3127
17.5.8 40
17.5.9 26
17.5.10 11
17.5.11 7
17.5.12 1
17.5.13 12
17.5.14 6
17.5.15 22 · 3 · 5 · 7
17.5.16 7 · 11 · 13
17.5.17 17
17.5.18 550
17.5.19 6008
17.5.20 25289
17.5.21 648
229
Chapter 18
Factors
230
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 18. Factors
In this chapter, we will learn about interesting techniques to calculate the number, sum,
and product of factors.
18.1 Number of Factors
Theorem 18.1.1 (Number of Factors of a Number)

If the prime factorization of the number is expressed as:
pe11 × pe22 × · · · × pekk
then the number of factors of this number is
(e1 + 1)(e2 + 1) . . . (ek + 1)
Concept 18.1.2
Basically, in order to find the number of factors of a number:
1. Find the prime factorization of the number
2. Add 1 to all of the exponents
3. Multiply them together
Example 18.1
How many factors does the number 112 have?
Solution 18.1
In order to find how many factors 112 has, we must find the prime factorization of 112.
Clearly, 112 is divisible by 2. We can repeatedly divide by 2 to get
112 = 2 × 56 = 22 × 28 = 23 × 14 = 24 × 7
Since 7 is prime, there are no further primes to divide, so the prime factorization is 24 × 71
From this, how do find the number of factors of 112?
231
We can simply use the formula shown above to find the number of factors. In the prime
factorization the exponents are 4 and 1. Adding 1 to each of the exponents, we get 5 and 2.
Therefore, the number of factors is 5 × 2 = 10 .
Concept 18.1.3
Here is a logical way to think about this formula - for each prime pk , the exponent
can be anything from 0 to ek . Therefore, there are ek + 1 choices. Therefore, the total
number of factors is just the product of all such ek + 1 terms.
For example, in 112 = 24 × 7, in the factor, the power of 2 can be 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , or24 .

The power of 7 can be 70 or71 .
Therefore, in total there would be 5 × 2 = 10 ways just as we calculated in the pre-

vious problem. This logic will be useful when other conditions are imposed.
Example 18.2
How many positive factors does the number 144 have that are perfect squares?
Solution 18.2
First, we begin by finding the prime factorization of 144.
We first divide by factors of 2. This gives us 144 = 21 × 72 = 22 × 36 = 23 × 18 = 24 × 9.

9 is simply 32 , so our prime factorization is 24 × 32 . Unlike the last problem, we can’t just
directly apply the number of factors formula.
How can we deal with the condition that the factor must be a perfect square?
For a number to be a perfect square, all primes in the prime factorization must be even.
Let’s try to find the number of exponents possible for each prime to form a perfect square
factor.
How many choices are there for the exponent of the prime 2 in the prime factor-
ization?
For the number to be a square, the exponent must be even and between 0 to 4. It can
be either 0, 2, or 4. Therefore, we have 3 choices.
How many choices are there for the exponent of the prime 7 in the prime factor-
ization?
232
Similarly, the exponent for 7 must be even and from 0 to 2, so it can be either 0, or 2.
Therefore, we have 2 choices.
Therefore, in total, 144 has 3 × 2 = 6 perfect square factors.

How many positive integer factors of 2020 have more than 3 factors? (As an example,
12 has 6 factors, namely 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12.)
Video Solution
18.2 Sum of Factors
Theorem 18.2.1 (Sum of Factors of a Number)

If the prime factorization of the number is expressed as:
pe11 × pe22 × · · · × pekk
then the number of factors of this number is
(1+p11 +p21 +· · ·+pe11 −1 +pe11 )(1+p12 +p22 +· · ·+pe22 −1 +pe22 ) . . . (1+p1k +p2k +· · ·+pkek −1 +pekk )
Concept 18.2.2 (Sum of Factors of a Number)

Essentially, for a prime p in the prime factorization, first find the sum of pk for all
possible exponents k in the prime factorization. Then, we will multiply all such sums
for all of the primes to get the sum of all the factors of the number. This may seem
complicated, but it will make more sense with an example
Example 18.3
What is the sum of factors of 112?
233
Solution 18.3
We can calculate that the prime factorization of 112 = 24 × 7. We will find the sum of powers
of 2 and powers of 7.
What is the sum of powers of 2?
The exponent of 2 can be anything from 0 to 4. Therefore, the sum of powers of 2 is

20 + 21 + 22 + 23 + 24 = 31.
Similarly, the sum of powers of 7 is 70 + 71 = 8.
Therefore, the sum of factors of 112 will be the product of both of our sums, which is
31 × 8 = 248 .
18.3 Product of Factors
Theorem 18.3.1 (Product of Factors of a Number)

The product of factors of a number n where it has f factors (this can be calculated using
f
the number of factors formula) is n 2
Example 18.4
Find the product of the factors of 20.
Solution 18.4
First, we must find the number of factors of 20, as this is needed in the formula. To do this,
we must first find the prime factorization of 20.
We first divide by powers of 2. We have that 20 = 21 × 10 = 22 × 5 = 22 × 51 . Since 5 is

prime, this is the prime factorization of 20.
From here, how many factors does 20 have?
We simply add 1 to each exponent to get 3 and 2. The number of factors will be the
product, which is 3 × 2 = 6.
Then, we have to apply the formula to get the product of factors. From above, we have
234
that the number of factors f = 6. Also, we have that the number n = 20. Plugging this into
6
the formula, we get 20 2 = 203 = 8000

Let a be the product of all odd factors of 54. Let b be the sum of all even factors of 36.
Find a − b.
Video Solution

What is the sum of the prime factors of 2010?
Video Solution
How many positive factors does 23,232 have?
Video Solution
For any positive integer M , the notation M ! denotes the product of the integers 1 through
M . What is the largest integer n for which 5n is a factor of the sum 98! + 99! + 100! ?
(A) 23 (B) 24 (C) 25 (D) 26 (E) 27
Video Solution
235
On June 1, a group of students is standing in rows, with 15 students in each row. On

June 2, the same group is standing with all of the students in one long row. On June
3, the same group is standing with just one student in each row. On June 4, the same
group is standing with 6 students in each row. This process continues through June
12 with a different number of students per row each day. However, on June 13, they
cannot find a new way of organizing the students. What is the smallest possible number
of students in the group?
Video Solution
How many positive multiples of 1,001 have less than 15 factors?
Video Solution
Let N = 34 · 34 · 63 · 270. What is the ratio of the sum of the odd divisors of N to
the sum of the even divisors of N ?
Video Solution
Let n = 231 319 . How many positive integer divisors of n2 are less than n but do not
divide n?
Video Solution
236
For some positive integer n, the number 110n3 has 110 positive integer divisors, in-
cluding 1 and the number 110n3 . How many positive integer divisors does the number
81n4 have?
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 18.4.9
How many positive factors does the number 60 have?
Problem 18.4.10
Find the sum of factors of 320.
How many positive divisors of 2020 do not also divide 1010?
How many factors of 2020 have more than 3 factors? (Example, 12 has 6 factors, namely
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12.)
1
What is the sum of a over all positive factors a of the number 360?
237
A positive integer q is the product of a prime number and a perfect square. Addi-
tionally, q is the product of a different prime number and a perfect cube. What is the
least possible value of q?
What is the greatest integer k such that 80! is divisible by 45k ?
Answers
18.1 7
18.2 651
18.4.1 77
18.4.2 42
18.4.3 26
18.4.4 60
18.4.5 4
18.4.6 1 : 14
18.4.7 589
18.4.8 325
18.4.9 12
18.4.10 762
238
18.4.11 4
18.4.12 7
18.4.13 17
18.4.14 432
18.4.15 18
239
Chapter 19
GCD and LCM
240
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 19. GCD and LCM
19.1 GCD and LCM Fundamentals

Definition 19.1.1 (Greatest Common Divisor). The Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of
two or more integers (which are not all zero) is the largest positive integer that divides each
of the integers.
Note: This is also known as GCF (Greatest Common Factor), and the terms GCF and GCD
are often used interchangeably.
Definition 19.1.2 (Least Common Multiple). The Least Common Multiple (LCM) of two
or more integers (which are not all zero) is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by
both the numbers.
Concept 19.1.3
Greatest common divisor of m and n = GCD(m, n) can be found by taking the lowest
prime exponents from the prime factorizations of m and n.
Least common multiple of m and n = LCM (m, n) can be found by taking the highest
prime exponents from the prime factorizations of m and n.

What is the ratio of the least common multiple of 180 and 594 to the greatest common
factor of 180 and 594?
Video Solution
19.2 GCD and LCM Product
Theorem 19.2.1
The product of GCD and LCM of two numbers is equal to the product of the two
numbers:
GCD(m, n) × LCM (m, n) = m × n
Remark 19.2.2
Let’s explore the reason why this is true. Let’s say that m has pa in it’s prime factor-
ization, and n has pb in it’s prime factorization. Then, the product mn will have pa+b
in it’s prime factorization.
241
Remember from above how the gcd can be found by taking the lowest prime expo-
nents and the lcm can be found by taking the highest prime exponents.
Therefore, if a is smaller than b, than the gcd will have pa in it’s prime factorization,
and the lcm will have pb in it’s prime factorization. On the other hand, if b is smaller
than a, than the gcd will have pb in it’s prime factorization, and the lcm will have pa in
it’s prime factorization.
Therefore, no matter what, the product of the gcd and lcm will have pa+b in it’s prime
factorization. This is true for all primes, so the products are equal.
Example 19.1
Suppose we have 2 numbers m and n such that mn = 1260 and LCM (m, n) = 210. Find
GCD(m, n).
Solution 19.1
We know the product and lcm of the numbers, we can use the identity that
gcd(m, n) × lcm(m, n) = m × n
Then, we can simply plug in the given values to get gcd(m, n) × 210 = 1260. Dividing both
sides by 210 gives gcd(m, n) = 6 .
19.3 More GCD/LCM Properties
Theorem 19.3.1
gcd(ac, bc) = c · gcd(a, b)
Theorem 19.3.2
lcm(ac, bc) = c · lcm(a, b)
242
Theorem 19.3.3
If a number is divisible by two numbers a and b, it will also be divisible by lcm(a, b).

Let a be the smallest positive perfect cube that’s divisible by 15, 22, and 176. If a = b3 ,
find b.
Video Solution
19.4 Euclidean Algorithm
Theorem 19.4.1 (Euclidean Algorithm)

The Euclidean algorithm states that
gcd(x, y) = gcd(x − ky, y)
where x > y and k is a positive integer.
Example 19.2
Find the GCD of 186 and 92.
Solution 19.2
We can apply the Euclidean Algorithm multiple times to easily find the GCD of large numbers
since after applying the Euclidean algorithm, we will have two smaller numbers, and we can
repeatedly apply the Euclidean Algorithm again until we get two very small numbers.
gcd(186, 92) = gcd((186 − (2 · 92)), 92)

= gcd(2, 92)
= gcd(2, (92 − (2 · 46)))
= gcd(2, 0)
=2
243

3 numbers a, b, and c satisfy the conditions that gcd(a, b) = 4, gcd(b, c) = 18, and
lcm(a, c) = 144. Find the value of a + c.
Solution 19.3
To solve this problem, let’s first figure out how to use the gcd conditions.
What must be true about a and b if gcd(a, b) = 4?
If gcd(a, b) = 4, then both a and b must be multiples of 4.
Similarly, if gcd(b, c) = 18, then both b and c must be multiples of 18.
What do both of these conditions combined tell us about b?
If b is a multiple of 4 and a multiple of 18, it also must be a multiple of the least com-
mon multiple of 4 and 18 by the above theorem. This means b is a multiple of 36. The
reason this is true is because to be a multiple of 18, it must also be as multiple of 9 and 2.
However, a number that is a multiple of 4 is already a multiple of 2, so therefore it just has
to be a multiple of 9 × 4 = 36.
We know that a must be a multiple of 4. What happens if a is also a multi-

ple of 3, or even 9?
Keep in mind that gcd(a, b) = 4 means that not only both numbers share a factor of 4,
but that no other factors are shared between the numbers. From earlier, we know that b is
a multiple of 36. Therefore, if a has any factors of 3, then the gcd will also have factors of 3
since both a and b would then have factors of 3.
Therefore, a cannot have any factors of 3.
Similarly, what must be true about c?
We know c is a multiple of 18, which means it’s a multiple of 9 and a multiple of 2. On

the other hand, b is a multiple of 36. The gcd is 18, so if c is a multiple of 36, then the
gcd would have been 36, which is not possible. Therefore, c cannot be a multiple of 36. We
already know c is a multiple of 9, that means c is not a multiple of 4.
Finally, how do we use the condition that lcm(a, c) = 144?
244
First, let’s find the prime factorization of 144.
First, we divide by factors of 2 to get 144 = 2 × 72 = 22 × 36 = 23 × 18 = 24 × 9. 9 is 32 ,

so the prime factorization is 24 × 32 .
For lcm(a, c) to have a factor of 24 , how many factors of 2 must a and c each have?
Remember from earlier that c is a multiple of 2, but not a multiple of 4. Therefore, c

has 1 factor of 2. However, for the lcm to have a factor of 24 , one of the numbers a or c
must have exactly 4 powers of 2 in the prime factorization since the lcm is found by taking
the maximum powers of each prime in the prime factorization of both numbers. Therefore,
a must have exactly 4 powers of 2. It can’t be more than 4 powers of 2 because then the
lcm would also have more than 4 powers of 2. Also, c is a multiple of 2, but not 4, it will
have exactly 1 power of 2 in it’s prime factorization.
Next, for lcm(a, c) to have a factor of 32 , how many factors of 3 must a and
c each have?
Earlier, we found that a has no factors of 3 and c must be a multiple of 9. Therefore, c

must have exactly 2 powers of 3 in it’s prime factorization. Again, it can’t have any more
than 2 powers of 3 since that would result in lcm also having more than 2 powers of 3.
Finally, can either a or c have any other prime factors besides 2 or 3?
If a or c had a factor of 5, 7, or some other prime, then the lcm would also have that
prime in it’s prime factorization. But earlier, we found that the prime factorization 24 × 32
only contains factors of 2 and 3. Therefore, this is impossible.
What are the values of a and c that work?
Since a has 4 powers of 2, no powers of 3, and no powers of any other prime, the prime
factorization is 24 . Therefore, a = 16.
Similarly, since b has 1 power of 2, 2 powers of 3, and no powers of any other prime, the
prime factorization is 2 × 32 . Therefore, b = 18.
The sum is therefore 16 + 18 = 34 .
245

