S 8.

5 Chemical reactions are pro-

cesses in which atoms are rear-
ranged into different combina-
tions of molecules. As a basis for
understanding this concept:
d. Students know physical pro-
cesses include freezing and
boiling, in which a material
changes form with no chemical
reaction.
e. Students know how to deter-
mine whether a solution is
acidic, basic, or neutral.
S 8.9 Scientific progress is made
by asking meaningful questions
and conducting careful investiga-
tions. As a basis for understanding
this concept and addressing the
content in the other three strands,
students should develop their
own questions and perform inves-
tigations. Students will:
c. Distinguish between variable
and controlled parameters in a
test.
 Video Preview
Discoverv Channel School
Acids, Bases, and Solutions

What are some

characteristics of
acids and bases?

Check What You Know

Suppose you dissolve a
teaspoon of salt in a glass of
water. Is it possible to recover
the salt from the water?
Explain.

Chapter 7 + 251
The images shown here represent some of the key terms in this
chapter. You can use this vocabulary skill to help you understand
the meaning of some key terms in this chapter.

Identify Related Word Forms

You can expand your vocabulary by learning the related forms of a
word. For example, the common verb to bake is related to the
noun baker and the adjective baked. As you read this chapter, look
for related forms of the verbs indicate, saturate, and suspend.

Verb I Noun I Adjective

indicate indicator indicative
To show; to point to Something that shows Serving as a sign;
or points to showing
saturate saturation saturated
To fill up as much as is The condition of holding To be full; to hold as
possible as much as is possible much as is possible

suspend suspension suspended

To hang so as to allow The condition of hanging Hanging so as to allow
free movement or moving freely free movement

Apply It!
Review the words related to saturate. Complete the following
sentences with the correct form of the word.
1. The sponge could hold no more water.
2. He continued to add water to the point of _ _ _.
Section 1 (page 256)
solution
solvent
solute
colloid
suspension

Section 2 (page 262)

dilute solution
concentrated solution
solubility
saturated solution
unsaturated solution
supersaturated solution

Section 3 (page 268)

acid
corrosive
indicator
base

Section 4 (page 274)

hydrogen ion (H+)
hydroxide ion (OH- )
pH scale
neutral
neutra Iization
salt

•
ctfl!1.!ttr~c_ti'!e)
~
Build Science Vocabulary
Online
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\.. Web Code: cxj-2070

Chapter 7 + 253
 ~~Dill

Create Outlines
An outline shows the relationship between main ideas and
supporting ideas. An outline usually is set up like the one shown
below. Roman numerals show the main topics. Capital letters
show the subtopic. Use the headings, subheadings, Key Terms, and
Key Concepts to help you decide what information to include in
your outline. Here is a sample for the beginning of Section 1.

Understanding Solutions
I. What Is a Solution?
A. A mixture with the same properties
Subheading
throuehout that contains a solvent
and at least one solute
1. Solvent-the lareest portion "
2. Solute-the substance •
=t-1. Key terms
~ and definitions
dissolved in the solvent

solvent" Subheadings
C. Solutions without water-may
contain solids, liquids, or eases
II. Colloids and Suspensions
A. Colloids

Apply It!
1. What are the two main topics in this outline?
2. Compare the definition of solvent in the outline with the
definition on page 256. How are they different?
In your notebook, complete the outline for Section 1. As you read
Section 4, write an outline to help you understand the
relationship among topics in the section.
Make Your Own Indicator
As you learn about acids and bases in this chapter, you can make
your own solutions that will let you determine if something is
acidic, basic, or neutral. Such solutions change color in an acid or a
base and are called acid-base indicators. You can use your
solutions to test for acids and bases among substances found in
your home.

Your Goal
To make acid-base indicators from flowers, fruits, vegetables, or
other common plant materials
To complete the investigation, you must
• make indicators that will turn colors in acids and bases
• use your indicators to test a number of substances
• compare your indicators to a standard pH scale
• rank the tested substances based on their pH values
• follow the safety guidelines in Appendix A

Plan It!
Brainstorm with your classmates
about foods, spices, flowers, or
other plant materials that have
definite, deep colors. Think about
fruits and vegetables you may
find in a supermarket, These
materials may make good
candidates for your indicators.
 Understanding Solutions

S S.S.d Students know physical

processes including freezing and
What Makes a Mixture a Solution?
boiling, in which a material chang- 1. Put about 50 or 60 milliliters of water into a plastic cup. Add a
es form with no chemical reaction. spoonful of pepper and stir well.

What are the characteristics of

2. To a similar amount of water in a second cup, add a spoonful
of table salt. Stir well.
•I

solutions, colloids, and

suspensions?
3. Compare the appearance of the two mixtures.
What happens to the particles of Think It Over
a solute when a solution forms? Observing What is the difference between the two mixtures?
How do solutes affect the What other mixtures have you seen that are similar to pepper
freezing point and boiling point and water? That are similar to table salt and water? ~
of a solvent? _,.,

Key Terms You're really thirsty, so you drink a tall, cool glass of tap water.
• solution
But exactly what is tap water? Tap water is a mixture of pure
• solvent
• solute water (H 20) and a variety of other substances, such as chlo-
• colloid ride, fluoride, and metallic ions. Gases, such as oxygen and car-
• suspension bon dioxide, are also dissolved in tap water. The dissolved
substances give tap water its taste.

What Is a Solution'?
Tap water is one example of a mixture called a solution. A -'+--
solution is a uniform mixture that contains a solvent and at
least one solute. The solvent is the part of a solution present in
the largest amount. It dissolves the other substances. The
solute is the substance that is present in a solution in a smaller
amount and is dissolved by the solvent. ~ A solution has the
same properties throughout. It contains solute particles (mole- -t-
cules or ions) that are too small to see.
Dissolving one substance into another is an example of a
physical change. In a physical change, neither substance
changes into a new substance. Physical changes can often be
undone to recover the original materials. Solutes and solvents
have different physical properties such as boiling and melting .-
points. You can use these different properties to recover the sol-
ute from the solvent. Suppose you dissolve salt in water. Water
has a lower boiling point than salt. If you boil salt water, the
water will vaporize first, leaving the salt behind.

256. .._
 Solutions With Water In many common solutions, the
H ... - onOOHOHOOHOOO•OOOHOHHOO-•OOOOHHO_o_, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ H'•

solvent is water. Sugar in water, for example, is the starting Video Field T
solution for flavored soda water. Adding food coloring gives Discoverv Channel School
the drink color. Dissolving carbon dioxide gas in the mixture Acids, Bases, and
Solutions
produces a fizzy soda. Water dissolves so many substances that
¥ it is often called the "universal solvent." Life depends on water
solutions. Nutrients used by plants are dissolved in water in the
soil. Water is the solvent in blood, saliva, and tears.

Solutions Without Water Many solutions are made with

solvents other than water, as you can see in Figure 1. For exam-
·-1(_ ple, gasoline is a solution of several different liquid fuels. Some
solutions, such as air or brass, don't have liquid solvents at all.
A solution may be a combination of gases, liquids, or solids.
Reading .
Checkpoint } What solvent IS essential to living things?

Examples of Common Solutions

Solute I Solvent I Solution

fiGURE 1
Gas I Gas I Air (oxygen and other gases in nitrogen) Solutions can be formed from
any combination of solids,
Gas I Liquid Soda water (carbon dioxide in water)
liquids, and gases.
~ I Liquid Liquid Antifreeze (ethylene glycol in water) Interpreting Photos What are
the solutes and solvent for
Solid Liquid Dental filling (silver in mercury) stainless steel?

