Department of Petroleum Engineering and Applied Geophysics

SOLUTION - Examination paper for TPG4160

Reservoir Simulation

Academic contact during examination: Jon Kleppe

Phone: 91897300/73594925

Examination date: May 22, 2014

Examination time (from-to): 1500-1900
Permitted examination support material: D/No printed or hand-written support
material is allowed. A specific basic calculator is allowed.

Other information:

Language: English
Number of pages: 14
Number of pages enclosed: 0

Checked by:

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Date Signature
Final Exam page 2 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

Question 1 (26x0,5 points)

Explain briefly the following terms as applied to reservoir simulation (short sentence and/or a
formula for each):

a) Control volume
b) Mass balance
c) Taylor series
d) Numerical dispersion
e) Explicit
f) Implicit
g) Stability
h) Upstream weighting
i) Variable bubble point
j) Harmonic average
k) Transmissibility
l) Storage coefficient
m) Coefficient matrix
n) IMPES
o) Fully implicit
p) Cross section
q) Coning
r) PI
s) Stone´s relative permeability models
t) Discretization
u) History matching
v) Prediction
w) Black Oil
x) Compositional
y) Dual porosity
z) Dual permeability

Solution
a) Control volume small volume used in derivation of continuity equation
b) Mass balance principle applied to control volume in derivation of continuity
equation
c) Taylor series expansion formula used for derivation of difference approximations
h h2 h3
(or formula: f (x + h) = f (x) + f ′(x) + f ′′(x) + f ′′′(x) + .... )
1! 2! 3!
d) Numerical dispersion error term associated with finite difference approximations
derived by use of Taylor series
e) Explicit as applied to discretization of diffusivity equation: time level used in
Taylor series approximation is t
f) Implicit as applied to discretization of diffusivity equation: time level used in
Taylor series approximation is t+Δt
g) Stability as applied to implicit and explicit discretization of diffusivity equation:
φµc
explicit form is conditional stable for Δt ≤ 1 (Δx) 2 , while implicit form is
2 k
unconditionally stable
Final Exam page 3 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

h) Upstream weighting descriptive term for the choice of mobility terms in

transmissibilities
i) Variable bubble point term that indicates that the discretization og undersaturated
flow equation includes the possibility for bubble point to change, such as for the
case of gas injection in undersaturated oil
j) Harmonic average averaging method used for permeabilities when flow is in series
k) Transmissibility flow coefficient in discrete equations that when muliplied with
pressure difference between grid blocks yields flow rate.
l) Storage coefficient flow coefficient in discrete equations that when muliplied with
pressure change or saturation change in a time step yields mass change in grid
block
m) Coefficient matrix the matrix of coefficient in the set of linear equations
n) IMPES an approximate solution method for two or three phase equations where all
coefficients and capillary pressures are computed at time level of previous time
step when generating the coefficient matrix
o) Fully implicit an solution method for two or three phase equations where all
coefficients and capillary pressures are computed at the current time level
generating the coefficient matrix. Thus, iterations are required on the solution.
p) Cross section an x-z section of a reservoir
q) Coning the tendency of gas and water to form a cone shaped flow channel into the
well due to pressure drawdown in the close neigborhood.
r) PI the productivity index of a well
s) Stone´s relative permeability models methods for generating 3-phase relative
permeabilities for oil based on 2-phase data
t) Discretization converting of a contineous PDE to discrete form
u) History matching in simulation the adjustment of reservoir parameters so that the
computed results match observed data.
v) Prediction computing future performance of reservoir, normally following a history
matching.
w) Black Oil simplified hydrocarbon description model which includes two phases (oil,
gas) and only two components (oil, gas), with mass transfer between the
components through the solution gas-oil ratio parameter.
x) Compositional detailed hydrocarbon description model which includes two phases
but N components (methane, ethane, propane, ...).
y) Dual porosity denotes a reservoir with two porosity systems, normally a fractured
reservoir
z) Dual permeability denotes a reservoir with two permeabilities (block-to-block
contact) in addition to two porosities, normally a fractured reservoir

Question 2 (1+2+2+2+4+4 points)

