G19RA

Reservoir Engineering Tutorials

Heriot-Watt University

Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom

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Produced by Heriot-Watt University, 2014

Copyright © 2014 Heriot-Watt University

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means
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This material is prepared to support the degree programmes in

Chemical and Petroleum Engineering.

Distributed by Heriot-Watt University

Reservoir Engineering 1

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Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the members of Heriot-Watt, School of Engineering and Physical
Science who planned and generated this material. Thanks are also due to the
members of Heriot-Watt’s SCHOLAR team in preparing the printed materials.

We would like to acknowledge the assistance and contributions from colleagues

across the University and students in preparing this and support material.

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Topic 1 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

Exercises

Reserve Definitions
The section on Reserve Definitions as put together by the SPE and the World
Petroleum Congress, defines the various aspects of reserve definitions. These
definitions, are important both to companies and countries, and they can have very
significant commercial impact. The following tests are presented to help understand
the working of these earlier definitions.

Question 1
There are 950 MM stb (million stock tank barrels) of oil initially in place in a
reservoir. It is estimated that 500 MM stb can be produced. Already 100 MM stb have
been produced. In the boxes below, identify the correct answer.

Question 2
Before starting production it was estimated that there was a 90% chance of producing
at least 100 MM stb, 50% chance of producing 500 MM stb and 10% chance of
producing 700MM stb. That is we are sure we can produce at least 100MM stb, and
we will probably produce as much as 500 MM stb, and we will possibly produce as
much as 700 MM stb.

Tick the correct answers.

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Question 3
What is wrong with the following definitions?

1. Reserves are those quantities of petroleum which are anticipated to be recovered

from a petroleum accumulation.

Question 4
1. We have a structure in our licence area which we intend to explore. We anticipate it
to contain a STO IIP of 2000 MM stb, and recovery factor of 65% using primary
methods (30%), secondary (25%) and tertiary (10%) recovery methods. What are the
reserves?

Question 5
A reservoir has been discovered by drilling a successful exploration well, and drilling
a number of producing wells. We have even produced some 200 MM stb of oil.

STOIIP = 2000MM stb Recovery factor = 35%

What are the reserves?

Solutions

Question 1
There are 950 MM stock tank barrels in place. It is estimated that 500 MM stb can be
produced and 100 MM stb have been produced then 400 recoverable reserves remain.

Question 2
Proved: 100 MM stb
Probable: 500 - 100 = 400 MM stb
Possible: 700 - 500 = 200 MM stb
Proved: 100 MM stb
Proved & Possible: 500 MM stb
Proved & Probable & Possible: 700 MM stb

Question 3

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Reserves are those quantities of petroleum which are anticipated to be commercially

recovered from a petroleum accumulation.

Clearly economics is a very important aspect of the definition.

Economic Variables
What economic factors are used in the calculations? What oil and gas price do we use
for proved reserve estimates? Is inflation taken into account? Do we predict future
price trends? Do we apply discount factors to calculate present value of the project?
Are all these used in proved reserve calculations? The current economic conditions
are used for the calculations, with respect to prices, costs, contracts and government
regulations.

Question 4
1. Answer is zero by SPC/WPC definition.
2. Intentions and anticipations are not the basis for reserves. In this case no well has
yet been drilled.
Note: Some companies allocate potential reserves for internal use but these cannot be
used for public and government Figures.
Reserves are those quantities of petroleum which are anticipated to be commercially
recovered from a known accumulation.

Requirements for “Proved” include

The following sources are required for proved reserves. Maps (from seismic
and/geological data). Petrophysical logs. Well test results and rock properties from
core analysis tests on recovered core.

Facilities
An important perspective which might be forgotten by the reservoir engineer, is that
for reserves to be classified as “proven”, all the necessary facilities for processing and
the infrastructure for transport must either be in place or that such facilities will be
installed in the future, as backed up by a formal commitment.

Contribution to the Proved Reservoir Area

This comes from drilled and produced hydrocarbons, the definition of the gas and oil
and water contacts or the highest and lowest observed level of hydrocarbons. Also the
undrilled area adjacent to the drilled can be used.

Question 5
Ultimate recovery = 2 000 x 0.35 = 700 MM stb
Minus production to date = 200

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Reserves = 500 MM stb

Reserves are those quantities of petroleum which are anticipated to be commercially

recovered from known accumulations from a given date forward.
i.e. Reserves refer to what can be produced in the future.

The Figure below gives a schematic of reserves showing the progression with time.

Figure Variations of Reserves During Field Life.

What are the amounts termed that are not recoverable? The quantity of hydrocarbons
that remains in the reservoir are called remaining hydrocarbons in place, NOT
remaining reserves!