Solid Liquid
I Ocean water (sodium chloride
and other compounds in water)
Stainless steel (chromium, nickel, and
Solid I Solid
carbon in iron)

+
• Chapter 7 257
 ~
FIGURE 2 Colloid
Comparing Three Mixtures Fats and proteins in milk
Solutions are different from form globular particles
colloids and suspensions. that are big enough to
Interpreting Photographs In scatter light, but are
which mixture can you see too small to be seen. Suspension
the particles? Suspended particles
~
of "snow" in water
are easy to see.

Solution
In a solution of glass
cleaner, particles are
uniformly distributed and
too small to scatter light. ~

Colloids and Suspensions

Not all mixtures are solutions. Colloids and suspensions are ~
mixtures that have different properties than solutions.

Colloids Look at Figure 2. The glass cleaner is a solution. You

can see through solutions because light passes through them with-
out being scattered in all directions. Have you ever tried to look
through a glass of milk? Milk is a colloid. A colloid is a mixture
that contains small, undissolved particles that do not settle out.
A colloid contains larger particles than a solution. The parti-
Scattered Light IJ ~ cles are still too small to be seen easily, but are large enough to
1. Pour 50 mL of a gelatin- scatter a light beam. Milk contains fats and proteins that form
and-water mixture into a globular particles. These particles scatter light in different direc-
small, clean glass beaker.
2. Pour 50 mL of a saltwater
tions, making it impossible to see through a glass of milk. -t-
Fog is a colloid that consists of water droplets in air. Fog
solution into another clean
scatters the headlight beams of cars, reducing visibility for
beakerthatisaboutthe
same size. drivers. Gelatin, mayonnaise, shaving cream, and whipped
3. Compare the appearance of cream are other examples of colloids.
the two liquids.
4. In a darkened room, shine a
Suspensions If you did the Standards Warm-Up, you -,-
small flashlight through the noticed that no matter how much you stir pepper and water, the
side of the beaker that two never really seem to ''mix" completely. When you stop stir-
contains gelatin. Repeat ring, you can still see pepper floating on the water's surface and
this procedure with the collecting at the bottom of the cup. Pepper and water make a
saltwater solution. suspension. A suspension (suh SPEN shun) is a mixture in
5. Compare the appearance of
the light inside the two
which particles can be seen and easily separated by settling or ,.-
filtration. a> A suspension does not have the same properties
beakers.
throughout. It contains visible particles that are larger than the
Inferring What evidence tells
you that gelatin is a colloid?
particles in solutions or colloids. The snow globe in Figure 2 is
another example of a suspension.
258 • ..._
 Particles in a Solution
Why does salt seem to disappear when you mix it with water? If
you had a microscope powerful enough to look at the mixture's
particles, what would you see? ~ When a solution forms,
~ particles of the solvent surround and separate the particles of
r
the solute.

Ionic and Molecular Compounds in Solution Figure 3

shows what happens when the ionic compound, salt, mixes
with water. The positive and negative ions are attracted to the
polar water molecules. Water molecules surround each ion as
the ions leave the surface of the compound. As each layer of the
compound is exposed, more ions can dissolve.
However, not every substance breaks into ions when it dis-
solves in water. A molecular compound, such as sugar, breaks
up into individual neutral molecules. The polar water mole-
cules attract the slightly polar sugar molecules. This causes the
sugar molecules to move away from each other. The covalent
bonds within the molecules remain unbroken.

Solutes and Conductivity Suppose you have a water solu-

tion, but you don't know if the solute is salt or sugar. How For: Salt Dissolving in Water activity
Visit: PHSchool.com
could you find out? Think about what you learned about the
Web Code: cgp-2031
electrical conductivity of compounds. A solution of ionic com-
pounds in water conducts electric current, but a water solution
fiGURE 3
of molecular compounds normally does not. You could test the
Salt Dissolving in Water
electrical conductivity of the solution. If no ions are present (as When an ionic compound -like
in a sugar solution), current will not flow. salt-dissolves, water molecules
surround and separate the positive
Reading ) Which kind of solution conducts an electric and negative ions. Notice that the
Checkpoint current?
sodium ions attract the o·xygen
ends of the water molecules.

-_,{

Water Water Water

• Chapter 7 + 259
 ~

Effects of Solutes on Solvents

Ordinarily, the freezing point of pure water is 0°C, and the
Designing Experiments boiling point is 100°C. The addition of solutes to water
How does the mass of a solute changes these properties. ~ Solutes lower the freezing point
affect the boiling point of a and raise the boiling point of a solvent.
given volume of water? Design
an experiment using a solute, Lower Freezing Points Pure water is made only of water
water, a balance, a hot plate,
molecules that freeze at 0°C. When liquid water freezes, water
and a thermometer.
molecules join together to form crystals of solid ice. In a salt
What variables should remain solution, solute particles are present in the water when it
constant in your experiment?
freezes. The solute particles make it harder for the water mole-
What is the manipulated ~
variable? What will be the cules to form crystals. The temperature must drop lower than
responding variable? 0°C for the solution to freeze. The presence of a solute lowers
With approval from your
the freezing point of water. Figure 4 illustrates the particles in
teacher, do the experiment. pure water and in a saltwater solution.

Freshwater lake ..,.. ~~

Solute
particles

Saltwater bay ..,..

,.-
FIGURE 4
The Effect of Salt on Freezing Point
Fresh water on the surface of a lake
is frozen. Under similar conditions,
salt water is not frozen.

260 •
•
)t-

Higher Boiling Points The directions for cooking pasta

often advise adding salt to the water. Why? As the temperature .
of a liquid rises, the molecules gain energy and escape into the
air. In pure water, all the molecules are water. But in a solution,
f( some of the particles are water molecules and others are parti-
r
cles of solute. The water molecules need more energy to escape
when a solute is present. The temperature must go higher than
100°C for water to boil. Solutes raise the boiling point of the
solvent. Adding salt to the water decreases cooking time for the
pasta because the water is hotter.
Car manufacturers make use of the effects of solutes to fiGURE 5
protect engines from heat and cold. The coolant in a car radi- Calling Solutes to the Rescue?
ator is a solution of water and another liquid called antifreeze. This couple might have prevented
(Often the antifreeze is ethylene glycol.) The mixture of the two their car from overheating by using
the proper coolant in the radiator.
liquids has a higher boiling point and lower freezing point Relating Cause and Effect Explain
than water alone. This solution can absorb more of the heat how coolant works.
given off by the running engine. This reduces the risk of dam-
age to the car from overheating. The freezing point of this
solution is lower than the lowest temperature the car is likely
to be exposed to. This reduces the risk of damage from freez-
ing in very cold weather.
Reading Does salt water have a lower or higher freezing
Checkpoint point than pure water?

Vocabulary Skill Identify Related Word Forms b. Relating Cause and Effect Why is the
Complete the sentence by using solute and solution temperature needed to freeze ocean water
correctly. A is a mixture that contains at lower than the temperature needed to freeze
least one - - - the surface of a freshwater lake?
c. Applying Concepts Why does salt sprinkled
~ Reviewing Key Concepts
on icy roads cause the ice to melt?
1. a. Defining What is a solution?
b. Comparing and Contrasting How are
solutions different from colloids and
suspensions?
c. Inferring Suppose you mix food coloring in
water to make it blue. Have you made a
Passing Through With a family member, mix
solution or a suspension? Explain.
together a spoonful each of sugar and pepper
2. a. Reviewing What happens to the solute
in about 100 ml of warm water in a plastic
..__ particles when a solution forms?
container. Pour the mixture through a coffee
b. Sequencing Describe as a series of steps how
filter into a second container. Ask your family
table salt in water makes a solution that can
member what happened to the sugar. Let the
conduct electricity.
water evaporate overnight. Describe the
3. a. Summarizing What effects do solutes have
difference between a solution and a suspension.
on a solvent's freezing and boiling points? .