Answer the following questions related to the derivation of reservoir fluid flow equations:
a) Write the mass balance equation (one-dimensional, one-phase)
b) List 3 commonly used expressions for relating fluid density to pressure
c) Write the most common relationship between velocity and pressure, and write an
alternative relationship used for high fluid velocities.
d) Write the expression for the relationship between porosity and pressure.
e) Derive the following partial differential equation (show all steps):
Final Exam page 4 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ ⎛c d(1/ B) ⎞ ∂P
⎜ ⎟ = φ ⎜⎝ r + ⎟
∂ x ⎝ µB ∂ x ⎠ B dP ⎠ ∂t

f) Reduce the equation in e) to the simple diffusivity equation:

∂ 2 P ϕµ c ∂ P
=( )
∂ x2 k ∂t

Solution

a) For constant cross sectional area, the continuity equation simplifies to:
∂ ∂
− ( ρu) = (φρ )
∂x ∂t

b) Compressibility definition:
1 ∂V
c f = −( )( )T .
V ∂P

Real gas law:

PV = nZRT .

The gas density may be expressed as:

P ZS
ρg = ρ g S
Z PS

Black Oil description:

ρ o S + ρ g sRs o
ρo = .
Bo

c) Darcy's equation, which for one dimensional flow is:

k ⎛ ∂P ⎞
u=− ⎜ − ρ g sin α ⎟ .
µ ⎝ ∂x ⎠
An alternative equations is the Forchheimer equation, for high velocity flow (horizontal):

∂P µ
− = u + βu n
∂x k

where n is proposed by Muscat to be 2

d) Rock compressibility:
1 ∂φ
c r = ( )( )T
φ ∂P

e) Substitution for Darcy´s eq.:

Final Exam page 5 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ ∂
⎜ρ ⎟ = (φρ)
∂x ⎝ µ ∂ x ⎠ ∂t
ρ + ρ gS Rso constant
Fluid density: ρ o = oS =
Bo Bo
Right side
∂ constant ∂φ ∂(constant /B) ⎛ 1 dφ d(1/B) ⎞ ∂P ⎛c d(1/B) ⎞ ∂P
∂t
(φρ) =
∂P
+φ
∂t
= constant
⎝ B dP
+φ
dP ⎠ ∂t
= constant φ ⎜ r + φ
dP ⎟⎠ ∂t
B ⎝B

or
∂ ⎡c d(1/B) ⎤ ∂P
∂t
(φρ) = constant φ ⎢ r +
dP ⎥⎦ ∂t
⎣B
Left side (horizontal)
∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ ∂ ⎛ constant k ∂P ⎞ ∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞
⎜ρ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = constant ⎜ ⎟
∂x ⎝ µ ∂ x ⎠ ∂x ⎝ B µ ∂x ⎠ ∂x ⎝ Bµ ∂x ⎠

Thus, the flow equation becomes:

∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ ⎡c r d(1/B) ⎤ ∂P
⎜ ⎟=φ +
∂x ⎝ µB ∂x ⎠ ⎢⎣ B dP ⎥⎦ ∂t

f) Starting with the equation:

∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ ⎛c d(1/ B) ⎞ ∂P
⎜ ⎟ = φ ⎜⎝ r + ⎟
∂ x ⎝ µB ∂ x ⎠ B dP ⎠ ∂t

Assume that the group k/µB is approximately constant:

∂ ⎛ k ∂P⎞ k ∂ 2P
⇒
∂ x ⎜⎝ µ B ∂ x ⎟⎠ µB ∂ x2

Since

d(1 / B) c
=− f ,
dP B

⎛ cr d(1 / B) ⎞ 1
⎜⎝ +
B dP
(
⎟⎠ = cr + c f =
B
c
B
)
Thus, the equation becomes

∂ 2 P ϕµ c ∂ P
=( )
∂ x2 k ∂t
Final Exam page 6 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

Question 3 (10 points)

Use Taylor series and show all steps in the discretization of the following equation:

∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ ⎛ c r d(1/B) ⎞ ∂P
⎜ ⎟ = φ⎜ + ⎟
∂x ⎝ µ B ∂x ⎠ ⎝ B dP ⎠ ∂t

Solution
Right side:
−Δt (−Δt) 2 (−Δt) 3
P(x,t) = P(x,t + Δt) + P ′(x,t + Δt) + P ′′(x,t + Δt) + P ′′′(x,t + Δt) + .....
1! 2! 3!
Solving for the time derivative, we get:
∂P P t +Δt − Pit
( ) ti +Δt = i + O(Δt) .
∂t Δt
Thus,
⎛ c r d(1/B) ⎞ ∂P ⎛c d(1/B) ⎞ Pit +Δt − Pit
φ + ≈ φi r +
⎝B dP ⎠ ∂t ⎝B dP ⎠ i Δt
Left side:

⎡ k ∂P ⎤ ⎡ k ∂P ⎤ Δx /2 ∂ ⎡ k ∂P ⎤ (Δx /2) 2 ∂ 2 ⎡ k ∂P ⎤
⎢( ) ⎥ = ⎢( ) ⎥ + ⎢( ) ⎥ + ⎢( ) ⎥ + .....
⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i+1/ 2 ⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i 1! ∂x ⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i 2! ∂x 2 ⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i

⎡ k ∂P ⎤ ⎡ k ∂P ⎤ −Δx /2 ∂ ⎡ k ∂P ⎤ (−Δx /2) 2 ∂ 2 ⎡ k ∂P ⎤

⎢( ) ⎥ = ⎢( ) ⎥ + ⎢( ) ⎥ + ⎢( ) ⎥ + .....
⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i−1/ 2 ⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i 1! ∂x ⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i 2! ∂x 2 ⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i

combination yields
⎡ k ∂P ⎤ ⎡ k ∂P ⎤
⎢( ) ⎥ − ⎢( ) ⎥
∂ ⎡ k ∂P ⎤ ⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i+1/ 2 ⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i−1/ 2
⎢( ) ⎥ = + O(Δx 2 ) .
∂x ⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i Δx

Using similar central difference approximations for the two pressure gradients:

⎛ ∂P ⎞ P −P
⎜ ⎟ = i+1 i + O(Δx)
⎝ ∂x ⎠ i+1/ 2 Δx
and
⎛ ∂P ⎞ P − Pi−1
⎜ ⎟ = i + O(Δx) .
⎝ ∂x ⎠ i−1/ 2 Δx

the expression becomes:

⎡ k Pi+1 − Pi ⎤ ⎡ k P − Pi−1 ⎤
⎢( ) ⎥ − ⎢( ) i ⎥
∂ ⎡ k ∂P ⎤ ⎣ µB Δx ⎦i+1/ 2 ⎣ µB Δx ⎦i−1/ 2
⎢( ) ⎥ ≈
∂x ⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i Δx
or
∂ ⎡ k ∂P ⎤ k Pi+1 − Pi k P −P
⎢( ) ⎥ ≈ ( ) i+1/ 2 − ( ) i−1/ 2 i 2 i−1
∂x ⎣ µB ∂x ⎦i µB Δx 2
µB Δx
Final Exam page 7 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

Thus, the difference equation becomes:

t +Δt
k Pi+1 − Pi k Pi − Pi−1 ⎡ ⎛ c r d(1/B) ⎞⎤ Pit +Δt − Pit
( ) i+1/ 2 − ( ) i−1/ 2 ≈ ⎢φ⎜ + ⎟⎥
µB Δx 2 µB Δx 2 ⎣ ⎝B dP ⎠⎦i Δt
The terms
k k
( ) i+1/ 2 and ( ) i−1/ 2 are then computed using harmonic averages of properties of
µB µB
blocks i-1, i and i+1, respectively.