Reserves which are to be produced through the application of established improved

recovery methods are included in the proved classification when :

1 Successful testing by a pilot project or favourable response of an installed

program in the same or an analogous reservoir with similar rock and fluid
properties provides support for the analysis on which the project was based, and,

2 It is reasonably certain that the project will proceed. Reserves to be recovered

by improved recovery methods that have yet to be established through
commercially successful applications are included in the proved classification
only:

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3 After a favourable production response from the subject reservoir from either;

a A representative pilot or

b An installed program where the response provides support for the analysis on
which the project is based and

4 It is reasonably certain the project will proceed.

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TOPIC 2 RESERVOIR PRESSURES AND

TEMPERATURES

Question 1
If the average pressure gradient in a region is 0.47 psi/ft, calculate the pore pressure in
a normally pressurised formation at 7400ft. Convert the pressure from psi to kPa, then
express the pressure in MPa. What is the pressure gradient in kPa/m?

SOLUTION

Multiply kPa by 0.145 to get psi.

1 US foot = 0.3048m.

Pressure in formation = 0.47 * 7400 = 3478 psig

Converting to kPa = 3478 / 0.145 = 23986 kPa

Converting to MPa = 23986 / 1000 = 23.99 MPa

Pressure gradient = 0.47 psi/ft = (0.47 / 0.145) kPa/ft = 3.2414 kPa/ft

= (3.2414 /0.3048) kPa/m
= 10.63 kPa/m

Question 2
If the pressure in a reservoir at the OWC is 3625 psi, calculate the pressure at the top if
there is a 600ft continuous oil column. If a normal pressure gradient exists outwith the
reservoir, calculate the pressure differential at the top of the reservoir. Redo the
calculations for a similar field, but this time containing gas.

SOLUTION

Typical pressure gradients are (psi/ft):

Water – 0.45
Oil – 0.35
Gas – 0.08

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Pressure at seal = 3625 - (600*0.35) = 3415 psi

To calculate the pressure differential across seal, look at fluid gradient differential
from OWC to seal 600ft above…
Differential = (0.45-0.35) * 600 = 60 psi
If the reservoir is gas then the differential becomes…
(0.45 – 0.08) * 600 = 222 psi higher in the reservoir than surrounding area

Question 3

An RFT was run in a well and produced the following:

Depth Formation
TVD Pressure
(ft) (psig)

12644 5705
12612 5690
12570 5671
12560 5667
12420 5604
12361 5585
12278 5555
12240 5542
12098 5502
12078 5501
12005 5495

Confirm the presence of hydrocarbons and find the fluid contacts.

SOLUTION

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P r e s s u r e Gr a d i e n t Ex a m p l e
12000
0 .0 8 ps i/ f t
GOC

12200 12140

0 .3 5 ps i/ f t
De p t h ( T VD ) , f e e t

12400
OWC

12490 0 .4 5 ps i/ f t
12600

12800
5400 5500 5600 5700 5800

P r e s s ur e , ps i

Question 4

The following results were obtained from an appraisal well in a gas field. Plot the
points and determine the nature of the fluid and the contact between any 2 different
fluids.

Depth Pressure Depth Pressure

TVD Subsea (ft) (psig) TVD Subsea (ft) (psig)
10000 4648 10550 4748
10100 4656 10600 4770
10200 4664 10650 4792
10300 4672 10700 4815
10500 4725

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SOLUTION

Tu o r i a l e x . 1
9800

10000 Ga s , 0 .0 8 ps i/ f t
De p t h ( T VD ) , f e e t

10200

10400
Wa t e r , 0 .4 5 ps i/ f t
10600

10800
4600 4700 4800 4900
P r e s s ur e , ps i

Gas water contact at 10,400 ft.

Question 5

The following data are from an appraisal well in an oil field. Determine:

(1) The nature of the fluids found

(2) Any contacts

(3) The suitability of the formation for water injection

Depth Pressure Depth Pressure

TVD Subsea (ft) (psig) TVD Subsea (ft) (psig)
6200 2815 6500 2925
6235 2827 6550 2947
6300 2850 6575 2900
6345 2866 6600 2911
6640 2930

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SOLUTION
Tu t e x .2
6100

6200 Oil, 0 .3 5
De p t h ( T V D) , f e e t

ps i/ f t
6300

6400
OWC
Wa t e r , 0 .4 5
6440 ps i/ f t
6500

6600

6700
2800 2900 3000
P r e s s ur e , ps i

OWC AT 6440 feet. Between 6550 and 6575 feet there is a permeability barrier,
therefore water injection below 6500 feet may be of little use in pressure maintenance.