Chapter 7 + 261
 Concentration and
Solubility

S S.S.d Students know physical

Does It Dissolve?
processes including freezing and
1. ~ Put half a spoonful of soap flakes into a small plastic cup.
boiling, in which a material chang-
es form with no chemical reaction. ~ Add about 50 ml of water and stir. Observe whether the
~
soap flakes dissolve.
How is concentration measured? 2. Clean out the cup. Repeat the test for a few other solids and
Why is solubility useful in liquids provided by your teacher.
identifying substances? 3. Classify the items you tested into two groups: those that
What factors affect the solubility dissolved easily and those that did not.
of a substance?
Think It Over ~
Drawing Conclusions Based on your observations, does the
Key Terms
physical state (solid or liquid) of a substance affect whether or
• dilute solution
not it is able to dissolve in water? Explain.
• concentrated solution
• solubility
• saturated solution
Have you ever had syrup on your pancakes? You probably
• unsaturated solution
• supersaturated solution
know that it's made from th,e sap of maple trees. Is something
that sweet really made in a tree? Well, not exactly.

Concentration
You must collect approximately 43 gallons of maple sap to
make one gallon of maple syrup. The sap of a maple tree and -~
pancake syrup differ in their concentrations. That is, they dif-
Making Maple Syrup T fer in the amount of solute (sugar) dissolved in a certain
amount of solvent (water). You make maple syrup by
evaporating the water from the maple sap. By remov-
ing the water, you are left with a sweeter solution.
-,-

,.. -

262 • ..
 Changing Concentration A concentrated solution has a
lot of solute dissolved in a certain amount of solvent. You can
make a concentrated solution by adding more solute or
removing solvent. For example, fruit juices are sometimes Calculating a
packaged as concentrates, which are concentrated solutions. In Concentration
,.- making the concentrate, water was removed from the natural To calculate the concentra-
juice. A dilute solution has only a little solute dissolved in a tion of a solution, compare
certain amount of solvent. You can make a dilute solution by the amount of solute to the
amount of solution and
increasing the amount of solvent in a solution. When you
multiply by 100 percent.
make juice from concentrate, you add water, making a more
dilute solution. For example, if a solution
contains 10 grams of solute
dissolved in 100 grams of
Measuring Concentration You know that maple syrup is
solution, then its
more concentrated than maple sap. But how could you find the concentration can be
actual concentration of either solution? ~ To measure con- reported as 10 percent.
centration, you compare the amount of solute to the total 10 g
amount of solution. You might measure the mass of a solute or - - X 100% = 10%
100 g
solvent in grams. Or you might measure the volume of a solute
Practice Problem A solution
or solvent in milliliters or liters. You can measure concentration contains 12 grams of solute
as the percent of solute in solution by volume or mass. dissolved in 36 grams of solu-
tion. What is the concentra-
Reading ) How can you change the concentration of a
Checkpoint solution? tion of the solution?

....-
Solubility
If a substance dissolves in water, you might ask, "How much
can dissolve?" Suppose you add sugar to a glass of iced tea. Is
there a limit to how ((sweet" you can make the tea? The answer
~ is yes. At the temperature of iced tea, several spoonfuls of
sugar are about all you can add. At some point, no matter
how much you stir the tea, no more sugar will dissolve.
Solubility is a measure of how much solute can dissolve
in a solvent at a given temperature.
If you can continue to dissolve more solute,
you still have an unsaturated solution. When
you've added so much solute that no more dis-
solves, you have a saturated solution. If you
add more sugar to a saturated solution of
iced tea, the extra sugar just settles to the
bottom of the glass.
fiGURE 6
Dissolving Sugar in Tea
-- At some point, this boy will not be able
to dissolve any more sugar in his tea.
Applying Concepts When the boy cannot
dissolve any more sugar in his tea, what
term describes the solution?
 -11:,

Solubility in
100 g of Water at ooc
Compound Solubility (g)

*Carbon dioxide (C0 2) 0.335

Baking soda (NaHC0 3) 6.9

Table salt (NaCI) 35.7

Table sugar (C 12 H22 0 11 ) 180

fiGURE 7
*C0 2 at 101 kPa total pressure
Each compound listed in the table dissolves
in water, but in different amounts.
~
Interpreting Tables Which compound is the
most soluble? Which is the least soluble?

Working With Solubility The solubility of a substance

tells you how much solute you can dissolve before a solution ~
becomes saturated. For solids, solubility-is given for a particu-
lar solvent (such as water) at a particular temperature. For
gases, the pressure is also given. Look at the table in Figure 7. It
compares the solubility of some familiar compounds. In this
case, the solvent is water and the temperature is 0°C. From the
table, you can see that 100 grams of water will dissolve 6.9
grams of baking soda. But the same mass of water will dissolve
180 grams of table sugar!

Using Solubility Suppose you had a white powder. You

can't tell for sure whether the white powder is table salt or
Predicting sugar. How could you identify it? You could measure its solubil-
ity in water at 0°C and compare the results to the data in
-t-
Make a saturated solution of
baking soda in water. Add Figure 7. ~ You can identify a substance by its solubility
one small spoonful of baking because it is a characteristic property of matter.
soda to about 250 ml of cool
water. Stir until the baking ~~~~~~in! j What does the solubility of a substance tell you?
soda dissolves. Continue
adding baking soda until no
--,r
more dissolves. Keep track of
how much baking soda you
Factors Affecting Solubility
use. Then predict what would Which dissolves more sugar: iced tea or hot tea? You have
happen if you used warm already read that there is a limit to solubility. An iced tea and
water instead. Make a plan to sugar solution becomes saturated when no more sugar will dis-
test your prediction. With
approval from your teacher,
carry out your plan. Did your
solve. Yet a hot, steaming cup of the same tea can dissolve much
more sugar before the limit is reached. The solubilities of sol-
•
results confirm your
utes change when conditions change. ~ Factors that affect
prediction? Explain. the solubility of a substance include pressure, the type of sol-
vent, and temperature.

264 •
..
 ~
Pressure Increasing the pressure increases the solubility of
gases. Soda water contains dissolved carbon dioxide gas. To
increase the carbon dioxide concentration in soda water, the
gas is added under high pressure. Opening the bottle or can
reduces the pressure. The escaping gas makes the sound you
r hear.
Scuba divers must be aware of the effect of pressure on
gases. Air is about 80 percent nitrogen. When divers breathe
from tanks of compressed air, nitrogen from the air dissolves in
their blood in greater amounts as they descend. This occurs
because the pressure underwater increases with depth. If divers
I - return to the surface too quickly, nitrogen bubbles come out of
solution and block blood flow. Divers double over in pain, FIGURE 8
which is why this condition is sometimes called "the bends." Pressure Changes Solubility
Opening a shaken bottle of soda
Solvents Some solvents and solutes are not compatible. Have water may produce quite a spray
as dissolved gas comes out of
you ever tried to mix vinegar, which is mostly water, and oil to
solution.
make salad dressing? If you have, you've seen how the dressing
quickly separates into layers after you stop shaking it. Oil and
water do not mix because water is a polar compound and oil is
nonpolar. Polar compounds and nonpolar compounds do not
mix very well.
For liquid solutions, the solvent affects how well a solute dis-
solves. The expression cclike dissolves like" gives you a clue to
which solutes are soluble in which solvents. Ionic and polar
~ compounds usually dissolve in polar solvents. Nonpolar com-
pounds do not usually dissolve in polar solvents. If you work
with paints, you know that you can use soap and water to clean
up water-based (latex) paints. But cleaning up oil-based paints
may require a nonpolar solvent, such as turpentine.