Question 4 (3+5+5 points)

a) Show all steps in the derivation of the simple, one dimensional, radial, horizontal, one-
phase diffusivity equation:

1 ∂ ∂P φµc ∂P
(r ) = ( )
r ∂r ∂ r k ∂t

b) Derive the numerical approximation for this equation using the transformation:

u = ln(r)

c) Explain why the radial grid dimensions in cylindrical coordinates often are selected
according to the formula:

ri+1/ 2 r
= ( e )1/ N
ri−1/ 2 rw
Solution
a)

In a radial system, the flow area is a function of radius, and for a full cylinder (360
degrees) the area is:
A = 2πrh .
Thus, the continuity equation may be written (derivation is not required):
1∂ ∂
(uρr) = (ρφ ) .
r ∂r ∂t
Substituting for Darcy´s eqn,:
k ∂P
u=−
µ ∂r
Final Exam page 8 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

we get
1∂⎛ k ∂P ⎞ ∂
− ⎜− ρr ⎟ = ( ρφ )
r ∂r ⎝ µ ∂ r ⎠ ∂t
Using definitions of compressibilities (at constant temperature)
1 dφ
cr =
φ dP
1 dρ
cf =
ρ dP
we rewrite the right side as:
∂ ∂φ ∂ρ dφ dρ ∂P ∂P
(ρφ ) = ρ + φ = ρ( + φ ) = ρφ (c r + c f )
∂t ∂t ∂t dP dP ∂t ∂t

The left side may be rewritten as:

1 ∂ ⎛ ∂P ⎞ k 1 ⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂P ⎞ ⎛ ∂P ⎞ dρ ∂P ⎤ k 1 ⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂P ⎞ ⎛ ∂P ⎞ ⎤
2

ρr = ρ + = ρ ⎢ +
⎝ ∂r ⎠ ⎥⎦
r r r rc
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ µ r ⎢⎣ ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ⎝ ∂r ⎠ dP ∂r ⎥⎦ µ r ⎣∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ f

It may be shown that:

∂ ⎛ ∂P ⎞ ⎛ ∂P ⎞
2

r >> rc f
∂r ⎝ ∂ r ⎠ ⎝ ∂r ⎠
Thus, the left side may be approximated by:
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂P ⎞ k 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂ P ⎞
⎜ ρr ⎟ ≈ ρ ⎜r ⎟
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ µ r ∂r ⎝ ∂ r ⎠
The simple form of the radial equation then becomes:
1 ∂ ∂P φµc ∂P
(r ) = ( )
r ∂r ∂ r k ∂t
b) For the radial flow equation, we will first make the following transformation of the r-
coordinate into a u-coordinate:
u = ln(r) .
Thus,
du 1
=
dr r
and
r = eu .
The PDE may then be written:
∂ ⎛ ∂P du ⎞ du φµc ∂P ,
e−u ⎜ e u ⎟ =
∂u ⎝ ∂u dr ⎠ dr k ∂t
or
∂ 2 P φµc ∂P .
e−2u 2 =
∂u k ∂t
Using the difference approximations above, we may write the numerical for of the left
side as:
−2u ∂ P P − 2Pi + Pi−1
2
e ≈ e−2ui i+1
∂u 2
Δui2
After back-substitution of r, we write the left side as:
P − 2Pi + Pi−1 1 Pi+1 − 2Pi + Pi−1
e−2ui i+1 = 2
Δui2 ri [ln(ri+1/ 2 /ri−1/ 2 )] 2
Final Exam page 9 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

The right side is approximated as for the linear equation. Thus, the complete difference
equation becomes (no superscript means t+Δt):
1 Pi+1 − 2Pi + Pi−1 Pi − Pit
= , i = 1,...,N
ri2 [ln(ri+1/ 2 /ri−1/ 2 )] 2 Δt
The formula applies to the radial grid block system shown below:

ri+1
ri
ri-1
ri+1 1/2
ri-1/2 ri+1/2
ri-1 1/2
The position of the grid block centers, relative to the block boundaries, may be computed
using the midpoint between the u-coordinate boundaries:
ui = (ui+1/ 2 + ui−1/ 2 ) /2 ,
or, in terms of radius:
ri = ri+1/ 2 ri−1/ 2 .
This is the geometric average of the block boundary radii.