How many positive integers n are there such that n is a multiple of 5, and the least
common multiple of 5! and n equals 5 times the greatest common divisor of 10! and n?
Video Solution

Each piece of candy in a store costs a whole number of cents. Casper has exactly
enough money to buy either 12 pieces of red candy, 14 pieces of green candy, 15 pieces
of blue candy, or n pieces of purple candy. A piece of purple candy costs 20 cents. What
is the smallest possible value of n?
Video Solution
The least common multiple of a and b is 12, and the least common multiple of b and c
is 15. What is the least possible value of the least common multiple of a and c?
Video Solution
For how many values of k is 1212 the least common multiple of the positive integers
66 , 88 , and k?
Video Solution
246
Let a, b, c, and d be positive integers such that gcd(a, b) = 24, gcd(b, c) = 36, gcd(c, d) = 54,
and 70 < gcd(d, a) < 100. Which of the following must be a divisor of a?
Video Solution
Additional Problems
If the GCD of 2 numbers is 12 and the LCM of the same 2 numbers is 240, find the
product of the numbers.
Two numbers a and b satisfy the condition lcm(gcd(24, a), gcd(a, b)) = lcm(gcd(24, b), gcd(a, b)).
If a = 2b, what is the smallest possible value of a + b?
Let [r, s] denote the least common multiple of positive integers r and s. Find the num-
ber of ordered triples (a, b, c) of positive integers for which [a, b] = 1000, [b, c] = 2000, and
[c, a] = 2000.
Three numbers a, b, and c satisfy the conditions that gcd(a, b) = 20, gcd(b, c) = 18,
and lcm(a, c) = 5040. Find the sum of all possible values of a + c.
247
Let n be the least positive integer greater than 1000 for which
gcd(63, n + 120) = 21 and gcd(n + 63, 120) = 60.
What is the sum of the digits of n?
Answers
19.1 330
19.2 660
19.3 48
19.5.1 21
19.5.2 20
19.5.3 25
19.5.4 13
19.5.5 2880
19.5.6 24
19.5.7 70
19.5.9 18
248
Chapter 20
Modular Arithmetic
249
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 20. Modular Arithmetic
20.1 Modular Arithmetic Fundamentals

Definition 20.1.1.
n ≡ a (mod b)
means the number ’n’ leaves the same remainder as ’a’ when divided by b
Remark 20.1.2
Mods can also be negative. For example a number that is 5 (mod 6) is also −1 (mod 6).
This can be useful for simplifying calculations when raising this number to large powers.
20.2 Product Rule
Theorem 20.2.1
If a = x (mod n) and b ≡ y (mod n), then
ab ≡ xy (mod n)
Remark 20.2.2
This is useful when having to calculate the last few digits of a expression because we
can then only have to consider that many digits for all of our terms.

If n is an even positive integer, the double factorial notation n!! represents the product
of all the even integers from 2 to n. For example, 8!! = 2 · 4 · 6 · 8. What is the units digit
of the following sum?
2!! + 4!! + 6!! + · · · + 2018!! + 2020!! + 2022!!
Video Solution
Example 20.1 (AIME)

Find the remainder when 9 × 99 × 999 × · · · × 99 · · · 9} is divided by 1000.
| {z
999 9’s
250
Solution 20.1
The identity above allows us to simply find each term (mod 1000) and multiply them to-
gether. We can clearly see that 9 ≡ 9 (mod 1000) and 99 ≡ 99 (mod 1000).
What is the value of 999 (mod 1000)?
Since 999 is 1 less than 1000, 999 ≡ −1 (mod 1000).
What is the value of 9999 (mod 1000)?
Notice that 9999 is again 1 less than a multiple of 1000 (10,000), so 9999 ≡ −1 (mod 1000).
For all remaining terms, we can see that since it ends in 999, it will be 1 less than a multiple
of 1000 or −1 (mod 1000).
In total, amongst all 999 terms, 1 term is 9 (mod 1000), 1 term is 99 (mod 1000), and
the 997 remaining terms are all −1 (mod 1000).
Therefore, the product will be
9×99×(−1)997 (mod 1000) ≡ 891×−1×(−1)996 ≡ −891×((−1)2 )498 ≡ −891×1 ≡ 109 (mod 1000)
20.3 Exponent Rule
Theorem 20.3.1
If a ≡ x (mod n), then
am ≡ x m (mod n)
Remark 20.3.2
This is true since am is just a × a × · · · × a and xm is just x × x × · · · × x, so it follows
from the product rule above.

When 19992000 is divided by 5, what is the remainder?
251
Solution 20.2
We can simplify our expression by first evaluating 1999 mod 5.
What mod value is equivalent to 1999 (mod 5)?
1999 leaves a remainder of 4 when divided by 5 so we could say that 1999 ≡ 4 (mod 5).
However, then we would still have to calculate the remainder when 42000 is divided by 5.
Instead, what negative mod is equivalent to 1999 (mod 5)
Since 1999 is 1 less than 2000, a multiple of 5, we can say that 1999 ≡ −1 (mod 5).
Then, we have to find the remainder when −12000 is divided by 5, which is
((−1)2 )1000 = 11000 = 1 (mod 5)
so it leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by 5.
Example 20.2
Find the remainder of 98 when it’s divided by 100.
Video Solution
20.4 Multiple Modular Congruences

Concept 20.4.1
We can generally combine different mods together.
Example 20.3
Find the largest possible number less than 100 that leaves a remainder of 1 when divided
by 5 and a remainder of 1 when divided by 7.
252
Solution 20.3
We can rewrite our conditions as x ≡ 1 (mod 5) and x ≡ 1 (mod 7). In order to solve the
problem, we will try to combine these mods in 1 mod statement.
If x ≡ 1 (mod 5) and x ≡ 1 (mod 7), then what is the value of x − 1 (mod 5) and
(mod 7)?
Subtracting 1 from both sides of the equation x ≡ 1 (mod 5) gives us x − 1 ≡ 0 (mod 5).
Similarly, we get x − 1 ≡ 0 (mod 7). Therefore, x − 1 is a multiple of both 5 and 7.
If x − 1 is a multiple of both 5 and 7, what else must x − 1 be a multiple of?
If x - 1 is a multiple of both 5 and 7, x - 1 will also be a multiple of 5 × 7 = 35!. Therefore,

we have x − 1 ≡ 0 (mod 35) or x ≡ 1 (mod 35).
From here, we can see that the possible values less than 100 are 1, 36, 71, 106, etc. Clearly,
71 is the largest possible value less than 100.
Example 20.3
Find the smallest positive integer that leaves a remainder of 5 when divided by 6, 2
when divided by 5, 2 when divided by 7, and 2 when divided by 11.
Video Solution
20.5 Digit Cycles

Concept 20.5.1 (Digit Cycles)
To calculate large digit(s) of a number ab , a strategy that may work is to just look for
a pattern by computing the first few values of ab and then seeing that the pattern will
repeat for large values of b.
Example 20.4
Find the units digit of 21026
253
Solution 20.4
1026 is a very large power, so let’s try to find the units digit for smaller powers.
The units digit of 21 = 2 is 2.

Do you see a pattern?
We can see that the units digit cycle! In fact, they cycle for every 4 powers of 2 in the
pattern 2, 4, 8, 6. After that, the units digit repeat in the same pattern.
How can we use this to find the units digit of 21026 ?
Since it repeats every 4, we have that 21026 ≡ 21022 ≡ 21018 . . . (mod 1)0. We can see that
since 1026 is 2 (mod 4), eventually by continuously going down by 4 exponents we will have
that 21026 ≡ 22 ≡ 4 (mod 1)0. Therefore, the units digit is 4 .
Example 20.4
Find the remainder when
(151 + 152 + 153 + · · · + 152022 ) + (341 + 342 + · · · + 342021 )
is divided by 7.
Video Solution
254
What is the units digit of 132012 ?
Video Solution
Problem 20.6.2
What is the units digit of 1919 + 9999 ?
Video Solution
What is the tens digit of 72011 ?
Video Solution
Problem 20.6.4
What is the smallest number greater than 2 that leaves a remainder of 2 when divided
by 3, 4, 5, or 6?
Video Solution
The number N is a two-digit number. • When N is divided by 9, the remainder is

1. • When N is divided by 10, the remainder is 3. What is the remainder when N is
divided by 11?
Video Solution
255
The product of the two 99-digit numbers 303, 030, 303,..., 030, 303 and 505, 050, 505,
..., 050, 505 has thousands digit A and units digit B. What is the sum of A and B?
Video Solution
How many positive three-digit integers have a remainder of 2 when divided by 6, a

remainder of 5 when divided by 9, and a remainder of 7 when divided by 11?
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 20.6.8
What is the units digit of 1317 + 1713 ?
Problem 20.6.9
Find the units digit of 7109 − 3336
Problem 20.6.10
Find the smallest positive number greater than 1 that leaves a remainder of 1 when
divided by 2, by 3, by 4, by 5, and by 6.
How many positive integers can fill the blank in the sentence below?
256
“One positive integer is _____ more than twice another, and the sum of the two
numbers is 28.”
Problem 20.6.12 (AMC 10/12)
The Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . . starts with two 1s, and each term after-
wards is the sum of its two predecessors. Which one of the ten digits is the last to appear
in the units position of a number in the Fibonacci sequence?
(A) 0 (B) 4 (C) 6 (D) 7 (E) 9
If n is an even positive integer, the double factorial notation n!! represents the prod-
uct of all the even integers from 2 to n. For example, 8!! = 2 · 4 · 6 · 8. What is the units
digit of the following sum?
2!! + 4!! + 6!! + · · · + 2018!! + 2020!! + 2022!!
Find the remainder when 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + 20162 is divided by 17.
Let N = 1002 + 992 − 982 − 972 + 962 + · · · + 42 + 32 − 22 − 12 , where the additions and
subtractions alternate in pairs. Find the remainder when N is divided by 1000.
In the Fibonacci sequence, how many of the first 100 terms in the sequence leave a
remainder of less than 7 when divided by 8?
257
Answers
20.1 2
20.2 21
20.3 1157
20.4 5
20.6.1 1
20.6.2 8
20.6.3 4
20.6.4 62
20.6.5 7
20.6.6 8
20.6.7 5
20.6.8 0
20.6.9 6
20.6.10 61
20.6.11 9
20.6.12 6
20.6.13 2
20.6.15 100
20.6.16 92
258
Chapter 21
Diophantine Equations
259
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 21. Diophantine Equations
Concept 21.0.1
Diophantine equation problems often involve having to rewrite numbers and expressions
into variables and combining the use of algebra and number theory. Essentially, they
are equations with integer solutions.

The digits of a 3 digit number are reversed. The original number is 594 greater than
the new number. What is the largest possible value for the original number?
Solution 21.1
To start, we will first try and write the problem algebraically.
How can we convert a 3 digit number to variables?
Let the hundredths digit be h, the tens digit t, and units digit u (the 3 digit number will be
htu). Then, the 3 digit number is essentially 100h + 10t + u.
What is the number in terms of h, t, and u when the digits are reversed?
Since the original hundreds digit, h, is now the units digit and the original units digit,
u, is now the hundreds digit, the new number will be uth. This is essentially 100u + 10t + h.
Now, how do we use the condition that the original number is 594 greater than
the new number?
For this to happen, we must have
594 = (100h + 10t + u) − (100u + 10t + h)

= (100h − h) + (10t − 10t) + (u − 100h)
= 99h − 99u
= 99(h − u)
Dividing both sides by 99 gives h − u = 6.
What are the possibilites for t?
Notice how t is not part of the condition after simplifying, so it can be any digit.
260
What are the possibilites for h and u?
All the digits must be from 0 to 9, so we simply look at the possibilites for h.
If h = 9, then u=3
If h = 8, then u=2
If h = 7, then u=1
If h = 6, then u=0
These are the only cases because any lower value of h will result in a negative u, which
is impossible.
What values of h, u, and t will produce the largest number?
Since t can be anything, we can let t = 9 to make it as large as possible. The largest
values for h and u is clearly h = 9 and u = 3, since it has the largest hundreds and units digit
amongst the cases for h and u. Therefore, the largest possible value for the original number
is 100h + 10t + u = 100 × 9 + 10 × 9 + 3 = 993 .