Just after ...,.

shaking ...

FIGURE 9
Solvents and Solubility
Try as she might, this girl cannot
get oil and vinegar to stay mixed.
Nonpolar and polar compounds
don't form solutions with each other.

+
• Chapter 7 265
 -1(
Reviewing Math: Algebra and Functions 7 .1.5

Temperature and Solubility

280
The solubility of the compound potassium nitrate
(KN0 3) varies in water at different temperatures. -
ON 240
J:
1. Reading Graphs At which temperature shown in ~ 200
the graph is KN0 3 least soluble in water? 0
~ 160
._
2. Reading Graphs Approximately what mass of ~
KN0 3 is needed to saturate a water solution at -;: 120
-~
40°(?
3. Calculating About how much more soluble is
:c
:::::J
8o 1 I y- t·- I ~
0 40
KN0 3 at 40°C than at 20°C? V'l

4. Interpreting Data Does solubility increase at the 20 40 60 80 100

same rate with every 20°( increase in Temperature {°C)
temperature? Explain.

~
Temperature For most solids, solubility increases as the
temperature increases. That is why the temperature is reported
when solubilities are listed. For example, the solubility of table
sugar in 100 grams of water changes from 180 grams at 0°C to
231 grams at 25°C to 487 grams at 100°C.
Cooks use the increased solubility of sugar when they make
treats such as rock candy, fudge, or peanut brittle. To make pea-
nut brittle, you start with a mixture of sugar, corn syrup, and
water. At room temperature, not much sugar can dissolve in the
water. The mixture must be heated until it begins to boil. Nuts
and other ingredients are added while the mixture is still hot.
Some recipes call for temperatures above 100°C. Because the ~~
exact temperature can affect the result, cooks use a candy ther-
mometer to check the temperature.
Unlike most solids, gases become less soluble in a liquid
when the temperature of the liquid goes up. For example, more
carbon dioxide will dissolve in cold water than in hot water.
Have you ever noticed that warm soda water tastes "flat"? Warm -,-
soda water contains less carbon dioxide gas. When you open a
warm bottle of soda water, carbon dioxide escapes from the soda
water in greater amounts than if the soda water had been chilled.
So if you like soda water that's very fizzy, open it when it's cold!

~
FIGURE10
Temperature Changes Solubility
Some hard candy is made by cooling a sugar water
solution. Interpreting Photographs Why does sugar
form crystals when the solution is cooled?

266 • ..._
~
FIGURE 11
A Supersaturated Solution
Dropping a crystal of solute into
a supersaturated solution (left)
causes the excess solute to
immediately come out of

' solution (center). Soon, the

precipitation is complete
(right).

When heated, a solution can dissolve more solute than it

can at cooler temperatures. If a heated, saturated solution cools
slowly, sometimes the extra solute will remain dissolved. A
supersaturated solution has more dissolved solute than is pre-
nline
scz• e_--:-:N=STA~::::>
dicted by its solubility at the given temperature. Look at INKS,.
Figure 11. When you drop a crystal of solute into a supersatu- For: Links on solubility
rated solution, the extra solute will come out of the solution. Visit: www.Scilinks.org
Web Code: scn-1232
Reading As temperature increases, what happens to the
Checkpoint solubility of a gas?

section 2 Assessment S B.S.d; Math: 7 NS 1.3

E-LA: Reading 8.1.0

Vocabulary Skill Identify Related Word Forms 3. a. Listing What are three factors that affect
Compare the meaning of the noun solution with solubility?
the meaning of the adjective solubility. How are b. Summarizing How does temperature
they similar? How are they different? affect the solubility of most solids?
Reviewing Key Concepts c. Relating Cause and Effect When you heat
water and add sugar, all of the sugar
1. a. Reviewing What is concentration? dissolves. When you cool the solution,
b. Describing What quantities are compared some sugar comes out of solution.
when the concentration of a solution is Explain.
measured?
c. Applying Concepts Solution A contains
50 g of sugar. Solution B contains 100 g of
sugar. Can you tell which solution has a
higher sugar concentration? Explain. 4. Calculating a Concentration What is the
2. a. Defining What is solubility? concentration of a solution that contains
b. Explaining How can solubility help you 45 grams of sugar in 500 grams of solution?
identify a substance? 5. Calculating a Concentration How much
c. Calculating Look back at the table in sugar is dissolved in 500 grams of a solution
Figure 7. At 0°C, about how many times if the solution is 70 percent sugar by mass?
more soluble in water is sugar than salt?

• Chapter 7 + 267
 Describing Acids
and Bases

S S.S.e Students know how to

determine whether a solution is
acidic, basic, or neutral. What Colors Does 101 ~
Litmus Paper Turn? ••• ~
What are the properties of acids )t
1. Use a plastic dropper to put a drop
and bases?
of lemon juice on a clean piece of
Where are acids and bases red litmus paper. Put another drop
commonly used?
on a clean piece of blue litmus paper. Observe.
2. Rinse your dropper with water. Then observe other substances
Key Terms in the same way. You might observe orange juice, ammonia
• acid
• corrosive
cleaner, tap water, vinegar, and solutions of soap, baking -~
soda, and table salt. Record all your observations.
• indicator
3. Wash your hands when you are finished.
• base
Think It Over
Classifying Group the substances based on how they make the
litmus paper change color. What other properties do the items
in each group have in common?

Did you have an orange, an apple, or fruit juice for breakfast

today? If so, an acid was part of your meal. The last time you
washed your hair, did you use shampoo? If your answer is yes,
then you may have used a base.
You use many products that contain acids and bases. In ~-
addition, the chemical reactions of acids and bases even keep
you alive! What are acids and bases-how do they react, and
what are their uses?

Properties of Acids
In order to identify an acid, you can test its properties. Acids are
-,-
compounds whose characteristic properties include the kinds of
reactions they undergo. ~ An acid tastes sour, reacts with met-
als and carbonates, and turns blue litmus paper red. Some
common acids you may have heard of are hydrochloric acid,
nitric acid, sulfuric acid, carbonic acid, and acetic acid.
'~

...._ Lemons are acidic.

•
 Sour Taste If you've ever tasted a lemon, you've had first-
harid experience with the sour taste of acids. Can you think of
other foods that sometimes taste sour, or tart? Citrus fruits-
lemons, grapefruits, oranges, and limes-are acidic. They all
contain citric acid. Other fruits (cherries, tomatoes, apples)
~ and many other types of foods contain acids, too.
Although sour taste is a characteristic of many acids, it is not
one you should use to identify a compound as an acid. Scientists
never taste chemicals in order to identify them. You should never
taste a substance unless you know that it is safe to eat.