c) Frequently in simulation of flow in the radial direction, the grid blocks sizes are chosen
such that:
Δui = (ui+1/ 2 − ui−1/ 2 ) = constant
or
⎛r ⎞
ln⎜ i+1/ 2 ⎟ = constant ,
⎝ ri−1/ 2 ⎠
which for a system of N grid blocks and well and external radii of rw and re , respectively,
implies that
⎛r ⎞ ⎛r ⎞
N ⋅ ln⎜ i+1/ 2 ⎟ = ln⎜ e ⎟
⎝ ri−1/ 2 ⎠ ⎝ rw ⎠
or
ri+1/ 2 ⎛ re ⎞
1/ N

= ⎜ ⎟ = constant .
ri−1/ 2 ⎝ rw ⎠

Question 5 (4+4+6 points)

In the following 2-dimensional cross-section of a reservoir (one fluid only), a well is

producing at a constant rate Q (st. vol. oil/unit time) and perforates the grid blocks 4, 8, 11,
14, 17 and 21 in the x-z grid system shown:

1 5 9 13 17 21
1

2 6 10 14 18 22
2

j 3 7 11 15 19 23
3

4 8 12 16 20 24
4

1 2 3 4 5 6

i
Final Exam page 10 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

The (unknown) bottom hole pressure Pbh is specified at a reference depth dref . Assume that
hydrostatic pressure equilibrium exists inside the well tubing.
a) Write the expression for oil rate from each perforated block (in terms of productivity
indices, mobility terms, pressure differences and hydrostatic pressure differences)
b) Write the expression for the total oil flow rate for the well (group the constants into
parameters A, B, C, D, F, G, H, representing a constant term and the contribution to flow
from the 6 grid block pressures involved)
c) The standard pressure equation for this grid system, without the well terms, is:

ei, j Pi, j−1 + ai, j Pi−1, j + bi, j Pi, j + c i, j Pi+1, j + f i, j Pi, j +1 = di, j i = 1,...,N1, j = 1,...,N 2

Sketch the coefficient matrix for this system, including the well. Indicate how the
coefficient matrix is altered by the well (approximately, with x´s and lines labeled with the
appropriate coefficient name).

Solution
a) Write the expression for oil rate from each perforated block (in terms of productivity
indices, mobility terms, pressure differences and hydrostatic pressure differences)

qij = PI ij λij ⎡⎣ Pij − Pbh − (dij − dref )ρ g ⎤⎦

ie.
q4 = PI 4 λ4 (P4 − Pbh − Δd4 ρ g)
q8 = PI8λ8 (P8 − Pbh − Δd8 ρ g)
...
...

b) Write the expression for the total oil flow rate for the well (group constants into
parameters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H)

Qtot = ∑ q = A + BP4 + CP8 + DP11 + EP14 + FP17 + GP21 + HPbh

perf blocks ij

or
BP4 + CP8 + DP11 + EP14 + FP17 + GP21 + HPbh = d25

c) The standard pressure equation for this grid system, without the well terms, is:

ei, j Pi, j−1 + ai, j Pi−1, j + bi, j Pi, j + c i, j Pi+1, j + f i, j Pi, j +1 = di, j i = 1,...,N1, j = 1,...,N 2

Sketch the coefficient matrix for this system, including the well. Indicate how the
coefficient matrix is altered by the well (approximately, with x´s and lines labelled with
the appropriate coefficient name).
Final Exam page 11 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

b f c
e b f c
e b f c
e b c x
a b f c
a e b f c
a e b f c
a e b c x
a b f c
a e b f c
a e b c x
a b f c
a e b f c
a e b f c x
a e b f c
a e b c
a b f c x
a e b f c
a e b f c
a e b c
a b f x
a e b f
a e b f
a e b
B C D E F G H

Question 6 (3+2+3+5 points)

The discretized form of the oil equation may be written as

Txoi+1/ 2 (Po i+1 − Po i ) + Txoi−1/ 2 (Po i−1 − Po i ) − qoi′ = C poi (Po i − Poit ) + Csoi (Sw i − Swit )
a) What is the physical significance of each of the 5 terms in the equation?