Question 6

A well penetrates a reservoir near the top of a fluid column. The GOC has been
detected by logs but not the OWC. An oil sample was taken at 6100 ft TVD with a
pore pressure of 2800 psig recorded. The field water gradient is 0.45 psi/ft, oil
gradient 0.36 psi/ft. Find the WOC.

SOLUTION

At 6100 ft TVD,
poil = oilgh = 0.36 psi/ft x 6100 ft + constant
therefore constant = 2800 - 2196 = 604
At the water/oil contact, pwater = poil
therefore, oilgh = watergh+14.7
i.e. 0.36D+604 = 0.45D+14.7
therefore D = 6548 feet.

Question 7

A well tests only gas in a structure at 5,500 ft. with gradient of 0.08 psi/ft. The bottom
of the gas was found at 5,550 ft. Constant = 2100.

Find the deepest possible GWC

Find the deepest possible OWC

State assumptions

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SOLUTION

1. Assuming a gas water contact exists below the gas, p water = pgas at the contact.
Assuming the water gradient to be 0.45 psi/ft,
0.45D + 14.7 = 0.08D + 2100
D = 5636 feet.

2. Assume an oil leg exists beneath the gas. Nothing is known about the oil properties
or the location. It is known that gas exists to 5550 feet, therefore assume that the oil
exists immediately below 5550 feet, i.e. the gas/oil contact is at 5550 feet.

Therefore, poil = pgas at 5550 feet.

pgas = 0.08 x 5550 + 2100 = 2544 psi
Assume an oil gradient of 0.35 psi/ft
poil = 2544 psi = 0.35 x 5550 + C
Therefore C = 601.5

Assuming an oil water contact, and a water gradient of 0.45 psi/ft, the contact will be
at a depth where poil = pwater i.e. 0.45D + 14.7 = 0.35D + 601.5
therefore D = 5868 feet.

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TOPIC 3 RESERVOIR FLUIDS COMPOSITION

Question 1

Calculate the Specific Gravity (SG) of a 38o API oil. What is its density in lbs/cu.ft?
(62.32 lbs/cu.ft equals an SG of 1.0 and 43.28 API)
Now convert an oil with an SG of 0.744 to Degrees API.

SOLUTION

Convert using the equation 1:

API = (141.5 / SG) -131.5

38 = (141.5 / SG) -131.5

SG= 141.5 / (131.5 + 38)

SG = 0.835

Similarly, to convert SG into API:

API = (141.5 / 0.744) -131.5

API = 58.7o

Question 2

A reservoir oil is quoted as having a Gas Oil Ratio (GOR) of 604 scf/bbl. Convert this
to Standard Cubic Meters (SCM)gas per Stock Tank Cubic Meters (SM3)

1 Foot = 0.3048m
1 barrel = 5.615 cu ft.
1 barrel = 0.159 m3

SOLUTION

604 scf/bbl = 604 * 0.3048 STM3/bbl = 17.09 SCM/bbl= 107.48 SCM/STM3

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Question 3

A reservoir is said to contain an ‘initial GOR’ of 11,000scf/bbl. What type of reservoir

is described, and what API oil could be typically expected from such a field?

SOLUTION

A reservoir with a GOR of 11,000 scf/bbl would be typically termed a ‘Gas

Condensate Reservoir’. The API gravity would probably be in the low 50’s.

Question 4

Define the ‘Black Oil Model’ and the ‘Compositional Model’

SOLUTION

Black Oil Model.

Two component description of the reservoir fluid consisting of stock tank oil and
solution gas. Compositional changes with varying pressure and temperature are
ignored. Terms such as ‘Gas Oil Ratio’ and ‘Formation Volume Factor’ are black oil
model terms.

Compositional Model.

The compositional model is based on the paraffin series C nH2n+2. To keep the number
of components in the model manageable, long chain members are grouped together
and given an average property. These compounds are termed collectively as the ‘C+
fraction’. Typically this covers the hydrocarbons above Heptane and therefore is called
the C7+ fraction, which is characterised using the terms Apparent Molecular Weight
and Specific Gravity.

Question 5
The API gravity can be used to classify reservoir fluids. Discuss the general
classification of reservoir fluids using this scale and name the type of reservoir fluids
associated with the following API gravities.