Reactions With Metals Acids react with certain metals,

such as magnesium, zinc, and iron, to produce hydrogen gas.
When they react, the metals seem to disappear in the solution.
This observation is one reason acids are described as
corrosive, meaning they "wear away" other materials.
The metal plate in Figure 12 is being etched with acid. Etch-
ing is one method of making printing plates that are then used to
print works of art on paper. To make an etching, an artist first
coats a metal plate with an acid-resistant material-often bees-
wax. Then the design is cut into the beeswax with a sharp tool, FIGURE 12

exposing some of the metal. When the plate is treated with acid, Etching With Acid
Metal etching uses the reaction of
the acid eats away the design in the exposed metal. The metal still an acid with a metal. Lines are cut
covered with wax remains intact. Later, ink applied to the plate in a wax coating on a plate. Here,
collects in the grooves made by the acid. The ink is transferred to hydrochloric acid eats away at the
the paper when the etching is printed. exposed zinc metal, forming
bubbles you can see in the close-
up. Applying Concepts What gas
forms in this reaction?

Chapter 7 + 269
 '"'(
Reactions With Carbonates Acids also react with carbon-
ate ions in a characteristic way. Recall that an ion is an atom or
a group of atoms that has an electric charge. Carbonate ions
contain carbon and oxygen atoms bonded together. They carry
an overall negative charge (C0 32-). One product of an acid's
reaction with carbonates is the gas carbon dioxide.
Geologists, scientists who study Earth, use this property of
acids to identify rocks containing certain types of limestone.
Limestone is a compound that contains the carbonate ion. If a
'
geologist pours dilute hydrochloric acid on a limestone rock,
bubbles of carbon dioxide appear on the rock's surface.

Reactions With Indicators If you did the Standards

Warm-Up, you used litmus paper to test several substances.
·-
1

Litmus is an example of an indicator, a compound that

changes color when in contact with an acid or a base. Litmus is
a kind of dye derived from plants called lichens (LYkens). Lit-
mus paper is made by coating strips of paper with litmus. K \

Look at Figure 13 to see what happens to litmus paper as it is

fiGURE 13
dipped in a solution containing acid. Acids turn blue litmus
The Litmus Test paper red. Vinegar, lemon juice, and other acids turn blue lit-
Litmus paper is an easy way mus paper red. Sometimes chemists use other indicators to test
to identify quickly whether an for acids, but litmus is one of the easiest to use.
unknown compound is an acid ~
or a base. Inferring What can Reading . . .
Checkpoint } How IS htmus paper made?
you infer about a liquid that does
not change the color of blue
litmus paper?

~~·

Bases turn red

litmus paper blue.

270 •
.)

fiGURE 14
Bases in Soaps
If you give a dog a sudsy bath,

, bases in the soap could make your

hands feel slippery.

Properties of Bases
Bases are another group of compounds that can be identified
by their common properties. ~ A base tastes bitter, feels
slippery, and turns red litmus paper blue. Common bases
include sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, and ammonia.

Bitter Taste Bases taste bitter. The slightly bitter taste of

soda water is caused by the base quinine. Soaps, some sham-
poos, and detergents taste bitter too, but they are not safe to
taste. You should never taste a substance unless you know that
it is safe to eat.

Slippery Feel Picture yourself washing a dog. As you massage

the soap into the dog's fur, you notice that your hands feel slip-
pery. This slippery feeling is another characteristic of bases. But
just as you avoid tasting a substance to identify it, you wouldn't
want to touch it. Strong bases can irritate or burn your skin.
A safer way to identify bases is by their other properties.

Reactions With Indicators Since litmus paper can be used

to test acids, it can be used to test bases, too. Look at Figure 13
to see what happens to a litmus paper as it is dipped in a basic
solution. Bases turn red litmus paper blue. Like acids, bases
react with other indicators. But litmus paper gives a reliable,
nline
scz·~
safe test. An easy way to remember how litmus works is to INKS,M
remember the letter b. Bases turn litmus paper blue. For: Links on acids and bases
Visit: www.Scilinks.org
Reading ) . Web Code: scn-1233
Checkpoint .· What IS one safe way to identify a base?

Chapter 7 + 271
 -.(

FIGURE 15
Uses of Acids
Acids are found in vegetables
and valuable products used in
~
Acids in the Home ...,..
homes and industries. People often use dilute
solutions of acids to
clean brick and other
surfaces. Hardware
stores sell muriatic
Acids and Food T (hydrochloric) acid, ~-
which is used to clean
Many of the vitamins in the foods
bricks and metals.
you eat are acids.

Acids and Industry T ~/

Farmers and manufacturers \

depend on acids for many uses.

Sulfuric acid
reacts with
Tomatoes and lead and
oranges contain Folic acid, needed for lead sulfate
ascorbic acid, or healthy cell growth, in a battery ~
vitamin C. is found in green to produce
leafy vegetables. an electric
Nitric acid and phosphoric current.
acid are used to make
fertilizers for crops and lawns.

~-
Uses of Acids and Bases
Where can you find acids and bases? Almost anywhere. You
already learned that acids are found in many fruits and other
foods. In fact, some acids are vitamins, including ascorbic acid,
or vitamin C, and folic acid. Vitamins are essential in small
amounts to normal growth and functioning of the body. Many
~
cell processes also produce acids as waste products. For exam-
ple, lactic acid builds up in your muscles when you make them
work hard.
Manufacturers, farmers, and builders are only some people
who depend on acids and bases in their work. ~ Acids and
bases have many uses around the home and in industry. Look
at Figure 15 and Figure 16 to learn about a few of them. Many of ~--
the uses of bases take advantage of their ability to react with acids.
Reading
Checkpoint What vitamins are acids?

272 •
 FIGURE 16 Bases in the Home IJll<
Uses of Bases Ammonia solutions are safe
The reactions of bases make them to spray with bare hands,
valuable raw materials for a range but you must wear gloves You can 't
,.- of products. when working with
drain cleaners.
mist ake t he
odor of
household
clean ing
prod ucts
made w ith
Drain cleaners ammonia.
contain sodium
hydroxide (lye). r
-·
Bases and Food •
Baking soda reacts with acids such as lemon juice and buttermilk
to produce carbon dioxide gas in baked goods. Without these
gas bubbles, breads, biscuits, cakes, and cookies would not be
lig ht and fluffy.

Bases and Industry A

Mortar and cement are manufactured using
the bases calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide.

section 3 Assessment S 8.5.e, E-LA: Writing

8.2.0, Reading 8.1.0

Vocabulary Skill Identify Related Word c. Making Judgments Why is it wise to wear
Forms Look up the verb corrode in a dictionary.
gloves when spreading fertilizer in a garden?
How does knowing the meaning of corrode help
you understand the adjective corrosive?
Reviewing Key Concepts Writing in Science
1. a. Listing What are four properties of acids?
Wanted Poster A bottle of acid is missing
Of bases?
from the chemistry lab shelf! Design a
b. Describing How can you use litmus paper
wanted poster describing properties of the
to distinguish an acid from a base?
missing acid. Also include descriptions of
c. Applying Concepts How might you tell if a
tests a staff member from the chemistry lab
food contains an acid as one of its ingredients?
could safely perform to determine if a bottle
2. a. Reviewing What are three practical uses of
that is found actually contains acid. Add a
an acid? Of a base?
caution on your poster that warns people not
b. Making Generalizations Where are you most
to touch any bottles they find. Instead, they
likely to find acids and bases in your own should notify the chemistry lab.
home? Explain.