The digits of a 2 digit number with tens digit 7 is reversed. The digits of a 3 digit
number with hundreds digit 3 and tens digit 5 is also reversed. The sum of both of the
new reversed numbers is 288 more than the sum of the original 2 numbers. Find the
sum of the 2 original numbers.
Video Solution
261
21.1 Quadratic Factorizations
Theorem 21.1.1 (Difference of Squares)
x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y)
Theorem 21.1.2 (Binomial Square Expansions)
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2 = (x − y)2 + 4xy
(x − y)2 = x2 − 2xy + y 2 = (x + y)2 − 4xy
(x + y)2 + (x − y)2 = 2(x2 + y 2 )
(x + y)2 − (x − y)2 = 4xy
(x + y + z)2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2(xy + yz + xz)

How many factors does the number 9984 have?
Video Solution

How many values of n from 1 to 100 make 16n − 2 × 4n + 1 a multiple of 49?
262
Solution 21.2
Let’s solve this problem using the formulas we learned above.
Do you notice any of the factorizations in the expression?
We see the terms 16n and 4n in our expression. Notice how 16n = (4n )2 . Our expression can
be rewritten as (4n )2 − 2 × (4n ) + 1.
Now we can use the (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2 identity! If we let a = 4n and b = 1, we can
see that
(4n )2 − 2 × (4n ) × 1 + 1 = a2 − 2ab + b2 = (a − b)2 = (4n − 1)2
When is (4n − 1)2 a multiple of 49?
Since 49 = 72 , for (4n − 1)2 to be a multiple of 72 , we must have 4n − 1 be a multiple of

7.
Do you notice any more identities?
Again, we can notice that 4n = (2n )2 . Rewriting our expression this way gives (2n )2 − 1.
We can now use difference of squares! We have that
(2n )2 − 1 = (2n )2 − 12 = (2n − 1)(2n + 1).
What must happen for (2n − 1)(2n + 1) to be a multiple of 7?
7 is prime, so either 2n − 1 or 2n + 1 must be a multiple of 7. Therefore, 2n ≡ 1, 6 (mod 7).
How can we analyze the values of 2n (mod 7)
Let’s try looking at small values.
20 ≡ 1 (mod 7)
21 = 20 × 2 ≡ 1 × 2 ≡ 2 (mod 7)
22 = 21 × 2 ≡ 2 × 2 ≡ 4 (mod 7)
23 = 22 × 2 ≡ 4 × 2 ≡ 1 (mod 7)
24 = 23 × 2 ≡ 1 × 2 ≡ 2 (mod 7)
263
25 = 24 × 2 ≡ 2 × 2 ≡ 4 (mod 7)
We can see a pattern. The values of 2n (mod 7) cycle between 1, 2, and 4.
From earlier we must have 2n ≡ 1or6 (mod 7) for the expression to be a multiple of 7,
the only possibility is to have 2n ≡ 1 (mod 7). From the pattern, we can see that this only
happens when n is a multiple of 3.
100
Therefore, from 1 to 100, there are 3 = 33 multiples of 3.
21.2 Simon’s Favorite Factoring Trick
Theorem 21.2.1 (Simon’s Favorite Factoring Trick)
xy + kx + jy + jk = (x + j)(y + k)
Remark 21.2.2
You can generally apply this factorization when you have xy, x, and y terms. After
applying the factorization, you can then find all possible values for each of your terms
in your factorization (remember negatives!).
Example 21.3
1
Find the sum of all possible distinct values of x + y such that x + y1 = 1
2
Solution 21.3
This problem may seem tricky, but there is a simple technique to solve this.
How can we simplify this problem by removing the denominators?
Notice that the denominators have values of 2, x, and y, so we can multiply by 2xy to
get rid of the fractions. We end up with 2y + 2x = xy.
What identity or formula can we use on this simplified equation?
Notice how we have xy, x, and y terms, so we can use Simon’s Favorite Factoring Trick!
264
We can rewrite our equation as xy − 2x − 2y = 0. We must rewrite the left hand side as
something of the form (x + j)(y + k). Remember from the theorem above, the coefficient of
the y term will be j, and the coefficient of the x term will be k.
Make sure to remember that it’s not the other way around as this can be a common mistake!
Since both coefficients are -2, j and k must also both be -2. Therefore, we can rewrite
as (x − 2)(y − 2).
Are we adding any extra terms?
This product also ads an extra (−2) × (−2) = 4 term. Therefore, we must also subtract
the extra 4 we added.
Thus, we have (x − 2)(y − 2) − 4 = 0 or (x − 2)(y − 2) = 4.
Since the right hand side is positive, we have 2 possibilities: either x − 2 and y − 2 are
both positive, or both are negative.
Is it possible for x − 2 and y − 2 to be negative.
Since x and y must be positive integers (1 or more), the minimum value of x − 2 and y − 2
can be 1 − 2 = −1.
Therefore, -1 is the only negative value possible for x − 2 and y − 2. However, this will
result in the product being −1 × −1 = 1, which isn’t 4. So these values don’t work.
Therefore, both x − 2 and y − 2 must be positive.
What are the positive possibilities for x − 2 and y − 2?
Since their product is 4, they must be factors of 4. Since 4 = 22 , the only possibilities
for 2 positive numbers that have a product of 4 is (20 , 22 ), (21 , 21 ), and (22 , 20 ) since the sum
of the exponents of the powers of 2 must be 2 by the exponent product rule.
We can evaluate this to be (1, 4), (2, 2), and (4, 1). Therefore, we can split the remain-
ing problem into 3 cases:
Case 1: (1, 4)
For this case, x − 2 = 1, and y − 2 = 4, so x = 3andy = 6. This means that x + y = 3 + 6 = 9.
265
Case 2: (2, 2)
Case 1: (4, 1)
Therefore, the distinct possible values of x + y are 9 and 8. The sum of these values is
9 + 8 = 17 .
21.3 Interesting Examples

Each of the points A, B, C, D, E, and F in the figure below represents a different digit
from 1 to 6. Each of the five lines shown passes through some of these points. The digits
along each line are added to produce five sums, one for each line. The total of the five
sums is 47. What is the digit represented by B?
B
E
D
C
Video Solution
21.4 Cubic Factorizations (Optional)
Theorem 21.4.1 (Difference of Cubes)

x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 )
266
Theorem 21.4.2 (Sum of Cubes)

x3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 )
Theorem 21.4.3 (Binomial Cube Expansions)
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3xy(x + y) + y 3
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3
(x − y)3 = x3 − 3xy(x − y) − y 3
(x − y)3 = x3 − 3x2 y + 3xy 2 − y 3

Peter, Emma, and Kyler played chess with each other. Peter won 4 games and lost
2 games. Emma won 3 games and lost 3 games. If Kyler lost 3 games, how many games
did he win?
Video Solution
The positive integers x and y are the two smallest positive integers for which the product
of 360 and x is a square and the product of 360 and y is a cube. What is the sum of x
and y?
Video Solution
How many digits are in the product 45 · 510 ?
267
Video Solution
n
For how many positive integer values of n are both 3 and 3n three-digit whole num-
bers?
Video Solution
A 2-digit number is such that the product of the digits plus the sum of the digits is
equal to the number. What is the units digit of the number?
Video Solution
In the multiplication problem below A, B, C, D and are different digits. What is

A + B?
A B A
× C D
C D C D
Video Solution
What is the correct ordering of the three numbers, 108 , 512 , and 224 ?
Video Solution
268
Suppose a, b, and c are nonzero real numbers, and a + b + c = 0. What are the pos-
a b c abc
sible value(s) for |a| + |b| + |c| + |abc| ?
(A) 0 (B) 1 and −1 (C) 2 and −2 (D) 0, 2, and −2 (E) 0, 1, and −
1
Video Solution
After Euclid High School’s last basketball game, it was determined that 14 of the team’s
points were scored by Alexa and 27 were scored by Brittany. Chelsea scored 15 points.
None of the other 7 team members scored more than 2 points. What was the total
number of points scored by the other 7 team members?
Video Solution
A baseball league consists of two four-team divisions. Each team plays every other
team in its division N games. Each team plays every team in the other division M
games with N > 2M and M > 4. Each team plays a 76 game schedule. How many
games does a team play within its own division?
Video Solution
What is the greatest three-digit positive integer n for which the sum of the first n
positive integers is not a divisor of the product of the first n positive integers?
Video Solution
269
How many perfect cubes lie between 28 + 1 and 218 + 1, inclusive?
Video Solution
There is a prime number p such that 16p + 1 is the cube of a positive integer. Find
p.
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 21.5.14
After the digits of a 3 digit number are reversed, the number is 297 more than the
original number. What’s the largest possible value for the original number?
The hundreds digit of a three-digit number is 2 more than the units digit. The dig-
its of the three-digit number are reversed, and the result is subtracted from the original
three-digit number. What is the units digit of the result?
In multiplying two positive integers a and b, Ron reversed the digits of the two-digit
number a. His erroneous product was 161. What is the correct value of the product a
and b?
270
A palindrome, such as 83438, is a number that remains the same when its digits are
reversed. The numbers x and x + 32 are three-digit and four-digit palindromes, respec-
tively. What is the sum of the digits of x?
A two-digit positive integer is said to be cuddly if it is equal to the sum of its nonzero
tens digit and the square of its units digit. How many two-digit positive integers are
cuddly?
2011 2011
What is the largest positive 2-digit factor of 32 − 22
If m and n are positive integers where m2 + 14m32 = 3n , what is the value of m + n?

r
x
Which of the following is equivalent to 1− x−1
when x < 0?
x
q √
(A) − x (B) x (C) 1 (D) x
2 (E) x −1
In the United States, coins have the following thicknesses: penny, 1.55 mm; nickel,
1.95 mm; dime, 1.35 mm; quarter, 1.75 mm. If a stack of these coins is exactly 14 mm
high, how many coins are in the stack?
271
Boris has an incredible coin-changing machine. When he puts in a quarter, it returns

five nickels; when he puts in a nickel, it returns five pennies; and when he puts in a
penny, it returns five quarters. Boris starts with just one penny. Which of the following
amounts could Boris have after using the machine repeatedly?
(A)3.63 (B)5.13 (C)6.30 (D)7.45 (E)9.07
Answers
21.1 432
21.2 36
21.3 5
21.5.1 1
21.5.2 85
21.5.3 11
21.5.4 12
21.5.5 9
21.5.6 1
21.5.7 224 < 108 < 512
21.5.8 0
21.5.9 11
21.5.10 48
21.5.11 996
272
21.5.12 58
21.5.13 307
21.5.14 699
21.5.15 8
21.5.16 224
21.5.17 24
21.5.18 1
21.5.20 16
21.5.21 −x
21.5.22 8
21.5.23 $7.45
273
Chapter 22
Miscellaneous Number Theory
274
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 22. Miscellaneous Number Theory
22.1 Palindromes
Definition 22.1.1. A palindrome is a number that reads the same forward and backward.
Video Lectures
Palindromes
22.2 Money Problems

Josh has some quarters, dimes, nickels and pennies worth 101 cents. He has a total of
9 coins, at least 1 of each type of coin, how many nickels and dimes does he have?
Solution 22.1
First we should try to handle the limiting condition to make the problem simpler.
Is there any way we can easily simplify our problem and remove the condition
of must having at least 1 of each coin?
We can simply subtract off the value of 1 quarter, 1 dime, 1 nickel, and 1 penny because he
must have 1 of each coin anyway.
The total value of these coins is 25 + 10 + 5 + 1 = 41 cents. We are then left with 60 cents to
assign to the rest of the coins. Because we have already used 4 coins, the remaining 5 coins
must have a value of 60 cents.
Is it possible to have no more quarters?
We can see that having no more quarters is impossible because the maximum value for
any other coin is 10 cents, so the maximum value of 5 coins would be 50 cents, which is less
than 60 cents.
How can we split the remaining possibilities into cases?
Since quarter is the coin worth the most, we can split our problem into cases based on
how many quarters we will use.
275
Case 1: 1 more quarter
In this case, the quarter will have a value of 25 cents, so the remaining 4 coins have a
value of 60 − 25 = 35 cents. Clearly, we can see having 4 dimes will not work. However, 3
dimes along with a nickel results in having a total value of 35 cents. Therefore, this case
works.
Although it’s not necessary, to show that no other cases work, we will look at what happens
if we have more quarters.
Case 2: 2 more quarters
In this the 2 quarters will have a value of 50 cents, so the remaining 3 coins have a value of
60 − 50 = 10 cents.
We can clearly see that if we have even 1 dime, it’s impossible for the remaining coins
to have a value of 0 cents. Similarly, having 2 nickels is impossible because that means the
remaining coin will have a value of 0 cents. Therefore, we can have at most 1 nickel.
If we have 1 nickel and the remaining 5 cents worth of coins are pennies, there will be
a total of 1 + 5 = 6 coins, which isn’t allowed. If we have no nickels, there will 10 pennies,
which also isn’t possible for the same reason.
Case 3: 3 more quarters
This is impossible because the total value would be 75 cents, which is above the 60 cents we
need.
Therefore, the only case is when we have 1 additional quarter, 3 additional dimes, and 1
additional nickel. Since we also have the include the 1 penny, 1 nickel, 1 dime, and 1 quarter
we had in the beginning, there will be 4 dimes and 2 nickels.
Therefore, the total number of nickels and dimes is 4 + 2 = 6 .
276