Using the following transmissibility as example,

2ki −1 / 2 λ oi−1 / 2
T xoi −1 / 2 =
Δ xi (Δ xi + Δ xi −1)
b) What type of averaging method is normally applied to absolute permeability between
grid blocks? Why? Write the expression for average permeability between grid blocks
(i-1) and (i).
c) Write an expression for the selection of the conventional upstream mobility term for use
in the transmissibility term of the oil equation above for flow between the grid blocks
(i-1) and (i).
d) Make a sketch of a typical Buckley-Leverett saturation profile resulting from the
displacement of oil by water (ie. analytical solution). Then, show how the
corresponding profile, if calculated in a numerical simulation model, typically is
influenced by the choice of mobilities between the grid blocks (sketch curves for
saturations computed with upstream or average mobility terms, respectively).

Solution

a)
Txoi+1/ 2 (Po i+1 − Po i ) = flow between grid blocks i and i +1
Txoi−1/ 2 (Po i−1 − Po i ) = flow between grid blocks i and i -1
qoi′ = production term
C poi (Po i − Poit ) = fluids compression/expansion term
Csoi (Sw i − Swit ) = volume change due to saturations
Final Exam page 12 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

b) Harmonic average is used, based on a derivation of average permeability of series flow,

assuming steady flow and Darcy´s equation
Δx i−1 + Δx i
ki−1/ 2 =
Δx i−1 Δx i
+
k i−1 ki
⎧ λoi−1 if Poi−1 ≥ Poi
c) λoi−1/ 2 = ⎨
⎩ λoi if Poi−1 < Poi
d)

Question 7 (5x2 points)

Normally, we use either a Black Oil fluid description or a compositional fluid description in
reservoir simulation.

a) What are the components and the phases used in Black Oil modeling?
b) What are the components and the phases used in compositional modeling?
c) Write the standard flow equations for the components required for Black Oil modeling
(one dimensional, horizontal, constant flow area).
d) Write the standard flow equations the components required for compositional modeling
(one dimensional, horizontal, constant flow area). Let
C kg = mass fraction of component k present in the gas phase
C ko = mass fraction of component k present in the oil phase.
e) A Black Oil fluid description may be regarded as a subset of a compositional fluid
description. Define the pseudo-components required in order to reduce the compositional
equations to Black Oil equations (one dimensional, horizontal, constant flow area)

Solution
a) Components: oil and gas, phases: oil and gas
b) Components: hydrocarbons ( C1 H 4 , C2 H 6 , C3 H 8 ,.... ) and non-
hydrocarbons ( CO2 , H 2 S, C2 ,.... ) , phases: oil and gas
c)
∂ ⎛ kk rg ∂Pg kkro Rso ∂Po ⎞ ∂ ⎡ ⎛ Sg So Rso ⎞⎤
⎜ + ⎟ = ⎢φ⎜ + ⎟⎥
∂x ⎜⎝ Bg µg ∂x Boµo ∂x ⎟⎠ ∂t ⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ Bg Bg ⎟⎠⎥⎦
Final Exam page 13 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

∂ ⎛ kk ro ∂Po ⎞ ∂ ⎛ φSo ⎞
⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟
∂x ⎝ Boµo ∂x ⎠ ∂t ⎝ Bo ⎠

d)
∂⎛ kk ∂P kk ∂P ⎞ ∂
⎜⎜Ckg ρ g rg g + Cko ρ o ro o ⎟⎟ =
∂x ⎝ µ g ∂x µ o ∂x ⎠ ∂t
[ ]
φ (Ckg ρ g Sg + Cko ρ o So ) , k = 1,N c

e)
The Black Oil model may be considered to be a pseudo-compositional model with two
components. Define the components and the fractions needed to convert the
compositional equations to Black-Oil equations.

component 1: oil – k=o

∂⎛ kk ∂P kk ∂P ⎞ ∂
⎜⎜Cog ρ g rg g + Coo ρ o ro o ⎟⎟ =
∂x ⎝ µg ∂x µ o ∂x ⎠ ∂ t
[ ]
φ (Cog ρ g Sg + Coo ρ o So )

component 2: gas – k=g

∂⎛ kk ∂P kk ∂P ⎞ ∂
⎜⎜Cgg ρ g rg g + Cgo ρ o ro o ⎟⎟ =
∂x ⎝ µg ∂x µ o ∂x ⎠ ∂ t
[ ]
φ (Cgg ρ g Sg + Cgo ρ o So )