Chapter 7 + 273
 Acids and Bases
in Solution
~

S S.S.e Students know how to

determine whether a solution is
acidic, basic, or neutral. What Can Cabbage Juice Tell You? flU
1. Using a dropper, put 5 drops of red cabbage juice into each of ,~ -
What kinds of ions do acids and three separate plastic cups.
bases form in water?
2. Add 10 drops of lemon juice (an acid} to one cup. Add
What does pH tell you about a 10 drops of ammonia cleaner (a base} to another. Keep
solution? the third cup for comparison. Record the colors you see.
What happens in a neutralization 3. Now add ammonia, 1 drop at a time, to the cup containing
reaction?
lemon juice. Keep adding ammonia until the color no longer
changes. Record all color changes you see. ~
Key Terms 4. Add lemon juice a drop at a time to the ammonia until the
• hydrogen ion (H+)
color no longer changes. Record the changes you see.
• hydroxide ion (OH-)
• pH scale Think It Over
• neutral Forming Operational Definitions Based on
• neutralization your observations, what could you add to
• salt your definitions of acids and bases? --.-
A chemist pours hydrochloric acid into a beaker. Then she adds
sodium hydroxide to the acid. The mixture looks the same, but
the beaker becomes warm. If she tested the solution with lit-
mus paper, what color would the paper turn? Would you be --t'
surprised if it did not change color at all? If exactly the right
amounts and concentrations of the acid and the base were
mixed, the beaker would hold nothing but salt water! How
could these two harmful chemicals react to produce something
harmless to the touch? In this section, you will find the answer.
~-

Acids in Solution
What do acids have in common? Notice that each formula in
the list of acids in Figure 17 begins with hydrogen. The acids
you will learn about in this section all produce one or more
hydrogen ions and a negative ion in solution with water. A .-
hydrogen ion (H+) is an atom of hydrogen that has lost its
electron. The negative ion may be a nonmetal or a polyatomic
ion. Hydrogen ions are the key to the reactions of acids.

274. •
 FIGURE 17
Important Acids and Bases The table lists some common acids
and bases.
Acid Formula Base Formula
Making Generalizations What do
Hydrochloric acid HCI Sodium hydroxide NaOH all of the acid formulas in the
table have in common?
~ Nitric acid HN03 Potassium hydroxide KOH
Sulfuric acid H2S04 Calcium hydroxide Ca(OHh
Carbonic acid H2C03 Aluminum hydroxide AI(OHh
Acetic acid HC 2H30 2 Ammonia NH 3
Phosphoric acid H3P04 Calcium oxide CaO

• Acids in water solution separate into hydrogen ions (H+)

and negative ions. In the case of hydrochloric acid, for exam-
ple, hydrogen ions and chloride ions form:
water
HCI -----+ H+ + cl-
An acid produces hydrogen ions (H+) in water. These
hydrogen ions cause the properties of acids. For instance, when
you add acid to certain metals, hydrogen ions interact with the
metal atoms. One product of the reaction is hydrogen gas (H2 ).
Hydrogen ions also react with blue litmus paper, turning it red.
That's why acids turn litmus paper red.
Reading ·. .
Checkpoint ) Why do ac1ds turn litmus paper red?

Bases in Solution
Look at the table in Figure 17. Many of the bases are made of
positive ions combined with hydroxide ions. The hydroxide ion
(OH-) is a negative ion, made of oxygen and hydrogen. When
bases dissolve in water, the positive ions and hydroxide ions sep-
arate. Look at what happens to sodium hydroxide in water:
water
NaOH -----+ Na+ + oH-
Not all bases contain hydroxide ions. For example, the gas
ammonia (NH 3) does not. But in solution, ammonia is a base
that reacts with water to form hydroxide ions.

NH3 + H20 NH4 + + OH-

fiGURE 18
Notice that both reactions produce negative hydroxide ions in Comparing Bases
the product. ~ A base produces hydroxide ions (OH-) in Many bases are made of
positive ions combined with
water. Hydroxide ions are responsible for the bitter taste and slip-
hydroxide ions.
pery feel of bases, and turn red litmus paper blue.

Chapter 7 + 275
 ~

fiGURE 19
Strong Acid Weak Acid
Acids in Solution
(Hydrochloric Acid) (Acetic Acid)
Strong acids and weak acids act
differently in water. Hydrochloric
acid (left) is a strong acid. Acetic
acid (right) is a weak acid. l(

Key
Chloride ion (en
Hydrogen ion (H+)
Acetic acid (HC 2 H3 0 2 )
~

Acetate ion (C 2 H3 0 2-)

In a solution of a In a solution of a
strong acid, all the weak acid, fewer ~
acid molecules molecules break up
break up into ions. into ions.

Strength of Acids and Bases

pH Predictions
Acids and bases may be strong or weak. Strength refers to how
1. ~ fOil Select materials
~ 1•1 such as fruit well an acid or a base produces ions in water. As shown in --...
juices, soda water, coffee, Figure 19, the molecules of a strong acid react to form ions in
tea, and antacids. If the solution. With a weak acid, very few ions form in solution. At
sample is solid, dissolve the same concentration, a strong acid produces more hydrogen
some in a cup of water. ions (H+) than a weak acid does. Examples of strong acids
Use a liquid as is.
include hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid. Most
2. Use what you already other acids, such as acetic acid, are weak acids. ~
know to predict which
materials are acidic or
Strong bases react in a water solution in a similar way to
basic. strong acids. A strong base produces more hydroxide ions (OH-)
3. Using a pl astic dropper, than does an equal concentration of a weak base. Ammonia is a
transfer a drop of one weak base. Lye, or sodium hydroxide, is a strong base.
sample onto a fresh strip
of pH paper. Measuring pH Knowing the concentration of hydrogen
_,_
4. Compare the color of the ions is the key to knowing how acidic or basic a solution is. To
strip to the pH scale on the describe the concentration of ions, chemists use a numeric
package. scale called pH. The pH scale is a range of values from 0 to 14.
5. Repeat for all your It expresses the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.
samples, rinsing the Figure 20 shows the pH scale and some common items.
dropper between tests.
Notice that the most acidic items are at the low end of the scale.
Interpreting Data List the
samples from lowest to
A pH lower than 7 is acidic. The most basic items are at the --
highest pH. Did any results
high end of the scale. A pH higher than 7 is basic. If the pH is 7,
surprise you? the solution is neutral. That means it's neither an acid nor a
base. Pure watet has a pH of 7.

276 •
 ~ A low pH indicates that the concentration of
hydrogen ions is big. In contrast, a high pH _indicates
that the concentration of hydrogen ions is low. If you

,. keep these ideas in mind, you can make sense of how the
scale works.
You can find the pH of a solution using indicators. The
student in Figure 20 is using pH paper. pH paper turns a
different color for each pH value. Matching the color of
the paper with the colors on the test scale indicates how
acidic or basic the solution is.

• You can also use an indicator solution to find the pH of

a solution. Some indicator solutions will change color over
the entire pH scale. Other indicator solutions only change
color within a range of approximately two pH units.
Knowing the pH range over which this color change occurs
gives you a rough estimate of pH. Most chemistry labora-
tories contain a pH meter. A pH meter is an electronic
i- device that makes rapid, accurate pH measurements.

Using Acids and Bases Safely People often say that

a solution is weak when they mean it is dilute. This could
be a dangerous mistake! Even a dilute solution of hydro-
chloric acid can eat a hole in your clothing. An equal con-
centration of acetic acid, however, will not. In order to
handle acids and bases safely, you need to know both their
strength and their concentration.
Reading ' How would a weak base differ from an
Checkpoint equal concentration of a strong base?

FIGURE 20
The pH Scale
The pH scale classifies solutions as
acidic or basic. pH paper turns a Most basic
different color for each pH value.
Interpreting Diagrams If a
solution has a pH of 9, is it
acidic or basic?
 ~

._

~-\

pH= 1

fiGURE 21
When mixed
Neutralization together, acidic
When you mix a strong acid with and basic solutions ~
a certain amount of hydrogen produce a solution
ions and a strong base with an that is closer to
equal amount of hydroxide ions, neutral.
a neutral solution results.
Interpreting Diagrams What do
the colors in each of the three
rectangles represent? pH= 7
-....