A restaurant sells three sizes of drinks: small for $1.20, medium for $1.30 and large for
$1.80. Each person at a table of ten ordered one drink, for a total cost of $14.90, before
sales tax. How many people ordered a large drink?
Video Solution
22.3 Integer Operations

John inserts some number of parentheses into the expression shown to create a valid
mathematical expression. What is the smallest possible integer value of John’s expres-
sion?
1 ÷ 2 ÷ 3 ÷ 4 ÷ 5 ÷ 6 ÷ 7 ÷ 8 ÷ 9 ÷ 10
Video Solution

Sohil has received a new TI-84 Calculator from MATHCOUNTS. He is very excited,
so he enters the following expression 26 × 35 × 57 into the calculator. On any given
operation, Sohil will divide the number by it’s largest prime factor, p. Then, he will
multiply the number by p − 1. He continues this process until he reaches a final number
of 1. How many operations, including the final operation, will it take for this to happen?
Solution 22.2
Let’s analyze this step by step.
To start, what prime number will divide our number first?
The largest prime number in the prime factorization is 5, so 5 will divide first. Then, we will
have to multiply by 5 − 1 = 4 or 22 .
After how many operations will all the factors of 5 be gone?
277
Each operation removes 1 power of 5 in the prime factorization, so after 7 operations, in

the prime factorization, all the factors of 5 will be gone.
However, we will also have had to multiply by 4 after each operation. How
does this change the prime factorization?
We will also have had to multiply by 4 = 22 , 7 times, or 21 4. Therefore, after 7 operations,

in the prime factorization, we will have 14 additional factors of 2. The prime factorization
will therefore be 26 × 214 × 35 = 220 × 35 .
Now, what prime factor do we have to divide by?
The largest prime factor is clearly 3, so we have to divide by this now, instead of 5. Then,
we will have to multiply by 3 − 1 = 2.
We will need 5 operations to divide by all factors of 3. Doing so, we will also have to
multiply the number by 2, 5 times, or by 25 . Therefore, after 5 more operations the prime
factorization will 220 × 25 = 225 .
Now, what prime factor do we have to divide by?
Because the only prime factor is 2, we must divide by 2. Doing so, we will also have to
multiply our number by 1, which will not change the number. Therefore, because there are
25 factors of 2, we will have to do the operations 25 more times for the number to become 1.
Therefore, the total number of operations needed is 7 + 5 + 25 = 37 .
278

When a positive integer N is fed into a machine, the output is a number calculated
according to the rule shown below.
if N is even N
2
N
if N is odd
3N + 1
For example, starting with an input of N = 7, the machine will output 3 · 7 + 1 = 22.
Then if the output is repeatedly inserted into the machine five more times, the final
output is 26.
7 → 22 → 11 → 34 → 17 → 52 → 26
When the same 6-step process is applied to a different starting value of N, the final
output is 1. What is the sum of all such integers N ?
N→ → → → → →1
Video Solution
22.4 Chicken McNugget Theorem
Theorem 22.4.1 (Chicken McNugget Theorem)

The maximum value that cannot be expressed as the sum of non-negative multiples of
a and b is ab − a − b if a and b are relatively prime.
For relatively prime positive integers a, b ,there are exactly (a−1)(b−1)
2 positive integers
which cannot be expressed in the form ma + nb where m and n are positive integers.
Remark 22.4.2
This theorem is useful in finding solutions to problems like ”the maximum amount of
money that can’t be created with 3 cent and 5 cent coins”.
279

Loki, Moe, Nick and Ott are good friends. Ott had no money, but the others did.
Moe gave Ott one-fifth of his money, Loki gave Ott one-fourth of his money and Nick
gave Ott one-third of his money. Each gave Ott the same amount of money. What
fractional part of the group’s money does Ott now have?
Video Solution
You have nine coins: a collection of pennies, nickels, dimes, and quarters having a
total value of $1.02, with at least one coin of each type. How many dimes must you
have?
Video Solution
Problem 22.5.3 (AMC 10A)
The average value of all the pennies, nickels, dimes, and quarters in Paula’s purse is
20 cents. If she had one more quarter, the average value would be 21 cents. How many
dimes does she have in her purse?
Video Solution
Joe has a collection of 23 coins, consisting of 5-cent coins, 10-cent coins, and 25-cent
coins. He has 3 more 10-cent coins than 5-cent coins, and the total value of his collection
is 320 cents. How many more 25-cent coins does Joe have than 5-cent coins?
Video Solution
280
Isabella must take four 100-point tests in her math class. Her goal is to achieve an
average grade of 95 on the tests. Her first two test scores were 97 and 91. After seeing
her score on the third test, she realized she can still reach her goal. What is the lowest
possible score she could have made on the third test?
Video Solution
Laila took five math tests, each worth a maximum of 100 points. Laila’s score on
each test was an integer between 0 and 100, inclusive. Laila received the same score on
the first four tests, and she received a higher score on the last test. Her average score
on the five tests was 82. How many values are possible for Laila’s score on the last test?
Video Solution
Mr. Patrick teaches math to 15 students. He was grading tests and found that when he
graded everyone’s test except Payton’s, the average grade for the class was 80. After he
graded Payton’s test, the test average became 81. What was Payton’s score on the test?
Video Solution
Each of the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 is used only once to make two five-
digit numbers so that they have the largest possible sum. Which of the following could
be one of the numbers?
(A) 76531 (B) 86724 (C) 87431 (D) 96240 (E) 97403
Video Solution
281
Problem 22.5.9
Laura added two three-digit positive integers. All six digits in these numbers are differ-
ent. Laura’s sum is a three-digit number S. What is the smallest possible value for the
sum of the digits of S?
Video Solution
What is the largest power of 2 that is a divisor of 134 − 114 ?
Video Solution
Students guess that Norb’s age is 24, 28, 30, 32, 36, 38, 41, 44, 47, and 49. Norb says, ”At
least half of you guessed too low, two of you are off by one, and my age is a prime
number.” How old is Norb?
Video Solution
Josh went to the store with a number of dollars between 50 and 100, both inclusive.
He spent a third of his money on lunch. He then tipped 15 dollars. After that, he de-
posited two-thirds of his remaining money in his bank account. After that, he donated
a fifth of his remaining money to charity. He was then left with an integer number of
dollars. How many dollars did he have at the beginning?
Video Solution
282
In a tournament there are six teams that play each other twice. A team earns 3 points
for a win, 1 point for a draw, and 0 points for a loss. After all the games have been
played it turns out that the top three teams earned the same number of total points.
What is the greatest possible number of total points for each of the top three teams?
Video Solution
Bryan chooses a number between 1 and 1000. He gives a few conditions about the
number:
1. The number has no prime factors greater than 5
2. The number is not a perfect power (of anything greater than 1)
3. The number has 6 positive factors
4. The number leaves a remainder of 5 when divided by 7
Find the sum of all possible numbers Bryan could choose based on the conditions.
Video Solution
Additional Problems
In eight games this season, Kelly’s basketball team scored 22, 30, 33, 44, 50, 55, 61
and 66 points, respectively. They exactly tripled their opponent’s score three times and
exactly doubled their opponent’s score three times. They lost two games by 4 points
each. How many points did their opponents score altogether?
What fraction of the first 100 triangular numbers are evenly divisible by 7? Express
283
your answer as a common fraction.
Find the arithmetic mean of all the three-digit palindromes. (Recall that a palindrome
is a number that reads the same forward and backward, such as 777 or 383.)
The grid below is to be filled with integers in such a way that the sum of the numbers
in each row and the sum of the numbers in each column are the same. Four numbers
are missing. The number x in the lower left corner is larger than the other three missing
numbers. What is the smallest possible value of x?
−2 9 5
−1
x 8
A scientist walking through a forest recorded as integers the heights of 5 trees standing
in a row. She observed that each tree was either twice as tall or half as tall as the one
to its right. Unfortunately some of her data was lost when rain fell on her notebook.
Her notes are shown below, with blanks indicating the missing numbers. Based on her
observations, the scientist was able to reconstruct the lost data. What was the average
height of the trees, in meters?
284
Tree 1 meters
Tree 2 11 meters
Tree 3 meters
Tree 4 meters
Tree 5 meters
Average height .2 meters
If C is a digit such that the product of the three-digit numbers 2C8 and 3C1 is the
five-digit number 90C58, what is the value of C?
I am thinking of a number between 1000 and 9999, inclusive. It satisfies the follow-
ing conditions
1. The digits strictly increase from left to right
2. The sum of the 1st and 2nd digits equals the 3rd digit
3. The 2nd digit is 1 or 2 more than the first digit
4. The sum of the first 3 digits is greater than the 4th digit
5. When the number is squared, the units digit is 1
6. The number is divisible by 37
What number am I thinking of?
285
Answers
22.1 4
22.2 7
22.3 83
1
22.5.1 4
22.5.2 1
22.5.3 0
22.5.4 2
22.5.5 92
22.5.6 4
22.5.7 95
22.5.8 87431
22.5.9 4
22.5.10 32
22.5.11 37
22.5.12 90
22.5.13 24
22.5.14 87
22.5.15 225
22.5.17 550
22.5.18 8
22.5.19 24.2
22.5.20 5
22.5.21 3589
286
Geometry
287
Chapter 23
Angle Chasing
Video Lecture
288
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 23. Angle Chasing
23.1 Angle Chasing Basics

Concept 23.1.1 (Angle Chasing Tricks) • Sum of Angles in Triangle is 180
• A triangle with 2 angles equal will have their corresponding sides equal and a
triangle with 2 sides equal will have their corresponding angles equal (isosceles
triangle)
• Opposite angles in intersecting lines are equal
• Corresponding angles in parallel lines are equal
• The angle made by the arc at the center of the circle is double the angle made by
the arc at the boundary of the circle
Concept 23.1.2 (Complementary Angle)

Complementary angles are a pair of angles with the sum of 90 degrees
Concept 23.1.3 (Supplementary Angle)

Supplementary angles are a pair of angles with the sum of 180 degrees
Concept 23.1.4 (Intersecting lines)

When two lines intersect, the vertical angles are equal. Vertical angles are each of the
pairs of opposite angles made by two intersecting lines. ”Vertical” in this case means
they share the same Vertex (corner point), not the usual meaning of up-down.
289
Concept 23.1.5 (Parallel Lines)

Corresponding angles equal
Remark 23.1.6
Using this property along with supplementary angles, we can derive many other angle
relations.

The degree measure of angle A is
A
100◦
110◦
40◦
Video Solution
290
Example 23.2 (EMCC)

In acute △ABC, D and E are points inside triangle ABC such that DE ∥ BC, B is
closer to D than it is to E, ∠AED = 80◦ , ∠ABD = 10◦ , and ∠CBD = 40◦ . Find the
measure of ∠BAE, in degrees.
Video Solution
Video Lectures
Angle Chasing Basics
Angle Chasing Advanced
291
23.2 Inscribed Angles
Theorem 23.2.1 (Inscribed Arc Theorem)

The angle formed by an arc in the center or the arc angle is double of the angle formed
on the edge.
Remark 23.2.2
Circles are really useful for angle chasing so keep an eye out for the inscribed arc theorem
that can be used in many angle chasing problems.
Remark 23.2.3
A useful trick to solving angle chasing problems with regular polygons is to draw a circle
around the polygon and use the inscribed arc theorem.
Example 23.3
In regular octagon ABCDEFGH, Find the measure of ∠ACF .
Video Solution
Corollary 23.2.4 (Inscribed Right Triangle)

Inscribed triangle with diameter as one side is always a right triangle.
292
23.3 Polygons
Theorem 23.3.1
Sum of interior angle of a polygon = (n − 2) · 180
(n − 2)
Interior angle of a regular polygon = · 180
n
360
Exterior angle of a regular polygon =
n
Fact 23.3.2. Important Interior Angles
Number of sides in regular polygon Interior Angle of regular polygon

3 60
4 90
5 108
6 120
8 135
9 140
10 144
293

A square is located in the interior of a regular hexagon, and certain vertices are labeled
as shown. What is the degree measure of ∠ABC?
Video Solution
294
23.4 Advanced Circle Angle Chasing Theorems (Op-

tional)
Definition 23.4.1 (Chord). A Chord is a line segment between any two distinct points on
the circle. The diameter of the circle is the longest chord in the circle.
Theorem 23.4.2
The perpendicular bisector of any chord passes through the center. In the figure below,
the perpendicular bisectors of AB and CD intersect at the center O.
Corollary 23.4.3 • Congruent chords are equidistant from the center of a circle.
• If two chords in a circle are congruent, then their intercepted arcs are congruent.
• If two chords in a circle are congruent, then they determine two central angles
that are congruent.
295
Theorem 23.4.4
The angle marked in the diagram is half of the difference of the 2 red arcs.
⌢ ⌢
BD − AC
∠AP C =
2
Theorem 23.4.5
If two chords AB and CD intersect at P, then the ∠BP C and ∠AP D are equal to the
average of the two arcs.
⌢ ⌢
BC + AD
∠BP C = ∠AP D =
2
296
Theorem 23.4.6
If a tangent R intersects the circle at Q, and a chord QP is drawn, then the ∠RQP is
equal to half the arc angle
Theorem 23.4.7
Equal chords mark out equal arcs
This basically means that if you have 2 chords of the same length, the sector of the
circle they mark out will be equal
Definition 23.4.8 (Tangent). A tangent is any line from a point external to the circle that
just touches the circle.
Theorem 23.4.9 (Right Angle Tangency Point)

If you connect the center of a circle to the point where the circle and a line are tangent,
they will form a right angle.
Remark 23.4.10
This property is very useful in circle problems as it allows us to work with right angles.
In addition, another helpful technique is drawing useful radii to various points in your
diagram as that opens up new information to work with.
297

Problem 23.5.1
In the adjoining figure, ABCD is a square, ABE is an equilateral triangle and point E
is outside square ABCD. What is the measure of ∡AED in degrees?
A
D
C
B
Video Solution
In quadrilateral ABCD, sides AB and BC both have length 10, sides CD and DA
both have length 17, and the measure of angle ADC is 60◦ . What is the length of
diagonal AC?
298
A
D
C
Video Solution
In △ABC, D is a point on side AC such that BD = DC and ∠BCD measures 70◦ .