Question: what are the fractions needed to get the Black Oil equations:
∂ ⎛ kk rg ∂Pg kkro Rso ∂Po ⎞ ∂ ⎡ ⎛ Sg So Rso ⎞⎤
⎜ + ⎟ = ⎢φ⎜ + ⎟⎥
∂x ⎜⎝ Bg µg ∂x Boµo ∂x ⎟⎠ ∂t ⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ Bg Bg ⎟⎠⎥⎦
∂ ⎛ kk ro ∂Po ⎞ ∂ ⎛ φSo ⎞
⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟
∂x ⎝ Boµo ∂x ⎠ ∂t ⎝ Bo ⎠
Answer:

fraction of "gas in gas": Cgg = 1

fraction of "oil in gas": Cog = 0
ρ gS Rso
fraction of "gas in oil": Cgo =
ρ o Bo
ρ
fraction of "oil in oil": Coo = oS
ρ o Bo

Question 8 (6x2 points)

Normally, we use either a conventional model or a fractured model in simulation of a

reservoir.

a) Describe the main differences between a conventional reservoir and a fractured reservoir,
in terms of the physics of the systems.
Final Exam page 14 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

b) How can we identify a fractured reservoir from standard reservoir data?

c) Explain briefly the primary concept used in deriving the flow equations for a dual-
porosity model.
d) Write the basic equations (one-phase, one-dimension) for
• a two-porosity, two-permeability system
• a two-porosity, one-permeability system
e) In terms of the physics of reservoir flow, what is the key difference between the two
formulations in question d)?
f) How is the fluid exchange term in the flow equations in question d) represented? What are
the shortcomings of this representation?

Solution
a) Conventional: One porosity, one permeability system, with one flow equation for each
component flowing.
Fractured: Two porosities, two permeabilities system, withmost of the fluids in the
matrix system, and most of the transport capacity in the fracture system. Requires two
flow equations for each component flowing.
b) K core  K welltest
c) The matrix system supplies fluids to the fracture system, by whatever mechanisms
present (depletion, gravity drainage, imbibition, diffusion,...), and the fracture system
transports the fluids to the wells. Som transport may also occure in the matrix system,
from block to block, provided that there is sufficient contact.

d) Dual porosity, dual permeability model:

∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ ∂ ⎛φ⎞
⎜ ′ = ⎜ ⎟
⎟ + qmf
∂ x ⎝ µB ∂x ⎠ f ∂t ⎝ B ⎠ f

∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ ∂ ⎛φ⎞
⎜ ′ = ⎜ ⎟
⎟ − qmf
∂ x ⎝ µB ∂x ⎠ m ∂t ⎝ B⎠ m

One porosity, one permeability model (fracture eqn.):

∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ ∂ ⎛φ⎞
⎜ ′ = ⎜ ⎟
⎟ + qmf
∂ x ⎝ µB ∂x ⎠ f ∂t ⎝ B ⎠ f

Conventional fracture models represents the exchange term by

(
′ = σλ Pm − Pf
− q mf )
where σ is a geometric factor, λ is the mobility term, and Pm and Pf represent matrix
and fracture pressures, respectively.
e) In the dual porosity, dual permeability model, fluid flow may occure from one matrix
block to another. In the one porosity, one permeability model, all flow occurs in the
fracture system
f) The exchange term is conventionally defined as
Final Exam page 15 of 15
TPG4160 Reservoir Simulation, May 22, 2014

(
′ = σλ Pm − Pf
− q mf )
where σ is a geometric factor, λ is the mobility term, and Pm and Pf represent matrix
and fracture pressures, respectively.
Obviously, this term cannot adequately represent the flow mechanisms present, such
as depletion, gravity drainage, imbibition, diffusion,... In addition, an average pressure
for the matrix block is used in the exprexxion, so that pressure gradients inside the
block is not accounted for.