Acid-Base Reactions
The story at the start of this section describes a chemist who
mixed hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide. She got a
solution of table salt (sodium chloride) and water. ~

HCI + NaOH ----+ H 2 0 + Na+ + CI-

If you tested the pH of the mixture, it would be close to 7,

or neutral. A reaction between an acid and a base is called
neutralization (noo truh lih ZAY shun). ~~

Reactants After neutralization, an acid-base mixture is less

acidic or basic than either of the individual starting solutions.
The pH depends on the identities, the volumes, and the con-
centrations of the reactants. If a small amount of strong base
nline reacts with a much larger amount of strong acid, the solution .-
' PHSchool.com
will remain acidic. Look at Figure 21. A solution of strong acid
For: More on pH scale
Visit: PHSchool.com
contains a certain amount of hydrogen ions. A solution of
Web Code: cgd-2034 strong base contains an equal amount of hydroxide ions. If you
mix them together, a neutral solution results.

278 •
•
~
Products "Salt" may be the familiar name of the ------------------------------------
Common Salts
stuff you sprinkle on food. But to a chemist, the
word refers to a specific group of compounds. A Salt Uses
salt is any ionic compound that can be made from
the neutralization of an acid with a base. A salt is Sodium chloride Food flavoring; food
~ made from the positive ion of a base and the nega-
NaCI preservative

tive ion of an acid. Additive in "iodized"

Potassium iodide salt that prevents
Look at the equation for the reaction of nitric KI iodine deficiency
acid with potassium hydroxide:
Calcium chloride De-icer for roads
CaCI 2 and walkways
_.. HN0 3 + KOH ~ H 2 0 + K+ + No 3-
Potassium chloride
One product of the reaction is water. The other Salt substitute in foods
KCI
product is potassium nitrate (KN0 3), a salt. ~ In
Calcium carbonate Found in limestone
a neutralization reaction, an acid reacts with a
CaC0 3 and seashells
base to produce a salt and water. Potassium nitrate
is written in the equation as separate K+ and N0 3- Ammonium nitrate Fertilizer; active
~r NH4N03 ingredient in cold packs
ions because it is soluble in water. Some salts, such
as potassium nitrate, are soluble. Others form pre-
FIGURE 22
cipitates because they are insoluble. Look at the
Each salt listed in this table can be
table in Figure 22 to see a list of some common formed by the reaction between
salts and their formulas. an acid and a base.
Reading
~-
Checkpoint What is a salt?

~
Target Reading Skill Create Outlines Complete 3. a. Reviewing What are the reactants of a neu-
your outline for Strength of Acids and Bases. Use tralization reaction?
your outline to help answer the following questions. b. Explaining What happens in a neutralization
reaction?
Reviewing Key Concepts
c. Problem Solving What acid reacts with KOH
1. a. Identifying Which element is found in all the to pro~uce the salt KCl?
acids described in this section?
·;- b. Describing What kinds of ions do acids and
bases form in water?
c. Predicting What ions will the acid HN0 3
form when dissolved in water?
2. a. Reviewing What does a substance's pH pH Lineup With a family member, search
tell you? your house and refrigerator for the items
b. Comparing and Contrasting If a solution has found on the pH scale shown in Figure 20.
a pH of 6, would the solution contain more or Line up what you are able to find in order of
fewer hydrogen ions (H+) than an equal increasing pH. Then ask your family m~mber
volume of solution with a pH of 3? to guess why you ordered the substances in
c. Making Generalizations Would a dilute this way. Use the lineup to explain what pH
solution ofHCl also be weak? Explain. means and how it is measured .

._ Chapter 7 + 279
The Antacid Test -(

Problem
Which antacid neutralizes stomach acid with the
smallest number of drops? ~

Skills Focus
designing experiments, interpreting data,
measuring

Materials -~
• 3 plastic droppers • small plastic cups 4. Add 2 drops of methyl orange solution to
• dilute hydrochloric acid (HCI), 50 ml each cup. Record the colors you see.
• methyl orange solution, 1 ml 5. Test each of the other antacids. Discard all
• liquid antacid, 30 ml of each brand tested the solutions and cups as directed by your

Procedure fl niJ ~ r.J teacher.

-,.._
1:?;1;jll l2;1;jfJ
6. Methyl orange is an indicator solution that
1. Using a plastic dropper, put 10 drops of
changes color at a pH of about 4. Predict the
hydrochloric acid (HCI) into one cup.
color of the solution you expect to see when
CAUTION: HCI is corrosive. Rinse spills and
an antacid is added to a mixture of methyl
splashes immediately with water.
orange and HCI.
2. Use another plastic dropper to put 10 drops ~
7. Design a procedure for testing the reaction
of liquid antacid into another cup.
of each antacid with HCI. Decide how many
3. In your notebook, make a data table like the drops of acid and methyl orange you need to
one below. Record the colors of the HCI and use each time.
the antacid.
8. Devise a plan for adding the antacid so that
you can detect when a change occurs. Decide
how much antacid to add each time and how .,-
Data Table to mix the solutions to be sure the indicator
is giving accurate results.
Original Color With
Substance 9. Make a second data table to record your
Color Indicator
observations.
Hydrochloric
Acid
Antacid
Brand A
10. Carry out your procedure and record your
results.
11. Discard the solutions and cups as directed
.
Antacid by your teacher. Rinse the plastic droppers
Brand B thoroughly.

---- - -,-·-- - ""'""""'

- """"" 12. Wash your hands thoroughly when done.

280 •
~

,_
Analyze and Conclude
1. Designing Experiments What is the function 8. Communicating Write a brochure that
of the methyl orange solution? explains to consumers what information they
need to know in order to decide which brand
• 2. Interpreting Data Do your observations sup-
port your predictions from Step 6? Explain
why or why not.
of antacid is the best buy.

3. Inferring Why do you think antacids reduce

Design an Experiment
stomach acid? Explain your answer, using the A company that sells a liquid antacid claims that
observations you made. its product works faster than tablets to neutral-
ize stomach acid. Design an experiment to com-
4. Controlling Variables What variables are
• controlled? Why? What are the manipulated
and responding variables?
pare how quickly liquid antacids and chewable
antacid tablets neutralize hydrochloric acid.
Obtain your teacher's permission before carrying
5. Measuring Which antacid neutralized the out your investigation.
HCI with the smallest number of drops?
Give a possible explanation for the
difference.
6. Calculating If you have the same vol-
ume (number of drops) of each ant-
acid, which one can neutralize the
most acid?
7. Drawing Conclusions Did your pro-
cedure give results from which you
could draw conclusions about
which brand of antacid was most
effective? Explain why or why not.