What is the degree measure of ∠ADB?
70◦
A D C
299
Video Solution
Problem 23.5.4
In the figure, point A is the center of the circle, the measure of angle RAS is 74°,
and the measure of angle RTB is 28°. What is the measure of minor arc BR, in degrees?
Video Solution
The circumference of the circle with center O is divided into 12 equal arcs, marked
the letters A through L as seen below. What is the number of degrees in the sum of the
angles x and y?
300
B
A C
x
L D
O
K E
J F
y
I G
H
Video Solution
Two angles of an isosceles triangle measure 70° and x°. What is the sum of the dif-
ferent possible values of x?
Video Solution
Two congruent circles centered at points A and B each pass through the other circle’s
center. The line containing both A and B is extended to intersect the circles at points C
and D. The circles intersect at two points, one of which is E. What is the degree measure
of ∠CED?
Video Solution
301
The keystone arch is an ancient architectural feature. It is composed of congruent

isosceles trapezoids fitted together along the non-parallel sides, as shown. The bottom
sides of the two end trapezoids are horizontal. In an arch made with 9 trapezoids, let x
be the angle measure in degrees of the larger interior angle of the trapezoid. What is x?
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Problem 23.5.9
In triangle ABC, AB = AC and ∠A = 40°. The bisector from ∠B intersects AC at

point D. What is ∠BDC?
Point P lies inside triangle ABC such that ∠P BC = 30° and ∠P AC = 20°. If ∠AP B is
a right angle, find the measure of ∠BCA in degrees.
302
Problem 23.5.11 (AMC 10/12)
As shown in the figure below, point E lies on the opposite half-plane determined by
line CD from point A so that ∠CDE = 110◦ . Point F lies on AD so that DE = DF ,
and ABCD is a square. What is the degree measure of ∠AF E?
E
A F
D
110◦
B C
Concave quadrilateral ABCD is symmetric about the line AC. The measures of angles
DAB and ABC are 84 degrees and 32 degrees, respectively. The dashed line segments
303
bisect angles ABC and ADC. What is the degree measure of the acute angle at which
the two dashed line segments intersect?
In triangle ABC, ∠BAC is a right angle and ∠ACB measures 34°. Let D be a point on
segment BC for which AC = CD, and let the angle bisector of ∠CBA intersect line AD
at E. What is the measure of ∠BED?
In square ABCD, point E lies on side BC and point F lies on side CD so that trian-
304
gle AEF is equilateral and inside the square. Point M is the midpoint of segment EF,
and P is the point other than E on AE for which PM = FM. The extension of segment
PM meets segment CD at Q. What is the measure of ∠CQP, in degrees?
Answers
23.1 30
23.2 50°
135
23.3 2
23.4 45°
23.5.1 15
23.5.2 17
23.5.3 140
23.5.4 81°
23.5.5 90
305
23.5.6 165
23.5.7 120
23.5.8 100
23.5.9 75
23.5.10 40°
23.5.11 170
23.5.12 64
23.5.13 45
23.5.14 105
306
Chapter 24
Triangles
Video Lecture
307
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 24. Triangles
24.1 Area of a Triangle

There are many ways to calculate the area of a triangle. Here are some of the most useful
formulas for calculating the area of a triangle:
Theorem 24.1.1 (Using base and height)

A triangle with base b and height h has an area of
1
·b·h
2
Theorem 24.1.2 (Heron’s Formula)

A triangle with sides a, b, c and semiperimeter s has an area of
q
s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
Example 24.1 (EMCC)

Given that the heights of △ABC have lengths 15
7, 5, and 3, what is the square of the
area of △ABC?
Video Solution
308
Definition 24.1.3 (Inradius). The inradius of a triangle is the radius of the inscribed circle
in the triangle.
Definition 24.1.4 (Incenter). The incenter of a triangle is the intersection of all the angle
bisectors. This point is also the center of the incircle, and equidistant from all the three
sides.
Theorem 24.1.5 (Area of a triangle using inradius)

A triangle with inradius r (the radius of the circle that can be inscribed in a triangle)
and semiperimeter s has an area of:
inradius · semiperimeter
rs
Remark 24.1.6
Note that if we know the area of the triangle and it’s semi-perimeter, we can apply the
inradius formula to find the inradius of the triangle.
Theorem 24.1.7
Inradius r of a right triangle:
1
r = (a + b − c)
2
where a and b are the legs of the triangle, and c is the hypotenuse.
309
Definition 24.1.8 (Circumradius). The circum-radius of a triangle is the radius of circle

that a triangle is inscribed in.
Definition 24.1.9 (Circumcenter). The circumcenter of a triangle is the intersection of all

3 perpendicular bisectors (the line that bisects a segment and is perpendicular to it). This
point is also the center of the circumcircle and equidistant from all the three vertices.
Theorem 24.1.10 (Area of a triangle using circumradius)

A triangle with circumradius R (the radius of the circle that the triangle can be inscribed
in) and sides a, b, c has an area of
abc
4R
Remark 24.1.11
Similar to the inradius problem, if we know all 3 sides of a triangle, we can apply Heron’s
and easily calculate the circumradius of the triangle.
310
24.2 Special Triangles
24.2.1 Equilateral Triangle

Theorem 24.2.1
If the side length of an equilateral triangle is a
√
3
Height of the triangle = a
2
This follows directly from the 30 − 60 − 90 triangle.

√
3 2
Area of the triangle = a
4
311
24.2.2 45-45-90 Triangle

Theorem 24.2.2
If the side length of a 45-45-90 triangle is a
√ √
hypotenuse of the triangle = 2 × side length = 2a
1 1
Area of the triangle = × side length2 = a2
2 2
312
24.2.3 30-60-90 Triangle

Theorem 24.2.3
If the short leg length of a 30-60-90 triangle is a
√ √
Long Leg of the triangle = 3 × short leg = 3a
hypotenuse of the triangle = 2 × short leg = 2a
√ √
3 3 2
Area = × short leg2 = a
2 2
313
24.2.4 13-14-15 Triangle

Theorem 24.2.4
If the three sides of a triangle are 13, 14, and 15, it can be divided into two right triangles
with side lengths:
5, 12, 13 and 9, 12, 15
Area of this triangle = 12 × 14 × 12 = 84
314
24.3 Pythagorean Theorem
Theorem 24.3.1 (Pythagorean Theorem)

A right triangle with legs a and b and hypotenuse c satisfies the following relation:
c 2 = a2 + b 2
Fact 24.3.2. Important Pythagorean Triples

3, 4, 5
5, 12, 13
7, 24, 25
8, 15, 17
9, 40, 41
20, 21, 29
If all numbers in a pythagorean triple are multiplied by a constant, the resulting numbers
still form a pythagorean triple.
For example: These are all pythagorean triples:

3, 4, 5
6, 8, 10
9, 12, 15
12, 16, 20
15, 20, 25
315
Theorem 24.3.3 (Special Properties of right triangles)

In a right triangle ABC where B is the right angle, the following triangles are similar
△ABC ∼ △ADB ∼ △BDC
q
AB·BC
Length of the perpendicular to the hypotenuse (BD) = AC
Also note that:
AD · CD = BD2
AD · AC = AB2
CD · CA = CB2
24.4 Triangle Properties

Definition 24.4.1 (Cevian). A cevian is any line from any vertex of a triangle to the
opposite side. Medians and angle bisectors are special cases of cevians.
Definition 24.4.2 (Median). A median is a line connecting a point to the midpoint of the
opposite side.
Definition 24.4.3 (Centroid). In a triangle, the intersection of all 3 medians in a triangle
is the centroid.
316
Theorem 24.4.4
2
The centroid of a triangle is on the median and it is 3 of the way from from one of
vertices to the midpoint of the opposite side.
Theorem 24.4.5 (Median in a Right Triangle)

In a right triangle ABC, let the median from point B intersect AC at a point P. Then
AP = BP = CP.
Basically, in a right triangle AC is the diameter of the circumcircle, and PC, PA, and
PB are radii of the circumcircle.
317
24.5 Angle Bisector Theorem
Theorem 24.5.1 (Angle Bisector Theorem)

If the line AD bisects angle A, then
AB AC
=
BD CD
Video Lectures
More on Angle Bisector Theorem
Example 24.2 (BmMT)

In triangle △ABC, the angle trisector of ∠BAC closer to AC than AB intersects BC at
D. Given that triangle △ABD is equilateral with area 1, compute the area of triangle
△ABC.
Video Solution
318

The twelve-sided figure shown has been drawn on 1 cm × 1 cm graph paper. What
is the area of the figure in cm2 ?
Video Solution
A triangle with vertices as A = (1, 3), B = (5, 1), and C = (4, 4) is plotted on a 6 × 5
grid. What fraction of the grid is covered by the triangle?
319
y
Video Solution
Each of the following four large congruent squares is subdivided into combinations of
congruent triangles or rectangles and is partially bolded. What percent of the total area
is partially bolded?
Video Solution
320
In the figure below, choose point D on BC so that △ACD and △ABD have equal
perimeters. What is the area of △ABD?
5
3
A 4 B
Video Solution
In the non-convex quadrilateral ABCD shown below, ∠BCD is a right angle, AB = 12,
BC = 4, CD = 3, and AD = 13. What is the area of quadrilateral ABCD?
B A
Video Solution
321
The triangular plot of ACD lies between Aspen Road, Brown Road and a railroad.
Main Street runs east and west, and the railroad runs north and south. The numbers in
the diagram indicate distances in miles. The width of the railroad track can be ignored.
How many square miles are in the plot of land ACD?
Brown
C
3
Aspen
Main
A 3 B
Video Solution
In square ABCE, AF = 2F E and CD = 2DE. What is the ratio of the area of △BF D
to the area of square ABCE?
322
A B
E D C
Video Solution
Rectangle ABCD and right triangle DCE have the same area. They are joined to
form a trapezoid, as shown. What is DE?
A 6 D
B C E
Video Solution
What is the area of the shaded pinwheel shown in the 5 × 5 grid?
323
Video Solution
What is the area of the triangle formed by the lines y = 5, y = 1 + x, and y = 1 − x?
Video Solution
Additional Problems
In triangle ABC, point D divides side AC so that AD : DC = 1 : 2. Let E be the

midpoint of BD and let F be the point of intersection of line BC and line AE. Given
that the area of △ABC is 360, what is the area of △EBF ?
324
A
B F C
Right triangle △ABC has AB = 5, BC = 12, and CA = 13. Point D lies on the
angle bisector of ∠BAC such that CD is parallel to AB. Compute the length of BD.
In right triangle △ABC with AB = 5, BC = 12, and CA = 13, point D lies on CA

such that AD = BD. The length of CD can then be expressed in the form f racmn for
relatively prime positive integers m and n. Compute m + n.
325
Problem 24.6.14
What is the radius of a circle inscribed in a triangle with side lengths 6, 8, and 10?
A unit square contains four congruent non-overlapping equilateral triangles as shown

in the figure. What is the largest possible side-length of one of the triangles?
326
Answers
24.1 75
24.2 2
24.6.1 13
1
24.6.2 6
24.6.3 25
12
24.6.4 5
24.6.5 24
24.6.6 4.5
5
24.6.7 18
24.6.8 13
327
24.6.9 6
24.6.10 16
24.6.11 30
√
24.6.12 313
24.6.13 15
24.6.14 2
√
3− 3
24.6.15 2
328
Chapter 25
Quadrilaterals
Video Lecture
329
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 25. Quadrilaterals
25.1 Square
Theorem 25.1.1 (Area of a Square)

Any square with side length s has an area of
s2
and a perimeter of
4s
25.2 Rectangle
Theorem 25.2.1 (Area of a Rectangle)

Any rectangle with base b and height h has an area of
bh
and a perimeter of
2b + 2h
330