API 60-70 50-70 40 - 50 <40

gravity
Reservoir
Type

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Solution
The API gravity is on the specific gravity of a reservoir fluid (relative to water)
at 60 degrees Fahrenheit. It is an arbitrary non-linear relationship and allows
the classification of typical fluids as follows:

API 60-70 50-70 40 - 50 <40

gravity
Reservoir WetGas Gas Volatile Black Oil
Type Condensate Oil

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TOPIC 4 PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF

HYDROCARBON SYSTEMS
Question 1
Define the critical point of a reservoir fluid and discuss the phase of the reservoir fluid
if the pressure and temperature exceed the critical values

Solution
The critical point for a reservoir fluid (i.e. a mixture) is the limiting state for both
liquid and gas to co-exist (or in general the critical point is the point at which all of the
intensive properties of the gas and liquid are equal). If the pressure and temperature
exceed this, then there is 1 phase present and this changes from liquid to gas
depending on the specific pressure and temperature.

Question 2
Discuss the development of retrograde condensation in a gas reservoir (i.e. the
reservoir contains only a gas phase initially) as the pressure declines. Illustrate the
concept with a pressure temperature diagram.

Solution
In a gas reservoir with a mixture of components, the phase envelope is such that the
state of the gas lies at a temperature between the crtical temperature and the
cricondentherm. The pressure is above the 2 phase region (since the mixture is a single
gas phase) and as the pressure declines the dew point is reached causing liquid to
condense and 2 phases to be present. As the pressure further declines, the saturation of
the liquid increases to a maximum. At that state, further reduction in pressure reduces
the saturation of the liquid phase until the dew point is reached, at which state the
mixture exists as a single phase- gas.

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Question 3 Discuss the differences between a wet gas and a dry gas.

Solution
The differences between wet and dry gas relate to the phase behaviour in the
reservoir and at the surface separator. A wet gas will exist as a single phase in
the reservoir as the pressure declines, but as it is produced to the separator, the
state changes and moves into the 2 phase region, producing some liquids (the
heavier components of the mixture) in the separator. In a dry gas reservoir, the
pressure and temperature of the reservoir and the surface separator are such that
the 2 phase region is never entered, therefore the mixture is a gas in the
reservoir and in the separator.

Question 4
i) Draw and identify the key features of the pressure / temperature phase
diagram for a retrograde gas condensate reservoir fluid.

ii) What process might be used for developing a condensate reservoir where
retrograde condensation is a serious concern.

Solution
(i)Draw a pressure temperature diagram for a retrograde-gas condensate fluid
and indicate the key features.

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Figure
Critical point
Cricondenbar Region of retrograde
condensation
Dewpoint line
P Bubble point line

Lines of constant L/V Cricondentherm

ii)Gas Cycling is used to keep the reservoir pressure above the dew point to prevent
liquid drop out in the reservoir. Gas needs to be imported to replace the gas equivalent
volume of the exported condensate generated in the separator. The process is costly
and can only be justified if the liquid drop out is high enough to justify the process
illustrated in the figure below.

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Question 5
A pressure temperature diagram may be used to characterise a reservoir fluid. Briefly
describe the type of reservoir as defined by points 1,2,3 and 4, and indicate whether
the fluids are liquid or gas in points 5 and 6.

(6)

Solution
1: black oil
2: volatile oil
3: gas condensate
4: dry gas
5 liquid region
6 gas region

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TOPIC 5 BEHAVIOUR OF GASES

Question 1.

A gas cylinder contains methane at 1000 psia and 70 oF. If the cylinder has a volume
of 3 cu.ft assuming methane is an ideal gas calculate the mass of methane in the
cylinder.

SOLUTION

PV = nRT
n = m/M
where n = number of moles
m = mass
M = molecular weight

m = PMV/RT

Mass of methane, m = 8.46 lb

Question 2.

Calculate the density of the gas in the cylinder in exercise 1.

SOLUTION

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Question 3.

Assuming methane is at the conditions of exercise 1, calculate the volume the gas
would occupy at standard conditions.

SOLUTION

Question 4.

A gas is made up of the following components; 25lb of methane, 3 lb of ethane and

1.5 lb of propane. Express the composition of the gas in weight and mole fractions.

SOLUTION

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Question 5.

What is the apparent molecular weight of the gas in question 4

SOLUTION

Question 6.

What is the gas gravity of the gas in question 4 ?

SOLUTION

g = AMW = 17.43
Gas gravity = 0.6

Question 7.
Calculate the pseudo critical temperature and pseudocritical pressure of the mixture in
question 4 .

SOLUTION

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Pseudocritical pressure = 668.4 psia

Pseudocritical temperature = 362 oR

Question 8

For the gas of question 4 determine the compressibility factor at a temperature of 150
o
F and a pressure of 3500psia.

SOLUTION

Ppr = P/Ppc, Tpr = T/Tpc

From exercise 7 Ppc = 668 psia, Tpc = 362.6°R

P = 3500 psia, and T = 150°F ie. 610°R

Ppr = 5.24, and Tpr = 1.68

From standing Katz chart, Figure 2

Compressibility factor, z = 0.88

Question 9

Express the quantity of 1 lb mole of a gas as standard cubic feet.