'1--
 Acids taste sour, turn blue litmus paper red, and produce hydrogen
ions (H+) in water. Bases taste bitter, turn red litmus paper blue, and
produce hydroxide ions (OH-) in water.
~·

CV Understanding Solutions (J) Describing Acids and Bases

Key Concepts S S.S.d Key Concepts S S.S.e
• A solution has the same properties throughout. • An acid tastes sour, reacts with metals and
It contains solute particles that are too small to carbonates, and turns blue litmus paper red.
see.
• A base tastes bitter, feels slippery, and turns red ~
• A colloid contains larger particles than a litmus paper blue.
solution. The particles are still too small to be
• Acids and bases have many uses around the
seen easily, but are large enough to scatter a
home and in industry.
light beam.
• A suspension does not have the same properties Key Terms
throughout. It contains visible particles that are acid
larger than the particles in solutions or colloids. corrosive
indicator ~
• When a solution forms, particles of the solvent
base
surround and separate the particles of the
solute.
• Solutes lower the freezing point and raise the
@ Acids and Bases in Solution
boiling point of a solvent. Key Concepts ' s s.s.e
• An acid produces hydrogen ions (H+) in water.
Key Terms ~·
solution • A base produces hydroxide ions (OH-) in
solvent water.
solute • A low pH tells you that the concentration of
colloid hydrogen ions is high. In contrast, a high pH
suspension tells you that the concentration of hydrogen
ions is low.
Concentration and Solubility ~
• In a neutralization reaction, an acid reacts with
Key Concepts S S.S.d a base to produce a salt and water.
• To measure concentration, you compare the Key Terms
amount of solute to the amount of solvent or to hydrogen ion (H+)
the total amount of solution. hydroxide ion (OH-)
• You can identify a substance by its solubility pH scale
because it is a characteristic property of matter. neutral _,--
neutralization
• Factors that affect the solubility of a substance
salt
include pressure, the type of solvent, and
temperature.
Key Terms
dilute solution
concentrated solution
.-
.

solubility
saturated solution
unsaturated solution
supersaturated solution

282 •
 nline
' PHSchool.com
For: Self-Assessment
Visit: PHSchool.com
Web Code: cxa-2070

~ Target Reading Skill

Create Outlines To help review Section 3, copy Describing Acids and Bases
the incomplete outline for the section. Complete I. Properties of acids
the outline by adding subtopics and details. Be A. Taste sour
sure to include Key Concepts and Key Terms. B. React with metals
c.
D.
• II. Properties of bases
...... -
Reviewing Key Terms

• Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. Sugar water is an example of a
a. suspension.
Complete the following sentences so that
your answers clearly explain the Key Terms.
6. A solution is a mixture that contains
b. solution.
c. solute.
7. Pepper and water make a suspension because
d. colloid.
2. A solution in which more solute may be
~ 8. An acid is a substance that tastes sour, reacts
dissolved at a given temperature is a(n)
with metals and carbonates, and - - - -
a. neutral solution.
b. unsaturated solution. 9. Soap is an example of a base because
c. supersaturated solution.
d. saturated solution. 10. Litmus is an example of an indicator because
3. A compound that changes color when it
contacts an acid or a base is called a(n)
a. solute.
b. solvent.
c. indicator.
d. salt.
Writing jn Sc)ence
Produd Label Suppose you are a marketing
4. A polyatomic ion made of hydrogen and
executive for a maple syrup company. Write a
oxygen is called a
description of the main ingredients of maple
a. hydroxide ion.
syrup that can be pasted on the syrup's
b. hydrogen ion.
container. Use what you•ve learned about
c. salt. concentration to explain how dilute tree sap
d. base. becomes sweet, thick syrup.
5. Ammonia is an example of a(n)
a. acid. Video Assessment
·- b. salt.
c. base. Discoverv Channel School
Acids, Bases, and Solutions
d. antacid.

Chapter 7 + 283
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 Checking Concepts Math Practice
11. Explain how you can tell the difference 23. Calculating a Concentration If you have
between a solution and a clear colloid.
12. Describe at least two differences between a
dilute solution and a concentrated solution of
sugar water.
1,000 grams of a 10-percent solution of sugar
water, how much sugar is dissolved in the
solution?
24. Calculating a Concentration The concentra-
'
tion of an alcohol and water solution is
13. Tomatoes are acidic. Predict two properties of
25 percent alcohol by volume. What is the
tomato juice that you would be able to observe.
volume of alcohol in 200 mL of the solution? ~-
14. Explain how an indicator helps you
distinguish between an acid and a base.
Applying Skills
15. Give an example of a very acidic pH value.
Use the diagram to answer Questions 25-28.
16. What combination of acid and base can be
used to make the salt sodium chloride? The diagram below shows the particles of an
unknown acid in a water solution. ) ~

Thinking Critically
17. Applying Concepts A scuba diver can be
endangered by <<the bends." Explain how the Water
effects of pressure on the solubility of gases is
related to this condition. Acid
~
18. Relating Cause and Effect If you leave a glass
of cold tap water on a table, sometime later
you may see tiny bubbles of gas form in the
water. Explain what causes these bubbles to
25. Interpreting Diagrams How can you tell that
appear.
the solution contains a weak acid?
19. Drawing Conclusions You have two clear
liquids. One turns blue litmus paper red and
26. Inferring Which shapes in the diagram
represent ions?
,-
one turns red litmus paper blue. If you mix
them and retest with both litmus papers, no 27. Making Models Suppose another unknown
color changes occur. Describe the reaction acid is a strong acid. Make a diagram to show
that took place when the liquids were mixed. the particles of this acid dissolved in water.
20. Comparing and Contrasting Compare the 28. Drawing Conclusions Explain how the pH of
types of particles formed in a water solution a strong acid compares with the pH of a weak
of an acid with those formed in a water acid of the same concentration. ~
solution of a base.
21. Problem Solving Fill in the missing salt
product in the reaction below. . Standards Investigation
+ KOH~ + !.._ Performance Assessment Demonstrate the
HCl H 20

22. Predicting What ions are formed when the

indicators you prepared. For each indicator, list
the substances you tested in order from most
.-
base CaO is dissolved in water? acidic to least acidic. Would you use the same
materials if you did this investigation again?
Explain.

284 •
...
 ~\.;
Standards Practice Success '>n r TrackerM
Online at PHSchool.com

Use the graph below and your knowledge of

,_ Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. A scientist observes that an unknown solution
science to answer Question 6.
turns blue litmus paper red and reacts with
zinc to produce hydrogen gas. The unknown Solubility of Potassium Chloride (KCI}
solution is most likely
100
A a colloid.
90
B an acid.
80
C a base. 0N
J: 70 ,___...
D a suspension. S S.S.e ~ 60
0 ..... ~ ·~
2. Which of the following pH values indicates a 0 50 ..............
.-A ~
~
.......
solution with the highest concentration of 11'1 40 ..............
hydrogen ions?
A- pH= 1
E
ro
....
CJ
30 ~
20
--
~
I

B pH = 2 10
I
C pH=7 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
D pH= 14 S B.S.e
Temperature (°C)
3. A base is defined as strong if it has a pH value
in the range of 6. A student makes a saturated solution of KCl and
A 0-3. 100 g of water at 20°C. If the student leaves the
B 4-7. solution and all of the water evaporates, how
T c 8-11. many grams of KCl will be left in the container?
D 12-14. S S.S.e A Og
4. Dissolving salt in water is an example of a B 16 g
physical change because c 32 g
A neither of the substances changes into a new D 40 g S S.S.d
substance. 7. Which of the following is an example of a base?
B the salt cannot be separated from the water.
A tomatoes
C the water cannot become saturated with salt. B lemons
D a physical change occurs whenever a C vitamin C
substance is mixed with water. s s.s.d
D soap S S.S.e
5. Which of the following things could be used to
determine whether a substance is an acid or
a base?
A _pH paper
B litmus paper 8. You have an unknown solution. You want to
C pH meter know whether the solution is an acid or a
D all of the above S S.S.e base. First list some of the known properties
of acids and bases. Then describe a method of
determining whether the solution is an acid
or a base. s B.S.e

. Chapter 7 + 285