A large square region is paved with n2 gray square tiles, each measuring s inches on a
side. A border d inches wide surrounds each tile. The figure below shows the case for
n = 3. When n = 24, the 576 gray tiles cover 64% of the area of the large square region.
What is the ratio ds for this larger value of n?
Video Solution
331
25.3 Rhombus
Theorem 25.3.1 (Area of a Rhombus)

A rhombus with diagonals d1 and d2 has an area of
1
d1 d2
2
and a perimeter of q
2 × d21 + d22
332
25.4 Parallelogram
Theorem 25.4.1 (Area of a Parallelogram)

A parallelogram with base b and height h has an area of
bh
333
25.5 Trapezoid
Theorem 25.5.1 (Area of a Trapezoid)

A trapezoid with 2 bases b1 and b2 and a height h has an area of
b1 + b2
·h
2
Example 25.2 (EMCC)

In quadrilateral PEAR, PE = 21, EA = 20, AR = 15, RE = 25, and AP = 29. Find the
area of the quadrilateral.
Video Solution
334
25.6 Breaking Quadrilaterals into Triangles
Example 25.3 (EMCC)

Let ABCD be a rectangle with AB = 10 and BC = 12. Let M be the midpoint of CD,
and P be the point on BM such that BP = BC. Find the area of ABPD.
Video Solution

Three identical rectangles are put together to form rectangle ABCD, as shown in the
figure below. Given that the length of the shorter side of each of the smaller rectangles
is 5 feet, what is the area in square feet of rectangle ABCD?
335
D C
A B
Video Solution
Points A, B, C and D are midpoints of the sides of the larger square. If the larger
square has area 60, what is the area of the smaller square?
336
A
D B
Video Solution
Quadrilateral ABCD is a trapezoid, AD = 15, AB = 50, BC = 20, and the altitude

is 12. What is the area of the trapezoid?
50
A B
20
15 12
D C
337
Video Solution
The midpoints of the four sides of a rectangle are (−3, 0), (2, 0), (5, 4), and (0, 4). What
is the area of the rectangle?
Additional Problems
Two congruent squares, ABCD and P QRS, have side length 15. They overlap to form
the 15 by 25 rectangle AQRD shown. What percent of the area of rectangle AQRD is
shaded?
A P B Q
D S C R
338
Square ABCD has side length 2. Square ACEF is drawn such that B lies inside square
ACEF. Compute the area of pentagon AFECD?
Karthik has a paper square of side length 2. He folds the square along a crease that
connects the midpoints of two opposite sides (as shown in the left diagram, where the
dotted line indicates the fold). He takes the resulting rectangle and folds it such that one
of its vertices lands on the vertex that is diagonally opposite. Find the area of Karthik’s
final figure.
339
Let ABCD be a square of side length 10. Let EF GH be a square of side length 15
such that E is the center of ABCD, EF intersects BC at X, and EH intersects CD at
Y . If BX = 7, what is the area of quadrilateral EXCY ?
Answers
6
25.1 25
25.2 360
1140
25.3 13
25.7.1 150
25.7.2 30
25.7.3 750
25.7.4 40
25.7.5 20
25.7.6 10
25.7.8 25
340
Chapter 26
Circles
Video Lecture
341
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 26. Circles
342
26.1 Circle Properties
Theorem 26.1.1 (Area and Circumference)

A circle with radius r has
Area = πr2
Circumference = 2πr
Theorem 26.1.2 (Arcs of a circle)

An arc of a circle with radius r and angle a°
a°
Area of a sector = πr2 × = π × radius2 × fraction of circle in sector
360
a°
Length of the arc = 2πr × = 2π × radius × fraction of circle in sector
360
Definition 26.1.3 (Angle of an arc). This is the angle that the arc makes at the center of
the circle.
343
26.2 Circular Area
Example 26.1 (EMCC)

Four congruent semicircles are drawn within the boundary of a square with side length
1. The center of each semicircle is the midpoint of a side of the square. Each semicircle
is tangent to two other semicircles. Region R consists of points lying inside the square
but outside of the semicircles. The area of R can be written in the form a − bπ, where
a and b are positive rational numbers. Compute a + b.
Video Solution
344
Example 26.2 (EMCC)

Suppose points A and B lie on a circle of radius 4 with center O, such that ∠AOB = 90°.
The perpendicular bisectors of segments OA and OB divide the interior of the circle into
four regions. Find the area of the smallest region.
Video Solution
345
26.3 Length inside Circles

Rectangle ABCD is inscribed in a semicircle with diameter F E, as shown in the figure.
Let DA = 16, and let F D = AE = 9. What is the area of ABCD?
C B
9 16 9
F D A E
Video Solution
346
Example 26.4 (Science Bowl)

A circle, centered at C, of radius of 25 has 2 parallel chords with lengths shown. To the
nearest integer, what is the distance between these chords?
Video Solution

In the diagram below, a diameter of each of the two smaller circles is a radius of the
larger circle. If the two smaller circles have a combined area of 1 square unit, then what
347
is the area of the shaded region, in square units?
Video Solution
The two circles pictured have the same center C. Chord AD is tangent to the inner
circle at B, AC is 10, and chord AD has length 16. What is the area between the two
circles?
348
A B D
Video Solution
A circle with radius 1 is inscribed in a square and circumscribed about another square
as shown. Which fraction is closest to the ratio of the circle’s shaded area to the area
between the two squares?
349
Video Solution
Rectangle ABCD has sides CD = 3 and DA = 5. A circle with a radius of 1 is cen-

tered at A, a circle with a radius of 2 is centered at B, and a circle with a radius of 3
is centered at C. Which of the following is closest to the area of the region inside the
rectangle but outside all three circles?
350
B C
5
A
D
Video Solution
Isosceles right triangle ABC encloses a semicircle of area 2π. The circle has its cen-
ter O on hypotenuse AB and is tangent to sides AC and BC. What is the area of
triangle ABC?
351
C A
Video Solution
Margie’s winning art design is shown. The smallest circle has radius 2 inches, with
each successive circle’s radius increasing by 2 inches. Which of the following is closest
to the percent of the design that is black?
352
Video Solution
Semicircles P OQ and ROS pass through the center of circle O. What is the ratio
of the combined areas of the two semicircles to the area of circle O?
353
P (−1, 1) Q(1, 1)
R(−1, −1) S(1, −1)
Video Solution
A circle of radius 2 is cut into four congruent arcs. The four arcs are joined to form
the star figure shown. What is the ratio of the area of the star figure to the area of the
original circle?
354
Video Solution
In the right triangle ABC, AC = 12, BC = 5, and angle C is a right angle. A semi-
circle is inscribed in the triangle as shown. What is the radius of the semicircle?
A C
12
Video Solution
A semicircle is inscribed in an isosceles triangle with base 16 and height 15 so that

the diameter of the semicircle is contained in the base of the triangle as shown. What
is the radius of the semicircle?
355
Video Solution
In the figure shown, U S and U T are line segments each of length 2, and m∠T U S = 60◦ .
⌢ ⌢
Arcs TR and SR are each one-sixth of a circle with radius 2. What is the area of the
region shown?
356
U
S T
Video Solution
Three equally spaced parallel lines intersect a circle, creating three chords of lengths
38, 38, and 34. What is the distance between two adjacent parallel lines?
Video Solution
357
Additional Problems
Two circles of radius 6 intersect such that they√share a common chord of length 6.
The total area covered may be expressed as aπ + b, where a and b are integers. What
is a + b?
A rectangle of height 10 and width 24 is inscribed in a circle. What is the circumference

of that circle? Express your answer in terms of π.
Let C1 and C2 be two circles centered at point O of radii 1 and 2, respectively. Let A
be a point on C2. We draw the two lines tangent to C1 that pass through A, and label
their other intersections with C2 as B and C. Let x be the length of minor arc BC, as
shown. Compute x.
358
Answers
5
26.1 4
√
26.2 4π
3 +4−4 3
26.3 240
26.4 15
26.4.1 1
26.4.2 64π
1
26.4.3 2
26.4.4 4.0
26.4.5 8
26.4.6 42
1
26.4.7 2
4−π
26.4.8 π
10
26.4.9 3
120
26.4.10 17
√
26.4.11 4 3 − 4π
3
26.4.12 6
26.4.13 1032
26.4.14 26π
26.4.15
4π
3
359
Chapter 27
Similar Triangles
Video Lecture
360
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 27. Similar Triangles
361
27.1 Congruent Triangles
Theorem 27.1.1
For congruent triangles:
1. All the angles of the triangles are same
2. All corresponding sides are equal
3. Area, perimeter, inradius, circumradius, etc. are equal
362
Concept 27.1.2 (Congruence Test)

Two triangles are congruent if the three angles and sides in the triangle are the same. In
other words, the triangles are the same (not necessarily same orientation). In general,
triangles are congruent if:
• AAS congruence: Two angles of the triangles are same and the 1 side next to the
2 angles are equal
• SAS Congruence (Side Angle Side): Two sides are equal and the angle between
the sides are equal
• SSS congruence (Side Side Side): All three sides are congruent
• HL congruence (Hypotenuse Leg): In a right triangle, hypotenuse and leg are

equal
• LL congruence (LL Leg): In a right triangle, the two legs are equal
Warning: SSA is not a valid triangle congruence: if 2 corresponding sides are congruent
and the angle which is not between the 2 congruent sides is equal, then the triangles are
not necessarily congruent
363
Example 27.1 (EMCC)

In square ABCD, points E and F lie on segments AD and CD, respectively. Given that
∠EBF = 45◦ , DE = 12, and DF = 35, compute AB.
Video Solution
27.2 Similar Triangles

Concept 27.2.1 (Similarity Test)
Two triangles are similar if the three angles in the triangle are the same. In other words,
the triangles are the same shape multiplied by a scale factor.
In general, triangles are similar if:
• AA similarity: Two angles of the triangles are same, which basically means that
the third angle will be equal)
• SAS similarity (Side Angle Side): Two sides are proportional and the angle be-
tween the sides is equal
• SSS similarity (Side Side Side): All three sides are proportional
• HL similarity (Hypotenuse Leg): In a right triangle, the hypotenuse and leg are
364
proportional
• LL similarity (LL Leg): In a right triangle, the two legs are proportional
Warning: SSA does not mean triangles are similar
An easy way to detect similar triangles is if bases of triangles are parallel and the
sides of the triangles are collinear (see figure below)
Theorem 27.2.2
For similar triangles:
1. All the angles of the triangles are same
2. All corresponding sides have same ratio
3. Area ratio is the square of side length ratio
365
Example 27.2 (EMCC)

In triangle ABC, ∠BAC = 90◦ , and the length of segment AB is 2011. Let M be the
midpoint of BC and D the midpoint of AM . Let E be the point on segment AB such
that EM ∥ CD. What is the length of segment BE?
Video Solution
Example 27.3 (EMCC)

In triangle ABC with BC = 5, CA = 13, and AB = 12, Points E and F are chosen
on sides AC and AB, respectively, such that EF ∥ BC. Given that triangle AEF and
trapezoid EF BC have the same perimeter, find the length of EF .
Video Solution
366
Example 27.4 (EMCC)

In △ABC, AC = 8 and AC < AB. Point D lies on side BC with ∠BAD = ∠CAD. Let
M be the midpoint of BC. The line passing through
√ M parallel to AD intersects lines
AB and AC at F and E, respectively. If EF = 2 and AF = 1, what is the length of
segment BC?
Video Solution
367

The diagram shows an octagon consisting of 10 unit squares. The portion below P Q is
a unit square and a triangle with base 5. If P Q bisects the area of the octagon, what is
the ratio XQ
QY ?
X
Q
Y
Video Solution
Rectangle DEF A below is a 3 × 4 rectangle with DC = CB = BA = 1. The area of

the ”bat wings” (shaded area) is
368
D C B A
E F
Video Solution
Point E is the midpoint of side CD in square ABCD, and BE meets diagonal AC

at F. The area of quadrilateral AF ED is 45. What is the area of ABCD?
369
A B
D E C
Video Solution
One-inch squares are cut from the corners of this 5 inch square. What is the area
in square inches of the largest square that can fit into the remaining space?
370
Video Solution
A square piece of paper has side length 1 and vertices A, B, C, and D in that order.
As shown in the figure, the paper is folded so that vertex C meets edge AD at point
C ′ , and edge AB at point E. Suppose that C ′ D = 31 . What is the perimeter of triangle
△AEC ′ ?
371
A C’ D
B C
Video Solution
Problem 27.3.6 (AMC 10B)
Right △ABC has AB = 3, BC = 4, and AC = 5. Square XY ZW is inscribed in △ABC

with X and Y on AC, W on AB, and Z on BC. What is the side length of the square?
Video Solution
Additional Problems
Let ABCDEFGHIJKL be the equilateral dodecagon shown below, and each angle is
either 90° or 270 °. Let M be the midpoint of CD, and suppose HM splits the dodecagon
into two regions. The ratio of the area of the larger region to the area of the smaller
region can be expressed as m n , where m and n are relatively prime positive integers.
Compute m + n.
372
In trapezoid ABCD, points E and F lie on sides BC and AD, respectively, such that
AB ∥ CD ∥ EF. Given that AB = 3, EF = 5, and CD = 6, the ratio [ABEF] can be written
as ab , where a and b are relatively prime positive integers. Find a + b. (Note: [F] denotes
the area of F.)
Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral with AB = BC = CA. Suppose that point P lies
inside the quadrilateral with AP = PD = DA and ∠PCD = 30◦ . Given that CP = 2 and
CD = 3, compute CA.
Let ABC be a right triangle with hypotenuse AB such that AC = 36 and BC = 15.
A semicircle is inscribed in ABC as shown, such that the diameter XC of the semicircle
lies on side AC and that the semicircle is tangent to AB. What is the radius of the
semicircle?
373
A square with side length x is inscribed in a right triangle with sides of length 3, 4,
and 5 so that one vertex of the square coincides with the right-angle vertex of the tri-
angle. A square with side length y is inscribed in another right triangle with sides of
length 3, 4, and 5 so that one side of the square lies on the hypotenuse of the triangle.
What is xy ?
Answers
27.1 42
2011
27.2 3
27.3 3
√
27.4 2 41
2
27.3.1 3
27.3.2 3
27.3.3 108
27.3.4 15
374
27.3.5 2
60
27.3.6 37
27.3.7 10
27.3.8 27
√
27.3.9 13
27.3.10 10
37
27.3.11 35
375
Chapter 28
Area and Length of Complex Shapes
Video Lecture
376
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 28. Area and Length of Complex Shapes
377
28.1 Hexagon
Theorem 28.1.1
Sum of interior angle of a regular hexagon = (6 − 2) · 180 = 720
(6 − 2)
Interior angle of a regular hexagon = · 180 = 120
6
360
Exterior angle of a regular hexagon = = 60
6
√
3 2
Area of a regular hexagon = 6 · s
4
Length of the diagonal of a regular hexagon = 2s
Remark 28.1.2
A regular hexagon can be divided into 6 congruent equilateral triangles.
378
Example 28.1 (EMCC)