SOLUTION

Equation of state PV = RT for 1 mole

R = 10.732 psia. cu.ft/lb.mole °R T = 60+460 = 520 °R, P = 14.65 psia
or V for 1 lb.mole = RT/P = 380.9 scf/lb.mole.

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Question 10.

Express the mass of gas in question 4 as standard cubic feet.

SOLUTION

Total mass of gas = 29.5 lb.

Apparent mol.wgt of gas question 5 = 17.43 lb./lb.mole
lb.moles of gas = 1.6924
Standard cubic feet of gas = 380.9 x 1.6924
= 644.68 scf

Question 11.

Calculate the gas formation factor for a gas with the composition of exercise 4 existing
at the reservoir conditions given in question 8.

SOLUTION

T = 150 oF i.e. 610 oR and P = 3500 psia

Compressibility factor at these conditions from question 8 = 0.88
Bg = 0.0008 res bbl/scf

Question 12.

A reservoir exists at a temperature of 150 oF (as for exercise 8) suitable for storing gas.
It has an areal size of 5 miles by 2 miles and is 200ft thick. The average porosity is
20% and there is no water present. How much gas of the composition of question 4
can be stored at a pressure the same as in question 8 i.e. 3500 psia. ? (1 mile= 5280
ft.)

SOLUTION

Volume of reservoir pore space = 5x2 x (5280)2 x 200 x 0.2

= 11,151,360,000 cu. ft.
=1,985,994,657 bbls
Bg , question 11 =0.0008 res. bbls/SCF
Volume of gas =2.483E+12 scf

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TOPIC 6 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR

LIQUIDS

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Table Physical properties of the paraffin hydrocarbon and miscellaneous compounds.

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Use data from the physical properties Table

Question 1

Calculate the density at 14.7psia and 60 ºF of the hydrocarbon liquid mixture with the
composition given below:

SOLUTION

Question 2

Calculate the "surface pseudo liquid density" of the following reservoir composition
(which is above bubble point) using the chart of Figure 11.

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SOLUTION

Component Mol e Mol . Wei ght Li qui d Li qui d

fra cti on Wei ght Dens i ty Vol ume
l b/l b mol l b l b/cu ft a t cu ft
60F a nd
14.7 ps i
y M yM r o yM/ r o
Metha ne 0.4404 16.04 7.06
Etha ne 0.0432 30.07 1.30
Propa ne 0.0405 44.09 1.79 31.66 0.06
Buta ne 0.0284 58.12 1.65 36.43 0.05
Penta ne 0.0174 72.15 1.26 39.36 0.03
Hexa ne 0.0290 86.17 2.50 41.43 0.06
Hepta ne+ 0.4011 164.00 65.78 53.26 1.24
s um 1.0000 81.33 1.43

For Heptane +
parameter from this calculation
wei ght Mol ecul a r wei ght * Mol e fra cti on
Speci fi c Gra vi ty 141.5/(API+131.5)
Speci fi c Gra vi ty ma y be gi ven
l i qui d vol ume wei ght/dens i ty
l i qui d vol ume SG * dens i ty wa ter

Accounting for gasses

wei ght of Propa ne+ (l b) 72.97
l i qui d vol ume (cu ft) 1.43
dens i ty of Propa ne+(l b/cu ft) 51.06
wei ght percent etha ne i n etha ne+ (%) 1.75
wei ght percent metha ne i n metha ne+ (%) 8.69
ps eudo l i qui d dens i ty (l b/cu ft) 46

Question 3

Calculate the density of the reservoir liquid of exercise 2 at a reservoir conditions of

5,500 psia and 180 oF

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SOLUTION

Step 1
Pseudo liquid density at standard conditions
from exercise 2. = 46 lb/cu ft

Step 2
Correction for pressure at 5,500 psia
From Figure 12 = 1.65 + 46 lb/cu.ft
Density at pressure = 47.65 lb/cu.ft

Step 3
Correction for temperature at 180°F
From Figure 13 = -3.2 lb/cu.ft
Density at 5,500 psia and 180° 47.65 - 3.2 = 44.45 lb/cu ft

Question 4

A reservoir at a pressure of 4,000 psia and a temperature of 160 oF has a producing gas
to oil ratio of 600 scf/STB. The oil produced has a gravity of 42 oAPI.
Calculate the density of the reservoir liquid (lb/cu.ft) and its pressure gradient
(psi/ft).

The pore volume of the reservoir is estimated at 1.8x10 12 cu.ft with an average water
saturation of 21 per cent.
Estimate the stock tank barrels of oil in place.

The produced gas has the following composition.

Average values taken for normal and iso components.

Component Mole Fraction

Methane C1 0.71
Ethane C2 0.13
Propane C3 0.08
Butane C4 (n&i) 0.05
Pentane C5 (n&i) 0.02
Hexane 0.01

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SOLUTION

Assume that when a hydrocarbon gas dissolves in a crude oil the combined volume of
the system is equal to the volume of the oil plus that of the gas if it existed in the liquid
state.

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Step 1 Calculation of Pseudo Density

For produced Gas:
Component Mol e fra cti on Mol ecul a r vol ume of l b mol es wei ght of l i qui d vol ume of
Wei ght ga s i n 1 of ga s i n 1 ga s i n 1 dens i ty* ga s i n 1
s tb s tb s tb s tb
l b/l b mol s cf/s tb lb l b/s tb
mol e/s tb l b/cu ft cu ft
y M yRs yRs /379 MyRs /379
Metha ne C1 0.71 16.04 426 1.12 18.03
Etha ne C2 0.13 30.07 78 0.21 6.19
Propa ne C3 0.08 44.09 48 0.13 5.58 31.66 0.18
Buta ne C4 (n&i ) 0.05 58.12 30 0.08 4.60 35.78 0.13
Penta ne C5 (n&i ) 0.02 72.15 12 0.03 2.28 39.16 0.06
Hexa ne 0.01 86.17 6 0.02 1.36 41.43 0.03
s um 1.00 600 1.58 38.05 0.40

* a vera ge l i qui d dens i ti es (l b/cu ft)

n-buta ne 36.43
i -buta ne 35.12
Average butane 35.78
n-penta ne 39.36
i -penta ne 38.96
Average pentane 39.16

For produced oi l
oi l API SG wa ter vol ume wei ght of
SG = 141.5/(API+131.5) dens i ty 1s tb oi l 1s tb oi l
dens i ty of wa ter = 62.37l b/cu ft l b/cu ft cu ft
dens i ty of oi l = SG * dens i ty of wa ter 42 0.816 62.37 5.615 285.62
vol ume of 1s tb oi l = 5.615 cu ft
wei ght of 1s tb oi l = 5.615cu ft = SG* dens i ty of wa ter*5.615cu ft

Calculate pseudo liquid density at 14.7psia and 60F

wei ght of C3+i n ga s (l b) 13.83

vol ume of C3+ (cu
ft) 0.40
wei ght of oi l a nd
ga s wi thout C1 a nd
C2 299.45
vol ume of oi l a nd
ga s wi thout C1 a nd
C2 6.01
dens i ty oi l a nd ga s
wi thout C1 a ndC2
(l b/cu ft) 49.81

wei ght% C2 = wt
C2/(wt oi l +C3 + C2) 2.02
wei ght% C1 = wt
C1/(wt oi l +C3+ +
C2+ C1) 5.57

From , ps udo l i qui d

dens i ty a t 14.7ps i a
a nd 60F (l b/cu ft)
46.5

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Step 2 Correction for reservoir temperature and pressure

Ps eudo
Dens i ty
va l ue (l b/cu ft)
a t 14.7ps i a a nd 60F 46.5
pres s ure correcti on a t
4000ps i a 1.25 47.75
tempera ture correcti on a t 160F
-3.5 44.25
Density of reservoir fluid 44.25

Pressure gradient, psi/ft

P = dens i ty*hei ght*g

i n i mperi a l uni ts , 1 l b force = 1 l b ma s s * g, where g = 1.0
Pres s ure/foot of depth (l b/s q ft)/ft = dens i ty = l b/(s q ft*1ft)
144s q i n per 1 s q ft, pres s ure/foot of depth = ps i /ft = dens i ty/144 ps i /ft
pressure gradient = 0.31 ps i /ft

Estimate oil in place

vol of res ervoi r 1.80E+12 cu ft
Swc 21 %
vol oi l i n pl a ce 1.42E+12 cu ft
ma s s of oi l i n
pl a ce = vol * res
fl ui d dens i ty 6.29E+13 l b
ma s s of 1 s tb oi l = 285.62 l b
ma s s of Rs ga s 38.05 l b
tota l 323.67 l b
Number STB= 1.94E+11

Question 5

Gas condensate

A gas condensate produces gas and liquids with the compositions detailed below with
a producing GOR of 30,000 SCF/STB. Determine the composition of the reservoir
gas.