Vincent the Bug draws all the diagonals of a regular hexagon with area 720, splitting it
into many pieces. Compute the area of the smallest piece.
Video Solution
Example 28.2 (EMCC)

In equilateral triangle ABC, points P and R lie on segment AB, points I and M lie
on segment BC, and points E and S lie on segment CA such that P RIM ES is a
equiangular hexagon. Given that AB = 11, P S = 2, RI = 3, and M E = 5, compute the
area of hexagon P RIM ES.
Video Solution
379
28.2 Octagon
Theorem 28.2.1
Sum of interior angle of a regular octagon = (8 − 2) · 180 = 1080
(8 − 2)
Interior angle of a regular octagon = · 180 = 135
8
360
Exterior angle of a regular octagon = = 45
8
√
Area of a regular octagon = 2(1 + 2)s2
28.3 Area of Complex Shapes

Concept 28.3.1
Tricks to finding the area of complex shapes
380
• Divide the shape into “nicer” areas which are easier to calculate
• Extend Lines
– You generally want to extend lines when they form nicer shapes/areas to
work with, such as triangles
• Break up areas
– A common way to do so is to drop altitudes as doing so generally allows you

to form right triangles
Remark 28.3.2
A common technique is to find the area of shapes and then find the area of a shape in
terms of a variable (like altitude, inradius, circumradius, etc.) and then solve for that
variable.
Example 28.3 (EMCC)

In rectangle T RIG, points A and L lie on sides T G and T R respectively such that
T A = AG and T L = 2LR. Diagonal GR intersects segments IL and IA at B and E
respectively. Suppose that the area of the convex pentagon with vertices T ABLE is
equal to 21. What is the area of T RIG?
Video Solution
28.4 Length of complex shapes

Concept 28.4.1
Finding Length of Complex Shapes
• Having equal angles means equal lengths and vice versa
• Be on the lookout for 90 degree angles, as you can use Pythagorean theorem
• Split the length into multiple components by using some of these techniques
– Drawing extra lines

– Dropping Altitudes
381
• Extending lines to create similar triangles, special triangles, etc. and then sub-
tracting the extra length
Example 28.4 (EMCC)

Two circles, with radius 6 and radius 8, are externally tangent to each other. Two more
circles, of radius 7, are placed on either side of this configuration, so that they are both
externally tangent to both of the original two circles. Out of these 4 circles, what is the
maximum distance between any two centers?
Video Solution
382
Example 28.5 (EMCC)

David decides he wants to join the West African Drumming Ensemble, and thus he
goes to the store and buys three large cylindrical drums. In order to ensure none of
the drums drop on the way home, he ties a rope around all of the drums at their mid
sections so that each drum is next to the other two. Suppose that each drum has a
diameter of 3.5 feet. David needs m feet of rope. Given that m = aπ + b, where a and
b are rational numbers, find a + b.
Video Solution
383

Point O is the center of the regular octagon ABCDEF GH, and X is the midpoint
of the side AB. What fraction of the area of the octagon is shaded?
B
X
C A
D O H
E G
Video Solution
In the figure, the outer equilateral triangle has area 16, the inner equilateral triangle
has area 1, and the three trapezoids are congruent. What is the area of one of the
trapezoids?
384
Video Solution
The letter T is formed by placing two 2 × 4 inch rectangles next to each other, as shown.
What is the perimeter of the T, in inches?
Video Solution
385
A unit hexagram is composed of a regular hexagon of side length 1 and its 6 equi-
lateral triangular extensions, as shown in the diagram. What is the ratio of the area of
the extensions to the area of the original hexagon?
Video Solution
The area of polygon ABCDEF is 52 with AB = 8, BC = 9 and F A = 5. What is

DE + EF ?
386
A 8 B
9
F E
D C
Video Solution
A decorative window is made up of a rectangle with semicircles on either end. The

ratio of AD to AB is 3 : 2, and AB is 30 inches. What is the ratio of the area of the
rectangle to the combined areas of the semicircles?
387
D C
A B
Video Solution
Triangle ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = BC. Point D is the midpoint of

both BC and AE, and CE is 11 units long. Triangle ABD is congruent to triangle
ECD. What is the length of BD?
B E
A C
388
Video Solution
What is the perimeter of trapezoid ABCD?
B 50 C
30 24 25
A E D
Video Solution
In the given figure hexagon ABCDEF is equiangular, ABJI and F EHG are squares
with areas 18 and 32 respectively, △JBK is equilateral and F E = BC. What is the
area of △KBC?
389
I J
K
18
A B
F C
32 E D
In the figure, ABCD is a rectangle and EF GH is a parallelogram. Using the mea-

surements given in the figure, what is the length d of the segment that is perpendicular
to HE and F G?
A 4 E 6 B
5
H
d
F
5
D 6 G 4 C
Video Solution
390
Two 4 × 4 squares intersect at right angles, bisecting their intersecting sides, as shown.
The circle’s diameter is the segment between the two points of intersection. What is the
area of the shaded region created by removing the circle from the squares?
Video Solution
A square with side length 2 and a circle share the same center. The total area of
the regions that are inside the circle and outside the square is equal to the total area of
the regions that are outside the circle and inside the square. What is the radius of the
circle?
391
Video Solution
An equilateral triangle and a regular hexagon have equal perimeters. If the area of
the triangle is 4, what is the area of the hexagon?
Video Solution
Angle ABC of △ABC is a right angle. The sides of △ABC are the diameters of
semicircles as shown. The area of the semicircle on AB equals 8π, and the arc of the
semicircle on AC has length 8.5π. What is the radius of the semicircle on BC?
392
B C
Video Solution
Additional Problems
In the figure, a kite with two right angles is circumscribed by a circle. The circle is
then circumscribed by a square such that the diagonals of the kite are parallel to the
sides of the square as shown. The longer sides of the kite each have length x meters.
The sides of the kite divide the square into three regions, shaded dark gray, white and
light gray as shown, with each region of area 2. If x2 = a + b, what is the value of a + b?
393
A regular hexagon of side length 1 is inscribed in a circle. Each minor arc of the circle
determined by a side of the hexagon is reflected over that side. What is the area of the
region bounded by these 6 reflected arcs?
Three identical square sheets of paper each with side length 6 are stacked on top of
each other. The middle sheet is rotated clockwise 30◦ about its center and the top sheet
is rotated clockwise 60◦ about its center, resulting in the 24-sided polygon shown
√ in the
figure below. The area of this polygon can be expressed in the form a − b c, where a,
b, and c are positive integers, and c is not divisible by the square of any prime. What is
a + b + c?
Answers
28.1 20
√
83 3
28.2 4
28.3 56
394
28.4 24
28.5 14
7
28.5.1 16
28.5.2 5
28.5.3 20
28.5.4 1 : 1
28.5.5 9
28.5.6 6 : π
28.5.7 5.5
28.5.8 180
28.5.9 12
28.5.10 7.6
28.5.11 28 − 2π
28.5.12 √2
π
28.5.13 6
28.5.14 7.5
28.5.15 8
√
28.5.16 3 3 − π
28.5.17 147
395
Chapter 29
3D Geometry
Video Lecture
396
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 29. 3D Geometry
397
398
29.1 Cube
Theorem 29.1.1 (Volume and Surface Area of a cube)
Volume of a cube = (side length)3 = a3

Surface area of a cube = 6 × (side length)2 = 6a2
√ √
Length of space diagonal of a cube = 3 × side length = 3a

What is the volume of a cube whose surface area is twice that of a cube with volume 1?
Video Solution
399
29.2 Prism
Theorem 29.2.1 (Volume and Surface Area of a rectangular prism)
Volume of a rectangular prism = l × b × h = product of all three dimensions

Surface area of a rectangular prism = 2(lb + bh + lh)
q
Length of space diagonal of a rectangular prism = l2 + b2 + h2
Theorem 29.2.2 (Volume of a Prism)
Volume of any prism = base area · height
Theorem 29.2.3 (Surface Area of a Prism)
Volume of any prism = 2 · base area + base perimeter ∗ height
400

The figure below shows a polygon ABCDEF GH, consisting of rectangles and right
triangles. When cut out and folded on the dotted lines, the polygon forms a triangular
prism. Suppose that AH = EF = 8 and GH = 14. What is the volume of the prism?
B C
H
I
J
G F
D
Video Solution
401
29.3 Pyramid
Theorem 29.3.1 (Volume of a Pyramid)

1
Volume of any pyramid = · base area · height
3
Theorem 29.3.2 (Volume of a Regular Square Pyramid (all sides equal))

When the pyramid has a square base, and all the sides are equal
√
2 3
Volume of a regular pyramid = s
6
Theorem 29.3.3 (Volume of a Regular Tetrahedron (all sides equal))

√
2 3
Volume of a regular tetrahedron = s
12
402

Triangle ABC, with sides of length 5, 6, and 7, has one vertex on the positive x-axis,
one on the positive y-axis, and one on the positive z-axis. Let O be the origin. What
is the volume of tetrahedron OABC?
5
b
O a
A
c
7
Video Solution
403
29.4 Cylinder
Theorem 29.4.1 (Volume and Surface Area of a cylinder)
Volume of a cylinder = πr2 h
Surface area of a cylinder = 2πr2 + 2πrh

(29.1)
= 2πr(r + h)
404
29.5 Cone
Theorem 29.5.1 (Volume and Surface Area of a cone)

1
Volume of a cone = πr2 h
3
1
Volume of a Cone = π · radius2 · height
3
Surface area of a cone = πr2 + πrs = πr(r + s)

where s is the lateral or slant height
which can also be written as
π · radius2 + π · radius × slant height
Remark 29.5.2
The slant height s can be calculated by the following formula
q
s= r2 + h2
or q
slant height = radius2 + height2
Concept 29.5.3 (Cone Unfolding)

The sides of a cone can be unfolded to form a sector a circle as well. The circumference
405
of the base of the cone is equal to the length of the arc of the sector and the slant height
of the cone is equal to the radius of the sector.
Example 29.4 (EMCC)

An ant sits on the circumference of the circular base of a √party hat (a cone without a
circular base for the ant to walk on) of radius 2 and height 5. If the ant wants to reach
a point diametrically opposite of its current location on the hat, what is the minimum
possible distance the ant needs to travel?
Video Solution
29.6 Sphere
Theorem 29.6.1 (Volume and Surface Area of a sphere)

4
Volume of a sphere = πr3
3
Surface area of a sphere = 4πr2
406
Example 29.5
Each of 4 spheres of radius 1 are tangent to 2 of the other spheres such that all 4 of their
centers lie on a plane. What is the radius of the smallest sphere that contains these 4
spheres?
Video Solution

Eight spheres of radius 1, one per octant, are each tangent to the coordinate planes.
What is the radius of the smallest sphere, centered at the origin, that contains these
eight spheres?
Video Solution
407
29.7 Similar Triangles in 3D

A cylinder whose height is 3 times its radius is inscribed in a cone whose height is 6
times its radius. What fraction of the cone’s volume lies inside the cylinder? Express
your answer as a common fraction.
Video Solution
408

A right circular cone is sliced into four pieces by planes parallel to its base, as shown
in the figure. All of these pieces have the same height. What is the ratio of the volume
of the second-largest piece to the volume of the largest piece? Express your answer as
a common fraction.
Video Solution