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SOLUTION

Question 6

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The gas condensate reservoir in exercise 5 is contained in reservoir sands with an

average pay thickness of 100ft, with a porosity of 0.18 and a connate water saturation
of 0.16. The aerial extent of the field is 5 sq. miles. The initial reservoir pressure is
5,000 psia and the reservoir temperature is 180 °F. Determine the initial reserves of the
field in terms of condensate and gas in terms of SCF gas and STB condensate.

If the condensate reservoir has a dew point of 3,000 psia determine the amount of STB
of condensate and SCF gas which has been produced when the reservoir pressure has
dropped to 4,000 psia.

SOLUTION

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Question 7

Calculate the gas condensate formation factor for the example in exercise 6 at the
initial reservoir pressure.

SOLUTION
Bgc= bbls of gas in reservoir /STB of produced condensate

Volume of gas = 2.10761 x 109 cu ft

3.75353 x 108 bbls
Condensate = 1.9029 x 107 STB

Bgc = 19.73 bbls of gas in reservoir /STB of produced condensate

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CONTENTS 38

TOPIC 7 FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF

RESERVOIR ROCKS

Question 1. The following data are available for a core:

Bulk volume, Vb = 30cm3

Grain volume, Vg = 25cm3

Determine the porosity

Question 2. The following measurements were made on a right cylindrical core

Measurement # Diameter Length

(mm) (mm)
1 37.85 70.76
2 37.86 70.78
3 37.84 70.73
4 37.87 70.75

The dry weight was determined to be 87.6g; the saturated weight after subjecting the
core to a vacuum of 0.9bar over 24 hours with water of density 1g/cm3 was 101.3g.

Determine the porosity of the core.

Question 3. The porosity of a reservoir rock has been found to vary between 7% and
19%. If the volume of the reservoir is 750MMbbl, calculate the upper and lower limits
of the pore volume.

Question 4. The pore compressibility of a reservoir rock has been determined to be 3

* 10-6 psi-1. The porosity measured at ambient conditions is 15% and the bulk volume
100cm3. Calculate the porosity of the reservoir at a depth of 10000ft TVD (true vertical
depth). The overburden gradient is 1psi/ft. Comment on the validity of the approach.

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Question 5. The results of a pore volume squeeze out test are as follows

Stress Volume
Expelled
(psi) (cm3)
0 0.00
1000 6.00
2000 6.50
5000 6.70
10000 6.90

The bulk volume of the sample was 500cm3 and the porosity was 20%. Plot the pore
volume squeeze out versus stress and calculate the pore compressibility at each
stress.

Question 6. A core sample has the following dimensions:

length (cm) = 7.7

diameter (cm) = 3.8

A permeability test conducted on the core gave a flow rate of 3.6cm3/hour with a
pressure differential of 27.8psi. Water was used as the permeant. Calculate the
permeability and comment.

Question 7. Calculate the production from a well given the following data:

radius of the well = 0.15m

radius of the reservoir = 3000m
pressure at external radius = 5000psi
pressure at wellbore radius = 3475psi
viscosity of oil = 20cp
thickness of formation = 105ft
permeability = 86mD

Question 8. Calculate the permeability of a gas well from the following data:

flow rate = 23MMscf/day

pressure at external radius = 2340psi
pressure at wellbore radius = 2120psi
radius of the well = 0.15m
radius of the reservoir = 1850m
viscosity of gas = 0.018cp
thickness of formation = 600ft
Pb = 1atm

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Question 9. A layered reservoir has the following properties

Layer Width Thickness Length Permeability

(m) (m) (m) (mD)
1 1000 83 5000 132
2 1000 146 5000 62
3 1000 275 5000 27
4 1000 32 5000 425

Calculate the average permeability of the reservoir.

Question 10. A reservoir has been discovered and as part of the evaluation,
rock cores have been sent to the lab for determination of porosity and
permeability. The test specifications state that ambient stress conditions
should be used during the tests. Briefly describe the effect of reservoir rock
stress on the values of porosity and permeability determined under ambient
stress conditions. Use a sketch if desired.

Question 11. Darcy's Law is used to describe the ability of a rock to pass fluid through
it. Briefly discuss the assumptions made when applying Darcy's Law to a rock.

Question 12. Discuss the Klinkenberg effect when applied to permeability

measurements using low pressure gas.

Question 13. A typical capillary pressure versus water saturation curve is shown
below. Briefly discuss the possible reasons that explain the two curves shown.