Alex and Felicia each have cats as pets. Alex buys cat food in cylindrical cans that
are 6 cm in diameter and 12 cm high. Felicia buys cat food in cylindrical cans that are
12 cm in diameter and 6 cm high. What is the ratio of the volume of one of Alex’s cans
to the volume one of Felicia’s cans?
Video Solution
409
Isabella uses one-foot cubical blocks to build a rectangular fort that is 12 feet long,
10 feet wide, and 5 feet high. The floor and the four walls are all one foot thick. How
many blocks does the fort contain?
Video Solution
Jerry cuts a wedge from a 6-cm cylinder of bologna as shown by the dashed curve.
Which answer choice is closest to the volume of his wedge in cubic centimeters?
6 cm
8 cm
410
Video Solution
A square with area 4 is inscribed in a square with area 5, with one vertex of the smaller
square on each side of the larger square. A vertex of the smaller square divides a side of
the larger square into two segments, one of length a, and the other of length b. What is
the value of ab?
Video Solution
411
In the cube ABCDEF GH with opposite vertices C and E, J and I are the midpoints
of edges F B and HD, respectively. Let R be the ratio of the area of the cross-section
EJCI to the area of one of the faces of the cube. What is R2 ?
H
G
J
A I
Video Solution
Seven cubes, whose volumes are 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, and 343 cubic units, are stacked
vertically to form a tower in which the volumes of the cubes decrease from bottom to
top. Except for the bottom cube, the bottom face of each cube lies completely on top
of the cube below it. What is the total surface area of the tower (including the bottom)
in square units?
Video Solution
Additional Problems
412
The two cones shown have parallel bases and common apex T. TW = 32m, WV =
8m, and ZY = 5m. What is the volume of the frustum with circle W and circle Z as its
bases? Express your answer in terms of π.
The tiny island nation of Konistan is a cone with height 12 meters and base radius
9 meters, with the base of the cone at sea level. If the sea level rises 4 meters, what is
the surface area of Konistan that is still above water, in square meters?
A white cylindrical silo has a diameter of 30 feet and a height of 80 feet. A red stripe
with a horizontal width of 3 feet is painted on the silo, as shown, making two complete
revolutions around it. What is the area of the stripe in square feet?
413
3
80
30
Shivani is planning a road trip in a car with special new tires made of solid rubber.
Her tires are cylinders that have width 6 inches and have diameter 26 inches, but need
to be replaced when the diameter is less than 22 inches. The tire manufacturer claims
that 0.12π cubic inches of its tire will wear away with every single rotation. Assuming
that the tire manufacturer is correct about the wear rate of their tires, and that the tire
maintains its cylindrical shape and width (losing volume by reducing radius), how many
revolutions can each tire make before she needs to replace it?
A piece of paper is in the shape of an equilateral triangle ABC with side length 12.
Points AB and BA lie on segment AB, such that AAB = 3, and BBA = 3. Define points
BC and CB on segment BC and points CA and AC on segment CA similarly. Point
A1 is the intersection of ACBC and ABCB. Define B1 and C1 similarly. The three
rhombi — AAB A1 AC , BBC B1 BA , CCA C1 CB — are cut from triangle ABC, and the
paper is folded along segments A1 B1 , B1 C1 , C1 A1 , to form a tray without a top. What
is the volume of this tray?
414
Answers
√
29.1 2 2
29.2 192
√
29.3 95
√
29.4 3 3
√
29.5 2+1
√
29.6 3+1
4
29.7 9
19
29.8 37
29.8.1 1 : 2
29.8.2 280
29.8.3 151
415
1
29.8.4 2
3
29.8.5 2
29.8.6 658
29.8.7 516π
29.8.8 60π
29.8.9 240
√
63 2
29.8.11 4
416
Chapter 30
Additional Techniques and Strategies
30.1 Meta-solving Techniques
Video Lectures
Meta-solving Techniques
Definition 30.1.1. Meta-solving is finding the answer to a problem without actually solving
it.
Remark 30.1.2
These techniques may not work for all problems. These techniques are especially useful
when the problem provides answer choices.
Remark 30.1.3 (Meta-Solving Warning)

Don’t get too carried away with these techniques to the point where you don’t even try
to solve the problem legitimately.
Concept 30.1.4 (Engineering Induction)

Engineering Induction is the process of trying and finding the value to small cases and
assuming it’s true for larger ones.
Steps for Engineering Induction Problems:
1. Try small cases
2. Look for a pattern amongst those small cases (there may not always be one)
417
OmegaLearn.org Chapter 30. Additional Techniques and Strategies
3. Assume the pattern can continue for larger cases and find the answer
Remark 30.1.5
We can try to apply engineering induction when we see the values in the problem seem
hard/impossible to compute.
418
Concept 30.1.6 (Looking for unique properties of numbers)

Rather than computing the exact answer, we can compute unique properties of your an-
swer choices so that you can eliminate all answer choices that don’t satisfy the property
and so that you will be left with 1 answer choice (or possibly more in which case you
can just guess from the remaining ones)
Some unique properties you can look for in your answer choices and try to compute
are
• Units Digit
• Last 2 digits
• Parity (Even, Odd)
• Perfect square or not one
• Prime/composite
• Modulus (remainders when divided by 3, 4, 5, etc.)
• Denominators of common fractions (or what they must divide)
• Multiples/Factors of numbers
• etc.
Remark 30.1.7
These last 2 properties are especially useful in combinatorics problems as you can easily
find numbers you have to multiply with each other to get your answer.
Concept 30.1.8
Look for the option choices that are the ”odd one out” or that are different from all
others
• Look for outliers (primes, large/small numbers, odd/even numbers, powers of 2,

etc)
Concept 30.1.9 (Trying all the Option choices)

In some problems, you can
• Try all the option choices into the conditions in the problem
• Look at the conditions in the problem and see which of the option choices could
419
work
• etc.
After doing so, you will either have a better guess or exact answer.
Concept 30.1.10 (Elimination of Option Choices)

Tying closely to the previous technique, you can also usually eliminate option choices
based on
• Unique properties of Numbers (See Above)
• How large or small the number must be
Concept 30.1.11 (Estimation of Answer)

Often times in problems (especially geometry) you can easily find an approximate an-
swer and see which of the option choices most closely matches what you got.
In geometry, a common strategy to do so is to mark out areas approximately equal

to those of areas you know.
Concept 30.1.12 (Using Freedom in Problems)

Assuming facts when you have freedom in the problem statement can be very useful.
Essentially, as long as the problem is not telling you ”this fact is not true” (so, whatever
assumption you want to make will satisfy the problem’s conditions) you can assume the
fact is true to simplify your problem and make it really easy to solve.
For example, if you are asked to find some universal ratio in a triangle and you aren’t
specifically told that the triangle isn’t equilateral, you can just assume the triangle is
equilateral and solve the remaining problem from there.
Remark 30.1.13
Make sure not to assume false information! Be very careful that your assumption can
be true.
In our previous example, if we were told the triangle had 2 sides of length 7 and 8, then
our assumption would be false, so it wouldn’t work then.
420
30.2 Silly Mistakes

Silly mistakes are very common and can really lower your score on the AMC contests. Here
are some tips on how to avoid the different kinds of silly mistakes:
Concept 30.2.1 (Avoiding Arithmetic Errors)
A good way to avoid arithmetic errors is to
• Do your computation 2 ways (e.g. If you have to do 87 · 93, you can multiply them
with 87 on the top and with 93 on top)
• Be more organized, and write more steps
Concept 30.2.2 (Avoiding Mathematical Errors)

An easy way to avoid mathematical errors is to
• Do your work neatly!
• Make boxes on scratch paper per problem
• Don’t skip steps
• Check your work, following the tip above will make it easier to do so
• Do your steps methodically
• Try to substitute your answer back into the problem (if you can)
• Try an alternate solution to confirm your answer
• Estimate what the answer has to be, and see if your answer is close to what your
estimate is
Concept 30.2.3 (Avoid Reading Errors)

Reading the problem wrong is one of the most common mistakes. Often times, you
might forget about important key words like
• inclusive, except
• even, odd
• prime, composite
• integer, natural, real, complex
421
• non-negative, positive (Remember, non-negative includes 0 while positive doesn’t)
Some strategies to avoid them are
• After solving the problem, reread at least the question part of the problem to
make sure you are answering what the question asks for!
• Underline key words while reading (you cannot do that if the test is online, but as
an alternative you can take note of the important words on your scratch paper)
Concept 30.2.4 (Avoid Missing Final Step Errors)

Sometimes in problems, you might be so caught up in moving forward in the test that
you might forget an important step at the end.
For example, in a problem you might think ”I’ll multiply by 5 to whatever answer I
get” and then you find that answer but forget to multiply by 5. A way to avoid this is:
• Write ”Remember ...” big and bold on your scratch or the question paper
Concept 30.2.5 (Avoid Casework Errors)

Many times, in casework problems you might
• Undercount possibilities
• Overcount possibilities
• Miss edges/extreme cases
Some strategies to avoid them are
• Be methodical in your casework
• Make sure all your cases work
– An easy way to do this is just to try a few examples in your case to see if
they actually work
– Especially, make sure to check if extremes work
– Make sure all your cases are disjoint and that you are not overcounting
anything that’s common between the cases
– Make sure your cases cover all possibilities that the problem asks for
422
– Solve the problem in multiple ways (for example, by both casework and
complementary counting)
Remark 30.2.6
I know that some of these strategies may take a lot of extra time to follow so we
recommend analyzing how you are making silly mistakes and from there see which
strategies you will want to follow.
423
30.3 Other Strategies To Maximize Your Score

Concept 30.3.1 (Plan Your Time)
Make sure to plan your time.
• Questions 1-10 are generally easy, 11-20 are medium, 21-25 are hard
• Sometimes one of the early questions can be hard or bashy, or a later question can
be easy
• Don’t get stuck on a question. Move on and come back to it later.
• Star any question you are unsure about but you feel you can solve it, or any
questions that you solved but are not confident of your answer
• Budget your time properly
• Leave enough time for last 10 problems
• Leave some time to review starred problems and check your work
Concept 30.3.2 (Guessing Strategies)

If you want to guess, make sure to keep these things in mind:
• Try using meta-solving strategies above
• In AMC 8, there is no penalty for guessing, so remember to make an educated

guess for every problem
Concept 30.3.3 (Test Day Strategies)

Here are some test day strategies:
• Don’t try to cram or study on the day before the test
– Just review a few formulas or strategies from this book
• Be relaxed
– Get a good night’s sleep

– Eat a healthy meal
– Meditate
– Eat dark chocolate
424
– Listen to music
– Or whatever else makes you feel relaxed
Concept 30.3.4 (Problem Solving Strategies)

Try to remember these problem solving strategies:
• When you are stuck, try to use the information in the problem you haven’t used
yet
• When solving a problem, think of what technique would likely be at play
• Don’t get too stuck with one approach to a problem, move on, and come back to
the problem with a fresh perspective
• In problems that seem complex, try small cases to look for a pattern that can
allow you to figure out how to approach the problem and what patterns may exist
(this is similar to engineering induction)
Remark 30.3.5
Last, but most important, don’t stress out too much about how you will do! It’s just a
math contest, and you’ll have many more opportunities in the future.
Good luck to you on your math competitions. We hope you found this
book useful! We really appreciate your feedback and can be reached at
omegalearn.info@gmail.com. Thanks!
425
Chapter 31
Mastering AMC 10/12
If you have completed the Mastering AMC 8 book, and looking to take your mathematical
knowledge to the next level, check out the Mastering AMC 10/12 Book.
426

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What are some of the main topics covered in the book?

What are some of the main topics covered in the book?

How can you maximize your score on math competitions?

How can you maximize your score on math competitions?

Contents

4.5 Probability of Dependent Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

7 Principle of Inclusion Exclusion (PIE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

8 Stars and Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

9 Geometric Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

11.3 Practice Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

12 Algebraic Manipulations and Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

13 Speed, Distance, and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

14 Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

15 Mean, Median, Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Number Theory 213

18.3 Product of Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

19 GCD and LCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

20 Modular Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

21 Diophantine Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

22 Miscellaneous Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

24.2 Special Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

27 Similar Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

28 Area and Length of Complex Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

29.7 Similar Triangles in 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

30 Additional Techniques and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

31 Mastering AMC 10/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

This book covers the following topics:

How to Use This Book

Information about math competitions

Free Mastering AMC 8 Course

Free AMC 8 Fundamentals Classes

Free AMC 8 Advanced/MATHCOUNTS Classes

1.1 Permutations Definition

First, how many 1-digit passwords are there?

This is 10 because the password is simply one of the 10 1-digit numbers.

How can we try and find the number of 2-digit passwords?

Now, what if the first digit is a 1?

Now, how many 3-digit passwords are there?

Definition 1.2.3. A permutation is a possible arrangement of objects in a set where the

How many choices are there for the 2nd layer?

Now, how do we find the total number of ways?

Therefore, in total, we must multiply by 4 to the number of ways of arranging 3 wrap-

Therefore, the total number of ways is just

1.3 Permutations Fundamentals

Theorem 1.3.1 (Permutations Formula)

How can we approach the problem?

Let’s consider the number of ways for each position separately.

In total, the number of ways is

1.4 Digit Permutations

So, the total number of possible numbers is

In total, the number of 4 digit numbers with these constraints is

Example 1.4 (Omega Learn)

1.5 Circular Arrangements

Theorem 1.5.1 (Circular Arrangements)

How many other people are left to arrange?

Example 1.5 (Omega Learn)

Example 1.9 (Omega Learn)

How many ways to permute the enemies?

How many ways to permute the people with no enemies?

In total, our answer is