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Question 14. When oil production is enhanced by water injection in a water wet
reservoir, the relative permeability of the oil and water change. Illustrate this in a
figure and explain the concept of end point relative permeability

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Solutions

Question 1. porosity = = = 0.17 = 17%

Question 2. Average length = 70.76mm; average diameter = 37.86mm

bulk volume, Vb = * l = * 7.076 = 79.66cm3

difference in weight = (101.3 - 87.6)g
= 13.7g

volume of water in pores = = = 13.70cm3

pore volume, Vp = 13.70cm3

porosity = = = 17.2%

Question 3. Pore volume = porosity * bulk volume

Upper limit = 0.19*750MMbbl = 142.5MMbbl

Lower limit = 0.07*750MMbbl = 52.5MMbbl

Question 4. Assume compressibility constant

Overburden at 10000ft TVD = 10000* 1psi/ft = 10000psi

change in pore volume = cVdP

= 3*10-6*0.15*100*10000
= 0.5cm3
at 10000ft, pore volume = 15-0.5 = 14.5cm3, therefore porosity = = 14.5%

The method does not account for changes in bulk volume.

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CONTENTS 43

Question 5.

Stress Pore Volume Pore Volume Pore Porosity

Expelled Compressibility
(vol/vol/psi*1e-6)
(psi) (cm^3) (cm^3) (%)
0 0.00 100.00 20
1000 6.00 94.00 60 19
2000 6.50 93.50 33 19
5000 6.70 93.30 13 19
10000 6.90 93.10 7 19

pore volume at any stress = initial pore volume - volume expelled

pore compressibility =

porosity =

8.0
7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
Pore Volume Expelled (cm^3)

5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

Stress (psi)

Question 6. Linear flood

Q=

Q in cm3/s
k in D
dP in atm
 in cp
dL = 7.7cm

area = = = 11.34cm2

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CONTENTS 44

k = = (* ) = 3.59*10-4D = 0.4mD
the permeability is very low; typically in N Sea, permeability ranges from 50 to 250mD.

Question 7. Q=

= 905.7cm3/s
= 3260520cm3/hour
= 3.26m3/hour
= 20.5bbl/hour
= 492bbl/day

Question 8. Qb =
k=

= 2.45*10-3D
= 2.45mD

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CONTENTS 45

Question 9.
n

k h j j
j=1
K =
ht

= 76.5mD

Question 10.
The ambient stress conditions are not the same as those in the reservoir. The effect of
rock stress is to reduce the pore volume and bulk volume in such a way that the
porosity decreases with an increase in stress. Similarly, the ambient permeability
decreases as the rock stress increases and closes the pore throats. The following
diagram illustrates:

50

40
sandstone


30
porosity,

20

10 shale

0
0 3000 6000

depth of burial (ft) or stress (psi)

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Permeability Stress Sensitivity for Various Sandstones

1000

14688h
14688v
14706h
14706v
15189h
100 15189v
15328h
permeability (mD)

15328v
14724h
A53 (AHZ)

10

1
0 20 40 60 80

hydrostatic stress (MPa)

Question 11. The following assumptions are made for the application of Darcy's
Law:
i) Steady state flow: no transient or semisteady state flow regimes are applicable
ii) Laminar flow: no turbulent flow regimes are applicable
iii) Pores space 100% saturated with one fluid: single fluid flow only (no oil and water
flowing for example)
iv) No reaction between rock and fluid: chemically stable flow regime
v) Homogenous rock: no variations in areal or vertical permeability (no anisotropy)

Question 12. Darcy's law assumes that there is laminar flow and a zero flow rate at the
boundary of the flow channel (pore throat). In the case of measurements at low
pressure using gas, the mean free path of the gas molecules approaches the diameter of
the pore throat. This means that there is one molecule per pore throat and it cannot
both flow and be stationary. In this case the molecules flow resulting in a greater flow
rate of gas than would occur if the fluid was a liquid (i.e. there are more molecules per
unit area and so zero velocity layers can exist and therefore the flow rate is lower).
Klinkenberg showed that the relationship between reciprocal mean pressure and gas
permeability is linear for a gas and when the relationship is extrapolated to zero
reciprocal mean pressure (corresponding to infinite gas pressure) the density of the gas
molecules is the same as in a liquid, and therefore the gas permeability is equivalent to
a liquid permeability. This is illustrated below:

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Question 13.
The differences may be caused by:

Effect Case 1 Case 2

Rock - both have Small range of Large range
similar largest pore connected pore sizes of connected
size pore sizes
Interfacial tension High interfacial Low
tension interfacial
tension
Fluid density Small density Large density
difference difference (water-oil) difference
(water- gas)

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Question 14. The relative permeability curves are shown below.

End point
relative
permeabilities

The end point relative permeabilities are defined as :

end point relative permeability to oil is at the connate water saturation,
end point relative permeability to water is at the irreducible oil saturation.
These define the limits of saturation beyond which the oil or water will not flow.

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY June 2014 v1